11 Quantum

Physics Q & Ans.
QUANTUM
Black Body Radiation:
A black body is one which absorbs the entire electromagnetic radiations
incident on it.
Most glowing substances like a piece of red hot iron or the sun are good
approximation of a black body.
When a black body is heated, it emits radiations, known as black body
radiations.
A black body emits radiation continuously of all frequencies ranging from zero
to infinity.
Wien’s Radiation Formula:
Using the laws of classical thermodynamics, Wien obtained a formula given by
…………(1)
Where A & B are constants; Energy radiated by a black body per unit volume per unit
frequency range; T: Absolute Temperature of Black body
Wien’s formula for radiation energy distribution well explains the distribution of energy in high
frequency range but not at lower frequency range.
Rayleigh-Jean’s formula:
Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans obtained a radiation formula using the classical law of
equipartition of energy given by
…………(2)
Rayleigh-Jean’s formula well matches with the curve in low frequency range only but not at
higher frequency range.
Plank’s Radiation Formula:
Plank’s radiation formula is given by
When ν then by using binomial expansion
So the eq(1) becomes
or
which is Rayleigh-Jean’s formula which well matches with the curve in low frequency range.
Again when then . Hence1 can be neglected in eq (1).
So
Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 1

Physics Q & Ans.
Taking and , Plank’s formula becomes
But this is Wien’s formula for radiation energy distribution which well explains the distribution
of energy in high frequency range. So Plank’s formula could explain the radiation curve in all
frequency range.
Plank’s Hypothesis:
In order to explain the shape of the black body radiation curves, Max Plank proposed the
quantum theory. He derived the radiation formula by using the following assumptions:
(i) Matter (black body radiations) composed of a large number of oscillating particles
which can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
(ii) The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of
its vibrations.
(iii) An oscillator can have only discrete energy values given by , Where
; Plank’s constant =6.625 Js, = frequency of oscillation.
(iv) The oscillator can emit or absorb energy in form of packets of energy but not
continuously. The energy is called a quantum of energy.
In classical physics, by knowing the initial conditions of a system, its subsequent configurations
can be determined by using the relevant laws of physics applicable to the system. Hence we say
classical physics is deterministic in nature.
In quantum physics, if a given physical quantity is determined exactly its complementary
property becomes infinitely uncertain. Hence we say quantum physics is probabilistic in nature.
In classical physics, physical quantity is having exact value. In quantum physics, physical
quantity is not having exact value rather it has a number of allowed values with different
probabilities.
The wave function in Quantum Physics:
For quantum mechanical description, every physical system is characterized by a wave function
, which contains all information about the system.
Characteristics of The Wave Function:
(1) The wave function is function of space co-ordinate & time i.e
.
(2) The wave function is a complex function having both real and imaginary parts i.e.
(3) The wave function & it’s first derivative w.r.to space co-ordinate are finite, single
valued & continuous at all places including boundaries.

Physics Q & Ans.
(4) The wave function satisfies the Schrödinger equation.

Photoelectric Effect:
The emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated
by light or any other radiation of suitable wavelength is called
photoelectric effect.
The minimum energy required by a bound electron to be
liberated from the metal is called work function of
the metal.
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation which can cause
photoelectric emission.
Einstein’s photoelectric Equation:
Stopping Potential : The minimum value of negative potential

for which the photocurrent becomes zero is called stopping
potential.

Laws of photoelectric effect:
(i) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.

(ii) The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light for
a given frequency of light.
(iii) Photoelectric effect can take place only if the frequency of incident radiation is
above threshold frequency.
(iv) The stopping potential depends upon the frequency of incident light and is
independent of its intensity.
Compton Effect:
When X-rays [or any other monochromatic beam of high frequency radiation such as -ray] are
scattered by a substance, the scattered radiation contains two components:-
(i) One radiation having a lower frequency called modified radiation.
(ii) The other radiation having the same frequency called unmodified radiation.
This phenomenon is called Compton effect
The decrease of frequency and hence the increase of wavelength in the Compton component is
called Compton shift ( ) given by
i.e
Where compton wavelength; angle of scattering; wavelength of scattered radiation;
wavelength of incident radiation
Schrödinger Wave Equation:
According to de-Broglie a particle is always associated with a wave. If the particle has wave
properties, it is expected that there should be some sort of wave equation which describes the
behavior of the particle.
The wave equation that satisfies a partial differential equation involving the derivatives w.r.to

Physics Q & Ans.
time and space co-ordinates is called Schrodinger equation. This is the equation of motion of
matter waves.
Time Dependent Schrödinger Equation:
A wave function in 1-d is represented by
Now ; ; …………………(1)
and …………………(2)
We have total energy



 [by eq(2) & eq (1)]
 …………………(3)
Eq(3) is known as Schrodinger time dependent wave equation in one dimension.
In general, Schrodinger time dependent wave equation in three dimensions is given by
…………………(4)
Where
For a free particle potential V= 0, hence eq(4) becomes
…………………(5)
Time in-dependent Schrödinger Equation:

A wave function in 1-d is represented by
Now ; ; …………………(1)



 [by eq (1)]


 …………………(2)
Eq(2) is known as Schrodinger time in-dependent wave equation in one dimension.
In general, Schrodinger time in-dependent wave equation in three dimensions is given by
…………………(3)

Physics Q & Ans.
Where
Foe a free particle potential V= 0, hence eq(3) becomes
…………………(5)
The free particle:
The net external force on a free particle is zero. Hence its potential energy is constant, which
can be taken as zero. So potential energy V=0 for a free particle.
Probability Density:
Probability Density is the probability of finding the particle in the state per unit volume.
: is the amplitude of matter wave.

Normalization Condition:
The probability of finding the particle in volume is given by .
As the total probability of finding the particle somewhere is 1,
hence or
satisfying above requirement is said to be NORMALIZED.
Dimension of 3-d probability density = & dimension of 3-d wave function
The principle of Superposition:
The wave function representing the actual state of a system is a linear superposition of
different possible allowed states in which the system can exist.
Let , ……. Represent the allowed states in which a system can exist.
The actual state of the system is a linear combination of these allowed states with different
coefficients i.e. ……
The square of the coefficients represent the probability of the system existing in the
corresponding state.
For example, is the probability of the system existing in the state ; is the
probability of the system existing in the state .
Quantum Mechanical Operators:
An operator is a mathematical operation which may be applied to a function f(x) which changes
the function to another function g(x).
Every physical quantity is associated with a quantum mechanical operator. These are
mathematical operators such as differential operators or functions.
The operators corresponding to some physical operators are:-
Physical Quantity Quantum Mechanical Operator
Energy(E) / Hamiltonian(H)
Linear Momentum( )
Potential Energy (V) V
Kinetic energy (
Velocity ( )

Physics Q & Ans.
Eigen Values & Eigen Functions:

If there is a class of function which when operated by an operator “O” are merely multiplied by
some constant( ) i.e O f(x) = f(x); then the function f(x) is called Eigen function of the operator
“O” and the various possible values are called Eigen values of the operator.
Example: Let f(x)= ; operator O=
Then = i.e O f(x) = f(x)
Thus is the Eigen function and 36 is the Eigen value of the operator .
The set of allowed values of a physical quantity for a given system is called Eigenvalues of
the quantity for the system.
The allowed quantum states of a physical system are called the Eigen states and are
represented by a set of functions called Eigen function.
If , ……. are the Eigen functions of a system with coefficients ……; then the
wave function is ……
The square of the coefficients give the relative probability of the corresponding eigen states i.e
is the probability of the system existing in the state ; is the probability of the
system existing in the state .
Expectation Value: In quantum mechanics, every system is described in a probabilistic manner.
For a given state of a system, the different eigen values of a quantity occur with different
relative probabilities. The observed value of the physical quantity [i.e. experimental value] may
not be equal to any one of the eigen values. But the observed value is equal to the weighted
average of the eigen values with their relative probabilities. This weighted average value of the
physical quantity is called its expectation value.
In general, the expectation value of any physical quantity [O] which is a function of
of a particle described by a wave function is given by
NOTE:
 If , …… are the probabilities that the system is in the states
represented by eigen functions , ……. respectively, then the wave function of
the system is given by ……+ .
 If , …… are the probabilities that the system is in the states
represented by eigen functions , ……. respectively having energies
, ……. respectively, then the expectation value of energy of the system will be
given by
+ + ………+
One Dimensional Problems:
Let us consider one dimensional system, where
Wave function = ( ), Potential function = ( )
The time dependent Schrödinger equation for 1-d system is
…………………(1)
The time independent Schrödinger equation for 1-d system is …………(2)

Physics Q & Ans.
For different systems, the potential function is different.

The solution of equation (2) along with appropriate boundary conditions, determine the wave
function Ψ(x,t) for the system.
The boundary condition is,
a) The wave function and it’s 1st derivative should be continuous and
b) the wave function should be single valued, finite and bounded i.e. as .
These conditions ensure that the probability density is finite and continuous.
The Free Particle:
On a free particle, net external force is zero
 potential energy of a free particle is constant and can be chosen to be
The 1-d time independent Schrödinger equation for the free particle is
=> ……..(1)
Where
Let solution of eq(1) is given by
 &
With these eq(1) becomes
General solution of eq(1) is given by ……………..(2)
Where & are arbitrary constants.
Eq (2) => plane wave travelling along +ve X- axis & -ve X- axis respectively with propagation vector k.
Potential Step
When a particle moves from one region to another region, potential energy of the particle
changes from one constant value V1 to another constant value V2. This constitutes a potential
step of height (V2- V1 ).
Example: Motion of charged particles from a region of constant electrostatic potential to

another region having a different constant electrostatic potential is an example of motion
under potential step.
One of the constant potentials can be chosen to be zero, and the potential in the other region is

Physics Q & Ans.
V0 which is the difference between their actual potential i.e. (V2- V1).
Let us consider particles incident on the potential step from left to right.
When the particles move from region-I (x < o) to region- II ( x > 0) , their potential energy
changes from V (x) = o to V (x) = V0.
A one dimensional potential step can be represented by
V (x) =
Let ‘E’ be the energy of the incident particle.

According to classical physics, If E < V0, then the particle cannot move beyond= 0 and will
rebound into the region-I.
If E > V0, then the particle will go to the region-II, with K. E ( E- Vo) and there will be no
reflection at the boundary x=0.
But quantum physics predicts different results as discussed below.
(I) CASE:-I (E > V0)
Let the wave function be Ψ1 in the region-I and Ψ2 in the region- II.
They satisfy Schrödinger time independent equation given by
( x < 0, Region-I )
& ( x > 0, Region- II )
 ( x < 0, Region-I ) ………………(1)
& ( x > 0, Region- II ) ………………(2)

Where ………………(1a)
& ………………(2a)
The general solutions of eq(1) & (2) are
…………………(3)
& …………………(4)
Where are arbitrary constants, can be determined from boundary conditions.
represent the wave incident on the step.
represent the wave reflected from the step.
& are the amplitudes of incident & reflected wave respectively.
represent the wave transmitted into the region –II.

Physics Q & Ans.
‘ ’ is the amplitude of transmitted wave.

The term represents a wave incident on the potential step from right to left in region-II.
But as we are considering particles incident on the potential step from left to right, and no
particles are incident from right, the term must vanish.
The solution in region-II becomes …………………(5)
We evaluate the constants A, B & C using the boundary conditions in the wave function at the
boundary x=0.
The wave function and its firs derivative must be continuous
i.e. ………………(6)
& ………………(7)
Using boundary condition (6) to eq(3) & (5) we have ………………(8)
& Using boundary condition (7) to eq(3) & (5) we have
 ……………. (9)
 [ by eq(8) ]

 ………………(10)
Using eq(10) in eq(9) we have
 ………………(11)
Reflection & Transmission at the Boundary:
Since the energy of the incident particles exceeds the height of the potential step, classical
physics expects that all the particles to be transmitted to the region- II without any reflection at
the boundary.
But quantum mechanics shows the existence of a reflected wave Ψr = B e-ikx in the region-I.

Physics Q & Ans.
 Every incident particle has a non-zero probability of being reflected back to the region-I
at the boundary x=0 even if its energy is more than the barrier height.
Reflection Co-efficient:
Reflection Co-efficient R =
Incident Flux = Number of particles crossing unit area perpendicularly per unit time
Where = probability density of incident particle i.e. probability of finding a incident

particle in the state per unit volume.
& velocity of incident & reflected wave = [ ]
Similarly, Reflected flux =
Reflection Co-efficient R =
 R= [by eq(10) ]
 R= [ by eq 1a & 2a ]
 R= …………………….(12)
Similarly, Transmitted co-efficient T =
 T= [as ]
 T=
 T= [ by eq{11} ]
 T=
 T= ………………….(13)
Now R+T = + =
i.e. R+T = 1 …………………(14)

Physics Q & Ans.
The following observations can be drawn:

(i) R + T = 1, which is a statement for conservation of flux
(ii) When E >> i.e. the barrier height V0 is very small in comparison with the incident energy
E, then . Then eq(12) becomes R = 0
 The incident particles ‘ do not see’ the potential step and are almost transmitted as per
the expectation of classical physics i.e. there is total transmission without refection.
(iii) When E = V0 then eq.(12)=> R = 1 i.e. there is total reflection without any transmission.
(iv) Contrary to classical physics, there is always a non-zero probability of reflection which is a
direct consequence of wave nature of particles.
The above features have been confirmed by suitable experiments.
(II) CASE:-II (E < V0)
The Schrodinger equation in the region-II is [time dependent]
 …………..(15)
Where
The general solution of eq.(15) is
[ Let ]
As ; hence
But finiteness of wave function demands as
 The term should be absent i.e. .
The solution in region-II is ……………..(16)
The wave function decreases exponentially, but still gives rise to non-zero probability of finding
the particle in region-II which is classically not allowed.
If the potential step is very high i.e. then [ as ]
 [as ]
 the probability of finding the particle in region-II vanishes.
However for steps of finite height, there is always a non-zero probability of penetration into
the forbidden region.
Particle in a 1-d Box or in a one dimensional infinite Potential well
Let us consider the case of a particle of mass ‘m’ moving along a straight line, say along x-axis,
between the two rigid walls (i.e. impenetrable walls) A & B at x= 0 and x= a. The particle is free
to move between the walls.
The potential of the particle between the two walls
is constant, which is taken to be zero for simplicity,
as no force is acting on the particle and it can move
freely in that region. When the particle strikes any
one of the walls, it is reflected back immediately as the walls are perfectly rigid & impenetrable.

Physics Q & Ans.
The potential in this model is given as ……….…….(1)
The probability of finding the particle at any instant is measured by the modulus square of the
wave amplitude i.e. .
The particle cannot penetrate the walls, hence and …………….(2)
These are the boundary conditions.
Since these are the potential energy time-independent, inside the well, hence Schrödinger
equation is
 …………….(3)
Where ……………. (3a)
The general solution of eq(3) is given by …………….(4)
Using the boundary condition as given by eq (2) in eq(4) we have
=>
&
 [as ]
 [ if then the entire function will be zero as ]

 as …………….(5)
Each value of corresponds to an allowed bound states.
Eq(5) => => …………….(6)
Again Eq(5) =>

 [ by 3(a) ]
 or Where …………….(7)
Eq(7) => inside an infinite deep potential well, the particle can have only discrete set of values
of energy i.e. the energy of the particle is quantised.
The wave function [i.e. eq (4)] inside the well becomes …………….(8)
The following features are observed:
(i) The ground state energy is (as ); which is the minimum energy of
the particle and is called the zero point energy
 It can never have zero energy meaning that the particle can never “ sit still”. [According
to classical physics minimum energy could be zero]
(ii) Eq(7) => [ as ].Hence ; ………….etc
 Energy of the higher allowed levels are multiples of E1 and are proportional to the
square of natural numbers.

Physics Q & Ans.
The value of energy lying between the allowed energy values is forbidden and the allowed
energy spectrum is as shown below. [ classical physics allows any value of energy without any
restriction]
E3
E2
E1
E0 =0(Classical)
(iii) The energy levels are not equi-spaced. The spacing between successive level increases
with increase of ‘n’
i.e. ∆E = En – En-1 = n2 E1 – ( − 1) E1 = ( n2 - n2 – 1+ 2n ) E1 =( 2n – 1 ) E1
(iv) The integer ‘n’ is called the quantum number. Each value of n corresponds to one
allowed energy state of the system.
Eigen functions:
The constant ‘ ’ of eq (8) can be obtained by applying the normalization condition i.e.

 [ as is non-zero in the region to ]





 [ as ]

 => …………….(9)
Using eq(9) & eq(5) in eq (8) we have …………….(10)

Eq (10) gives the wave function of the particle enclosed in infinitely deep potential well.
The eigen functions for each quantum state are obtained from eq (10).
etc……..
The eigen functions are shown in the above figure.

Physics Q & Ans.
The quantity is the probability per unit length of finding the particle
at positions within the potential well.
The probability distribution is shown in the diagram (2).
The probability of finding the particle is different at different positions and becomes zero at
same positions.
Further, probability distribution depends on the state which is contrary to the expectation of
classical physics according to which the probability distribution is uniform throughout the well.
Potential Barrier
A potential barrier of finite height and finite width is represented by
Consider non-energetic particles incident on the barrier from left.
Let E: Energy of incident particles

: Height of potential barrier
According to classical physics, If [i.e. energy of incident particle is less than the barrier
height ], then the particles can never cross the barrier. If , then the particles will cross
the barrier without any reflection.
But quantum mechanics predicts that the particles have a non-zero probability of crossing the
barrier even-if . Further, there is some reflection instead of complete transmission even
if .
Case-I: (E < V0):
Let us consider the 1-d space into the three regions.
Region-I, <0, wave function and potential
Region-II, , wave function and potential
Region-III, >0, wave function and potential
Schrödinger equation in the three regions are solved and the boundary condition at the
boundaries x = 0 and x = a are applied. The time in-dependent Schrödinger equation, in the
three regions, takes the form as follows:-
[Region-I : ( <0), V (x) = 0]

 ; Where ………..(1)
Next,
[Region-II : ( ), ]

 ; Where ………..(2)
Also,
[Region-III : ( >0), V (x) = 0]
 ; Where ………..(3)

Physics Q & Ans.
The general solution of Schrödinger equation, in the three regions are
…………………(4)
…………………(5)
…………………(6)
represents the incident wave in region-II
represents the reflected wave in region-II
represents the transmitted wave in region-III
represents a wave incident from right in region-III which should be absent as we have
not considered any particles are incident from left [ particles are incident on the barrier only
from left to right].
Therefore, G = 0, hence eq (6) reduces to ; which is the solution in R-III.
The region-II, which is classically forbidden (not allowed) has solution in the form of
exponentially increasing and decreasing function.
The wave function and its first derivative should be continuous at x = 0 i.e. at the boundary.
The qualitative behaviour of the wave functions in the three regions is as shown in the diagram:
Within the barrier ( Region-II), the wave function is non-

zero. At the boundary x = a, continuity
of wave function = requires that is non-zero in
region-III. Thus there is a non-zero probability of finding
the particle in region-III, even if E < V0 ( i.e. even if energy
of the incident particles is less than the barrier height).
These particles which are unable to cross over the barrier,
tunnel through it to the other side. The particles tunneled
into region-III have the same energy as they had in region-I.
Quantum Mechanical Tunnelling:
If the energy E of incident particle is less than the height of the potential barrier, then
classically, the incident particles are not allowed to go from Region-I to region-III. But quantum
mechanical analysis shows that the particles have a finite probability of going from region-I to
region-III even if their energy is less than the barrier height. This phenomenon is called
tunnelling in which the particles penetrate through the barrier.
The transmission probability increases with the decrease in height V0 and width ‘a’ of the
barrier for wide and high barriers, the transmission coefficient is given by the appropriate
formula
This phenomenon of barrier penetration or quantum mechanical tunneling suggests that the
microscopic particles trapped in a deep potential well have a non-zero probability of escaping
from the potential well even if they do not have enough energy to climb over the wall.
TUNNELLING: Introduction to the Concept:

Physics Q & Ans.
One way to convey the idea of quantum tunneling is by the use of a simply analogy.
For this analogy, quantum particles, such as electrons, photons, atoms etc are thought of as
climbers and potential barriers are mountains they want to cross. In this situation, the climbers
may be able to cross through a mountain that they lack the energy climb over, where as other
climbers, classical particles, have no choice but to climb over. Though the barrier is
impenetrable for classical particles, the quantum particles are said to tunnel through it.
INTRODUCTION:
Quantum tunneling refers to the quantum mechanical phenomenon where a particle tunnels
through a barrier that it classically could not surmount because its total mechanical energy is
lower than the potential energy of the barrier. This tunneling plays an essential role in several
physical phenomenon, including radioactive decay and has important applications to modern
devices such as tunneling diode and the scanning tunneling microscope.
Examples of Tunnelling:
 Emission of α- particle from radioactive nuclei is an example of quantum mechanical

tunneling.
The α- particle in the nucleus is under the attractive nuclear forces. It is in a potential well. The
energy of the α- particle is less than the height of its potential well. Buy it can escape from the
nucleus because of tunneling.
 Nuclear Fusion [ Two light nuclei come very close to take part in fusion reaction]
Coulomb repulsion between the +vely charged nuclei prevents them from preventing them
from coming very close to each other and acts as a barrier between them. Classically, the nuclei
should have sufficient energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier before fusion can take place.
But tunneling through the barrier allows the nuclei to undergo fusion at relatively lower
energies.
Case-II: (E > V0):
When energy E of the incident particles is more than the barrier height, classical theory predicts
that all the particles should be transmitted to the region-III without any reflection. But detailed
quantum mechanical analysis shows that complete transmission does not occur for all values of
incident energy exceeding the barrier height.
The transmission is complete (T = 1) for those values of incident energy E, satisfying the
condition ………(1)
where & width of the barrier
In region-III , de-Broglie wavelength = => ……..(2)
Using (2) in (1) we have .

Physics Q & Ans.
 ………(3)

 Which is the relation between width of the barrier & de-Broglie wavelength.
Eq (3) => The transmission is complete for those values of energy for which the de-Broglie
wavelength of incident particle in region-II are related with the width of the barrier given by
eq(3). For other values of energy, there is more reflection which is in contradiction with
classical physics.
1. What is the physical significance of threshold frequency?
Solution:
In case of photoelectric effect, the emission of photocurrent starts only when the frequency of
incident radiation is greater than the threshold frequency. (Ans.)
2. Derive the general differential equation of the wave motion.
Solution:
The equation of a wave travelling along x-direction is given by
( x, t ) = A Sin ( kx –ωt + ) .................... (1)
( x, t ) = wave function at the position ‘x’ at time ‘t’.
= wave vector: ω = Angular frequency; A = Amplitude of the wave
From eq(1)
= - ωA cos ( kx –ωt + ) ; = - ω 2 A Sin ( kx –ωt + ) =-ω2 ..................(2)
= Ak cos ( kx –ωt + ) ; = - A k2 Sin ( kx –ωt + ) = - k2 ......................(3)
Using the expression of from eq(3) in eq(2) we have,
= ( ω 2 / k2) -
 =v2 - ( as ω/k = v ) .......................(4)
Where ‘v’ is the velocity of the wave.
Eq(4) is called the differential equation of the wave motion along x-axis. In general Eq(4) can be
written as = v2 Ψ. (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
3. Draw the energy distribution with frequency, in case of a black body radiation and
characterize it.
Solution:
The variation of energy of radiation with frequency in case of

black body is given as below.
Characteristic Properties:
 Energy of radiation increases reaches a maximum

value and then decreases with further increase of
frequency for all temperatures.
 The value of frequency for which energy of radiation is maximum increases with
increase in temperature.
 Energy of radiation remains finite for very low and very high values of frequency.
 Energy of radiation increases with increase of temperature for all frequency range.
4. State Plank’s postulates on black body radiations and show that the Rayleigh-Jeans law
and Wien’s distribution law follows from the Plank’s formula for black body radiations.
[BPUT_2015_2nd SEM_Back_5Marks]
Solution: Plank’s Postulates:

In order to explain the shape of the black body radiation curves, Max Plank proposed the
quantum theory. He derived the radiation formula by using the following assumptions:
(i) Matter (black body radiations) composed of a large number of oscillating particles
which can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
(ii) The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of
its vibrations.
(iii) An oscillator can have only discrete energy values given by
Where ; Plank’s constant =6.625 10- 34 Js
ν= frequency of oscillation
(iv) The oscillator can emit or absorb energy in form of packets of energy but not
continuously. The energy is called a quantum of energy.
Plank’s radiation formula, based on the above postulates, is given by
…………(1)
When ν then by using binomial expansion
So the eq(1) becomes

Physics Q & Ans.
or
which is Rayleigh-Jean’s formula which well matches with the curve in low frequency range.
Again when then . Hence “1” can be neglected in eq (1).
So
Taking and , Plank’s formula becomes
But this is Wien’s formula for radiation energy distribution which well explains the distribution
of energy in high frequency range.
So the Rayleigh-Jeans law and Wien’s distribution law follows from the Plank’s formula for black
body radiations. (Ans.)
5. Give a relation between classical physics & quantum physics.
Solution:
If , then Quantum physics = Classical Physics (Ans.)
6. Between a photon & an electron of same energy, which one has shorter wavelength?
Why?
Solution:
λ= => λ .
As > < i.e electron has shorter wavelength as compared to photon. (Ans.)
7. What is pair production?
Solution:
When high frequency γ – rays pass near atomic nuclei, some gamma rays are converted into
electron-positron pair. This phenomenon is called pair production. (Ans.)
8. What do you mean by free particle in quantum physics?

Solution:
Free particle means net external force on the particle is zero. Hence potential energy is
constant ( which is usually taken to be zero for simplicity). (Ans.)
9. Explain why classical physics failed to explain photoelectric effect.
Solution:

Physics Q & Ans.
Classical physics always considers
 Flow of energy as flow of wave that is light is a wave.

 Flow of energy is continuous.
 Energy of a wave is function of intensity.
So it failed to explain how the photo electric effect is instantaneous, as intensity is function of
time. It remained silent about requirement of threshold frequency and dependence of stopping
potential on frequency as energy it considers function of intensity not frequency. (Ans.)
10. Distinguish between de-Broglie wave (i.e. Matter wave) and electromagnetic wave.
Solution:
 Matter waves are generated due to the motion of particles whether charged or
uncharged. But the electromagnetic waves are produced only by the motion of the
charged particles.
 The velocity of matter wave depends on the velocity of the particle i.e. velocity is not
constant; it may be greater than the velocity of light. But velocity of electromagnetic
wave is constant and is equal to the velocity of light.
 De-Broglie waves are only theoretical concepts employed to explain the experimental
results but electromagnetic waves have their real existence. (Ans.)
11. What is a wave packet?
Solution: A wave packet consists of a group of waves of slightly different wavelengths, with
phases and amplitudes chosen such that they interfere constructively over only a small region
of space, outside of which they produce an amplitude that reduces to zero rapidly as a result of
destructive interference.
Thus a wave packet is a localized wave, the amplitude of which is zero except in a small region
of space. When a wave packet is localized in a very small region, it may be regarded as a point.
In this way the motion of a single particle may be described by the motion of wave packet.
(Ans.)
12. What is velocity paradox? Give the relation of Phase velocity with particle velocity in both
relativistic and non relativistic cases.
Solution:
According to d-Broglie’s hypothesis particle is associated with a wave called Matter wave.
Phase velocity of Matter wave/d-Broglie’s wave is given by vp=E/P, if ‘v’ is the velocity of the
2
E 1 / 2mv v
particle then relation between the phase velocity and particle velocity is vp   
p mv 2
2 2
mc c
(for non relativistic particle)and vp   (for relativistic particle) . So phase velocity of
mv v

Physics Q & Ans.
matter wave is different from the corresponding particle velocity. This is known as velocity
paradox. (Ans.)
13. Write short notes on Compton effect. [BPUT_2014-15_Special_5M]
Solution:
When X-rays [or any other monochromatic beam of high frequency radiation such as -ray] are
scattered by a substance, the scattered radiation contains two components:-
(i) One radiation having a lower frequency called modified radiation.
(ii) The other radiation having the same frequency called unmodified radiation.
This phenomenon is called Compton effect
The decrease of frequency and hence the increase of wavelength in the Compton component is
called Compton shift ( ) given by
i.e
Where compton wavelength; angle of scattering; wavelength of scattered radiation;
wavelength of incident radiation (Ans.)
14. Derive the expression of time-dependent Schrödinger equation for a free particle moving
along the X-axis. [BPUT_2015_2nd SEM_Back_4Marks]
Solution:
A wave function in 1-d, along X-axis is represented by

Now ; ; …………………(1)
and …………………(2)



 [by eq(2) & eq (1)]
 …………………(3)
Eq(3) is known as Schrodinger time dependent wave equation in one dimension.
For a free particle potential V= 0, hence eq(3) becomes
; the required expression of time-dependent Schrodinger equation for a

free particle moving along the X-axis. (Ans.)
15. What is the need for Schrodinger wave equation?
Solution: Schrodinger wave equation could explain the behavior of atomic particles which are
also like wave nature. (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
16. Write Schrodinger time dependent wave equation and discuss its practical use.
Solution:
Schrödinger’s time dependent wave equation is
It is used to describe various interactions of time varying fields like electric and magnetic fields
in electromagnetic waves. It is also used for investigating various quantum mechanical
problems. (Ans.)
17. A monochromatic source emits radiation of wavelength 6X10-7m at power 0.8mW. Find
the energy of each photon and number of photons emitted per second.
Solution:
Given wavelength =6 x 10-7 m, power = 0.8mW=0.8X10-3W
Energy of each photon= Joul
=(3.3 x 10-19)/(1.6 x 10-19 ) eV

= 2.06eV
No of photons emitted = (Ans.)
18. Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving with 1/10 th of the velocity of light.
Solution: Given velocity of electron m/s ;

We know mass of electron kg
According to de-Broglie hypothesis, = m (Ans.)
0
19. The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron is 4 A . Calculate its momentum.
Solution: Given = 4 A0 =
According to de-Broglie hypothesis, =
=> m/s (Ans.)
20. A proton is moving freely with K.E=43.9eV. Calculate its de-Broglie wavelength.
Solution: Given energy E = 43.9 eV = 43.9 x 1.6 x 10-19J
Mass of proton m = Kg
According to de-Broglie hypothesis,
= m (Ans.)
21. One electron and one proton are moving with same K.E. Find the ratio of their de-Broglie
wavelength. Their masses are Kg and Kg respectively.

Physics Q & Ans.
Solution: Given ; Kg and Kg

According to de-Broglie hypothesis, =
(Ans.)
22. The speed of a proton is 105 m/s. Calculate its de-Broglie wavelength.
Solution: Given velocity of proton m/s; mass of proton kg
23. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron if it has a velocity of m/s.
Solution: Given velocity of electron m/s ; mass of electron kg
24. Evaluate de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass 6.62 x 10 -30 Kg moving with a speed
10cm/s.
Solution: Given velocity of particle 10 cm/s= 0.1 m/s, mass kg
25. The mass of a material particle is 207 times the mass of an electron. Calculate its de-
Broglie wavelength if its velocity is 104 m/s.
Solution: Mass kg; velocity m/s
26. Calculate the energy of electrons (in eV) when its de-Broglie wavelength is 2A0 .
Solution: Given wavelength 2A0 = m
We have de-Broglie wavelength
=>
J
eV eV (Ans.)
27. The kinetic energy of proton is eV. Calculate its de-Broglie wavelength & velocity.
Solution: Kinetic energy of proton is
 ( mass of proton m= )

 m/s
The de-Broglie wavelength is given by
m (Ans.)
28. Show that the rest mass of a photon is zero. [ BPUT_2013_2ND SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution: The de Broglie wavelength is given by …………(1)
According to the theory of relativity, ………(2)

Physics Q & Ans.
Where m is the mass of the particle, is the rest mass of the particle, v is the velocity of the
particle and c is the velocity of light.
Using (2) in (1), we have ……..(3)
The velocity of the photon v = c, velocity of light
Putting v = c in (3), we get
Hence, the rest mass of the photon is zero. (Ans.)
29. Prove that . [ BPUT_2013_2ND SEM_Regular_2Marks]

Solution: is the Poisson bracket of and . Here it acts as the operator.
In x direction quantum mechanical momentum operator




 =
 (Proved)
30. Solve the Schrodinger’s time independent equation to find the energy eigen values of a
free particle. [BPUT_2014_1stSEM_Backpaper_3Marks &Regular_4M]
Solution: Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation is given by
For a quantum mechanical free particle, V=0.
So the above equation become
Taking , ……………..(1)
the above equation can be written as ……………..(2)
Let it’s solution is given by
&

Physics Q & Ans.
With these eq(1) becomes


Hence the solution is given by



Hence energy of the particle is given by (by eq 1).
Since there is no restriction on the value of ‘k’, the energy can take any value and hence the
energy spectrum is continuous for the free particle.
31. Write down Schrodinger’s time dependent and time independent equations for the
particle. [ BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution: Schrodinger’s time dependent equation.
Schrodinger’s time independent equation. (Ans.)
32. Write down the time independent Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass moving
in the Z-axis. [BPUT_2014-15_Special_2M]
Solution: Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation, for a particle of mass moving in
the Z-axis, is given by .
33. A particle is in a one-dimensional infinitely deep potential well of width L. Graphically

show the dependence of ground state energy on the width of the well.
[ BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Energy or =>
So the graph will be as follows,

Physics Q & Ans.
34. A particle moves with a speed equal to 1/1000 th of the speed of light in vacuum. What is
the ratio of de-Broglie wavelength of the particle to its Compton wavelength?
Solution: de-Broglie wavelength
Compton wavelength
(Ans.)
35. The d-Broglie wavelength of a particle moving with a velocity of 200m/s is 14.14 A 0 . What
will be the de-Broglie wavelength if K.E is doubled?
Solution: de-Broglie wavelength
If new K.E ,
then new wavelength 10 A0 (Ans.)
36. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass 10 g moving with a speed of
310m/s.
Solution: Given mass m= 10g = 0.01Kg ; speed v =310 m/s
de-Broglie wavelength =2.13 x 10-34m (Ans.)
37. For which angle of scattering is the Compton shift maximum? Explain with appropriate
formula. [ BPUT_2004_2ND SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution: Compton shift
is maximum when is minimum
i.e. => => [ ] (Ans.)
38. In Compton effect, under what condition the Compton shift is minimum?
is minimum when is maximum i.e. =>
i.e if angle of scattering is then Compton shift is minimum. (Ans.)
38. What is the maximum possible Compton shift for X-rays of wavelength 1.2 undergoing
Compton scattering due to electrons if the Compton wavelength for electrons is 0.02436
[BPUT_2014-15_Special_2M]

Physics Q & Ans.
Solution: Given Compton wavelength for electrons
Compton shift
 (Ans.)
39. X-Rays of wavelength 1.2 undergo Compton scattering due to electrons. What is the
maximum possible value of Compton shift if Compton wavelength of electron is
0.02426 ? [ BPUT_2004_Special_2Marks]
Solution: Given Compton wavelength for electrons
Compton shift
(Ans.)
40. An X-ray beam of wavelength 3A0 is Compton scattered by electrons. Evaluate the
Compton shift of a beam scattered at an angle 600. [BPUT_2015_2nd Sem_Regular_4Marks]

Given , .
So (Ans.)
41. Radiation of wavelength 2400 is incident on a metal surface whose photoelectric work
function is 3.2eV. Calculate the maximum K.E of the emitted photo electron and the
stopping potential. [ BPUT_2003_1st SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution: Given wavelength = 2400 m;
work function eV = 3.2 1.6 J
Now maximum Kinetic Energy
8.25 – J
3.13
= = 1.96eV
Next =>stopping potential (Ans.)
42. Writing the Einstein’s photoelectric equation, mention the laws of photoelectric effect.
[ BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Regular_4M]

Physics Q & Ans.
Write the laws of photoelectric effect. [BPUT_2014-15_Special_3M]
Ans: Einstein’s photoelectric equation is given by
or which says
 Kinetic energy of emitted electrons is directly proportional to frequency of incident

radiation.
 The photoelectric effect instantaneously starts if the incident frequency ( ) is greater
than certain minimum frequency ( ), called threshold frequency.
 If Vs is the stopping potential, then K.E.=eVs . Hence stopping potential is directly
proportional to incident frequency and independent of intensity even though photo
current is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation.
43. Give two differences between pair production and pair annihilation.
Solution:
Pair production Pair annihilation

 One gamma ray photon  Two antiparticles combine to
converts into two anti-particles. give one neutral photon.
 Here energy is converted to  Here mass is converted into
mass. energy.
44. What is the physical meaning of wave function in quantum mechanics?

[BPUT_2015_2nd Sem_Regular_4Marks]
Solution:
The quantum mechanical wave function is not a physical quantity but a mathematical entity
by using which all the physically observable quantities for a quantum mechanical system can be
found out. The wave function is a complex function having both real & imaginary parts. The
wave function satisfies Schrödinger’s both time dependent and time independent wave
equations. is single valued, analytic and continuous function obeying eigen value equation.
Hence is used to represent the system as well as its different quantum states. is square
integrable. Hence it can be normalised.
45. Discuss physical significance of wave function .
Solution:
 | |2 represents the probability density of finding a micro system in a particular

state. Hence Ψ is the probability amplitude of the system.
 The wave function satisfies Schrödinger’s both time dependent and time
independent wave equations.

Physics Q & Ans.
 is single valued, analytic and continuous function obeying eigenvalue equation.

Hence is used to represent the system as well as its different quantum states.
 is square integrable. Hence it can be normalised. (Ans.)
46. What are the characteristic features of a wave function?
[ BPUT_2013_2ND SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution:
 The wave function is a complex function having both real & imaginary parts.
 The wave function & its first derivative with respect to space coordinate are
continuous at all places including boundaries.
 | |2 represents the probability density of finding a micro system in a particular
state. Hence Ψ is the probability amplitude of the system.
 The wave function satisfies Schrödinger’s both time dependent and time
independent wave equations.
 is single valued, analytic and continuous function obeying eigenvalue equation.
Hence is used to represent the system as well as its different quantum states.
 is square integrable. Hence it can be normalised. (Ans.)
47. Write the boundary conditions satisfied by the quantum mechanical wave function at the
boundary between two regions.
Solution:
The wave function & its first derivative w.r.to space co-ordinate are continuous at all
places including boundaries.
48. The normalized wave function of a certain particle is where
. Calculate the probability of finding the particle between .
st
[BPUT_2014_1 SEM_Regular_3Marks]
Solution: Given
complex conjugate of i.e. =
As we know probability density of a quantum mechanical system= , probability of

finding the particle between is

Physics Q & Ans.
(Ans.)
49. Obtain the normalized wave function from the given wave function.
Where is a positive vector. [BPUT_2004_1st SEM_Back paper_4Marks]
Solution:
The wave function is said to be normalized if
=1
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>
The Normalized wave function is (Ans.)
50. The normalized wave function of a certain particle is where .

Derive expression for expectation value of momentum.
[BPUT_2004_1st SEM_Regular_4Marks]
Solution:

Physics Q & Ans.
Expectation value of momentum is
[As momentum operator ]
Since the function is normalized, =1.
Hence expectation value of momentum
(Ans.)
51. The wave function of a system is a linear combination of eigen functions

, , , and given by + + . What is the probability of the
system being in the state given by ?
Solution: Probability of the system being in the state given by = (Ans.)
52. The wave function of a system is a linear combination of eigen functions

, , , and given by + + + + . What is the
probability of the system being in the state given by ?
Solution: Probability of the system being in the state given by = (Ans.)
53. Find the wave function for a system represented by the eigen functions , ,and
st
having probabilities and respectively. [BPUT_2014_1 SEM_Back paper_4Marks]

Physics Q & Ans.
54. The probabilities that a system can be in the states represented by eigen functions
, ,and are and respectively. Write the wave function for the system. If the
energy eigen values for the above states are 4eV, 6eV and 9eV respectively, find the
energy expectation value.
Solution: Given, probability of the system existing in the state =
i.e. =>
Similarly => and =>
The wave function for the system
Also given, energy eigen values for the state is 4eV i.e. eV
Similarly eV and eV
Energy expectation value is given by
eV (Ans.)
55. The relative probabilities of a quantum mechanical system found in five different states
, , , , are respectively. Write the total wave function for the
system. [BPUT_2014-15_Special_2M]
56. The probabilities that a system can be in the four states represented by eigen functions
, , and are 0.25, 0.09, 0.16 and 0.50 respectively. If the energy eigen values
for the above states are 4eV, 11eV, 6eV and 2eVvrespectively, find energy expectation
value and wave function of the system.
Solution: Given, probability of the system existing in the state =0.25
i.e. 0.25 => 0.5
Similarly => , => and => 0.7
The wave function for the system
57.
Also given, energy eigen values for the state is 4eV i.e. eV
Similarly eV, eV and eV

Physics Q & Ans.
eV (Ans.)
58. The allowed values of energy of a quantum mechanical system are and with
probabilities 0.2, 0.1, 0.4 and 0.3 respectively. Find the expectation value of energy for
the system. [BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Regular & 2015_2nd SEM_Back_2Marks ]
Solution: Given 0.2; =0.1; =0.4 & =0.3
(Ans.)
59. Write Plank’s formula for spectral distribution of black body radiation.
[BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution: Plank’s radiation formula is given by
or (Ans.)
60. Write the wave function for the incident, reflected and transmitted waves for particles
incident on a one dimensional potential step.
Solution:
In case of Potential step the incident, reflected and transmitted waves can be represented as
, where
, where (Ans.)
61. The width of an infinite deep potential well is halved. What will happen to the energy of a
particle trapped inside it?
Solution:
For a particle inside an infinite deep potential well , energy is given by i.e.
where ‘ ’ is the potential width.
If So ,hence energy increases by 4 times. (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
62. How is free particle defined in quantum mechanics? Write an expression for its total
energy.
Solution:
In quantum mechanics Potential is the constraint for a particle. Hence if potential V(x)=0,
Then the particle is said to be free particle.
Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation for a free particle is
Taking , we have energy of free particle as .
Since in the wave equation , is the propagation vector, the expression

shows all the energy values are allowed for the free particle. (Ans.)
63. Pictorially represent the wave functions and their probability for the quantum states
n=1,2,3 for a particle in a one dimensional infinite potential box.
Solution:
64. A particle limited to the x-axis has the wave function between and ;
elsewhere. Find the probability that the particle can be found between 0.45 and
0.55.
Solution: Given =
As the wave function must obey normalized condition, hence
dx = 1 => dx = 1=> => =>
and
Probability of finding the particle between to is

Physics Q & Ans.
0.075 (Ans.)
65. A wave function of a certain particle is given as = for - x & =0

elsewhere. Find (i) the value of A and (ii) the probability of fining the particle between
to .
–
Solution: Given =
dx = 1
 dx = 1
 dx = 1 ---------------(1)
Now = = =
Eq(1) => =1
–
 dx = 1
–
 =1
–
 =1
 3π=1
 = [ (i)Ans.]
and

Physics Q & Ans.
Probability of finding the particle between to is
= 0.076 [ (ii)Ans.]
66. Find the value of for = for - .

[ BPUT_2013_2ND SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution:
Given = complex conjugate of i.e. =
dx = 1
 dx = 1
 dx = 1 ---------------(1)
Now = = =
Eq(1) => dx = 1
–
 dx = 1
–
 =1
–
 =1
 3π=1
 = , which is the required answer. (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
67. Show how uncertainty relation can be applied to Bohr’s orbit.

OR
Using uncertainty principle calculate the ground state energy of hydrogen atom.
Solution:
Uncertainty principle is applied to Bohr’s orbit to find out the ground state energy of Hydrogen
atom.
The energy of the Hydrogen atom is
If and are the uncertainties in momentum and position respectively. Then by

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle . ≈ or . ≈ which gives ≈ / .
Putting this in the expression for energy,
If the radius of ground state energy is , then
So energy at ground state is
Or
this matches with the ground state energy of Bohr’s orbit. (Ans.)
[ According to classical physics, there is no lower bound for the ground state energy of the
hydrogen atom.]
68. Set up the time independent Schrodinger equation for a one dimensional harmonic
oscillator. [ BPUT_2015_2ND SEM_Regular_2Marks]
Solution:
The 1-d time independent Schrodinger equation is given by
A 1-d harmonic oscillator of mass has potential energy
Where ; is the force constant & ω : angular frequency of the oscillator.
The time-independent Schrodinger equation for the oscillator is

Physics Q & Ans.
(Ans.)
69. Using uncertainty principle show that the minimum or ground state energy of 1-d
harmonic oscillator cannot be zero.
OR
State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Hence show that the ground state energy of a
linear harmonic oscillator is . [ BPUT_2013_2ND SEM_Regular_5Marks]
OR
Using uncertainty principle prove that ground state energy of harmonic oscillator is .
Solution:
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle : This principle states that it is not possible to measure
simultaneously the position of a particle and the corresponding component of its linear
momentum with unlimited accuracy.
If = uncertainty in x-component of the position of a particle and
= uncertainty in x-component of its linear momentum,
the uncertainty product satisfies the inequality . --------------(1)
Ground state energy of a linear Harmonic Oscillator:
The energy of a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator is + ---------(2)
Where = mass and = angular frequency of the oscillator
The uncertainty product satisfies the inequality . => . => =
With this eq(2) becomes Energy + ---------(3)
Since the energy of the oscillator is the minimum in the ground state
=0 , where corresponds to the value of in the ground state.
 + = 0 or = or =
Substituting this in Eq(3), we gt
= + = ω+ ω= ω

Physics Q & Ans.
A rigorous calculation shows that the ground state energy of a linear harmonic oscillator is ω
or . (Ans.)
70. Using uncertainty principle show that “No electron can exist within the Nucleus”.
Or
Using Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle explain the electrons do not exist inside the
nucleus. [BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Back paper_3Marks]
Solution:
The size of atomic nucleus is of the order of 10-14 m as determined by Rutherford’s gold oil
experiment. Hence, the uncertainty in position is given by
Using uncertainty principle we have

 Kgm/s
The kinetic energy of the electron in the nucleus is
( rest mass of electron)

 J
 MeV
Therefore, the electrons must possess at least energy of the order of 10MeV, whereas the
electrons emitted out ( -decay) from the nucleus is only up to 3-4MeV. This clearly validates
the fact that the electrons cannot exit inside the nucleus. (Ans.)
71. What is expectation value of a variable in quantum mechanics?

[ BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Back paper_3M]
Solution: In quantum physics, every system is described in a probabilistic manner. For a given
state of a system, the different eigen values of a quantity occur with different relative
probabilities. The observed value of the physical quantity may not be equal to any one of the
eigen values. But the observed value is equal to the weighted average of the eigen values with
their relative probabilities. This weighted average value of the physical quantity is called its
expectation value.

Physics Q & Ans.
Let Q is a physical quantity.
Eigen values i.e. allowed values of Q are ; ; ……. and they occur with probabilities ; ;
…… for a given state of the system.
Then expectation value of Q described by a wave function is given by
Where is the quantum mechanical operator corresponding to the physical quantity “ Q”.
72. For wave function = , , find the expectation value of .

ND
[ BPUT_2013_2 SEM_Regular_5Marks]
Solution:
, complex conjugate of I.e =
For the physical quantity momentum the quantum mechanical operator i.e =
= = =-
Expectation value of
i.e = Ψdx = dx
= ] dx
= dx
= dx
= = (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
73. The energy of an electron constrained to move in a one dimensional box of length 4A 0 is
9.664 x 10-17J. Find out the order of excited state and the momentum of the electron in
that state. Given h = 6.63 x 10-34Jsec. [ BPUT_2013_2ND SEM_Regular_5Marks]
Solution:
Given Length of 1-d box =4 A0 = 4 x 10-10m, Energy of electron = 9.664 x 10-17J
Mass of electron = 9.1 10-31 kg
We know = , …………(1)
where = = = = = 3.77 10-19
With this eq(1) becomes = 3.77 10-19 x
 9.664 x 10-17 = 3.77 10-19 x ( as given = 9.664 x 10-17J )

 = 256.34
 = 16
Momentum of the electron in that state =
=13.26 x Kgms-1
The order of excited state is 16 and the momentum of the electron in that state is
13.26 x Kgms-1. (Ans.)
74. A particle is in 1-d infinitely deep potential well. If its ground state energy is 0.8eV, what is
the energy of 2nd excited state?
Solution: We have
For ground state , 0.8eV
For 2nd excited state , 7.2 eV (Ans.)
75. A proton is moving with velocity 105 m/s and located with an accuracy of 10-3 cm.
Calculate the fractional uncertainty in momentum.
Solution:
Given velocity m/s ; Proton located with an accuracy i.e. 10-3 cm = 10-5 m.
According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Physics Q & Ans.
 Kg m/s.
The fractional uncertainty in momentum is given by
(Ans.)
76. A bullet of 100g mass is shot out with a velocity of 600 m/s with an uncertainty of 0.01
percent in momentum. What would be the accuracy of its position with which it will be
located.
Solution: Mass g = 0.1 Kg; velocity m/s
Momentum Kg m/s.
Uncertainty in momentum is given by of Kg m/s
According to uncertainty principle

 m (Ans.)
77. An electron is correct up to 0.05 percent while moving with a velocity of 300 m/s. What
should be the minimum accuracy for the location of particle?
Solution: velocity m/s;
Uncertainty in velocity is given by of m/s
Minimum accuracy for the location of particle ?
 m mm. (Ans.)
-10
78. Electron is confined to a box of dimension 10 m. Obtain the minimum uncertainty in its
velocity.
Solution: Given m; mass of electron Kg


 m/s.

Physics Q & Ans.
m mm. (Ans.)
79. The uncertainty in velocity of an electron is 7.3 x 10 5 m/s. Find the uncertainty in its
position. [BPUT_2015_2nd SEM_Back_2Marks]
Solution: Given m/s;

 [mass of electron Kg ]
 m (Ans.)
80. The wave function for a particle is given by . Find the probability of finding the
particle between and .
Solution: Given wave function for a particle is
The probability is given by
(Ans.)
81. The one-dimensional wave function is given by . Obtain the probability

of finding a particle between and .
Solution: Given wave function for a particle is
The probability of finding a particle between and is given by
(Ans.)
82. Normalize the wave function , where is constant over the region
.
Solution: Let the normalized wave function be ; where is known as normalized

constant.
For normalized wave function the condition is




Physics Q & Ans.
Hence the normalized wave function is (Ans.)
83. The wave function of a particle in one-dimensional box is given by
. Normalize the wave function.
Solution: For normalized wave function the condition is




The normalized wave function is (Ans.)
84. A wave function in region 0 . Find the normalization

constant and normalized wave function. [BPUT_2015_2nd Sem_Regular_4Marks]
Solution: Given ;
For normalized wave function the condition is

Physics Q & Ans.
Normalization constant
85. Normalize the wave function
Solution: Given ; So
From the condition of normalization


 [ as ]
86. A particle is described by wave function for 0 < < 1. Obtain the average
position of the particle.
Solution: The expectation value of position is given by
(Ans.)
87. A particle trapped in 1-d box of length 1cm is described by normalized wave function
. What is the expectation value of the particles position?
(Ans.)
88. Find the expectation value of the position of a particle confined to a one dimensional box
of side L. [BPUT_2015_2nd SEM_Back_3Marks]
Solution: The normalized wave function inside the 1-d box of side L is given by

Physics Q & Ans.
where
The expectation value of position is given by
(as )
(Ans.)
89. Prove that the momentum of a particle in 1-d potential well of infinite height is quantized.
Solution: We have Energy ; Also


 Momentum is quantized. (Ans.)
90. The wave function is given for a particle in interval (0, ). Obtain
the uncertainty in position.

Physics Q & Ans.





 (Ans.)
91. Let the particle is described by wave function in interval (0, ). Obtain
the uncertainty in momentum.
Solution: The expectation value of momentum is given by





 (Ans.)
92. A particle is described by wave function for – Obtain the
expectation value of momentum.
Solution: The expectation value of momentum is given by





 (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
93. Determine whether the wave function is an Eigen function of momentum

operator .
Solution: We have momentum operator
Now [ ]


 It is an eigen function of momentum operator . The eigen value is . (Ans.)
94. Find out the eigen functions and represent them graphically for a particle in an one
dimensional box of width ‘a’. [BPUT_2015_2nd Sem_Regular_4Marks]
Derive the energy eigen values for a particle trapped inside a potential well of infinite depth.
Draw a plot for the energy eigen values upto n=3. [BPUT_2014-15_Special_5M]
Solution:
Let us consider the case of a particle of mass
‘m’ moving along a straight line, say along x-
axis, between the two rigid walls (i.e.
impenetrable walls) A & B at x= 0 and x= a.
The particle is free to move between the
walls.
The potential in this model is given as ……….…….(1)
The particle cannot penetrate the walls, hence and …………….(2)

These are the boundary conditions.
Since these are the potential energy time-independent, inside the well, hence Schrödinger
equation is
 …………….(3)
Where ……………. (3a)
The general solution of eq(3) is given by …………….(4)
Using the boundary condition as given by eq (2) in eq(4) we have
=>
&
 [as ]
 [ if then the entire function will be zero as ]

 as …………….(5)

Physics Q & Ans.
The wave function [ i.e. eq (4)] inside the well becomes …………….(6)
Eigen functions:
The constant ‘ ’ of eq (6) can be obtained by applying the normalization condition i.e.

 [ as is non-zero in the region to ]





 [ as ]


 …………….(7)
Using eq(7) & eq(5) in eq (6) we have …………….(8)

Eq (10) gives the wave function of the particle enclosed in infinitely deep potential well.
The eigen functions for each quantum state are obtained from eq (8).
etc……..
The eigen functions are shown in the above figure.

95. What is potential step? Explain how quantum physics differ from classical physics in
potential step problem. . [ BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Back paper_4Marks]
Solution: When a particle moves from one region to another region, potential energy of the
particle changes from one constant value V1 to another constant value V2. This constitutes a
potential step of height (V2- V1 ).

Physics Q & Ans.
Example: Motion of charged particles from a region of constant electrostatic potential to

another region having a different constant electrostatic potential is an example of motion
under potential step.
A one dimensional potential step can be represented by V (x) =

If E < V0, according to classical physics, then the particle cannot move beyond and will rebound
into the region-I. But as per quantum physics there will be reflection as well as transmission.
If E > V0, then the particle will go to the region-II, with K. E ( E- Vo) and there will be no reflection at the
boundary x=0. But as per quantum physics there will be transmission as well as reflection.
96. Electrons with energy 12eV are incident on a potential step of 8eV high & 0.50nm width.
Calculate the reflection probability and transmission probability of the incident electron.
Solution: Given = 12eV; = 8eV; =0.50nm
Using the relation Reflection probability
Transmission probability (Ans.)
[ Can also be calculated by using the relation ]
97. One million electrons with energy 12eV are incident on a potential step of height 8eV.
Calculate the number of electrons transmitted through the potential step.
[BPUT_2014-15_Special_5M]
Solution: Given = 12eV; = 8eV; Number of electrons= one million =
We have, Reflection Transmission probability
Number of electrons transmitted Transmission probability Number of electrons
(Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
98. A beam of electrons of energy 15 eV is incident at the boundary of a step potential of

height 5eV. Find the fraction of the beam reflected and transmitted.
Solution: Given energy of electrons = 15eV; height of a potential step = 5 eV
Using the relation Reflection probability
99. A stream of electrons strike a potential energy step of height 0.04eV. Calculate the
fraction of electrons reflected if energy of the incident electrons is 0.05eV.
[ BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Back paper_3Marks] [BPUT_2015_2nd Sem_Regular_2Marks]
Solution: In this case = 0.05eV and = 0.04 eV i.e. >
Reflection probability (Ans.)

100. If a beam of electrons strike on any potential energy step of height 0.03eV find the
fraction electrons reflected and transmitted if energy of the incident electrons is (i)
0.04eV (ii) 0.03eV.
Solution: (i) In this case = 0.04eV and = 0.03eV i.e. >
Reflection probability
(ii)In this case = 0.03eV and = 0.03eV i.e. =
Reflection probability and
All the incident electrons will be reflected without any transmission. (Ans.)
101. The ground state energy of a particle in an infinite 1-d well is 4.4eV. If width of the
well is doubled what is the new ground state energy.
Solution: Ground state energy = 4.4eV
Energy of a particle in an infinite 1-d well is =>
If width of the well is doubled the new ground state energy will be
eV (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
102. An electron is trapped completely in a 1-d region of length 1 A0 . How much energy
must be supplied to excite the electrons from 1st excited state to 2nd excited state?
Solution: Given width of the well m
Mass of electron Kg; Js
Energy of a particle is
Ground state energy of electron =
= 37.65 eV [1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J]
Energy difference between 1st and 2nd excited state
188.25eV
188.25eV energy must be supplied to excite the electron from 1 st excited state to 2nd excited
state. (Ans.)
103. A one dimensional infinite potential well with a width of 12 A 0 contains an electron.
(a) Calculate the first two energy levels that the electron may occupy.
(b) If a electron drops from the second energy level to the first, what is the wavelength of
a photon that might be emitted?
Solution: Given width of the well m
We know Mass of electron Kg; plank’s constant Js
Energy of a particle is
(a) Ground state energy of electron =
= 0.2616 eV [1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J]
1st excited state energy of the electron eV
So the first two energy levels that the electron may occupy are 0.2616 eV & eV. (Ans.)
(b) Energy difference between 2nd and 1st excited state
1.308 eV
Energy liberated when the electron drops from the 2nd energy level to the first =1.308 eV

Physics Q & Ans.

 Wavelength
 Wavelength 8
So If a electron drops from the second energy level to the first, the wavelength of a photon
that might be emitted is 8 . (Ans.)
104. Electrons with energy 1eV are incident on a potential barrier of 8eV high and 0.50 nm
width. Calculate the transmission probability of the incident electron.
Solution: 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J; = 8eV= 8 x 1.6 x 10-19J ; 0.5nm = 0.5 m
Using the formula = 1.4 m-1
105. What do you mean by tunneling effect?
Solution: If a particle is striking on the barrier with energy less than the height of potential
barrier, it will not necessarily be reflected by the barrier, but there is always a probability that it
may cross the barrier and continue its forward motion. This probability of crossing the barrier is
called the Tunneling effect.
106. 12million electrons with energy 3eV are incident on a potential barrier of 9eV high and
0.5nm width. Calculate how many electrons will tunnel through the barrier? .
[ BPUT_2014_1st SEM_Back paper_2Marks]
Solution: Given Total number of electrons incident =
3eV = 3 x1.6 x 10-19J ; = 9eV= 9 x 1.6 x 10-19J ; 0.5nm = 0.5 m
Using the formula = 1.2 m-1
Transmission probability
Number of electrons tunnel through the barrier= Total number of electrons incident
= 73
So, 73 electrons tunnel through the barrier out of 12million electrons. (Ans.)

Physics Q & Ans.
107. Write short notes on Quantum mechanical tunneling. [BPUT_2014-15_Special_5M]
Solution: A potential barrier of finite height and finite width is

represented by
Quantum Mechanical Tunnelling:
If the energy E of incident particle is less than the height of the

potential barrier, then classically, the incident particles are not
allowed to go from Region-I to region-III. But quantum
mechanical analysis shows that the particles have a finite
probability of going from region-I to region-III even if their
energy is less than the barrier height. This phenomenon is called
tunneling in which the particles penetrate through the barrier.
The transmission probability increases with the decrease in
height V0 and width ‘a’ of the barrier for wide and high barriers, the transmission coefficient is
given by the formula:
This phenomenon of barrier penetration or quantum mechanical tunneling suggests that the
microscopic particles trapped in a deep potential well have a non-zero probability of escaping
from the potential well even if they do not have enough energy to climb over the wall.
Examples of Tunneling:
 Emission of α- particle from radioactive nuclei is an example of quantum mechanical

tunneling.
 Nuclear Fusion [Two light nuclei come very close to take part in fusion reaction]. (Ans.)

11 Quantum

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Physics Q & Ans.

When ν then by using binomial expansion

So the eq(1) becomes

Again when then . Hence1 can be neglected in eq (1).

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 1

Taking and , Plank’s formula becomes

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 2

(4) The wave function satisfies the Schrödinger equation.

Stopping Potential : The minimum value of negative potential

(i) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 3

Time in-dependent Schrödinger Equation:

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 4

: is the amplitude of matter wave.

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 5

Eigen Values & Eigen Functions:

The time independent Schrödinger equation for 1-d system is …………(2)

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 6

For different systems, the potential function is different.

Example: Motion of charged particles from a region of constant electrostatic potential to

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 7

Let ‘E’ be the energy of the incident particle.

(I) CASE:-I (E > V0)

& ( x > 0, Region- II )

 ( x < 0, Region-I ) ………………(1)

& ( x > 0, Region- II ) ………………(2)

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 8

‘ ’ is the amplitude of transmitted wave.

Reflection & Transmission at the Boundary:

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 9

Where = probability density of incident particle i.e. probability of finding a incident

Similarly, Reflected flux =

Similarly, Transmitted co-efficient T =

i.e. R+T = 1 …………………(14)

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 10

The following observations can be drawn:

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 11

The potential in this model is given as ……….…….(1)

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 12

Using eq(9) & eq(5) in eq (8) we have …………….(10)

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 13

Consider non-energetic particles incident on the barrier from left.

Let E: Energy of incident particles

[Region-I : ( <0), V (x) = 0]

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 14

The general solution of Schrödinger equation, in the three regions are

Within the barrier ( Region-II), the wave function is non-

Quantum Mechanical Tunnelling:

TUNNELLING: Introduction to the Concept:

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 15

 Emission of α- particle from radioactive nuclei is an example of quantum mechanical

Case-II: (E > V0):

Sumanta Kumar Patnaik, NIST Page 16

2. Derive the general differential equation of the wave motion.

The equation of a wave travelling along x-direction is given by

( x, t ) = A Sin ( kx –ωt + ) .................... (1)

( x, t ) = wave function at the position ‘x’ at time ‘t’.

= wave vector: ω = Angular frequency; A = Amplitude of the wave

= - ωA cos ( kx –ωt + ) ; = - ω 2 A Sin ( kx –ωt + ) =-ω2 ..................(2)

= Ak cos ( kx –ωt + ) ; = - A k2 Sin ( kx –ωt + ) = - k2 ......................(3)

Using the expression of from eq(3) in eq(2) we have,

 =v2 - ( as ω/k = v ) .......................(4)