Topic 5. Harder Unit Topics.

Level 2.
Problem HAR2_01.
a +b a +b
2 2

Show that ≤ .
2 2

Solution: ( a − b ) 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab ≥ 0 ⇒ 2 ab ≤ a 2 + b 2 with equality iff a = b . Hence

( a + b ) = a + b + 2 ab ≤ 2 ( a + b ) with equality iff a = b .
2 2 2 2 2

(a + b) a +b a +b a +b
2 2 2 2 2

So ≤ . If a > 0 and b > 0 we get ≤ with equality iff a = b .

4 2 2 2
2 2
a +b a + b a +b a +b
2 2

In general case ≤ ≤ = (equality iff a = b ≥ 0 ).

2 2 2 2

Problem HAR2_02.
−1
1 1
 + 
a b
If a > 0 and b > 0 , show that ab ≥  .
 2 
 
 

Solution: ( x + y ) 2 = ( x − y ) 2 + 4 xy ⇒ ( x + y ) 2 ≥ 4 xy . Hence, if x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 , we get

1 1
+
x+y 1 1 1 2
≥ xy . The substitution x → ,y→ gives a b
≥ ⇒ ab ≥ (equality
2 a b 2 ab 1 1
+
a b
iff a = b ).

Problem HAR2_03.
Show that ( a 2 − b2 )( c 2 − d 2 ) ≤ ( ac − bd )2 .

Solution: Deduce that ( a 2 − b2 )( a 4 − b4 ) ≤ ( a 3 − b3 )2 .

( ac − bd )2 − ( a 2 − b2 )( c 2 − d 2 ) = a 2 d 2 − 2acbd + b2 d 2 = ( ad − bc )2 ≥ 0 .
Hence ( a 2 − b2 )( c 2 − d 2 ) ≤ ( ac − bd )2 with equality iff ad = bc .
Now the substitution c → a 2 , d → b 2 gives ( a 2 − b2 )( a 4 − b4 ) ≤ ( a3 − b3 )2 with equality iff
a = b.

Problem HAR2_04.
1 1 4
If a > 0 and b > 0 , show that + ≥ .
a b a +b

Solution: (a + b ) = (a − b ) + 4 ab ⇒ (a + b ) ≥ 4 ab (equality iff a = b ).

2 2 2

a +b 4 1 1 4
Hence ≥ ⇒ + ≥ with equality iff a = b .
ab a +b a b a +b

Problem HAR2_05.
 1 1 8
If a > b and b > 0 , show that + ≥ .
a
2
b
2
(a + b ) 2

2 2
 1  1 1 1
Solution: For x > 0  x +  =  x −  + 4 ⇒ x + ≥ 2 (equality iff x = , i.e. x = 1)
 x  x x x
a a b
The substitution x → gives + ≥ 2 (equality iff a = b ).
b b a
2 2 2
a a b
The substitution x → 2
gives 2
+ 2
≥ 2 (equality iff a = b ).
b b a
Consider the following expression:
b a  b 
 1 1 
(
2  1 1 
)
2 2
a
(a + b ) 2
 2 + 2  = a + 2 ab + b  2 + 2  = 2 + 2  +  +  2 + 2
2
. As the bracketed
a b  a b  a b a b 
2 1 1 
expressions are not less than 2, we get (a + b )  2 + 2  ≥ 2 + 4 + 2 = 8 . Hence
a b 
1 1 8
+ ≥ (equality iff a = b ).
a
2
b
2
(a + b ) 2

Problem HAR2_06.
Show that ( ac + bd )2 ≤ ( a 2 + b2 )( c 2 + d 2 ) .

Solution:
Consider ( a 2 + b2 )( c 2 + d 2 ) − ( ac + bd )2 = a 2c 2 + a 2 d 2 + b2c 2 + b2 d 2 − a 2 c 2 − 2abcd − b2 d 2 =
= a 2 d 2 − 2abcd + b2 c 2 = ( ad − bc )2 ≥ 0 . Hence ( ac + bd )2 ≤ ( a 2 + b2 )( c 2 + d 2 ) with equality iff
ad = bc .

Problem HAR2_07.
Show that ( lx + my + nz )2 ≤ ( l 2 + m2 + n 2 )( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) .

Solution: Let a = ( l , m, n ) and b = ( x , y , z ) be vectors in a three dimension coordinate space

with scalar product ( a, b) = l x + m y + n z . Furthermore, we have
( a, a ) = l 2 + m2 + n 2 ≥ 0,
( b, b) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ≥ 0.
It is clear that for real λ we get
0 ≤ ( λ a − b, λ a − b) = ( λ l − x )2 + ( λ m − y )2 + ( λ n − z )2 = λ2 ( a, a ) − 2λ ( a, b ) + ( b, b) .
In the right-hand side the polynomial of second order with respect to λ is not negative.
Hence, ( a, b)2 − ( a, a )( b, b ) must be negative or equal to zero, and, we come to
( a, b)2 ≤ ( a, a ) ⋅ ( b, b ) , that is, ( lx + my + nz )2 ≤ ( l 2 + m2 + n 2 )( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) .
The equality takes place if for any real t the following relations hold:
l = t x, m = t y, n = t z .

Problem HAR2_08.
Show that xy + yz + zx ≤ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Hint: Use the inequality ( lx + my + nz )2 ≤ ( l 2 + m2 + n 2 )( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) . (1)

Solution: The substitution l → y , m → z , n → x in (1) gives

(xy + yz + zx ) 2
(
≤ x2 + y2 + z2 )
2
⇒ xy + yz + zx ≤ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .

Problem HAR2_09.
Show that ( x + y + z ) ≤ 3 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .
2
( )
Hint: Use the inequality ( lx + my + nz )2 ≤ ( l 2 + m2 + n 2 )( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) . (1)

Solution: The substitution l = m = n = 1 in (1) gives ( x + y + z ) 2 ≤ (1 + 1 + 1)( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ⇒

(x + y + z ) 2
(
≤3 x2 + y2 + z2 . )
Problem HAR2_10.
(
Show that a 3 + b 3 + c 3 ) ≤ (a
2 2
)(
+b2 +c2 a4 +b4 +c4 . )
Hint: Use the inequality ( lx + my + nz )2 ≤ ( l 2 + m2 + n 2 )( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) .

Solution: The substitution l → a , m → b , n → c and x → a 2 , y → b 2 , z → c 2

(
gives a 3 + b 3 + c 3 ) ≤ (a
2 2
)(
+b2 +c2 a4 +b4 +c4 . )
Problem HAR2_11.
Show that a 4 + b 4 + c 4 ≥ a 2 b 2 + b 2 c 2 + c 2 a 2 ≥ abc (a + b + c )

a +b
2 2

Solution: Notice that (a − b ) ≥ 0 ⇒ a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab ≥ 0 . Hence ab ≤

2
and analogously
2
b2 + c 2 c2 + a2
bc ≤ , ca ≤ . (1)
2 2
Summing these inequalities, we get ab + bc + ca ≤ a 2 + b2 + c 2 (equality iff a = b = c ). (2)
Exchanging in (2) a by a 2 , b by b2 and c by c 2 yields a 4 + b4 + c 4 ≥ a 2 b2 + b2c 2 + c 2 a 2 .
Using (1), we obtain
 b2 + c 2  2a +c 
2 2
2 a + b 
2 2
abc ( a + b + c ) = a 2bc + b2 ac + c 2 ab ≤ a 2   + b   + c  =
 2   2   2 
a 2b2 + b2c 2 + a 2 c 2 (equality iff a = b = c ).
Hence a 4 + b 4 + c 4 ≥ a 2 b 2 + b 2 c 2 + c 2 a 2 ≥ abc (a + b + c ) .

Problem HAR2_12.
a+b+c 3
If a > 0 , b > 0 and c > 0 , show that ≥ abc .
3
Hint: Inspect that a 3 + b 3 + c 3 − 3 abc = ( a + b + c )( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 − ab − bc − ca ) .

Solution: It is easily seen that

( a + b + c )( a + b + c − ab − bc − ca ) = a + ab + ac − a b − abc − ca
2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2

ba 2 + b3 + bc 2 − ab2 − b2 c − abc + ca 2 + b2c + c 3 − abc − bc 2 − c 2 a =

a + b + c − 3 abc .
3 3 3
It is clear that a 2 + b 2 ≥ 2 ab , b 2 + c 2 ≥ 2 bc , a 2 + c 2 ≥ 2 ac .
By addition 2( a 2 + b2 + c 2 ) ≥ 2( ab + bc + ca ) .
Hence a 2 + b2 + c 2 ≥ ab + bc + ca with equality iff a = b = c . Since a + b + c is positive, and
a 2 + b2 + c 2 − ab − bc − ca ≥ 0 , the right-hand side of identity in (a) is not negative. Hence
a3 + b3 + c 3 ≥ 3abc (equality iff a = b = c ). The substitution
a+b+c 3
a → a , b → b , c → c gives a + b + c ≥ 3 a b c . Hence ≥ abc (equality iff
3 3 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3

3
a = b = c ).

Problem HAR2_13.
a b c
If a > 0 , b > 0 and c > 0 , show that + + ≥3.
b c a

a b c a+b+c 3
Solution: The substitution a → , b→ and c → in the inequality ≥ abc gives
b c a 3
a b c
+ +
b c a a b c a b c a b c
≥3 = 1 . Hence + + ≥ 3 with equality iff = = , i.e., a = b = c .
3 b c a b c a b c a

Problem HAR2_14.
If a > 0 , b > 0 , c > 0 and d > 0 show that
( b + c + d )( a + c + d )( a + b + d )( a + b + c ) ≥ 81abcd .

Solution: If a > 0 , b > 0 , c > 0 and d > 0 , by using the inequality

(a + b + c) 3
≥ abc (equality iff a = b = c ) with respect to the sums in the expression
3
( b + c + d )( a + c + d )( a + b + d )( a + b + c ) , we have a + b + c ≥ 33 abc ,
a + b + d ≥ 33 abd , a + c + d ≥ 33 acd , b + c + d ≥ 33 bcd . By multiplication, we get
( b + c + d )( a + c + d )( a + b + d )( a + b + c ) ≥ 81abcd with equality iff a = b = c = d .

Problem HAR2_15.
a b c d
If a > 0 , b > 0 , c > 0 and d > 0 show that + + + ≥ 4.
b c a a
a +b +c +d
Hint: Show that ≥ 4 abcd .
4

Solution: It is clear that ( a + b )2 ≥ 4ab (equality iff a = b ), since ( a + b )2 = ( a − b)2 + 4 ab . If

a+b
a > 0 and b > 0 , we have a + b ≥ 2 ab (equality iff a = b ), ≥ ab (equality iff a = b ).
2
a +b c +d
+
a +b +c +d 2 2 . Using the inequality proved above with respect to
Consider =
4 2
a+b c+d a +b +c +d ab + cd
and , we come to ≥ .
2 2 4 2
Employing the same inequality once again with respect to the right-hand side of the last
a +b +c +d
inequality, we obtain ≥ ab cd = 4 abcd .
4
Hence a + b + c + d ≥ 44 ( abcd ) (equality iff a = b = c = d ).
a b c d
After the substitution a → , b→ , c→ , d→ the last inequality becomes
b c d a
a b c d
+ + + ≥ 4 (equality iff a = b = c = d ).
b c a a

Problem HAR2_16.
3 sin x
Show that for x > 0 x> .
2 + cos x

3 sin x
Solution: Let us consider a function f ( x ) = x − . It is clear that
2 + cos x
3 cos x ( 2 + cos x ) + 3sin 2 x 3 + 6 cos x
f ′( x ) = 1 − = 1−
( 2 + cos x ) 2
( 2 + cos x )2
1 + cos 2 x − 2 cos x (1 − cos x )2
= = ≥0.
( 2 + cos x )2 ( 2 + cos x )2
Thus, f ( x ) is a non-decreasing function for x > 0 . Function f ( x ) has an absolute minimum
3 sin x
of 0 when x = 0 . Hence, for x > 0 f ( x ) > 0 , and x > for x > 0 .
2 + cos x

Problem HAR2_17.
1 1
If t > 0 , show that < < 1 . By integrating between 0 and u deduce that
(1 + t ) 1 + t
2

u
< ln(1 + u) < u .
1+ u

Solution: It is easily seen that for t > 0 we have

1 1 t 1 1
− = > 0, < ,
1 + t (1 + t ) 2
(1 + t ) 2
(1 + t ) 1 + t
2

1 t 1
1− = > 0, 1 > .
1 + t (1 + t ) 1+ t
1 1
Hence, < <1 for t > 0 . By integrating this inequality between 0 and u, we
(1 + t ) 1+t
2

u u u
1 1 u
deduce that for 0 < u < 1 ∫ (1 + t )
0
2
dt < ∫ 1 + t dt < ∫ dt , 1 + u < ln(1 + u) < u .
0 0

Problem HAR2_18.
x (1 − x )
1 1 2 2 1
1 1
∫x (1 − x ) dx < ∫ dx < ∫x (1 − x ) dx , and hence deduce
2 2 2 2
Show that
3 0 0
x +2 2 0

2627 3 2628
that < ln < .
6480 2 6480
 1 1 1
Solution: It is easily seen that for 0 < x < 1 < < , because
3 x+2 2
1 1 1− x
− = > 0,
x+2 3 x +2
1 1 x
− = > 0.
2 x +2 x+2
x (1 − x )
2 2
1 1
Since x 2 (1 − x ) 2 > 0 , we get x (1 − x ) <
2 2
< x (1 − x ) . By integrating this
2 2

3 x+2 2
inequality with respect to x between 0 and 1, we deduce that
x (1 − x )
1 1 2 2 1
1 1
3∫ ∫ 2∫
(1 − x ) dx < dx < (1 − x ) dx .
2 2 2 2
x x
0 0
x +2 0

x (1 − x )
1 1 2 2
1 3 175
∫ x (1 − x ) dx = ∫ dx = 36 ln −
2 2
In view of , (see Solution 4(a)), we obtain
0
30 0
x+2 2 12
1 3 175 1 2630 3 876 2627 3 2628
< 36 ln − < ⇒ < 36 ln < ⇒ < ln < .
90 2 12 60 180 2 60 6480 2 6480

Problem HAR2_19.
2
x
Show that for x > 0 e x < 1 + x + e .
x

Solution: Let
2 2
x x
f ( x) = 1 + x + e − e . Then f ′( x ) = 1 + xe + e − e ⇒ f ′( 0 ) = 0
x x x x x

2 2
2
x
f ′′( x ) = 2 xe + e > 0 for x > 0 .
x x

2
So f ′( 0 ) = 0 and f ′( x ) is an increasing function for x > 0 ⇒ f ′( x ) > 0 for all x > 0 .
Hence f ( x ) is an increasing function for x > 0 . But f ( 0 ) = 0 ⇒ f ( x ) > 0 for x > 0 .
2
x
Hence e < 1 + x + x
e
x
for x > 0.
2

Problem HAR2_20.
If 0 < a < 1 and x > −1, show that (1 + x ) ≤ 1 + ax .
a

Solution: Let
a
f ( x ) = 1 + ax − (1 + x ) f ′( x ) = a − ⇒ f ′( 0 ) = 0 ,
a

(1 + x ) − 1 a

f ′( x ) < 0 for − 1 < x < 0 and f ′( x ) > 0 for x > 0 .

Hence f ( x ) has an absolute minimum of 0 when x = 0 ⇒ f ( x ) ≥ 0 for x > −1 ⇒
(1 + x ) a
≤ 1 + ax for x > −1 .

Problem HAR2_21.
b−a
If b > a > 0 , show that ab < .
ln b − ln a
Solution: As b > a > 0 we can rewrite the inequality to be proved in the equivalent form
b −a b b a b
ln b − ln a < or ln < − . Let = t > 1 , hence it suffices to show that
ab a a b a
1 1 1 1 1
ln t < t − for t > 1 . Let f ( t ) = t − − ln t ⇒ f (1) = 0 . f ′( t ) = + 3/2
− =
t t 2 t 2t t

t +1 − 2 t
=
( t −1 ) 2

> 0 for all t > 1 . Hence f (1) = 0 and f (t ) is an increasing function for
3/2 3/2
2t 2t
1
t > 1 ⇒ f ( t ) > 0 for all t > 1 ⇒ ln t < t − for t > 1 .
t

Problem HAR2_22.
n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)
Show that for n ≥ 1 , 1 2 + 2 2 + ... + n 2 = .
6

Solution: Let u n = 1 2 + 2 2 + ... + n 2 ⇒ u n +1 = u n + ( n + 1) 2 , u 1 = 1, n = 1, 2 ,... Hence it suffices to

n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1) n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)
show that u n = . Define the statement S ( n ) : , n = 1, 2 ,... Consider
6 6
1(1 + 1)( 2 + 1)
S (1) : u 1 = 1 = ⇒ S (1) is true. Let k be a positive integer. If S (k ) is true, then
6
k ( k + 1)( 2 k + 1)
uk = .
6
Consider S ( k + 1) : u k +1 = u k + ( k + 1) 2
k ( k + 1)( 2 k + 1)
= + ( k + 1) 2 , if S (k ) is true
6
( ë + 1) (k ( 2 k + 1) + 6 ( k + 1) ) ( k + 1)( 2 k + 7 k + 6)
2

= =
6 6
( k + 1)( k + 2 ) (2 ( k + 1) + 1 )
⇒ S ( k + 1) is true.
6
Hence for all k ≥ 1, S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 1) true. But S (1) is true, hence by induction S (n ) is true
n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)
for all n ≥ 1 : 1 2 + 2 2 + ... + n 2 = u n = .
6

Problem HAR2_23.
n +1
x −1
Show that if x ≠ 1 , then for n ≥ 1 , 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x n = .
x −1

Solution: Let u n = 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x n ⇒ u n +1 = u n + x n +1 , u 1 = 1 + x , n = 1, 2 ,... Hence it suffices

n +1 n +1
x −1 x −1
to show that u n = . Define the statement S ( n ) : u n = , n = 1, 2 ,... Consider
x −1 x −1
 x −1
2

S (1) : u 1 = 1 + x = ⇒ S (1) is true. Let k be a positive integer. If S (k ) is true, then

x −1
k +1
x −1
uk = .
x −1
Consider S ( k + 1) : u k +1 = u k + x k +1
k +1
x −1
= + x k +1 , if S (k ) is true
x −1
k +2
x −1
= ⇒ S ( k + 1) is true.
x −1
Hence for all k ≥ 1, S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 1) true. But S (1) is true, hence S (n ) is true for all
n +1
x −1
n ≥ 1 : 1 + x + x + ... + x = u n =
2 n
.
x −1

Problem HAR2_24.
Show that for n ≥ 1 1 ⋅1!+ 2 ⋅ 2 !+ 3 ⋅ 3!+L+ n ⋅ n ! = ( n + 1)!− 1 .

Solution: Consider S(1) : n = 1 1 ⋅1! = 1 = 2 !− 1 , hence S(1) is true. Let k be a positive integer.
If S ( k ) is true, then 1 ⋅1!+ 2 ⋅ 2 !+L+ k ⋅ k ! = ( k + 1)!− 1 . Consider S ( k +1) . If S ( k ) is true, we get
1 ⋅ 1!+ 2 ⋅ 2 !+ 3 ⋅ 3!+L+ k ⋅ k !+ ( k + 1)( k + 1)! = ( k + 1)!− 1 + ( k + 1)( k + 1)!
= ( k + 1)!(1 + k + 1) − 1 = ( k + 1)!( k + 2 ) − 1 = ( k + 2)!− 1.
Hence for all positive k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S(1) is true. Hence by induction,
S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n :
1 ⋅1!+ 2 ⋅ 2 !+ 3 ⋅ 3!+L+ n ⋅ n ! = ( n + 1)!− 1 , n ≥ 1.

Problem HAR2_25.
2 3  n + 1  ( n + 1)n 
Show that for n ≥ 1 1 ⋅ ln + 2 ⋅ ln +K+ n ⋅ ln   = ln   .
1 2  n   n! 

2 3  n + 1  ( n + 1)n 
Solution: Define the statement S ( n ) : 1 ⋅ ln + 2 ⋅ ln +K+ n ⋅ ln   = ln  for
1 2  n   n! 
n ≥ 1.
2  2
Consider S(1) : n = 1, 1 ⋅ ln = ln   = ln 2 . Hence S(1) is true.
1  1
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true, then
2 3  k + 1  ( k + 1)k 
1 ⋅ ln + 2 ⋅ ln +K+ k ⋅ ln   = ln  .
1 2  k   k! 
Consider S ( k +1) . If S ( k ) is true, we get
2 3  k + 1  k + 2  ( k + 1)k   k + 2
1 ⋅ ln + 2 ⋅ ln +K+ k ⋅ ln   + ( k + 1) ⋅ ln   = ln   + ( k + 1) ⋅ ln  
1 2  k   k +1  k!   k +1
 ( k + 1)k  k + 2
k +1 
 ( k + 2 )k +1 
= ln  ⋅   = ln  .
 k !  k + 1   ( k + 1)! 
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S(1) is true, therefore by
induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n :
2 3  n + 1  ( n + 1)n 
1 ⋅ ln + 2 ⋅ ln +K+ n ⋅ ln   = ln  .
1 2  n   n! 

Problem HAR2_26.
n −1
( −1) ( n − 1)!
n
d
Show that for n ≥ 1 ln( 1 + x ) = .
(1 + x )
n n
dx

Solution:
dn ( −1)n −1 ( n − 1)!
Define the statement S ( n ) : ln(1 + x ) = , n ≥ 1.
dx n (1 + x )n
d 0! 1
Consider S (1): ln(1 + x ) = = ⇒ S (1) is true.
dx (1 + x )1 1 + x
dk ( −1)k −1 ⋅ ( k − 1)!
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true then ln(1 + x ) = , k ≥ 1.
dx k (1 + x )k
Consider S ( k +1) . If S ( k ) is true, we get by using the product rule for differentiation
d k +1 d  dk  d ( −1)k −1 ⋅ ( k − 1)! k −1 d 1
ln(1 + x ) = 
 ln(1 + x )
 = ⋅ = ( − 1) ( k − 1)! ⋅
dx k +1 dx  dx k  dx (1 + x )k dx (1 + x )k
( −1)k ( k − 1)!⋅ k ( −1)k ⋅ k !
= = , k ≥ 1.
(1 + x )k +1 (1 + x )k +1
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S(1) is true, therefore by
dn ( −1)n −1( n − 1)!
induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n ≥ 1: ln(1 + x ) = .
dx n (1 + x )n

Problem HAR2_27.
Show that n ≥ 2 lines, no two of which are parallel and no three of which are concurrent, have
n( n −1)
points of intersection.
2

Solution:

Let un be the number of intersection points formed by n ≥ 2 lines. We are seeking a recurrence
relation between un +1 and un . The ( n +1)th line intersects each of the other lines (see figure
16).
Hence we have n distinct intersection points along the
additional line, and Set of 3 lines
un +1 = un + n, n ≥ 2 .
n( n − 1) 4th line
Define the statement S ( n ): un = , n ≥ 2.
2
Clearly S( 2) is true, since two different lines give one
intersection point. Let k be a positive integer, k ≥ 2 . If
 k ( k − 1)
S ( k ) is true, then uk = . Consider S ( k +1)
2
k ( k − 1) k 2 − k + 2k k ( k + 1)
uk +1 = uk + k = +k= = .
2 2 2
k ( k + 1)
Hence uk +1 = , if S ( k ) is true.
2
Thus for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S(1) is true, hence S ( n )
n( n −1)
is true for all positive integers n: n such lines have points of intersection.
2

Problem HAR2_28.
Show that (1 + x ) n − 1 is divisible by x for n ≥ 1 .

Solution: Define the statement S (n ): (1 + x ) n − 1 is divisible by x , n = 1, 2 ,... .

Consider S (1): (1 + x ) 1 − 1 = x ⇒ S (1) is true.
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true, then (1 + x ) k − 1 = xM , where M is a certain
polynomial in x ⇒ (1 + x ) k = 1 + xM .
Consider S ( k +1) : (1 + x ) k +1 − 1 = (1 + x )(1 + x ) k − 1 = (1 + x )(1 + xM ) − 1, if S ( k ) is true.
= x + xM + x 2 M = x (1 + M + xM ) ⇒ (1 + x ) k +1 − 1 is divisible by x.
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S(1) is true,
Hence S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n : (1 + x ) n − 1 is divisible by x .

Problem HAR2_29.
Show that for n ≥ 5 , 2 n > n 2 + 2 .

Solution: Define the statement S ( n ) : 2 n > n 2 + 2 , n = 5, 6 ,...

Consider S ( 5 ) : 2 5 = 32 > 5 2 + 2 = 27 ⇒ S ( 5 ) is true.
Let k be a positive integer, k ≥ 5 . If S (k ) is true, then 2 k > k 2 + 2 .
Consider S ( k + 1) : 2 k +1 = 2 ⋅ 2 k > 2 ( k 2 + 2 ), if S ( k ) is true.
But 2 ( k 2 + 2 ) − ( k + 1) 2 − 2 = k 2 − 2 k + 1 > k ( k − 2 ) > 0 ⇒ 2 ( k 2 + 2 ) > ( k + 1) 2 + 2 ⇒
k +1
2 > ( k + 1) 2 + 2 ⇒ S ( k + 1) is true.
Hence for all k ≥ 5 , S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 1) true. But S ( 5 ) is true, hence by induction S (n )
is true for all n ≥ 5 : 2 n > n 2 + 2 .

Problem HAR2_30.
Show that for n ≠ 3 , 3 n > n n .

Solution: Define the statement S (1) : 3 > 1 ⇒ S (1) is true,

S ( 2 ) : 9 > 8 ⇒ S ( 2 ) is true,
S ( 4 ) : 81 > 64 ⇒ S ( 4 ) is true.

Let k be a positive integer, k ≥ 4 . If S (k ) is true, then 3 k > k 3 .

Consider S ( k + 1) : 3 k +1 = 3 ⋅ 3 k > 3 ⋅ k 3 , if S ( k ) is true.
But 3 k 3 − ( k + 1) 3 = 2 k 3 − 3 k 2 − 3 k − 1
2
> ( k 3 − 3k 2 ) + (k 3 − 4 k ) = k 2 (k − 3) + k ( k − 4 ) > 0
⇒ 3 k 2 > ( k + 1) 3 ⇒ 3 k +1 > ( k + 1) 3 ⇒ S ( k + 1) is true.
Hence for all k ≥ 4 , S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 1) true. But S ( 4 ) is true, hence by induction S (n ) is
true for all n ≥ 4 . Besides S (1) and S ( 2 ) are true, therefore S (n ) is true for all n ≠ 3 : 3 n > n 3 .

Problem HAR2_31.
1 1 1 3
Show that for n ≥ 3 + + ... + > .
n +1 n+2 2n 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution: Let u n = + + ... + ⇒ u n +1 = + + ... + + +
n +1 n +2 2n n +2 n +3 2n 2n + 1 2 ( n + 1)
1 1 1 1
⇒ u n +1 = u n + + − ⇒ u n +1 = u n + ,
2n + 1 2 ( n + 1) n +1 2 ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)
1 1 1 37
u3 = + + = , n = 3, 4 ,...
3 +1 3+2 2 ⋅3 60
3
Hence it suffices to show that u n > .
5
37 3
Consider S ( 3 ) : u3 = > ⇒ S ( 3 ) is true.
60 5
3
Let k be a positive integer, k ≥ 3 . If S (k ) is true, then u k > .
5
1 3
Consider S ( k + 1) : u k +1 = u k + > u k > , if S ( k ) is true,
2 ( k + 1)( 2 k + 1) 5
⇒ S ( k + 1) is true.
Hence for all k ≥ 3, S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 1) true. But S ( 3 ) is true, hence by induction S (n )
1 1 1 3
is true for all n ≥ 3 + + ... + > .
n +1 n+2 2n 5

Problem HAR2_32.
1 1 1
Show that for n ≥ 1 1 + + + ... + <2 n .
2 3 n

1 1 1 1
Solution: Let u n = 1 + + + ... + ⇒ u n +1 = u n + , u 1 = 1, n = 1, 2 ,...
2 3 n n +1
Hence it suffices to show that u n < 2 n .
Define the statement S ( n ) : u n < 2 n , n = 1, 2 ,...
Consider S (1) : 1 < 2 ⇒ S (1) is true.
Let k be a positive integer. If S (k ) is true, then u k < 2 k .
1 1
Consider S ( k + 1) : u k +1 = u k + <2 k + , if S ( k ) is true.
k +1 k +1
1
But 2 k + < 2 k + 1 ⇔ 2 k ( k + 1) < 2 k + 1 ⇔ 4 k ( k + 1) < ( 2 k + 1) 2 ⇔
k +1
4k + 4k < 4k 2 + 4k +1 .
2

Hence u k +1 < 2 k + 1 ⇒ S ( k + 1) is true. Hence for all k ≥ 1, S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 1) true.

1 1 1
But S (1) is true, hence by induction S (n ) is true for all n ≥ 1 : 1 + + + ... + <2 n .
2 3 n

Problem HAR2_33.
If un = 34 n + 2 + 2 ⋅ 43n +1 , show that un is divisible by 17 for n ≥ 1.

Solution: It is easily seen that

un +1 = 34( n +1)+ 2 + 2 ⋅ 43( n +1)+1 = 34 n + 6 + 2 ⋅ 43 n +4 =
= 34 (34 n + 2 + 2 ⋅ 43n +1 ) − 34 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 43n +1 + 2 ⋅ 43n +4 = 81un − 43 n+1 ⋅ 34.
Define the statement S ( n ) : un is divisible by 17, n = 1, 2 ,...
Consider S(1) : u 1 = 3 6 + 2 ⋅ 4 4 = 1241 = 17 ⋅ 73 ⇒ S (1) is true, since u1 is divisible by 17.
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true, then uk = 17 ⋅ M for some integer M .
Consider S ( k +1) . As S ( k ) is true , we get
uk +1 = 81uk − 43k +1 ⋅ 34 = 81 ⋅17 ⋅ M − 43k +1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 17 = 17(81 M − 2 ⋅ 43k +1 ) .
Since 81 M − 2 ⋅ 43k +1 is integer, we see that uk +1 is divisible by 17.
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) is true. But S(1) is true.
Therefore by induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n : un is divisible by 17 for
n ≥ 1.

Problem HAR2_34.
Show that 3n + 7 n is divisible by 10 for odd n ≥ 1.

Solution: Let us introduce f ( n ) = 3n + 7n . It is easily seen that

f ( n + 2) = 3n+ 2 + 7 n+ 2 = 9(3n + 7n ) − 9 ⋅ 7 n + 49 ⋅ 7n = 9 f ( n ) + 40 ⋅ 7 n
Define the statement S ( n ) : f ( n ) is divisible by 10 for odd n ≥ 1.
Consider S(1) : f (1) = 10 ⇒ S (1) is true, since f (1) is divisible by 10.
Let k be a positive odd integer. If S ( k ) is true, then f ( k ) = 10 ⋅ M for some integer M .
Consider S ( k + 2 ), k + 2 is the next odd integer. As S ( k ) is true , we get
f ( k + 2) = 9 f ( k ) + 7k ⋅ 40 = 9 ⋅ 10 M + 7k ⋅ 4 ⋅ 10 = 10(9 ⋅ M + 7 k ⋅ 4) .
Since 9 M + 4 ⋅ 7 k is integer, we see that f ( k + 2 ) is divisible by 10.
Hence for all odd positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 2 ) is true. But S(1) is true.
Therefore by induction, S ( n ) is true for all odd positive integers n : 3n + 7 n is divisible by 10
for odd n ≥ 1.

Problem HAR2_35.
Show that 7 n + 11n is divisible by 9 for odd n ≥ 1.

Solution: Let us introduce f ( n ) = 7n + 11n . It is easily seen that

f ( n + 2) = 7n+ 2 + 11n+ 2 = 72 (7 n + 11n ) − 49 ⋅11n + 121 ⋅11n = 49 f ( n ) + 72 ⋅ 11n
Define the statement S ( n ) : f ( n ) is divisible by 9 for odd n ≥ 1.
Consider S(1) : f (1) = 7 + 11 = 18 = 9 ⋅ 2 ⇒ S (1) is true, since f (1) is divisible by 9.
Let k be a positive odd integer. If S ( k ) is true, then f ( k ) = 9 ⋅ M for some integer M .
Consider S ( k + 2 ), k + 2 is the next odd integer. As S ( k ) is true , we get
f ( k + 2) = 49 f ( k ) + 11k ⋅ 72 = 49 ⋅ 9 M + 11k ⋅ 8 ⋅ 9 = 9( 49 ⋅ M + 11k ⋅ 8 ) .
Since 49 M + 8 ⋅ 11k is integer, we see that f ( k + 2 ) is divisible by 9.
Hence for all odd positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 2 ) is true. But S(1) is true.
Therefore by induction, S ( n ) is true for all odd positive integers n : 7 n + 11n is divisible by 9
for odd n ≥ 1.

Problem HAR2_36.
If u1 = 2 , u2 = 16 and un = 8un −1 − 15un − 2 for n ≥ 3, show that un = 5n − 3n for n ≥ 1.

Solution: Define the statement S ( n ) : un = 5n − 3n , n = 1, 2 ,... .

Consider S(1) : n = 1, u1 = 5 − 3 = 2 ⇒ S (1) is true.
Consider S( 2) : n = 2, u2 = 52 − 32 = 16 ⇒ S ( 2) is true.
Let k be a positive integer, k ≥ 2 . If S ( n ) is true for all integer n ≤ k , then
u n = 5 − 3 ,n = 1, 2 ,3 ,..., k .
n n

Consider S ( k +1) . As S ( n ) is true for n = 1, 2 ,3,..., k , we get

uk +1 = 8uk − 15uk −2 = 8(5k − 3k ) − 15(5k −1 − 3k −1 ) =
= 8 ⋅ 5k − 3 ⋅ 5k − 8 ⋅ 3k + 5 ⋅ 3k = 5k +1 − 3k +1 .
Hence for k ≥ 2 , S ( n ) true for all positive integers n ≤ k implies S ( k +1) is true. But S(1) ,
S( 2) are true. Therefore by induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n :
un = 5n − 3n for n ≥ 1.

Problem HAR2_37.
If un = 5n − 4 n − 1, show that un > 0 for n ≥ 2 .

Solution: It is easily seen that

un +1 = 5n +1 − 4( n + 1) − 1 = 5(5n − 4 n − 1) + 20n + 5 − 4n − 5 =
= 5un + 16n.
Define the statement S ( n ) : un > 0 , n = 2 ,3,... .
Consider S( 2) : n = 2, u2 = 53 − 4 ⋅ 3 − 1 = 112 > 0 ⇒ S (2 ) is true.
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true, then uk > 0 . Consider S ( k +1) . As S ( k ) is true ,
we get
uk +1 = 5uk + 16 ⋅ k > 0 .
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) is true. But S( 2) is true.
Therefore by induction, S ( n ) is true for all integers n ≥ 2 :
un = 5n − 4 n − 1 > 0 .

Problem HAR2_38.
If u1 = 1 and un = 3 + 2un −1 for n ≥ 2
(a) show that un < 3 for n ≥ 1,
(b) deduce that un +1 > un for n ≥ 1.
Solution:
(a) Define the statement S ( n ) : un < 3 , n = 1, 2 ,... .
Consider S(1) : n = 1, u1 = 1 < 3 ⇒ S (1) is true.
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true, then uk < 3.
Consider S ( k +1) . As S ( k ) is true , we get
uk +1 = 3 + 2uk < 3 + 2 ⋅ 3 < 3.
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) is true. But S(1) is true. Hence by
induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n : un < 3 for n ≥ 1.
(b) Define the statement S ( n ) : un < un+1 , n = 1, 2 ,... .
Consider S(1) : n = 1, u1 < u2 , since u1 = 1, u2 = 5 . Hence S(1) is true.
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true, then uk < uk +1 .
Consider S ( k +1) . As S ( k ) is true , we get
uk +1 = 3 + 2uk < 3 + 2uk +1 = uk + 2 .
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) is true. But S(1) is true. Hence by
induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n : un < un+1 for n ≥ 1.

Problem HAR2_39.
∧ ∧
ABC is a triangle. The internal bisectors of B and C meet at D. DP, DQ and DP are the
perpendiculars from D to BC, CA and AB respectively. Show that DR = DQ and deduce that the
internal bisectors of the three angles of a triangle are concurrent.

Solution:
C
Q
P
B1
D
A B
R
The rectangular triangles BDR and BDP have a common side and ∠DBR = ∠DBP .
Hence these triangles are congruent. Therefore DR = DP . Similarly, the rectangular triangles
CDQ and CDP are congruent. Hence DQ = DP . We have DR = DP and DQ = DP .
Consequently, DR = DQ . The rectangular triangles ADP and ADR are congruent, since they
have a common side AD and DQ = DR . Hence ∠DAQ = ∠DAR and so AD is the internal
∧
bisector of A .

Problem HAR2_40.
ABC is a triangle. E and F are the midpoints of AC and AB respectively. BE and CF
intersects at D . Show that the triangle DEF and DBS are similar< and hence deduce that the
three medians of a triangle are concurrent.

Solution:
 C

D
A B
F

1 1
Since AE = AC , AF = AB and ∠CAB = ∠EAF , the triangles ABC and AEF are similar.
2 2
1
Hence EF = CB and these triangles have equal angles. From here ∠AEF = ∠ACB ⇒ EF is
2
parallel to CB . Hence ∠FEB = ∠CBE and ∠EFC = ∠BCF . Therefore ∆DEF is similar to
ED FD EF EF 1 1 1
∆DCB ⇒ = = . But it was shown that = . Hence ED = DB and FD = DC ,
DB DC CB CB 2 2 2
i.e., the point D of intersection of the medians BE and CF divide each median in accordance
with the relation 2 : 1 starting with the top. As it is true for any pair of the medians, all the
medians intersect at a single point.