Fall 2009 18.314 Combinatorial Analysis S.

Assaf

Solutions to Problem Set 7

1. (2 points) First assume that G is a connected graph on n vertices. Then the degree of
any vertex is between 1 (since G is connected) and n − 1 (since G is simple). By the
Pigeon-hole Principle, given n vertices with only n − 1 possible degrees, there must be
two vertices of the same degree. For the general case, if G has a connected component
with at least two vertices, then we are done. Otherwise, G must contain at least two
isolated vertices, both of which necessarily have degree 0.

2. (2 points) The 11 simple graphs with 4 vertices are

• • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
@
@
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • •
@
@
• • • • • •
Since every labelled graph on [n] can be obtained by removing edges from the complete
4
graph Kn , the number of labelled graphs on 4 vertices is 2(2) = 64.

3. (2 points) In a directed graph, the sum of all the out-degrees of the
vertices equals
the number of edges of the graph. A tournament of order n has n2 edges, one for
each pair of vertices. Therefore if each vertex of some tournament T of order n has
out-degree x, then   X
n
= outdeg(v) = nx,
2
v∈T

and so x = n2 /n = (n − 1)/2. Since indeg(v) + outdeg(v) = n − 1 for each vertex v,

each vertex has in-degree (n − 1)/2, making the average in-degree (n − 1)/2.

4. (2 points) Suppose, for contradiction, that G is a simple graph on n vertices such that
for any two vertices v and w of G, deg(v) + deg(w) ≥ n and that G does not have a
Hamiltonian cycle. Let G0 be the simple graph obtained by adding as many edges to
G as possible such that G0 does not contain a Hamiltonia cycle. Then we still have
deg(v) + deg(w) ≥ n in G0 , but G0 has the additional property that adding any edge
creates a Hamiltonian cycle. In particular, there must be a Hamiltonian path in G0 :
v1 v2 vi vi+1 vn−1 vn
• • ... • • ... • •

Consider S = {vj | v1 vj+1 is an edge of G0 } and T = {vj | vj vn is an edge of G0 }. By

the assumption on G, we know that |S| + |T | ≥ n. Since S, T ⊆ {v1 , . . . , vn−1 }, we

1
Fall 2009 18.314 Combinatorial Analysis S. Assaf

have |S ∪T | ≤ n−1. By the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle, |S ∪T | = |S|+|T |−|S ∩T |,

and so |S ∩ T | ≥ 1, say with vi ∈ S ∩ T . But then v1 , v2 , . . . , vi , vn , vn−1 , . . . , vi+1 , v1
is a Hamiltonian cycle, which is a contradiction.

5. (2 points) This problem is known as the Erdös-Gyárfás Conjecture. It has been proven
for certain classes of simple graphs (claw-free) and computer verified for all graphs
with at most 16 vertices, but remains open in general.

6. (2 points) Let T be a tree with two maximal length paths that factor AuB and CvD
where there is a path X from u to v not contained in A, B, C or D:

• A u B •
X

• C v D •

Without loss of generality, assume length(A) ≥length(C). If u and v are different, then
length(AuX) >length(C) and so length(AuXvD) >length(CvD), which contradicts
the assumption that this path was maximal. Therefore u = v, and so all maximal
length paths of T intersect.

7. (2 points) We claim that f is a parking function (Exercise 10.7 of the text) if and only
if |f −1 ({1, 2, . . . , i})| ≥ i for all i ∈ [n]. To see this, note that some car will park in
spot i if and only if |f −1 (1, 2, . . . , i)| ≥ i, since each car with preferred space 1, 2, . . . , i
will park in the first available spot after its preference. Therefore all of the spots are
filled if and only if this condition is met for all i. Thus the number of such functions
is also (n + 1)(n−1) .

8. (2 points) For any tree T , the Prüfer code of T (Exercise 10.5 of the text) is a word
on [n] of length n − 2. Moreover, the letter i appears in the Prüfer code of T if and
only if i is not a leaf of T . Therefore the number of labeled trees on [n] with
exactly
4 leaves is equal to the number of ways to choose the labels of the 4 leaves, n4 , times
the number words of length n−2 using exactly n−4 letters. The latter also counts the
number of surjective functions from [n − 2] to [n − 4], which is (n − 4)!S(n − 2, n − 4).
Using Problem 3 from PSet 4 to expand S(m, m − 2), the number of trees on [n] with
4 leaves is
     
n n! n−2 1 n−2
(n − 4)! S(n − 2, n − 4) = + .
4 24 3 2 2, 2, n − 6