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Modeling Turbulence
This chapter provides details about the turbulence models available in FLUENT.
Information is presented in the following sections:
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Modeling Turbulence
12.1 Introduction
Turbulent flows are characterized by fluctuating velocity fields. These fluctuations mix
transported quantities such as momentum, energy, and species concentration, and cause
the transported quantities to fluctuate as well. Since these fluctuations can be of small
scale and high frequency, they are too computationally expensive to simulate directly in
practical engineering calculations. Instead, the instantaneous (exact) governing equations
can be time-averaged, ensemble-averaged, or otherwise manipulated to remove the small
scales, resulting in a modified set of equations that are computationally less expensive
to solve. However, the modified equations contain additional unknown variables, and
turbulence models are needed to determine these variables in terms of known quantities.
FLUENT provides the following choices of turbulence models:
• Spalart-Allmaras model
• k- models
– Standard k- model
– Renormalization-group (RNG) k- model
– Realizable k- model
• k-ω models
– Standard k-ω model
– Shear-stress transport (SST) k-ω model
• v 2 -f model (addon)
12-2
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12.2 Choosing a Turbulence Model
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Modeling Turbulence
where ūi and u0i are the mean and fluctuating velocity components (i = 1, 2, 3).
Likewise, for pressure and other scalar quantities:
φ = φ̄ + φ0 (12.2-2)
12-4
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12.2 Choosing a Turbulence Model
the overbar on the mean velocity, ū) yields the ensemble-averaged momentum equations.
They can be written in Cartesian tensor form as:
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0 (12.2-3)
∂t ∂xi
" !#
∂ ∂ ∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂ul ∂
(ρui ) + (ρui uj ) = − + µ + − δij + (−ρu0i u0j )
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xl ∂xj
(12.2-4)
Equations 12.2-3 and 12.2-4 are called Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equa-
tions. They have the same general form as the instantaneous Navier-Stokes equations,
with the velocities and other solution variables now representing ensemble-averaged (or
time-averaged) values. Additional terms now appear that represent the effects of tur-
bulence. These Reynolds stresses, −ρu0i u0j , must be modeled in order to close Equa-
tion 12.2-4.
For variable-density flows, Equations 12.2-3 and 12.2-4 can be interpreted as Favre-
averaged Navier-Stokes equations [142], with the velocities representing mass-averaged
values. As such, Equations 12.2-3 and 12.2-4 can be applied to density-varying flows.
The Boussinesq hypothesis is used in the Spalart-Allmaras model, the k- models, and
the k-ω models. The advantage of this approach is the relatively low computational
cost associated with the computation of the turbulent viscosity, µt . In the case of the
Spalart-Allmaras model, only one additional transport equation (representing turbulent
viscosity) is solved. In the case of the k- and k-ω models, two additional transport
equations (for the turbulence kinetic energy, k, and either the turbulence dissipation
rate, , or the specific dissipation rate, ω) are solved, and µt is computed as a function of
k and . The disadvantage of the Boussinesq hypothesis as presented is that it assumes
µt is an isotropic scalar quantity, which is not strictly true.
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Modeling Turbulence
The alternative approach, embodied in the RSM, is to solve transport equations for each
of the terms in the Reynolds stress tensor. An additional scale-determining equation
(normally for ) is also required. This means that five additional transport equations are
required in 2D flows and seven additional transport equations must be solved in 3D.
In many cases, models based on the Boussinesq hypothesis perform very well, and the
additional computational expense of the Reynolds stress model is not justified. However,
the RSM is clearly superior for situations in which the anisotropy of turbulence has a
dominant effect on the mean flow. Such cases include highly swirling flows and stress-
driven secondary flows.
12-6
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12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory
( ) !2
∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ν̃ ∂ ν̃ −Yν +Sν̃ (12.3-1)
(ρν̃)+ (ρν̃ui ) = Gν + (µ + ρν̃) + Cb2 ρ
∂t ∂xi σν̃ ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
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Modeling Turbulence
µt = ρν̃fv1 (12.3-2)
χ3
fv1 = 3
(12.3-3)
χ3 + Cv1
and
ν̃
χ≡ (12.3-4)
ν
where
ν̃
S̃ ≡ S + fv2 (12.3-6)
κ2 d2
and
χ
fv2 = 1 − (12.3-7)
1 + χfv1
12-8
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12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory
Cb1 and κ are constants, d is the distance from the wall, and S is a scalar measure of the
deformation tensor. By default in FLUENT, as in the original model proposed by Spalart
and Allmaras, S is based on the magnitude of the vorticity:
q
S≡ 2Ωij Ωij (12.3-8)
The justification for the default expression for S is that, for the wall-bounded flows that
were of most interest when the model was formulated, turbulence is found only where
vorticity is generated near walls. However, it has since been acknowledged that one
should also take into account the effect of mean strain on the turbulence production, and
a modification to the model has been proposed [73] and incorporated into FLUENT.
This modification combines measures of both rotation and strain tensors in the definition
of S:
where
q q
Cprod = 2.0, |Ωij | ≡ 2Ωij Ωij , |Sij | ≡ 2Sij Sij
Including both the rotation and strain tensors reduces the production of eddy viscosity
and consequently reduces the eddy viscosity itself in regions where the measure of vortic-
ity exceeds that of strain rate. One such example can be found in vortical flows, i.e., flow
near the core of a vortex subjected to a pure rotation where turbulence is known to be
suppressed. Including both the rotation and strain tensors more correctly accounts for
the effects of rotation on turbulence. The default option (including the rotation tensor
only) tends to overpredict the production of eddy viscosity and hence overpredicts the
eddy viscosity itself in certain circumstances.
You can select the modified form for calculating production in the Viscous Model panel.
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Modeling Turbulence
2
ν̃
Yν = Cw1 ρfw (12.3-12)
d
where
#1/6
6
"
1 + Cw3
fw = g 6 6
(12.3-13)
g + Cw3
g = r + Cw2 r6 − r (12.3-14)
ν̃
r≡ (12.3-15)
S̃κ2 d2
Cw1 , Cw2 , and Cw3 are constants, and S̃ is given by Equation 12.3-6. Note that the
modification described above to include the effects of mean strain on S will also affect
the value of S̃ used to compute r.
2
Cb1 = 0.1355, Cb2 = 0.622, σν̃ = , Cv1 = 7.1
3
Cb1 (1 + Cb2 )
Cw1 = + , Cw2 = 0.3, Cw3 = 2.0, κ = 0.4187
κ2 σν̃
u ρuτ y
= (12.3-16)
uτ µ
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12.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model Theory
If the mesh is too coarse to resolve the laminar sublayer, it is assumed that the centroid
of the wall-adjacent cell falls within the logarithmic region of the boundary layer, and
the law-of-the-wall is employed:
!
u 1 ρuτ y
= ln E (12.3-17)
uτ κ µ
where u is the velocity parallel to the wall, uτ is the shear velocity, y is the distance from
the wall, κ is the von Kármán constant (0.4187), and E = 9.793.
where k, in this case, is the thermal conductivity, E is the total energy, and (τij )eff is the
deviatoric stress tensor, defined as
!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk
The term involving (τij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always computed in the
density-based solvers. It is not computed by default in the pressure-based solver, but it
can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel. The default value of the turbulent Prandtl
number is 0.85. You can change the value of Prt in the Viscous Model panel.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly, with a default turbulent Schmidt number of
0.7. This default value can be changed in the Viscous Model panel.
Wall boundary conditions for scalar transport are handled analogously to momentum,
using the appropriate “law-of-the-wall”.
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Modeling Turbulence
The transport equations, methods of calculating turbulent viscosity, and model constants
are presented separately for each model. The features that are essentially common to all
models follow, including turbulent production, generation due to buoyancy, accounting
for the effects of compressibility, and modeling heat and mass transfer.
12-12
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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory
and
2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂
(ρ) + (ρui ) = µ+ + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ + S (12.4-2)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σ ∂xj k k
In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. C1 , C2 , and C3
are constants. σk and σ are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk
and S are user-defined source terms.
k2
µt = ρCµ (12.4-3)
where Cµ is a constant.
Model Constants
The model constants C1 , C2 , Cµ , σk , and σ have the following default values [196]:
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Modeling Turbulence
These default values have been determined from experiments with air and water for funda-
mental turbulent shear flows including homogeneous shear flows and decaying isotropic
grid turbulence. They have been found to work fairly well for a wide range of wall-
bounded and free shear flows.
Although the default values of the model constants are the standard ones most widely
accepted, you can change them (if needed) in the Viscous Model panel.
• The RNG model has an additional term in its equation that significantly improves
the accuracy for rapidly strained flows.
• The effect of swirl on turbulence is included in the RNG model, enhancing accuracy
for swirling flows.
• The RNG theory provides an analytical formula for turbulent Prandtl numbers,
while the standard k- model uses user-specified, constant values.
• While the standard k- model is a high-Reynolds-number model, the RNG theory
provides an analytically-derived differential formula for effective viscosity that ac-
counts for low-Reynolds-number effects. Effective use of this feature does, however,
depend on an appropriate treatment of the near-wall region.
These features make the RNG k- model more accurate and reliable for a wider class of
flows than the standard k- model.
The RNG-based k- turbulence model is derived from the instantaneous Navier-Stokes
equations, using a mathematical technique called “renormalization group” (RNG) meth-
ods. The analytical derivation results in a model with constants different from those in
the standard k- model, and additional terms and functions in the transport equations
for k and . A more comprehensive description of RNG theory and its application to
turbulence can be found in [59].
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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory
and
2
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(ρ) + (ρui ) = α µeff + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ − R + S (12.4-5)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj k k
In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. The quantities
αk and α are the inverse effective Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk and S
are user-defined source terms.
ρ2 k
!
ν̂
d √ = 1.72 √ dν̂ (12.4-6)
µ ν̂ 3 − 1 + Cν
where
ν̂ = µeff /µ
Cν ≈ 100
Equation 12.4-6 is integrated to obtain an accurate description of how the effective tur-
bulent transport varies with the effective Reynolds number (or eddy scale), allowing the
model to better handle low-Reynolds-number and near-wall flows.
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Modeling Turbulence
k2
µt = ρCµ (12.4-7)
with Cµ = 0.0845, derived using RNG theory. It is interesting to note that this value
of Cµ is very close to the empirically-determined value of 0.09 used in the standard k-
model.
In FLUENT, by default, the effective viscosity is computed using the high-Reynolds-
number form in Equation 12.4-7. However, there is an option available that allows you
to use the differential relation given in Equation 12.4-6 when you need to include low-
Reynolds-number effects.
where µt0 is the value of turbulent viscosity calculated without the swirl modification
using either Equation 12.4-6 or Equation 12.4-7. Ω is a characteristic swirl number eval-
uated within FLUENT, and αs is a swirl constant that assumes different values depending
on whether the flow is swirl-dominated or only mildly swirling. This swirl modification
always takes effect for axisymmetric, swirling flows and three-dimensional flows when the
RNG model is selected. For mildly swirling flows (the default in FLUENT), αs is set to
0.07. For strongly swirling flows, however, a higher value of αs can be used.
0.6321 0.3679
α − 1.3929 α + 2.3929 µmol
= (12.4-9)
α0 − 1.3929
α0 + 2.3929
µeff
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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory
Cµ ρη 3 (1 − η/η0 ) 2
R = (12.4-10)
1 + βη 3 k
2
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∗
(ρ) + (ρui ) = α µeff + C1 (Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ (12.4-11)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj k k
∗
where C2 is given by
∗ Cµ η 3 (1 − η/η0 )
C2 ≡ C2 + (12.4-12)
1 + βη 3
∗
In regions where η < η0 , the R term makes a positive contribution, and C2 becomes
larger than C2 . In the logarithmic layer, for instance, it can be shown that η ≈ 3.0,
∗
giving C2 ≈ 2.0, which is close in magnitude to the value of C2 in the standard k-
model (1.92). As a result, for weakly to moderately strained flows, the RNG model tends
to give results largely comparable to the standard k- model.
In regions of large strain rate (η > η0 ), however, the R term makes a negative contribu-
∗
tion, making the value of C2 less than C2 . In comparison with the standard k- model,
the smaller destruction of augments , reducing k and, eventually, the effective viscosity.
As a result, in rapidly strained flows, the RNG model yields a lower turbulent viscosity
than the standard k- model.
Thus, the RNG model is more responsive to the effects of rapid strain and streamline
curvature than the standard k- model, which explains the superior performance of the
RNG model for certain classes of flows.
Model Constants
The model constants C1 and C2 in Equation 12.4-5 have values derived analytically by
the RNG theory. These values, used by default in FLUENT, are
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Modeling Turbulence
• The realizable k- model contains a new formulation for the turbulent viscosity.
• A new transport equation for the dissipation rate, , has been derived from an exact
equation for the transport of the mean-square vorticity fluctuation.
The term “realizable” means that the model satisfies certain mathematical constraints
on the Reynolds stresses, consistent with the physics of turbulent flows. Neither the
standard k- model nor the RNG k- model is realizable.
An immediate benefit of the realizable k- model is that it more accurately predicts
the spreading rate of both planar and round jets. It is also likely to provide superior
performance for flows involving rotation, boundary layers under strong adverse pressure
gradients, separation, and recirculation.
To understand the mathematics behind the realizable k- model, consider combining
the Boussinesq relationship (Equation 12.2-5) and the eddy viscosity definition (Equa-
tion 12.4-3) to obtain the following expression for the normal Reynolds stress in an
incompressible strained mean flow:
2 ∂U
u2 = k − 2 νt (12.4-13)
3 ∂x
Using Equation 12.4-3 for νt ≡ µt /ρ, one obtains the result that the normal stress, u2 ,
which by definition is a positive quantity, becomes negative, i.e., “non-realizable”, when
the strain is large enough to satisfy
k ∂U 1
> ≈ 3.7 (12.4-14)
∂x 3Cµ
Similarly, it can also be shown that the Schwarz inequality for shear stresses (uα uβ 2 ≤
u2α u2β ; no summation over α and β) can be violated when the mean strain rate is large.
The most straightforward way to ensure the realizability (positivity of normal stresses
and Schwarz inequality for shear stresses) is to make Cµ variable by sensitizing it to
the mean flow (mean deformation) and the turbulence (k, ). The notion of variable
Cµ is suggested by many modelers including Reynolds [303], and is well substantiated
by experimental evidence. For example, Cµ is found to be around 0.09 in the inertial
sublayer of equilibrium boundary layers, and 0.05 in a strong homogeneous shear flow.
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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory
Both the realizable and RNG k- models have shown substantial improvements over the
standard k- model where the flow features include strong streamline curvature, vortices,
and rotation. Since the model is still relatively new, it is not clear in exactly which
instances the realizable k- model consistently outperforms the RNG model. However,
initial studies have shown that the realizable model provides the best performance of all
the k- model versions for several validations of separated flows and flows with complex
secondary flow features.
One of the weaknesses of the standard k- model or other traditional k- models lies with
the modeled equation for the dissipation rate (). The well-known round-jet anomaly
(named based on the finding that the spreading rate in planar jets is predicted reasonably
well, but prediction of the spreading rate for axisymmetric jets is unexpectedly poor) is
considered to be mainly due to the modeled dissipation equation.
The realizable k- model proposed by Shih et al. [330] was intended to address these
deficiencies of traditional k- models by adopting the following:
• A new model equation for dissipation () based on the dynamic equation of the
mean-square vorticity fluctuation.
One limitation of the realizable k- model is that it produces non-physical turbulent
viscosities in situations when the computational domain contains both rotating and sta-
tionary fluid zones (e.g., multiple reference frames, rotating sliding meshes). This is due
to the fact that the realizable k- model includes the effects of mean rotation in the
definition of the turbulent viscosity (see Equations 12.4-17–12.4-19). This extra rotation
effect has been tested on single rotating reference frame systems and showed superior be-
havior over the standard k- model. However, due to the nature of this modification, its
application to multiple reference frame systems should be taken with some caution. See
Section 12.4.3: Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity for information about how to include
or exclude this term from the model.
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Modeling Turbulence
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkuj ) = µ+ + Gk + Gb − ρ − YM + Sk (12.4-15)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj σk ∂xj
and
2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂
(ρ) + (ρuj ) = µ+ + ρ C1 S − ρ C2 √ + C1 C3 Gb + S
∂t ∂xj ∂xj σ ∂xj k + ν k
(12.4-16)
where
" #
η k q
C1 = max 0.43, , η=S , S= 2Sij Sij
η+5
In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.4.4: Modeling Turbulent
Production in the k- Models. Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due
to buoyancy, calculated as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbu-
lence in the k- Models. YM represents the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in
compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.4.6: Effects of Compressibility on Turbulence in the k- Models. C2 and C1 are
constants. σk and σ are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and , respectively. Sk and
S are user-defined source terms.
Note that the k equation (Equation 12.4-15) is the same as that in the standard k-
model (Equation 12.4-1) and the RNG k- model (Equation 12.4-4), except for the
model constants. However, the form of the equation is quite different from those in
the standard and RNG-based k- models (Equations 12.4-2 and 12.4-5). One of the
noteworthy features is that the production term in the equation (the second term on
the right-hand side of Equation 12.4-16) does not involve the production of k; i.e., it does
not contain the same Gk term as the other k- models. It is believed that the present
form better represents the spectral energy transfer. Another desirable feature is that
the destruction term (the next to last term on the right-hand side of Equation 12.4-16)
does not have any singularity; i.e., its denominator never vanishes, even if k vanishes or
becomes smaller than zero. This feature is contrasted with traditional k- models, which
have a singularity due to k in the denominator.
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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory
This model has been extensively validated for a wide range of flows [183, 330], including
rotating homogeneous shear flows, free flows including jets and mixing layers, channel
and boundary layer flows, and separated flows. For all these cases, the performance of
the model has been found to be substantially better than that of the standard k- model.
Especially noteworthy is the fact that the realizable k- model resolves the round-jet
anomaly; i.e., it predicts the spreading rate for axisymmetric jets as well as that for
planar jets.
k2
µt = ρCµ (12.4-17)
The difference between the realizable k- model and the standard and RNG k- models
is that Cµ is no longer constant. It is computed from
1
Cµ = ∗ (12.4-18)
A0 + As kU
where
q
∗
U ≡ Sij Sij + Ω̃ij Ω̃ij (12.4-19)
and
where Ωij is the mean rate-of-rotation tensor viewed in a rotating reference frame with
the angular velocity ωk . The model constants A0 and As are given by
√
A0 = 4.04, As = 6 cos φ
where
√
!
1 Sij Sjk Ski q 1 ∂uj ∂ui
φ = cos−1 ( 6W ), W = , S̃ = S ij Sij , Sij = +
3 S̃ 3 2 ∂xi ∂xj
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Modeling Turbulence
It can be seen that Cµ is a function of the mean strain and rotation rates, the angular ve-
locity of the system rotation, and the turbulence fields (k and ). Cµ in Equation 12.4-17
can be shown to recover the standard value of 0.09 for an inertial sublayer in an equilib-
rium boundary layer.
Model Constants
The model constants C2 , σk , and σ have been established to ensure that the model
performs well for certain canonical flows. The model constants are
∂uj
Gk = −ρu0i u0j (12.4-20)
∂xi
G k = µt S 2 (12.4-21)
q
S≡ 2Sij Sij (12.4-22)
i When using the high-Reynolds number k- versions, µeff is used in lieu of
µt in Equation 12.4-21.
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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory
µt ∂T
Gb = βgi (12.4-23)
Prt ∂xi
where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number for energy and gi is the component of the
gravitational vector in the ith direction. For the standard and realizable k- models, the
default value of Prt is 0.85. In the case of the RNG k- model, Prt = 1/α, where α
is given by Equation 12.4-9, but with α0 = 1/Pr = k/µcp . The coefficient of thermal
expansion, β, is defined as
!
1 ∂ρ
β=− (12.4-24)
ρ ∂T p
µt ∂ρ
Gb = −gi (12.4-25)
ρPrt ∂xi
It can be seen from the transport equations for k (Equations 12.4-1, 12.4-4, and 12.4-15)
that turbulence kinetic energy tends to be augmented (Gb > 0) in unstable stratification.
For stable stratification, buoyancy tends to suppress the turbulence (Gb < 0). In FLU-
ENT, the effects of buoyancy on the generation of k are always included when you have
both a non-zero gravity field and a non-zero temperature (or density) gradient.
While the buoyancy effects on the generation of k are relatively well understood, the
effect on is less clear. In FLUENT, by default, the buoyancy effects on are neglected
simply by setting Gb to zero in the transport equation for (Equation 12.4-2, 12.4-5, or
12.4-16).
However, you can include the buoyancy effects on in the Viscous Model panel. In this
case, the value of Gb given by Equation 12.4-25 is used in the transport equation for
(Equation 12.4-2, 12.4-5, or 12.4-16).
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Modeling Turbulence
The degree to which is affected by the buoyancy is determined by the constant C3 .
In FLUENT, C3 is not specified, but is instead calculated according to the following
relation [140]:
v
C3 = tanh (12.4-26)
u
where v is the component of the flow velocity parallel to the gravitational vector and
u is the component of the flow velocity perpendicular to the gravitational vector. In
this way, C3 will become 1 for buoyant shear layers for which the main flow direction is
aligned with the direction of gravity. For buoyant shear layers that are perpendicular to
the gravitational vector, C3 will become zero.
YM = 2ρM2t (12.4-27)
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12.4 Standard, RNG, and Realizable k- Models Theory
12.4.7 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling in the k- Models
In FLUENT, turbulent heat transport is modeled using the concept of Reynolds’ analogy
to turbulent momentum transfer. The “modeled” energy equation is thus given by the
following:
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂T
(ρE) + [ui (ρE + p)] = keff + ui (τij )eff + Sh (12.4-29)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj
where E is the total energy, keff is the effective thermal conductivity, and
(τij )eff is the deviatoric stress tensor, defined as
!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk
The term involving (τij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always computed in the
density-based solvers. It is not computed by default in the pressure-based solver, but it
can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel.
Additional terms may appear in the energy equation, depending on the physical models
you are using. See Section 13.2.1: Heat Transfer Theory for more details.
For the standard and realizable k- models, the effective thermal conductivity is given
by
c p µt
keff = k +
Prt
where k, in this case, is the thermal conductivity. The default value of the turbulent
Prandtl number is 0.85. You can change the value of the turbulent Prandtl number in
the Viscous Model panel.
For the RNG k- model, the effective thermal conductivity is
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-25
Modeling Turbulence
Prandtl number from the molecular value (α = 1/Pr) in the viscosity-dominated region
to the fully turbulent value (α = 1.393) in the fully turbulent regions of the flow.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly. For the standard and realizable k- models,
the default turbulent Schmidt number is 0.7. This default value can be changed in the
Viscous Model panel. For the RNG model, the effective turbulent diffusivity for mass
transfer is calculated in a manner that is analogous to the method used for the heat
transport. The value of α0 in Equation 12.4-9 is α0 = 1/Sc, where Sc is the molecular
Schmidt number.
• gradual change from the standard k-ω model in the inner region of the boundary
layer to a high-Reynolds-number version of the k- model in the outer part of the
boundary layer
• modified turbulent viscosity formulation to account for the transport effects of the
principal turbulent shear stress
12-26
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory
and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
(ρω) + (ρωui ) = Γω + G ω − Yω + S ω (12.5-2)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj
In these equations, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to mean
velocity gradients. Gω represents the generation of ω. Γk and Γω represent the effective
diffusivity of k and ω, respectively. Yk and Yω represent the dissipation of k and ω due
to turbulence. All of the above terms are calculated as described below. Sk and Sω are
user-defined source terms.
µt
Γk = µ + (12.5-3)
σk
µt
Γω = µ+ (12.5-4)
σω
where σk and σω are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ω, respectively. The
turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed by combining k and ω as follows:
ρk
µt = α ∗ (12.5-5)
ω
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-27
Modeling Turbulence
Low-Reynolds-Number Correction
where
ρk
Ret = (12.5-7)
µω
Rk = 6 (12.5-8)
βi
α0∗ = (12.5-9)
3
βi = 0.072 (12.5-10)
The term Gk represents the production of turbulence kinetic energy. From the exact
equation for the transport of k, this term may be defined as
∂uj
Gk = −ρu0i u0j (12.5-11)
∂xi
G k = µt S 2 (12.5-12)
where S is the modulus of the mean rate-of-strain tensor, defined in the same way as for
the k- model (see Equation 12.4-22).
Production of ω
ω
Gω = α Gk (12.5-13)
k
12-28
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory
where Rω = 2.95. α∗ and Ret are given by Equations 12.5-6 and 12.5-7, respectively.
Note that, in the high-Reynolds-number form of the k-ω model, α = α∞ = 1.
Yk = ρ β ∗ fβ ∗ k ω (12.5-15)
where
1 χk ≤ 0
fβ ∗ = 1+680χ2k (12.5-16)
1+400χ2k
χk > 0
where
1 ∂k ∂ω
χk ≡ (12.5-17)
ω 3 ∂xj ∂xj
and
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-29
Modeling Turbulence
Dissipation of ω
Yω = ρ β fβ ω 2 (12.5-23)
where
1 + 70χω
fβ = (12.5-24)
1 + 80χω
Ω Ω S
ij jk ki
χω = (12.5-25)
(β ∗ ω)3
∞
!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
Ωij = − (12.5-26)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
β∗
" #
β = βi 1 − i ζ ∗ F (Mt ) (12.5-27)
βi
βi∗ and F (Mt ) are defined by Equations 12.5-19 and 12.5-28, respectively.
Compressibility Correction
where
2k
M2t ≡ (12.5-29)
a2
Mt0 = 0.25 (12.5-30)
q
a = γRT (12.5-31)
12-30
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory
Model Constants
∗ 1 ∗
α∞ = 1, α∞ = 0.52, α0 = , β∞ = 0.09, βi = 0.072, Rβ = 8
9
Rk = 6, Rω = 2.95, ζ ∗ = 1.5, Mt0 = 0.25, σk = 2.0, σω = 2.0
• The standard k-ω model and the transformed k- model are both multiplied by a
blending function and both models are added together. The blending function is
designed to be one in the near-wall region, which activates the standard k-ω model,
and zero away from the surface, which activates the transformed k- model.
• The definition of the turbulent viscosity is modified to account for the transport of
the turbulent shear stress.
These features make the SST k-ω model more accurate and reliable for a wider class
of flows (e.g., adverse pressure gradient flows, airfoils, transonic shock waves) than the
standard k-ω model. Other modifications include the addition of a cross-diffusion term
in the ω equation and a blending function to ensure that the model equations behave
appropriately in both the near-wall and far-field zones.
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-31
Modeling Turbulence
and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
(ρω) + (ρωui ) = Γω + G ω − Y ω + Dω + S ω (12.5-33)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj
In these equations, G̃k represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to
mean velocity gradients, calculated as described in Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Tur-
bulence Production. Gω represents the generation of ω, calculated as described in Sec-
tion 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Production. Γk and Γω represent the effective
diffusivity of k and ω, respectively, which are calculated as described below. Yk and
Yω represent the dissipation of k and ω due to turbulence, calculated as described in
Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Dissipation. Dω represents the cross-diffusion
term, calculated as described below. Sk and Sω are user-defined source terms.
µt
Γk = µ + (12.5-34)
σk
µt
Γω = µ+ (12.5-35)
σω
where σk and σω are the turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ω, respectively. The
turbulent viscosity, µt , is computed as follows:
ρk 1
µt = h i (12.5-36)
ω max 1∗ , SF2
α a1 ω
1
σk = (12.5-37)
F1 /σk,1 + (1 − F1 )/σk,2
1
σω = (12.5-38)
F1 /σω,1 + (1 − F1 )/σω,2
12-32
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory
F1 = tanh Φ41 (12.5-39)
" √ ! #
k 500µ 4ρk
Φ1 = min max , 2 , (12.5-40)
0.09ωy ρy ω σω,2 Dω+ y 2
" #
1 1 ∂k ∂ω −10
Dω+ = max 2ρ , 10 (12.5-41)
σω,2 ω ∂xj ∂xj
F2 = tanh Φ22 (12.5-42)
" √ #
k 500µ
Φ2 = max 2 , (12.5-43)
0.09ωy ρy 2 ω
where y is the distance to the next surface and Dω+ is the positive portion of the cross-
diffusion term (see Equation 12.5-52).
The term G̃k represents the production of turbulence kinetic energy, and is defined as:
where Gk is defined in the same manner as in the standard k-ω model. See Sec-
tion 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence Production for details.
Production of ω
α
Gω = Gk (12.5-45)
νt
Note that this formulation differs from the standard k-ω model. The difference between
the two models also exists in the way the term α∞ is evaluated. In the standard k-ω
model, α∞ is defined as a constant (0.52). For the SST k-ω model, α∞ is given by
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-33
Modeling Turbulence
where
βi,1 κ2
α∞,1 = ∗
− q (12.5-47)
β∞ ∗
σw,1 β∞
βi,2 κ2
α∞,2 = ∗
− q (12.5-48)
β∞ ∗
σw,2 β∞
where κ is 0.41.
The term Yk represents the dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy, and is defined in a
similar manner as in the standard k-ω model (see Section 12.5.1: Modeling the Turbulence
Dissipation). The difference is in the way the term fβ ∗ is evaluated. In the standard k-ω
model, fβ ∗ is defined as a piecewise function. For the SST k-ω model, fβ ∗ is a constant
equal to 1. Thus,
Yk = ρβ ∗ kω (12.5-49)
Dissipation of ω
Yk = ρβω 2 (12.5-50)
12-34
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.5 Standard and SST k-ω Models Theory
Cross-Diffusion Modification
The SST k-ω model is based on both the standard k-ω model and the standard k- model.
To blend these two models together, the standard k- model has been transformed into
equations based on k and ω, which leads to the introduction of a cross-diffusion term
(Dω in Equation 12.5-33). Dω is defined as
1 ∂k ∂ω
Dω = 2 (1 − F1 ) ρσω,2 (12.5-52)
ω ∂xj ∂xj
For details about the various k- models, see Section 12.4: Standard, RNG, and Realizable
k- Models Theory.
Model Constants
σk,1 = 1.176, σω,1 = 2.0, σk,2 = 1.0, σω,2 = 1.168
ρ (u∗ )2 +
ωw = ω (12.5-53)
µ
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-35
Modeling Turbulence
where
2
50
ks+
ks+ < 25
ωw+ = (12.5-55)
100
ks+ ≥ 25
ks+
where
ρks u∗
!
ks+ = max 1.0, (12.5-56)
µ
1 du+turb
ω+ = q +
(12.5-57)
∗
β∞ dy
u∗
ω=q (12.5-58)
β∞∗ κy
Note that in the case of a wall cell being placed in the buffer region, FLUENT will blend
ω + between the logarithmic and laminar sublayer values.
12-36
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory
For more information about the theoretical background and usage of the v 2 -f model,
please visit the Fluent User Services Center (www.fluentusers.com).
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-37
Modeling Turbulence
∂ ∂ ∂
(ρ u0i u0j ) + (ρuk u0i u0j ) = − ρ u0i u0j u0k + p δkj u0i + δik u0j
|∂t {z } ∂x
| k {z } |
∂xk {z }
Local Time Derivative Cij ≡ Convection DT,ij ≡ Turbulent Diffusion
" # !
∂ ∂ ∂uj ∂ui
+ µ (u0 u0 ) − ρ u0i u0k + u0j u0k − ρβ(gi u0j θ + gj u0i θ)
∂xk ∂xk i j ∂xk ∂xk | {z }
| {z } | {z }
Gij ≡ Buoyancy Production
DL,ij ≡ Molecular Diffusion Pij ≡ Stress Production
Of the various terms in these exact equations, Cij , DL,ij , Pij , and Fij do not require any
modeling. However, DT,ij , Gij , φij , and ij need to be modeled to close the equations.
The following sections describe the modeling assumptions required to close the equation
set.
ku0 u0 ∂u0 u0
!
∂
DT,ij = Cs ρ k ` i j (12.7-2)
∂xk ∂x`
However, this equation can result in numerical instabilities, so it has been simplified in
FLUENT to use a scalar turbulent diffusivity as follows [208]:
µt ∂u0i u0j
!
∂
DT,ij = (12.7-3)
∂xk σk ∂xk
12-38
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory
Lien and Leschziner [208] derived a value of σk = 0.82 by applying the generalized
gradient-diffusion model, Equation 12.7-2, to the case of a planar homogeneous shear
flow. Note that this value of σk is different from that in the standard and realizable k-
models, in which σk = 1.0.
where φij,1 is the slow pressure-strain term, also known as the return-to-isotropy term,
φij,2 is called the rapid pressure-strain term, and φij,w is the wall-reflection term.
The slow pressure-strain term, φij,1 , is modeled as
0 0 2
φij,1 ≡ −C1 ρ u u − δij k (12.7-5)
k i j 3
with C1 = 1.8.
The rapid pressure-strain term, φij,2 , is modeled as
2
φij,2 ≡ −C2 (Pij + Fij + Gij − Cij ) − δij (P + G − C) (12.7-6)
3
where C2 = 0.60, Pij , Fij , Gij , and Cij are defined as in Equation 12.7-1, P = 12 Pkk ,
G = 12 Gkk , and C = 12 Ckk .
The wall-reflection term, φij,w , is responsible for the redistribution of normal stresses near
the wall. It tends to damp the normal stress perpendicular to the wall, while enhancing
the stresses parallel to the wall. This term is modeled as
3 3 C` k 3/2
φij,w ≡ C10u0k u0m nk nm δij − u0i u0k nj nk − u0j u0k ni nk
k 2 2 d
3 3 C` k 3/2
+ C20 φkm,2 nk nm δij − φik,2 nj nk − φjk,2 ni nk
2 2 d
(12.7-7)
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Modeling Turbulence
where C10 = 0.5, C20 = 0.3, nk is the xk component of the unit normal to the wall, d is
the normal distance to the wall, and C` = Cµ3/4 /κ, where Cµ = 0.09 and κ is the von
Kármán constant (= 0.4187).
φij,w is included by default in the Reynolds stress model.
q n h io
C1 = 1 + 2.58A A2 1 − exp −(0.0067Ret )2 (12.7-8)
√
C2 = 0.75 A (12.7-9)
2
C10 = − C1 + 1.67 (12.7-10)
3 "
2 1
#
0 C2 −
C2 = max 3 6
,0 (12.7-11)
C2
with the turbulent Reynolds number defined as Ret = (ρk 2 /µ). The parameter A and
tensor invariants, A2 and A3 , are defined as
9
A ≡ 1− (A2 − A3 ) (12.7-12)
8
A2 ≡ aik aki (12.7-13)
A3 ≡ aik akj aji (12.7-14)
The modifications detailed above are employed only when the enhanced wall treatment
is selected in the Viscous Model panel.
12-40
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory
1
q
φij = − (C1 ρ + C1∗ P ) bij + C2 ρ bik bkj − bmn bmn δij + C3 − C3∗ bij bij ρkSij
3
2
+ C4 ρk bik Sjk + bjk Sik − bmn Smn δij + C5 ρk (bik Ωjk + bjk Ωik ) (12.7-16)
3
where bij is the Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor defined as
The quadratic pressure-strain model does not require a correction to account for the
wall-reflection effect in order to obtain a satisfactory solution in the logarithmic region
of a turbulent boundary layer. It should be noted, however, that the quadratic pressure-
strain model is not available when the enhanced wall treatment is selected in the Viscous
Model panel.
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-41
Modeling Turbulence
Hence,
1
q
φij = − (C1 ρ + C1∗ P ) bij + C2 ρ bik bkj − bmn bmn δij + C3 − C3∗ bij bij ρkSij
3
2
+ C4 ρk bik Sjk + bjk Sik − bmn Smn δij + C5 ρk (bik Ωjk + bjk Ωik ) (12.7-21)
3
where bij is the Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor defined as
The mean strain rate, Sij , is defined in Equation 12.7-18 and the mean rate-of-rotation
tensor, Ωij , is defined by Equation 12.7-19.
The constants are
Near-wall treatment options in the Viscous Model panel are not available with the low-Re
stress-omega model.
12-42
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory
Model Constants
C1 = 1.8, C2 = 0.52
∗ 1 ∗
α∞ = 1, α∞ = 0.52, α0 = , β∞ = 0.09, βi = 0.072, Rβ = 8
9
Rk = 6, Rω = 2.95, ζ ∗ = 1.5, Mt0 = 0.25, σk = 2.0, σω = 2.0
The wall boundary conditions for the low-Re stress-omega equation in the RSM models
are treated in the same way as the k equation in the k-ω models.
FLUENT defines the value of ω at the wall as
ρ (u∗ )2 +
ωw = ω (12.7-23)
µ
2
50
ks+
ks+ < 25
ωw+ = (12.7-24)
500
ks+ ≥ 25
ks+
where
ρks u∗
ks+ = (12.7-25)
µ
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-43
Modeling Turbulence
where Prt is the turbulent Prandtl number for energy, with a default value of 0.85.
Using the definition of the coefficient of thermal expansion, β, given by Equation 12.4-24,
the following expression is obtained for Gij for ideal gases:
!
µt ∂ρ ∂ρ
Gij = − gi + gj (12.7-27)
ρPrt ∂xj ∂xi
1
k = u0i u0i (12.7-28)
2
As described in Section 12.7.9: Wall Boundary Conditions, an option is available in
FLUENT to solve a transport equation for the turbulence kinetic energy in order to
obtain boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses. In this case, the following model
equation is used:
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k 1
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = µ+ + (Pii + Gii ) − ρ(1 + 2M2t ) + Sk (12.7-29)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σk ∂xj 2
12-44
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.7 Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) Theory
2
ij = δij (ρ + YM ) (12.7-30)
3
2
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂ 1
(ρ) + (ρui ) = µ+ C1 [Pii + C3 Gii ] − C2 ρ + S (12.7-32)
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σ ∂xj 2 k k
where σ = 1.0, C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, C3 is evaluated as a function of the local flow
direction relative to the gravitational vector, as described in Section 12.4.5: Effects of
Buoyancy on Turbulence in the k- Models, and S is a user-defined source term.
k2
µt = ρCµ (12.7-33)
where Cµ = 0.09.
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-45
Modeling Turbulence
u0τ2 u0 2 0
u2 u0 u0
= 1.098, η = 0.247, λ = 0.655, − τ η = 0.255 (12.7-34)
k k k k
To obtain k, FLUENT solves the transport equation of Equation 12.7-29. For reasons of
computational convenience, the equation is solved globally, even though the values of k
thus computed are needed only near the wall; in the far field k is obtained directly from the
normal Reynolds stresses using Equation 12.7-28. By default, the values of the Reynolds
stresses near the wall are fixed using the values computed from Equation 12.7-34, and
the transport equations in Equation 12.7-1 are solved only in the bulk flow region.
Alternatively, the Reynolds stresses can be explicitly specified in terms of wall-shear
stress, instead of k:
u0τ2 u0η2 0
uλ2 u0τ u0η
= 5.1, = 1.0, = 2.3, − = 1.0 (12.7-35)
u2τ u2τ u2τ u2τ
q
where uτ is the friction velocity defined by uτ ≡ τw /ρ, where τw is the wall-shear stress.
When this option is chosen, the k transport equation is not solved.
When using enhanced wall treatments as the near-wall treatment, FLUENT applies zero
flux wall boundary conditions to the Reynolds stress equations.
12-46
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.8 Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) Model Theory
where E is the total energy and (τij )eff is the deviatoric stress tensor, defined as
!
∂uj ∂ui 2 ∂uk
(τij )eff = µeff + − µeff δij
∂xi ∂xj 3 ∂xk
The term involving (τij )eff represents the viscous heating, and is always computed in the
density-based solvers. It is not computed by default in the pressure-based solver, but it
can be enabled in the Viscous Model panel. The default value of the turbulent Prandtl
number is 0.85. You can change the value of Prt in the Viscous Model panel.
Turbulent mass transfer is treated similarly, with a default turbulent Schmidt number of
0.7. This default value can be changed in the Viscous Model panel.
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-47
Modeling Turbulence
where the grid spacing, ∆, is based on the largest grid space in the x, y, or z directions
forming the computational cell. The empirical constant Cdes has a value of 0.65.
3
ρk 2
Yk = (12.8-2)
ldes
where
where Cdes is a calibration constant used in the DES model and has a value of 0.61 and
∆ is the maximum local grid spacing (∆x, ∆y, ∆z).
For the case where ldes = lrke , you will obtain an expression for the dissipation of the k
formulation for the Realizable k- model (Section 12.4.3: Realizable k- Model):
Yk = ρ
12-48
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory
Yk = ρβ ∗ kωfβ ∗ (12.8-6)
where fβ ∗ is no longer a constant equal to 1 as in the SST k-ω model (see Section 12.5.1: Mod-
eling the Turbulence Dissipation), but is now expressed as
Lt
fβ ∗ = max ,1 (12.8-7)
Cdes ∆
where Cdes is a calibration constant used in the DES model and has a value of 0.61, ∆ is
the maximum local grid spacing (∆x, ∆y, ∆z) and fβ ∗ is defined in Equation 12.5-16.
The turbulent length scale is the parameter that defines this RANS model:
√
k
Lt = (12.8-8)
β ∗ω
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-49
Modeling Turbulence
In LES, large eddies are resolved directly, while small eddies are modeled. Large eddy
simulation (LES) thus falls between DNS and RANS in terms of the fraction of the
resolved scales. The rationale behind LES can be summarized as follows:
• Momentum, mass, energy, and other passive scalars are transported mostly by large
eddies.
• Large eddies are more problem-dependent. They are dictated by the geometries
and boundary conditions of the flow involved.
• Small eddies are less dependent on the geometry, tend to be more isotropic, and
are consequently more universal.
• The chance of finding a universal turbulence model is much higher for small eddies.
Resolving only the large eddies allows one to use much coarser mesh and larger times-
step sizes in LES than in DNS. However, LES still requires substantially finer meshes
than those typically used for RANS calculations. In addition, LES has to be run for
a sufficiently long flow-time to obtain stable statistics of the flow being modeled. As
a result, the computational cost involved with LES is normally orders of magnitudes
higher than that for steady RANS calculations in terms of memory (RAM) and CPU
time. Therefore, high-performance computing (e.g., parallel computing) is a necessity for
LES, especially for industrial applications.
The following sections give details of the governing equations for LES, the subgrid-scale
turbulence models, and the boundary conditions.
where D is the fluid domain, and G is the filter function that determines the scale of the
resolved eddies.
12-50
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006
12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory
In FLUENT, the finite-volume discretization itself implicitly provides the filtering opera-
tion:
1 Z
φ(x) = φ(x0 ) dx0 , x0 ∈ V (12.9-2)
V V
where V is the volume of a computational cell. The filter function, G(x, x0 ), implied here
is then
(
0 1/V, x0 ∈ V
G(x, x ) (12.9-3)
0, x0 otherwise
The LES capability in FLUENT is applicable to compressible flows. For the sake of concise
notation, however, the theory is presented here for incompressible flows.
Filtering the Navier-Stokes equations, one obtains
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0 (12.9-4)
∂t ∂xi
and
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂σij ∂p ∂τij
(ρui ) + (ρui uj ) = µ − − (12.9-5)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
c Fluent Inc. September 29, 2006 12-51
Modeling Turbulence
1
τij − τkk δij = −2µt S ij (12.9-8)
3
where µt is the subgrid-scale turbulent viscosity. The isotropic part of the subgrid-scale
stresses τkk is not modeled, but added to the filtered static pressure term. S ij is the
rate-of-strain tensor for the resolved scale defined by
!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
S ij ≡ + (12.9-9)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
ρφ
φ= (12.9-10)
ρ
The Favre Filtered Navier-Stokes equation takes the same form as Equation 12.9-5. The
compressible form of the subgrid stress tensor is defined as:
1 1
Tij = Tij − Tll δij + Tll δij (12.9-12)
| 3
{z } |3 {z }
deviatoric isotropic
The deviatoric part of the subgrid-scale stress tensor is modeled using the compressible
form of the Smagorinsky model:
1 1
Tij − Tll δij = 2µt (δij − δii δij ) (12.9-13)
3 3
As for incompressible flows, the term involving Tll can be added to the filtered pressure
or simply neglected [99]. Indeed, this term can be re-written as Tll = γM 2 sgs p where
Msgs is the subgrid Mach number. This subgrid Mach number can be expected to be
small when the turbulent Mach number of the flow is small.
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12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory
FLUENT offers four models for µt : the Smagorinsky-Lilly model, the dynamic Smagorinsky-
Lilly model, the WALE model, and the dynamic kinetic energy subgrid-scale model.
Subgrid-scale turbulent flux of a scalar, φ, is modeled using s subgrid-scale turbulent
Prandtl number by
µt ∂φ
qj = − (12.9-14)
σt ∂xj
where qj is the subgrid-scale flux.
In the dynamic models, the subgrid-scale turbulent Prandtl number or Schmidt number
is obtained by applying the dynamic procedure originally proposed by Germano [116] to
the subgrid-scale flux.
Smagorinsky-Lilly Model
This simple model was first proposed by Smagorinsky [337]. In the Smagorinsky-Lilly
model, the eddy-viscosity is modeled by
µt = ρL2s S (12.9-15)
q
where Ls is the mixing length for subgrid scales and S ≡ 2S ij S ij . In FLUENT, Ls is
computed using
Ls = min κd, Cs V 1/3 (12.9-16)
where κ is the von Kármán constant, d is the distance to the closest wall, Cs is the
Smagorinsky constant, and V is the volume of the computational cell.
Lilly derived a value of 0.17 for Cs for homogeneous isotropic turbulence in the inertial
subrange. However, this value was found to cause excessive damping of large-scale fluc-
tuations in the presence of mean shear and in transitional flows as near solid boundary,
and has to be reduced in such regions. In short, Cs is not an universal constant, which
is the most serious shortcoming of this simple model. Nonetheless, Cs value of around
0.1 has been found to yield the best results for a wide range of flows, and is the default
value in FLUENT.
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Modeling Turbulence
Ls = min κd, Cw V 1/3 (12.9-18)
1 2 1 ∂ui
Sijd = g ij + g 2ji − δij g 2kk , g ij = (12.9-19)
2 3 ∂xj
In FLUENT, the default value of the WALE constant, Cw , is 0.325 and has been found
to yield satisfactory results for a wide range of flow. The rest of the notation is the
same as for the Smagorinsky-Lilly model. With this spatial operator, the WALE model
is designed to return the correct wall asymptotic (y 3 ) behavior for wall bounded flows.
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12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory
1 2
ksgs = uk − u2k (12.9-20)
2
which is obtained by contracting the subgrid-scale stress in Equation 12.9-7.
The subgrid-scale eddy viscosity, µt , is computed using ksgs as
1/2
µt = Ck ksgs ∆f (12.9-21)
2 1/2
τij − ksgs δij = −2Ck ksgs ∆f S ij (12.9-22)
3
ksgs is obtained by solving its transport equation
3/2
!
∂k sgs ∂uj k sgs ∂ui ksgs ∂ µt ∂ksgs
+ = −τij − Cε + (12.9-23)
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∆f ∂xj σk ∂xj
In the above equations, the model constants, Ck and Cε , are determined dynamically [184].
σk is hardwired to 1.0. The details of the implementation of this model in FLUENT and
its validation is given by Kim [181].
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Modeling Turbulence
No Perturbations
The stochastic components of the flow at the velocity-specified inlet boundaries are ne-
glected if the No Perturbations option is used. In such cases, individual instantaneous
velocity components are simply set equal to their mean velocity counterparts. This op-
tion is suitable only when the level of turbulence at the inflow boundaries is negligible or
does not play a major role in the accuracy of the overall solution.
Vortex Method
To generate a time-dependent inlet condition, a random 2D vortex method is considered.
With this approach, a perturbation is added on a specified mean velocity profile via a
fluctuating vorticity field (i.e. two-dimensional in the plane normal to the streamwise
direction). The vortex method is based on the Lagrangian form of the 2D evolution
equation of the vorticity and the Biot-Savart law. A particle discretization is used to
solve this equation. These particles, or “vortex points” are convected randomly and
carry information about the vorticity field. If N is the number of vortex points and A
is the area of the inlet section, the amount of vorticity carried by a given particle i is
represented by the circulation Γi and an assumed spatial distribution η:
v
πAk(x, y)
u
u
Γi (x, y) = 4t (12.9-24)
3N [2 ln(3) − 3 ln(2)]
1 −|x|2 /2σ2 2 2
η(~x) = 2
2e − 1 2e−|x| /2σ (12.9-25)
2πσ
where k is the turbulence kinetic energy. The parameter σ provides control over the size
of a vortex particle. The resulting discretization for the velocity field is given by
N 0 2 2
1 X ((~xi − ~x) × ~z)(1 − e|~x−~x | /2σ )
~u(~x) = Γi (12.9-26)
2π i=1 |~x − ~x0i |2
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12.9 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Model Theory
Where ~z is the unit vector in the streamwise direction. Originally [327], the size of
the vortex was fixed by an ad hoc value of σ. To make the vortex method generally
applicable, a local vortex size is specified through a turbulent mixing length hypothesis. σ
is calculated from a known profile of mean turbulence kinetic energy and mean dissipation
rate at the inlet according to the following:
ck 3/2
σ= (12.9-27)
2
where c = 0.16. To ensure that the vortex will always belong to resolved scales, the
minimum value of σ in Equation 12.9-27 is bounded by the local grid size. The sign
of the circulation of each vortex is changed randomly each characteristic time scale τ .
In the general implementation of the vortex method, this time scale represents the time
necessary for a 2D vortex convected by the bulk velocity in the boundary normal direction
to travel along n times its mean characteristic 2D size (σm ), where n is fixed equal to
100 from numerical testing. The vortex method considers only velocity fluctuations in
the plane normal to the streamwise direction.
In FLUENT however, a simplified linear kinematic model (LKM) for the streamwise
velocity fluctuations is used [231]. It is derived from a linear model that mimics the
influence of the two-dimensional vortex in the streamwise mean velocity field. If the
mean streamwise velocity U is considered as a passive scalar, the fluctuation u0 resulting
from the transport of U by the planar fluctuating velocity field v 0 is modeled by
u0 = −~v 0 · ~g (12.9-28)
i Since the vortex method theory is based on the modification of the velocity
field normal to the streamwise direction, it is imperative that the user
creates an inlet plane normal (or as close as possible) to the streamwise
velocity direction.
Spectral Synthesizer
The spectral synthesizer provides an alternative method of generating fluctuating velocity
components. It is based on the random flow generation technique originally proposed by
Kraichnan [186] and modified by Smirnov et al. [338]. In this method, fluctuating velocity
components are computed by synthesizing a divergence-free velocity-vector field from
the summation of Fourier harmonics. In the implementation in FLUENT, the number of
Fourier harmonics is fixed to 100.
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Modeling Turbulence
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
q
τw
In Figure 12.10.1, y + ≡ ρuτ y/µ, where uτ is the friction velocity, defined as ρ
.
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Modeling Turbulence
are valid in the viscosity-affected region and accordingly integrable all the way to the
wall.
FLUENT provides both the wall function approach and the near-wall modeling approach.
Wall Functions
Wall functions are a collection of semi-empirical formulas and functions that in effect
“bridge” or “link” the solution variables at the near-wall cells and the corresponding
quantities on the wall. The wall functions comprise
Depending on the turbulent model you choose, FLUENT offers three to four choices of
wall function approaches:
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
Momentum
1
U∗ = ln(Ey ∗ ) (12.10-1)
κ
where
1/2
∗ UP Cµ1/4 kP
U ≡ (12.10-2)
τw /ρ
1/2
∗ ρCµ1/4 kP yP
y ≡ (12.10-3)
µ
U ∗ = y∗ (12.10-4)
It should be noted that, in FLUENT, the laws-of-the-wall for mean velocity and temper-
ature are based on the wall unit, y ∗ , rather than y + (≡ ρuτ y/µ). These quantities are
approximately equal in equilibrium turbulent boundary layers.
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Modeling Turbulence
Energy
Reynolds’ analogy between momentum and energy transport gives a similar logarithmic
law for mean temperature. As in the law-of-the-wall for mean velocity, the law-of-the-wall
for temperature employed in FLUENT comprises the following two different laws:
• linear law for the thermal conduction sublayer where conduction is important
• logarithmic law for the turbulent region where effects of turbulence dominate con-
duction
The thickness of the thermal conduction layer is, in general, different from the thickness
of the (momentum) viscous sublayer, and changes from fluid to fluid. For example, the
thickness of the thermal sublayer for a high-Prandtl-number fluid (e.g., oil) is much less
than its momentum sublayer thickness. For fluids of low Prandtl numbers (e.g., liquid
metal), on the contrary, it is much larger than the momentum sublayer thickness.
In highly compressible flows, the temperature distribution in the near-wall region can
be significantly different from that of low subsonic flows, due to the heating by viscous
dissipation. In FLUENT, the temperature wall functions include the contribution from
the viscous heating [382].
The law-of-the-wall implemented in FLUENT has the following composite form:
1/4 1/2
C k
Pr y ∗ + 12 ρPr µ q̇ P UP2 (y ∗ < yT∗ )
1/2 h i
(Tw − TP ) ρcp Cµ1/4 kP
Pr 1 ln(Ey ∗ ) + P +
∗ t κ
T ≡ = 1/4 1/2
q̇
1 C µ kP
ρ {Prt UP2 + (Pr − Prt )Uc2 } (y ∗ > yT∗ )
2 q̇
(12.10-5)
where P is computed by using the formula given by Jayatilleke [165]:
" 3/4 #
Pr h i
P = 9.24 −1 1 + 0.28e−0.007Pr/Prt (12.10-6)
Prt
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
and
kP = turbulent kinetic energy at point P
ρ = density of fluid
cp = specific heat of fluid
q̇ = wall heat flux
TP = temperature at the cell adjacent to wall
Tw = temperature at the wall
Pr = molecular Prandtl number (µcp /kf )
Prt = turbulent Prandtl number (0.85 at the wall)
A = Van Driest constant (= 26)
Uc = mean velocity magnitude at y ∗ = yT∗
Note that, for the pressure-based solver, the terms
1/2
1 Cµ1/4 kP
ρPr UP2
2 q̇
and
1/2
1 Cµ1/4 kP n o
ρ Prt UP2 + (Pr − Prt )Uc2
2 q̇
!0.6
E0
0.359
1 1
0.695
Prough = 3.15Pr − + P (12.10-7)
E0 E E
where E 0 is the wall function constant modified for the rough walls, defined by E 0 = E/fr .
To find a description of the roughness function fr , you may refer to Equation 7.13-3 in
Section 7.13.1: Wall Roughness Effects in Turbulent Wall-Bounded Flows.
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Modeling Turbulence
Species
When using wall functions for species transport, FLUENT assumes that species transport
behaves analogously to heat transfer. Similarly to Equation 12.10-5, the law-of-the-wall
for species can be expressed for constant property flow with no viscous dissipation as
1/2
(Yi,w − Yi ) ρCµ1/4 kP Sc yh∗ (y ∗ < yc∗ )
(
∗
Y ≡ = i (12.10-8)
Ji,w Sct κ1 ln(Ey ∗ ) + Pc (y ∗ > yc∗ )
where Yi is the local species mass fraction, Sc and Sct are molecular and turbulent
Schmidt numbers, and Ji,w is the diffusion flux of species i at the wall. Note that Pc and
yc∗ are calculated in a similar way as P and yT∗ , with the difference being that the Prandtl
numbers are always replaced by the corresponding Schmidt numbers.
Turbulence
In the k- models and in the RSM (if the option to obtain wall boundary conditions from
the k equation is enabled), the k equation is solved in the whole domain including the
wall-adjacent cells. The boundary condition for k imposed at the wall is
∂k
=0 (12.10-9)
∂n
where n is the local coordinate normal to the wall.
The production of kinetic energy, Gk , and its dissipation rate, , at the wall-adjacent
cells, which are the source terms in the k equation, are computed on the basis of the local
equilibrium hypothesis. Under this assumption, the production of k and its dissipation
rate are assumed to be equal in the wall-adjacent control volume.
Thus, the production of k is computed from
∂U τw
G k ≈ τw = τw 1/4 1/2
(12.10-10)
∂y κρCµ kP yP
3/2
Cµ3/4 kP
P = (12.10-11)
κyP
The equation is not solved at the wall-adjacent cells, but instead is computed us-
ing Equation 12.10-11. ω and Reynolds stress equations are solved as detailed in Sec-
tions 12.5.3 and 12.7.9, respectively.
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
Note that, as shown here, the wall boundary conditions for the solution variables, in-
cluding mean velocity, temperature, species concentration, k, and , are all taken care of
by the wall functions. Therefore, you do not need to be concerned about the boundary
conditions at the walls.
The standard wall functions described so far are provided as a default option in FLUENT.
The standard wall functions work reasonably well for a broad range of wall-bounded flows.
However, they tend to become less reliable when the flow situations depart too much from
the ideal conditions that are assumed in their derivation. Among others, the constant-
shear and local equilibrium hypotheses are the ones that most restrict the universality
of the standard wall functions. Accordingly, when the near-wall flows are subjected to
severe pressure gradients, and when the flows are in strong non-equilibrium, the quality
of the predictions is likely to be compromised.
The non-equilibrium wall functions offered as an additional option can improve the results
in such situations.
i Standard wall functions are available with the following viscous models:
• K-epsilon
• Reynolds Stress
The law-of-the-wall for mean temperature or species mass fraction remains the same as
in the standard wall function described above.
The log-law for mean velocity sensitized to pressure gradients is
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Modeling Turbulence
where
y − yv y 2
" ! #
1 dp yv y
Ũ = U − √ ln + √ + v (12.10-13)
2 dx ρκ k yv ρκ k µ
µyv∗
yv ≡ 1/4 1/2
(12.10-14)
ρCµ kP
where C` ∗ = κCµ−3/4 , and yv is the dimensional thickness of the viscous sublayer, defined
in Equation 12.10-14.
Using these profiles, the cell-averaged production of k, Gk , and the cell-averaged dissipa-
tion rate, , can be computed from the volume average of Gk and of the wall-adjacent
cells. For quadrilateral and hexahedral cells for which the volume average can be ap-
proximated with a depth-average,
τw2
!
1 Z yn ∂U 1 yn
Gk ≡ τt dy = ln (12.10-16)
yn 0 ∂y κyn ρCµ1/4 kP1/2 yv
and
1/2 !
1 Z yn 1 2ν kP yn
≡ dy = + ∗ ln kP (12.10-17)
yn 0 yn yv C` yv
where yn is the height of the cell (yn = 2yP ). For cells with other shapes (e.g., triangular
and tetrahedral grids), the appropriate volume averages are used.
In Equations 12.10-16 and 12.10-17, the turbulence kinetic energy budget for the wall-
neighboring cells is effectively sensitized to the proportions of the viscous sublayer and
the fully turbulent layer, which varies widely from cell to cell in highly non-equilibrium
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
• Strong body forces (e.g., flow near rotating disks, buoyancy-driven flows).
• High three-dimensionality in the near-wall region (e.g., Ekman spiral flow, strongly
skewed 3D boundary layers).
If any of the items listed above is a prevailing feature of the flow you are modeling, and
if it is considered critically important to capture that feature for the success of your
simulation, you must employ the near-wall modeling approach combined with adequate
mesh resolution in the near-wall region. FLUENT provides the enhanced wall treatment
for such situations. This approach can be used with the three k- models, the k-ω models,
and the RSM.
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Modeling Turbulence
• K-epsilon
• Reynolds Stress
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
where y is the normal distance from the wall at the cell centers. In FLUENT, y is
interpreted as the distance to the nearest wall:
where ~r is the position vector at the field point, and ~rw is the position vector on the
wall boundary. Γw is the union of all the wall boundaries involved. This interpretation
allows y to be uniquely defined in flow domains of complex shape involving multiple
walls. Furthermore, y defined in this way is independent of the mesh topology used, and
is definable even on unstructured meshes.
In the fully turbulent region (Rey > Re∗y ; Re∗y = 200), the k- models or the RSM
(described in Sections 12.4 and 12.7) are employed.
In the viscosity-affected near-wall region (Rey < Re∗y ), the one-equation model of Wolf-
stein [406] is employed. In the one-equation model, the momentum equations and the
k equation are retained as described in Sections 12.4 and 12.7. However, the turbulent
viscosity, µt , is computed from
√
µt,2layer = ρ Cµ `µ k (12.10-20)
where the length scale that appears in Equation 12.10-20 is computed from [54]
`µ = yC` ∗ 1 − e−Rey /Aµ (12.10-21)
The two-layer formulation for turbulent viscosity described above is used as a part of the
enhanced wall treatment, in which the two-layer definition is smoothly blended with the
high-Reynolds-number µt definition from the outer region, as proposed by Jongen [168]:
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Modeling Turbulence
Rey − Re∗y
" !#
1
λ = 1 + tanh (12.10-23)
2 A
The constant A determines the width of the blending function. By defining a width such
that the value of λ will be within 1% of its far-field value given a variation of ∆Rey , the
result is
|∆Rey |
A= (12.10-24)
tanh(0.98)
Typically, ∆Rey would be assigned a value that is between 5% and 20% of Re∗y . The
main purpose of the blending function λ is to prevent solution convergence from being
impeded when the k- solution in the outer layer does not match with the two-layer
formulation.
The field is computed from
k 3/2
= (12.10-25)
`
The length scales that appear in Equation 12.10-25 are again computed from Chen and
Patel [54]:
` = yC` ∗ 1 − e−Rey /A (12.10-26)
If the whole flow domain is inside the viscosity-affected region (Rey < 200), is not
obtained by solving the transport equation; it is instead obtained algebraically from
Equation 12.10-25. FLUENT uses a procedure for the specification that is similar to
the µt blending in order to ensure a smooth transition between the algebraically-specified
in the inner region and the obtained from solution of the transport equation in the
outer region.
The constants in the length scale formulas, Equations 12.10-21 and 12.10-26, are taken
from [54]:
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
1
u+ = eΓ u+ +
lam + e uturb
Γ (12.10-28)
a(y + )4
Γ=− (12.10-29)
1 + by +
+ +
du+ Γ dulam 1 du
turb
= e + e Γ (12.10-30)
dy + dy + dy +
This approach allows the fully turbulent law to be easily modified and extended to take
into account other effects such as pressure gradients or variable properties. This formula
also guarantees the correct asymptotic behavior for large and small values of y + and
reasonable representation of velocity profiles in the cases where y + falls inside the wall
buffer region (3 < y + < 10).
The enhanced wall functions were developed by smoothly blending an enhanced turbulent
wall law with the laminar wall law. The enhanced turbulent law-of-the-wall for compress-
ible flow with heat transfer and pressure gradients has been derived by combining the
approaches of White and Cristoph [402] and Huang et al. [149]:
du+
turb 1 h 0 + + 2 1/2
i
= S (1 − βu − γ(u ) ) (12.10-31)
dy + κy +
where
(
1 + αy + for y + < ys+
S0 = (12.10-32)
1 + αys+ for y + ≥ ys+
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Modeling Turbulence
and
νw dp µ dp
α ≡ ∗
= 2 ∗ 3 (12.10-33)
τw u dx ρ (u ) dx
∗
σt qw u σt qw
β ≡ = (12.10-34)
cp τw Tw ρcp u∗ Tw
σt (u∗ )2
γ ≡ (12.10-35)
2cp Tw
where ys+ is the location at which the log-law slope will remain fixed. By default, ys+ = 60.
The coefficient α in Equation 12.10-31 represents the influences of pressure gradients
while the coefficients β and γ represent thermal effects. Equation 12.10-31 is an ordinary
differential equation and FLUENT will provide an appropriate analytical solution. If α, β,
and γ all equal 0, an analytical solution would lead to the classical turbulent logarithmic
law-of-the-wall.
The laminar law-of-the-wall is determined from the following expression:
du+lam
+
= 1 + αy + (12.10-36)
dy
Note that the above expression only includes effects of pressure gradients through α,
while the effects of variable properties due to heat transfer and compressibility on the
laminar wall law are neglected. These effects are neglected because they are thought to be
of minor importance when they occur close to the wall. Integration of Equation 12.10-36
results in
α
u+
lam =y +
1 + y+ (12.10-37)
2
Enhanced thermal wall functions follow the same approach developed for the profile of
u+ . The unified wall thermal formulation blends the laminar and logarithmic profiles
according to the method of Kader [170]:
+ (Tw − TP ) ρcp u∗ + 1
+
T ≡ = eΓ Tlam + e Γ Tturb (12.10-38)
q̇
where the notation for TP and q̇ is the same as for standard thermal wall functions (see
Equation 12.10-5). Furthermore, the blending factor Γ is defined as
a(Pr y + )4
Γ = − (12.10-39)
1 + bPr3 y +
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12.10 Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows
where Pr is the molecular Prandtl number, and the coefficients a and b are defined as in
Equation 12.10-29.
Apart from the formulation for T + in Equation 12.10-38, enhanced thermal wall functions
follow the same logic as for standard thermal wall functions (see Section 12.10.2: Energy),
resulting in the following definition for turbulent and laminar thermal wall functions:
ρu∗ 2
!
+
Tlam = Pr u+
lam + u (12.10-40)
2q̇
ρu∗ 2
( )
Pr
+
Tturb = Prt u+
turb +P + u − − 1 (u+ 2
c ) (u∗)
2
(12.10-41)
2q̇ Prt
i The enhanced wall treatment is available with the following viscous models:
• K-epsilon
• Reynolds Stress
Enhanced wall functions are available with the following viscous models:
• Spalart-Allmaras
• K-omega
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i User-defined wall functions are available with the following viscous model:
• K-epsilon
u ρuτ y
= (12.10-42)
uτ µ
If the mesh is too coarse to resolve the laminar sublayer, it is assumed that the centroid
of the wall-adjacent cell falls within the logarithmic region of the boundary layer, and
the law-of-the-wall is employed:
!
u 1 ρuτ y
= ln E (12.10-43)
uτ κ µ
where κ is the von Kármán constant and E = 9.793. If the mesh is a such that the first
near wall point is within the buffer region, then two above laws are blended in accordance
with equation Equation 12.10-28.
For the LES simulations in FLUENT, there is an alternative near wall approach based on
the work of Werner and Wengle [398], who proposed analytical integration of power-law
near-wall velocity distribution resulting in the following expressions for the wall shear
stress:
2µ|up | 2
µ
∆z
for |up | ≤ 2ρ∆z
A 1−B
|τw | =
1+B
µ
1+B
µ
B 2
1+B
µ 2
1−B 1−B 1+B
ρ
2
A ρ∆z
+ A ρ∆z
|up | for |up | > 2ρ∆z
A 1−B
(12.10-44)
where up is velocity parallel to the wall, A = 8.3, B = 1/7 are the constants, and ∆z is
the near-wall control volume length scale.
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12.11 Grid Considerations for Turbulent Flow Simulations
• Although FLUENT employs the linear (laminar) law when y ∗ < 11.225, using an
excessively fine mesh near the walls should be avoided, because the wall functions
cease to be valid in the viscous sublayer.
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Modeling Turbulence
• As much as possible, the mesh should be made either coarse or fine enough to
prevent the wall-adjacent cells from being placed in the buffer layer (y + = 5 ∼ 30).
• The upper bound of the log-layer depends on, among others, pressure gradients
and Reynolds number. As the Reynolds number increases, the upper bound tends
to also increase. y + values that are too large are not desirable, because the wake
component becomes substantially large above the log-layer.
• Using excessive stretching in the direction normal to the wall should be avoided.
• When the enhanced wall treatment is employed with the intention of resolving the
laminar sublayer, y + at the wall-adjacent cell should be on the order of y + = 1.
However, a higher y + is acceptable as long as it is well inside the viscous sublayer
(y + < 4 to 5).
• You should have at least 10 cells within the viscosity-affected near-wall region
(Rey < 200) to be able to resolve the mean velocity and turbulent quantities in
that region.
Spalart-Allmaras Model
The Spalart-Allmaras model in its complete implementation is a low-Reynolds-number
model. This means that it is designed to be used with meshes that properly resolve the
viscous-affected region, and damping functions have been built into the model in order to
properly attenuate the turbulent viscosity in the viscous sublayer. Therefore, to obtain
the full benefit of the Spalart-Allmaras model, the near-wall mesh spacing should be as
described in Section 12.11.1: Enhanced Wall Treatment for the enhanced wall treatment.
However, as discussed in Section 12.3.7: Wall Boundary Conditions, the boundary condi-
tions for the Spalart-Allmaras model have been implemented so that the model will work
on coarser meshes, such as would be appropriate for the wall function approach. If you are
using a coarse mesh, you should follow the guidelines described in Section 12.11.1: Wall
Functions.
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12.12 Steps in Using a Turbulence Model
In summary, for best results with the Spalart-Allmaras model, you should use either a
very fine near-wall mesh spacing (on the order of y + = 1) or a mesh spacing such that
y + ≥ 30.
k-ω Models
Both k-ω models available in FLUENT are available as low-Reynolds-number models as
well as high-Reynolds-number models. If the Transitional Flows option is enabled in the
Viscous Model panel, low-Reynolds-number variants will be used, and, in that case, mesh
guidelines should be the same as for the enhanced wall treatment. However, if this option
is not active, then the mesh guidelines should be the same as for the wall functions.
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12.12 Steps in Using a Turbulence Model
If you choose the k-epsilon model, select Standard, RNG, or Realizable under k-epsilon
Model. If you choose the k-omega model, select Standard or SST under k-omega
Model.
i The Detached Eddy Simulation and the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models
are available only for 3D cases.
2. If the flow involves walls, and you are using one of the k- models or the RSM, choose
one of the following options for the Near-Wall Treatment in the Viscous Model panel:
• Standard Wall Functions
• Non-Equilibrium Wall Functions
• Enhanced Wall Treatment
• User-Defined Wall Functions
These near-wall options are described in detail in Section 12.10: Near-Wall Treat-
ments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows. By default, the standard wall function
is enabled.
The near-wall treatment for the Spalart-Allmaras, k-ω, and LES models is defined
automatically, as described in Sections 12.3.7, 12.5.3, and 12.9.4, respectively.
3. Enable the appropriate turbulence modeling options in the Viscous Model panel.
See Section 12.19: Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling for details.
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• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)
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12.14 Setting Up the k- Model
• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)
Figure 12.14.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Standard k- Model
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• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)
For all k- models, one the following near-wall treatments must be selected (Section 12.10: Near-
Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows):
If you choose the enhanced wall treatment, the following options are available:
If you choose the user-defined wall functions near-wall treatment, hook your UDF under
Law of the Wall, as shown in Figure 12.14.1.
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12.14 Setting Up the k- Model
Figure 12.14.2: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the RNG k- Model
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Figure 12.15.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Standard k-ω Model
The k-ω models use enhanced wall functions, described in Section 12.10.4: Enhanced
Wall Functions, as the near-wall treatment.
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12.15 Setting Up the k-ω Model
• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)
Figure 12.15.2: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the SST k-ω Model
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Figure 12.16.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Reynolds Stress
Model Options
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12.16 Setting Up the Reynolds Stress Model
• wall boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses from the k equation (Sec-
tion 12.19.12: Solving the k Equation to Obtain Wall Boundary Conditions) for
the linear and quadratic pressure-strain models
• wall reflection effects on Reynolds stresses (Section 12.19.11: Including the Wall
Reflection Term) for the linear pressure-strain model
Other options that are available based on your case setup include:
• viscous heating (always activated for the density-based solvers) (Section 12.19.1: In-
cluding the Viscous Heating Effects)
• inclusion of buoyancy effects on (Section 12.4.5: Effects of Buoyancy on Turbulence
in the k- Models)
For the Reynolds stress model, the following near-wall treatments are available (Sec-
tion 12.10: Near-Wall Treatments for Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows):
If wall boundary conditions for the Reynolds stresses from the k equation and/or wall
reflection effects on Reynolds stresses are/is selected, then all the above near-wall treat-
ments are available for selection.
If you choose the enhanced wall treatment, the following options are available:
If the quadratic pressure-strain model is selected, then you can set either the standard
wall functions or the non-equilibrium wall functions.
If Low-Re Stress-Omega is selected, you cannot select any near-wall treatments. You do
have the option of selecting any or all of the following k − ω options:
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Figure 12.16.2: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Low-Re Stress-
Omega Model Options
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12.17 Setting Up the Detached Eddy Simulation Model
• Spalart-Allmaras
• Realizable k-
• SST k-ω
Figure 12.17.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Detached Eddy Sim-
ulation Model Options
For the Realizable k- submodel, there are no other model-specific options to set. As for
the SST k-ω sub-model, the model-specific option that you can select is the Transitional
Flows k-omega Option (Section 12.19.7: Transitional Flows).
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Additionally, you can perform the following DES-specific functions by using the
/define/models/viscous/detached-eddy-simulation? text command:
• Use cell volume-based LES length scale (default is to use maximum cell edge)
• Modify only the length scales that appear in the destruction term in νt equation
(the default is to modify all length scales within the νt equation)
• Smagorinsky-Lilly
• WALE
• Kinetic-Energy Transport
The LES options that are available for the Smagorinsky-Lilly are
• Dynamic Stress
• Dynamic Energy Flux (available only when the Dynamic Stress Model is enabled)
The LES option that is available when the Kinetic-Energy Transport submodel is selected
is the Dynamic Energy Flux Model.
It is also possible to modify the Model Constants, but this is not necessary for most
applications. See Sections 12.3 through 12.9 for details about these constants. Note that
C1-PS and C2-PS are the constants C1 and C2 in the linear pressure-strain approximation
of Equations 12.7-5 and 12.7-6, and C1’-PS and C2’-PS are the constants C10 and C20 in
Equation 12.7-7. C1-SSG-PS, C1’-SSG-PS, C2-SSG-PS, C3-SSG-PS, C3’-SSG-PS, C4-SSG-
PS, and C5-SSG-PS are the constants C1 , C1∗ , C2 , C3 , C3∗ , C4 , and C5 in the quadratic
pressure-strain approximation of Equation 12.7-16.
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12.18 Setting Up the Large Eddy Simulation Model
Figure 12.18.1: The Viscous Model Panel Displaying the Large Eddy Simu-
lation Model Options
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12.19 Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling
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i The empirical constants and the function f used in the calculation of φij,w
are calibrated for simple canonical flows such as channel flows and flat-plate
boundary layers involving a single wall. If the flow involves multiple walls
and the wall has significant curvature (e.g., an axisymmetric pipe or curvi-
linear duct), the inclusion of the wall-reflection term in Equation 12.7-7
may not improve the accuracy of the RSM predictions. In such cases,
you can disable the wall-reflection effects by turning off the Wall Reflection
Effects under Reynolds-Stress Options in the Viscous Model panel.
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12.19 Setup Options for all Turbulence Modeling
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12.20 Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions
i Note that the laminar zone feature is also available for the Spalart-Allmaras
and RSM models.
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0 2
ui2 = k (i = 1, 2, 3) (12.20-1)
3
u0i u0j = 0.0 (12.20-2)
0
where ui2 is the normal Reynolds stress component in each direction. The boundary
condition for is determined in the same manner as for the k- turbulence models (see
Section 7.2.2: Determining Turbulence Parameters). To use this method, you will select
K or Turbulence Intensity as the Reynolds-Stress Specification Method in the appropriate
boundary condition panel.
Alternately, you can directly specify the Reynolds stresses by selecting Reynolds-Stress
Components as the Reynolds-Stress Specification Method in the boundary condition panel.
When this option is enabled, you should input the Reynolds stresses directly.
You can set the Reynolds stresses by using constant values, profile functions of coordinates
(see Section 7.26: Boundary Profiles), or user-defined functions (see the separate UDF
Manual).
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12.20 Defining Turbulence Boundary Conditions
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• If you were able to specify reasonable boundary conditions at the inlet, it may be
a good idea to compute the initial values for k and (or k and ω) in the whole
domain from these boundary values. (See Section 25.14: Initializing the Solution
for details.)
• For more complex flows (e.g., flows with multiple inlets with different conditions) it
may be better to specify the initial values in terms of turbulence intensity. 5–10%
is enough to represent fully-developed turbulence. k can then be computed from
the turbulence intensity and the characteristic mean velocity magnitude of your
problem (k = 1.5(Iuavg )2 ).
2
You should specify an initial guess for so that the resulting eddy viscosity (Cµ k )
is sufficiently large in comparison to the molecular viscosity. In fully-developed
turbulence, the turbulent viscosity is roughly two orders of magnitude larger than
the molecular viscosity. From this, you can compute .
Note that, for the RSM, Reynolds stresses are initialized automatically using Equa-
tions 12.20-1 and 12.20-2.
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12.22 Solution Strategies for Turbulent Flow Simulations
• Picture in your mind the flow under consideration using your physical intuition or
any data for a similar flow situation, and identify the main flow features expected
in the flow you want to model. Generate a mesh that can resolve the major features
that you expect.
• If the flow is wall-bounded, and the wall is expected to significantly affect the flow,
take additional care when generating the mesh. You should avoid using a mesh
that is too fine (for the wall function approach) or too coarse (for the enhanced
wall treatment approach). See Section 12.11: Grid Considerations for Turbulent
Flow Simulations for details.
12.22.2 Accuracy
The suggestions below are provided to help you obtain better accuracy in your results:
• Use the turbulence model that is better suited for the salient features you expect
to see in the flow (see Section 12.2: Choosing a Turbulence Model).
• Because the mean quantities have larger gradients in turbulent flows than in laminar
flows, it is recommended that you use high-order schemes for the convection terms.
This is especially true if you employ a triangular or tetrahedral mesh. Note that
excessive numerical diffusion adversely affects the solution accuracy, even with the
most elaborate turbulence model.
• In some flow situations involving inlet boundaries, the flow downstream of the inlet
is dictated by the boundary conditions at the inlet. In such cases, you should
exercise care to make sure that reasonably realistic boundary values are specified.
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12.22.3 Convergence
The suggestions below are provided to help you enhance convergence for turbulent flow
calculations:
• Starting with excessively crude initial guesses for mean and turbulence quantities
may cause the solution to diverge. A safe approach is to start your calculation
using conservative (small) under-relaxation parameters and (for the density-based
solvers) a conservative Courant number, and increase them gradually as the itera-
tions proceed and the solution begins to settle down.
• It is also helpful for faster convergence to start with reasonable initial guesses for
the k and (or k and ω) fields. Particularly when the enhanced wall treatment
is used, it is important to start with a sufficiently developed turbulence field, as
recommended in Section 12.21: Providing an Initial Guess for k and (or k and ω),
to avoid the need for an excessive number of iterations to develop the turbulence
field.
• When you are using the RNG k- model, an approach that might help you achieve
better convergence is to obtain a solution with the standard k- model before switch-
ing to the RNG model. Due to the additional non-linearities in the RNG model,
lower under-relaxation factors and (for the density-based solvers) a lower Courant
number might also be necessary.
Note that when you use the enhanced wall treatment, you may sometimes find during
the calculation that the residual for is reported to be zero. This happens when your
flow is such that Rey is less than 200 in the entire flow domain, and is obtained from
the algebraic formula (Equation 12.10-25) instead of from its transport equation.
• Begin the calculations using the standard k- model. Turn on the RSM and use
the k- solution data as a starting point for the RSM calculation.
• Use low under-relaxation factors (0.2 to 0.3) and (for the density-based solvers) a
low Courant number for highly swirling flows or highly complex flows. In these
cases, you may need to reduce the under-relaxation factors both for the velocities
and for all of the stresses.
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12.22 Solution Strategies for Turbulent Flow Simulations
Instructions for setting these solution parameters are provided below. If you are applying
the RSM to prediction of a highly swirling flow, you will want to consider the solution
strategies discussed in Section 9.5: Swirling and Rotating Flows as well.
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The following are suggestions to follow when running a large eddy simulation:
2. When you enable LES, FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady solver
option and choose the second-order implicit formulation. You will need to set
the appropriate time step size and all the needed solution parameters. (See Sec-
tion 25.17.1: User Inputs for Time-Dependent Problems for guidelines on setting
solution parameters for transient calculations in general.) The bounded central-
differencing spatial discretization scheme will be automatically enabled for momen-
tum equations. Both the bounded central-differencing and pure central-differencing
schemes are available for all equations when running LES simulations.
3. Run LES until the flow becomes statistically steady. The best way to see if the flow
is fully developed and statistically steady is to monitor forces and solution variables
(e.g., velocity components or pressure) at selected locations in the flow.
5. Continue until you get statistically stable data. The duration of the simulation
can be determined beforehand by estimating the mean flow residence time in the
solution domain (L/U , where L is the characteristic length of the solution domain
and U is a characteristic mean flow velocity). The simulation should be run for at
least a few mean flow residence times.
Instructions for setting the solution parameters for LES are provided below.
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12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows
Temporal Discretization
FLUENT provides both first-order and second-order temporal discretizations. For LES,
the second-order discretization is recommended.
Define −→ Models −→Solver...
Spatial Discretization
Overly diffusive schemes such as the first-order upwind or power law scheme should be
avoided, because they may unduly damp out the energy of the resolved eddies. The
central-differencing based schemes are recommended for all equations when you use the
LES model. FLUENT provides two central-differencing based schemes: pure central-
differencing and bounded central-differencing. The bounded scheme is the default option
when you select LES or DES.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
• Turbulence Intensity
• Production of k
• Turbulent Viscosity
• Effective Viscosity
• Wall Yplus
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• Wall Ystar
• Turbulent Reynolds Number (Re y) (only when the enhanced wall treatment is used
for the near-wall treatment)
Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the k-ω models are as follows:
• Turbulence Intensity
• Production of k
• Turbulent Viscosity
• Effective Viscosity
• Wall Ystar
• Wall Yplus
Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the Spalart-Allmaras model are as follows:
• Turbulent Viscosity
• Effective Viscosity
• Wall Yplus
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12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows
Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the RSM are as follows:
• Turbulence Intensity
• UU Reynolds Stress
• VV Reynolds Stress
• WW Reynolds Stress
• UV Reynolds Stress
• VW Reynolds Stress
• UW Reynolds Stress
• Production of k
• Turbulent Viscosity
• Effective Viscosity
• Wall Yplus
• Wall Ystar
Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the DES model are as follows:
• Turbulent Viscosity
• Effective Viscosity
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• Wall Yplus
Turbulence quantities that can be reported for the LES model are as follows:
• Turbulence Intensity
• Production of k
• Wall Ystar
• Wall Yplus
All of these variables can be found in the Turbulence... category of the variable selection
drop-down list that appears in postprocessing panels. See Chapter 30: Field Function
Definitions for their definitions.
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12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows
• the Reynolds stresses derived from the Boussinesq formula (e.g., −uv = νt ∂u
∂y
)
i Note that mean statistics are collected only in interior cells and not on
wall surfaces. Therefore, when node or cell values of mean quantities are
plotted on the wall surface, you are actually plotting values in nearby cells
attached to the wall.
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There may be cases when you want to control what set of variables are available for
postprocessing. To enable or disable certain variables, use the following text command:
solve −→ set −→data-sampling
The text command prompts you with a set of questions that you will answer yes or no
to depending on whether or not you want statistics collected on certain variables. The
following example demonstrates using the text command when do not want to collect
statistics on species:
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12.23 Postprocessing for Turbulent Flows
12.23.3 Troubleshooting
You can use the postprocessing options not only for the purpose of interpreting your
results but also for investigating any anomalies that may appear in the solution. For
instance, you may want to plot contours of the k field to check if there are any regions
where k is erroneously large or small. You should see a high k region in the region
where the production of k is large. You may want to display the turbulent viscosity
ratio field in order to see whether or not turbulence takes full effect. Usually turbulent
viscosity is at least two orders of magnitude larger than molecular viscosity for fully-
developed turbulent flows modeled using the RANS approach (i.e., not using LES). You
may also want to see whether you are using a proper near-wall mesh for the enhanced
wall treatment. In this case, you can display filled contours of Rey (turbulent Reynolds
number) overlaid on the mesh.
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