Level 2.

Problem 1. Find the roots of P ( x ) = 0 over (i) the rational numbers, (ii) the real numbers, (iii)
the complex numbers, if (a) P ( x ) = x 4 − 5x 2 + 6 ;
(b) P ( x ) = x 4 − x 2 − 2 ; (c) P ( x ) = x 4 + 5x 4 + 4 .

Answer: (a) i) no roots, ii, iii) ± 2 , ± 3 ;

(b) i) no roots, ii) ± 2 , iii) ± 2 , ± i ;
(c) i, ii) roots, iii) ± i , ± 2i .

Explanation: (a) (i) P ( x ) = x 4 − 5x 2 + 6 = ( x 2 − 2)( x 2 − 3) , and these factors are irreducible over
Q. Hence P ( x ) = 0 has no roots over Q.
(ii, iii) P ( x ) = ( x − 2 )( x + 2 )( x − 3 )( x + 3 ) . Hence the roots of P ( x ) = 0 over R and also C
are ± 2 , ± 3 .
(b) (i) P ( x ) = x 4 − x 2 − 2 = ( x 2 − 2)( x 2 + 1) ⇒ the equation P ( x ) = 0 has no roots over Q.
(ii) P ( x ) = ( x − 2 )( x + 2 )( x 2 + 1) ⇒ the roots over R are ± 2 .
(iii) P ( x ) = ( x − 2 )( x + 2 )( x − i )( x + i ) ⇒ the roots over C are ± 2 , ± i .
(c) (i, ii) P ( x ) = ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 4) and cannot be factored further over Q and R ⇒ P( x ) = 0 has no
roots over Q and R.
(iii) Irreducible factors of P ( x ) over C are P ( x ) = ( x − i )( x + i )( x − 2i )( x + 2i ) . Hence
the roots of P ( x ) = 0 over C are ± i , ± 2i .

Problem 2. Divide P ( x ) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 4 x − 2 by x + 1 and verify that the remainder is P( −1) .

Explanation: x2 − 4x + 8 ← quotient
x + 1 x 3 − 3x 2 + 4 x − 2

x3 + x2
− 4x2 + 4x − 2
− 4x 2 − 4x
8x − 2
8x + 8
− 10 ← remainder
⇒ ( x 3 − 3x 2 + 4 x − 2) = ( x + 1)( x 2 − 4 x + 8) − 10 .
Also P ( x ) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 4 x − 2 ⇒ P ( −1) = −1 − 3 − 4 − 2 = −10 .

Problem 3. Divide P ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1 by x − i and verify that the remainder is P (i ) .

Explanation: x 2 + (i − 1) x − i ← quotient
x − i x3 − x2 + x − 1

x 3 − ix 2
 (i − 1) x 2 + x − 1
(i − 1) x 2 + (1 + i ) x
− ix − 1
− ix − 1
0 ← remainder
⇒ x 3 − x 2 + x − 1 = ( x − i ){x 2 + (i − 1) x − i} . Also P (i ) = i 3 − i 2 + i − 1 = 0 .

Problem 4. Express P ( x ) = x 3 − 2 x 2 + 4 x − 8 as a product of irreducible factors over (i) Q, (ii)

R, (iii) C.

Answer: (i, ii) P ( x ) = ( x − 2)( x 2 + 4) , (iii) P ( x ) = ( x − 2)( x − 2i )( x + 2i ) .

Explanation: (i, ii) P ( x ) = x 3 − 2 x 2 + 4 x − 8 = x 2 ( x − 2) + 4( x − 2) = ( x − 2)( x 2 + 4) are irreducible

factors over Q and also R.
(iii) Irreducible factors of P ( x ) over C are P ( x ) = ( x − 2)( x − 2i )( x + 2i ) .

Problem 5. Express P ( x ) = x 4 − x 3 − 5x 2 − x − 6 as a product of irreducible factors over (i) Q,

(ii) R, (iii) C.

Answer: (i, ii) P ( x ) = ( x + 2)( x − 3)( x 2 + 1) ; (iii) P ( x ) = ( x + 2)( x + 3)( x − i )( x + i ).

Explanation: (i, ii) The integer divisors of the constant term − 6 are ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6 . Of these
only − 2 and 3 satisfy P ( x ) = 0 . Polynomial division P ( x ) by ( x + 2)( x − 3) yields
P ( x ) = x 4 − x 3 − 5x 2 − x − 6 = ( x + 2)( x − 3)( x 2 + 1) , and these are irreducible factors over Q and
R.
(iii) P ( x ) = ( x + 2)( x + 3)( x 2 + 1) = ( x + 2)( x + 3)( x − i )( x + i ) .

Problem 6. Find P ( x ) , given that P ( x ) is monic, of degree 4, with -1 as a single zero and 3 as a
zero of multiplicity 3.

Answer: P ( x ) = x 4 − 8 x 3 + 18 x 2 − 27 .

Explanation: Factors of P ( x ) are ( x + 1) and ( x − 3) 3 .

Hence P ( x ) = ( x + 1)( x − 3) 3 = ( x + 1)( x 3 − 9 x 2 + 27 x − 27) = x 4 − 8 x 3 + 18 x 2 − 27 .

Problem 7. If P ( x ) = 4 x 3 + 15x 2 + 12 x − 4 has a double zero, find all the zeros and factorise
P ( x ) fully over the real numbers.

Answer: P( x ) = ( x + 2) 2 (4 x − 1) .

P ( x ) = 4 x 3 + 15x 2 + 12 x − 4,
Explanation:
P ′ ( x ) = 12 x 2 + 30 x + 12, ⇒ P ′ ( −2) = 0, P( −2) = 0.
Hence − 2 is a double zero of P ( x ) and P ( x ) = 4( x + 2) 2 ( x + k ) for some constant k , as P( x ) is
a polynomial of degree 3 with the leading coefficient 4 . Then
P (0) = −4 ⇒ k = −1 / 4 and P( x ) = ( x + 2) 2 ( 4 x − 1) . The zeros of P ( x ) are − 2,−2, 1 / 4 .

Problem 8. If P( x ) = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 9 x + c for some real number c, find the values of x for which
′
P( x ) = 0 . Hence find the values of c for which the equation P( x ) = 0 has a repeated root.

Answer: x = 1, x = 3; c = −4, c = 0 .

Explanation: Let α be a repeated root of P( x ) = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 9 x + c, c real. Hence P(α ) = 0 and

′
P(α ) = 0
′ 6±3
P(α ) = 0 ⇒ 3α 2 − 12α + 9 = 0 ⇒ α = ⇒ α = 1 or α = 3 ;
3
α = 1 ⇒ P(1) = 0 ⇒ 1 − 6 + 9 + c = 0 ⇒ c = −4 ;
α = 3 ⇒ P(3) = 0 ⇒ 27 − 54 + 27 + c = 0 ⇒ c = 0 .

Problem 9. If P ( x ) = x 4 − 3x 3 − 6 x 2 + 28 x − 24 has a triple zero, find all the zeros and factorise
P ( x ) over the real numbers.

Answer: P ( x ) = ( x − 2) 3 ( x + 3) .

Explanation: P ( x ) = x 4 − 3x 3 − 6 x 2 + 28 x − 24 , P ′( x ) = 4 x 3 − 9 x 2 − 12 x + 28 ,
P ′′( x ) = 12 x 2 − 18 x − 12 , P ′′′( x ) = 24 x − 18 . ⇒ P ′′ (2) = 0, P ′( 2) = 0, P (2) = 0, P ( 3) ( 2) ≠ 0 .
Hence 2 is a triple zero of P ( x ) and P ( x ) = ( x − 2) 3 ( x + k ) for some constant k , as P ( x ) is a
monic polynomial of degree 4 . Then P (0) = −24 ⇒ k = 3 and P ( x ) = ( x − 2) 3 ( x + 3) . So − 3 is a
triple zero of P ( x ) .

Problem 10. If P ( x ) = x 4 + 2 x 3 − 12 x 2 − 40 x + c has a triple zero, find c and factorise P( x ) over

the real numbers.

Answer: c = −32 ; P ( x ) = ( x + 2) 3 ( x − 4) .

Explanation: P ( x ) = x 4 + 2 x 3 − 12 x 2 − 40 x + c , P ′ ( x ) = 4 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 24 x − 40 ,
P ′′( x ) = 12 x 2 + 12 x − 24 , P ′′′ ( x ) = 24 x + 12 .
⇒ P ′′ (1) = 0, P ′′ ( −2) = 0. P ′ (1) ≠ 0, P ′ ( −2) = 0, P ( 3) ( −2) ≠ 0 .
Hence − 2 is a triple zero of P ( x ) and P ( x ) = ( x + 2) 3 ( x + k ) for some constant k , as P ( x ) is a
monic polynomial of degree 4 .
c
Then P ( −2) = 0 ⇒ c = −32. P (0) = c ⇒ k = = −4 and P ( x ) = ( x + 2) 3 ( x − 4) .
8

x2 xn
Problem 11. If P ( x ) = 1 − x − −L+ ( −1) n , show that P ( x ) has no multiple zero for n ≥ 2 .
2! n!
 x2 xn
Explanation: If P ( x ) = 1 − x − −L+ ( −1) n , then
2! n!
x n −1 xn
P ′ ( x ) = −1 + x −L+ ( −1) n . ⇒ P( x ) − P ′ ( x ) = 2 P( x ) − ( −1) n . (1)
( n − 1)! n!
Suppose α is a multiple zero of P ( x ) , then P (α) = P ′( α) = 0 , and
αn
P (α) − P ′( α) = 0 ⇒ ( −1) n = 0 , using (1) ⇒ α = 0 . But P(0) ≠ 0 .
n!
Hence P ( x ) has no multiple zero.

Problem 12. Given that P ( x ) has a rational zero, find this zero and factorise P ( x ) over the real
numbers if (a) P ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 x − 3 ,
(b) P ( x ) = 2 x 3 + x 2 − 4 x − 2 .

Answer: (a) P ( x ) = ( 2 x − 3)( x 2 + 1) ,

(b) P ( x ) = ( 2 x + 1)( x − 2 )( x + 2 ) .

1 3
Explanation: (a) The only rational zeros of P ( x ) are ± 1, ± 3, ± , ± . But of these, only
2 2
3
satisfies P ( x ) = 0 . Hence ( 2 x − 3) is a factor of P ( x ) . By polynomial division,
2
2 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 x − 3 = ( 2 x − 3)( x 2 + 1) , and these are irreducible factors over R.
1 1
(b) The only rational zeros of P ( x ) are ± 1, ± 2, ± . But of these, only − satisfies P ( x ) = 0 .
2 2
Hence (2 x + 1) is a factor of P ( x ) . By polynomial division,
2 x 3 + x 2 − 4 x − 2 = (2 x + 1)( x 2 − 2) = ( 2 x + 1)( x − 2 )( x + 2 ) , and these are irreducible factors
over R.

Problem 13. If P ( x ) = 3x 4 − 4 x 3 − 14 x 2 − 4 x + 3 , solve the equation P ( x ) = 0 over C and factor

P ( x ) fully over R.

Answer: - 1, - 1, 1 / 3, 3; P ( x ) = ( 3x − 1)( x − 3)( x + 1) 2 .

Explanation: P ( x ) has symmetric coefficients, hence it can be converted to quadratic equation

in  x +  .
1
 x
 3 4 
P ( x ) = 3x 4 − 4 x 3 − 14 x 2 − 4 x + 3 = x 2 3x 2 + − 4 x − − 14 .
 x2 x 
 2  2 
Using  x +  = x 2 + 2 + 2 , we get P ( x ) = x 2 3 x +  − 4 x +  − 20 . Since 0 is not a
1 1 1  1
 x x   x  x 
2
zero of P ( x ) , the solutions of P ( x ) are the solutions of 3 x +
1  1
 − 4 x +  − 20 = 0 . By
 x   x

 
1
x


1
x  ( )(
factorising this quadratic P ( x ) = x 2 3 x +  − 10 x + + 2 = 3x 2 − 10 x + 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1 . )
Hence
P ( x ) = 0 ⇒ 3x 2 − 10 x + 3 = 0 or x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 0, and
5 ± 16
x= or x = −1.
3
( )( )
So the roots of P ( x ) = 0 are - 1, - 1, 1 / 3, 3, and from P ( x ) = 3x 2 − 10 x + 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1 it follows

that the factorization of P ( x ) over R is P ( x ) = ( 3x − 1)( x − 3)( x + 1) 2 .

Problem 14. Find the remainder when P ( x ) = x 5 − 3x 4 + 2 x − 1 is divided by

(a) x − 2i , (b) x 2 + 4 .

Answer: (a) − 49 + 36i , (b) 18 x − 49 .

Explanation: (a) x − 2i is a linear divisor. Hence we can use a remainder theorem, and the
remainder is P (2i ) = (2i ) 5 − 3(2i ) 4 + 2(2i ) − 1 = 32i − 48 + 4i − 1 = −49 + 36i .
(b) P ( x ) = x 5 − 3x 4 + 2 x − 1 and D( x ) = x 2 + 4 are polynomials over Q.
Hence P ( x ) = D( x ) S ( x ) + R( x ) , where R( x ) is rational and degree R< degree D =2. Thus
P ( x ) ≡ ( x 2 + 4) S ( x ) + ax + b, a , b rational. ⇒ P( 2i ) = 0 + 2ai + b , and hence
2ai + b = (2i ) 5 − 3( 2i ) 4 + 2(2i ) − 1 = 32i − 48 + 4i − 1 = 36i − 49 ⇒ a = 18, b = −49 . Hence the
remainder ax + b is 18 x − 49 .

Problem 15. When P ( x ) = x 4 + ax 3 + 3x − 11 is divided by x 2 + 4 , the remainder is x + 5 . Find

the value of a.

Answer: a = 1 / 2 .

Explanation: By the division transformation,

x 4 + ax 3 + 3x − 11 = ( x 2 + 4) Q ( x ) + x + 5 . Substituting
x = 2i , 16 − 8ai + 6i − 11 = 2i + 5 ⇒ a = 1 / 2 .

Problem 16. When P ( x ) = x 4 + ax 3 + b is divided by x 2 + 4 , the remainder is − x + 13 . Find the

values of a and b.

Answer: a = 1 / 4, b = −3 .

Explanation: By the division transformation, x 4 + ax 3 + b = ( x 2 + 4) S ( x ) − x + 13 . Substituting

x = 2i , we obtain 16 − 8ai + b = −2i + 13, that is − 8ai + b = −2i − 3 ⇒ a = 1 / 4, b = −3 .
Problem 17. Sketch the graph of x 2 − y 2 = 0 and
y
xy = 2 on the same axes. By observing the number
of points of intersection of the graphs, deduce that y=x
the equation z 2 = 4i has at least one root (in fact
two roots).
xy = 2
x
Explanation: If z = x + iy , then
xy = 2
z 2 = y 2 − x 2 + 2 xyi = 4i ⇒ y 2 − x 2 = 0,
if
xy = 2. x 2 − y 2 = ( x − y )( x + y ) ⇒ x 2 − y 2 = 0
y = −x
and only if y = x or y = − x . Hence as seen from the
graphs there are two points of intersection.

Problem 18. Find the zeros of P ( x ) = x 4 − 5x 3 + 7 x 2 + 3x − 10 over C, given that 2 − i is a zero.

Factorise P ( x ) fully over R.

Answer: 2 − i , 2 + i , − 1, 2 ; P ( x ) = ( x 2 − 4 x + 5)( x + 1)( x − 2) .

Explanation: P ( x ) has real coefficients. Hence P (2 − i ) = 0 ⇒ P(2 + i ) = 0 and then

[ x − (2 − i )] ⋅ [ x − (2 + i )] = x 2 − 4 x + 5 is a factor of P ( x ) . By the division transformation
P ( x ) = x 4 − 5x 3 + 7 x 2 + 3x − 10 = ( x 2 − 4 x + 5)( x 2 − x − 2).
⇒ P ( x ) = ( x 2 − 4 x + 5)( x + 1)( x − 2).
This is the factorization of P ( x ) into irreducible factors over R, and P ( x ) has zeros
2 − i , 2 + i , − 1 and 2 over C.

Problem 19. P ( x ) is a monic polynomial of degree 4 with integer coefficients and constant term
3. One zero is i, another zero is rational and the sum of the zeros is negative. Factorise P ( x ) fully
over R.

Answer: P ( x ) = ( x 2 + 1)( x + 1)( x + 3) .

Explanation: P ( x ) has real coefficients. Hence P (i ) = 0 ⇒ P( −i ) = 0 , and then

( x − i )( x + i ) = x 2 + 1 is a factor of P ( x ) . The rational zero of P ( x ) is p / q , where q is a divisor
of the leading coefficient 1 and p is a divisor of the constant term 3 . Hence P ( x ) has the form
( x 2 + 1)( x − α )( x − β ) , where the rational zero α takes one of the values ± 1, ± 2, or ± 3 (since
P ( x ) is a monic polynomial of degree 4 ).
Given that the constant term is 3 ⇒ α β = 3 , and hence the zeros of P ( x ) are
i , − i , 1 and 3 or i , − i , − 1 and - 3 . But the sum of the zeros is negative. Thus
P ( x ) = ( x 2 + 1)( x + 1)( x + 3) , and these factors are irreducible over R.

Problem 20. Find the monic polynomial of degree 4 with zeros -3, -1, 1 and 3.

Answer: P ( x ) = x 4 − 10 x 2 + 9 .
Explanation: P ( x ) = x 4 + ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d , since P ( x ) is monic of degree four.
If α = −3, β = −1, γ = 1 and δ = 3 denote the zeros of P ( x ) , then
a = − ∑ α = − ( −3 − 1 + 1 + 3) = 0,
b = ∑ α β = 3 − 3 − 9 − 1 − 3 + 3 = −10,
c = − ∑ α β γ = − ( 3 + 9 − 9 − 3) = 0,
d = ∑ α β γ δ = 9.
Hence P ( x ) = x 4 − 10 x 2 + 9.

Problem 21. The equation x 3 − 6 x 2 + ax + 10 = 0 has roots that are in arithmetic progression.
Find the value of a and solve the equation.

Answer: a = 3 ; x1 = −1, x 2 = 2, x 3 = 5 .

Explanation: Let the roots be b − c, b, b + c . Then 6 = ∑ α = (b − c) + b + (b + c) = 3b ⇒ b = 2 .

− 10 = ∑ α ⋅ β ⋅ γ = (b − c) b (b + c) = 2( 4 − c 2 ) ⇒ c = 3 (or c = −3 that gives the same values of the
roots and so the same constant a ).
Hence the roots are b − c = −1, b = 2, b + c = 5 and a = ∑ α ⋅ β = −2 − 5 + 10 = 3 .

Problem 22. Solve the equation 2 x 3 − 13x 2 − 26 x + 16 = 0 , given that the roots are in geometric
progression.

1
Answer: , − 2, 8 .
2

a
Explanation: Let the roots be a ⋅ c, a , . Then
c
16 a
− = ∑ α ⋅ β ⋅ γ = ac ⋅ a ⋅ = a 3 ⇒ a = −2,
2 c
13 a  1
= ∑ α = a ⋅ c + a + = −2 c + 1 +  ⇒
2 c  c
1 − 17 1
c+ = ⇒ 4c 2 + 17c + 4 = 0 ⇒ c = −
c 4 4
1 a
(or c = −4 that gives the same roots). Hence the roots are a ⋅ c = , a = −2, = 8 .
2 c

Problem 23. The equation x 3 + x 2 − 2 x − 3 = 0 has roots α, β and γ . Find the equations with
roots (a) 2α , 2β and 2 γ ; (b) α − 2, β − 2 and γ − 2 .

Answer: (a) x 3 + 2 x 2 − 8 x − 24 = 0 ; (b) x 3 + 7 x 2 + 14 x + 5 = 0 .

3 2
Explanation: (a) 2α , 2β and 2 γ satisfy   +   − 2  − 3 = 0 . Hence the required equation
x x x
 2  2  2
3 2
is x + 2 x − 8 x − 24 = 0 .
(b) α − 2, β − 2 and γ − 2 satisfy ( x + 2) 3 + ( x + 2) 2 − 2( x + 2) − 3 = 0 . Hence the required equation
is x 3 + 7 x 2 + 14 x + 5 = 0 .

Problem 24. The equation x 3 + qx + r = 0 has roots α, β and γ . Find the equations with roots (a)
1 1 1
, and ; (b) α 2 , β 2 and γ 2 .
α β γ

Answer: (a) rx 3 + qx 2 + 1 = 0 ; (b) x 3 + 2qx 2 + q 2 x − r 2 = 0 .

3
satisfy   + q   + r = 0 . Hence the required equation is
1 1 1 1 1
Explanation: (a) , and
α β γ  x  x
rx 3 + qx 2 + 1 = 0 .

( )
3
(b) α 2 , β 2 and γ 2 satisfy x 1/2 + qx 1/ 2 + r = 0 . Rearrangement gives x 1/ 2 ( x + q ) = − r . Squaring

and simplifying, the required equation is x 3 + 2qx 2 + q 2 x − r 2 = 0 .

Problem 25. The equation x 3 + 3x 2 − 2 x − 2 = 0 has roots α, β and γ . Find the equations with
1 1 1
roots (a) 2α , 2β and 2 γ ; (b) , , .
α β γ

Answer: (a) x 3 + 6 x 2 − 8 x − 16 = 0 ; (b) 2 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 3x − 1 = 0 .

3 2
Explanation: (a) The values 2α , 2β and 2 γ satisfy   + 3  − 2  − 2 = 0 and hence the
x x x
 2  2  2
required equation is x 3 + 6 x 2 − 8 x − 16 = 0 .
3 2
1 1 1  1  1  1
(b) The values , , satisfy   + 3  − 2  − 2 = 0 and hence the required equation is
α β γ  x  x  x
2 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 3x − 1 = 0 .

Problem 26. The equation x 3 + x 2 − 2 x − 3 = 0 has roots α, β and γ . Find the equations with
roots (a) α 2 ⋅ β ⋅ γ , α ⋅ β 2 ⋅ γ and α ⋅ β ⋅ γ 2
(b) 2α + β + γ , α + 2β + γ and α + β + 2 γ .

Answer: (a) x 3 + 3x 2 − 18 x − 81 = 0 ; (b) x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3x − 3 = 0 .

Explanation: (a) α 2 ⋅ β ⋅ γ , α ⋅ β 2 ⋅ γ and α ⋅ β ⋅ γ 2 can be rewritten αβγ ⋅ α , αβγ ⋅ β and αβγ ⋅ γ . But
αβγ = 3 .
Hence the required equation has the roots 3α, 3β and 3γ , which satisfy
3 2
 x  x  x 3 2
  +   − 2  − 3 = 0 . And the required equation is x + 3x − 18 x − 81 = 0 .
 3  3  3
(b) α + β + γ = −1. Hence the required equation has the roots α − 1, β − 1 and γ -1 which satisfy
( x + 1) 3 + ( x + 1) 2 − 2( x + 1) − 3 = 0 . The required equation is x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3x − 3 = 0 .
Problem 27. The equation x 3 + 2 x + 1 = 0 has roots α, β and γ . Find the equations with roots (a)
1 1 1 1 1 1
, and ; (b) α 2 , β 2 and γ 2 ; (c) , and .
α β γ 2
α β 2
γ2

Answer: (a) x 3 + 2 x 2 + 1 = 0 ; (b) x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x − 1 = 0 ; (c) x 3 − 4 x 2 − 4 x − 1 = 0 .

3
1 1 1  1  1
Explanation: (a) , and satisfy   + 2  + 1 = 0 . Hence the required equation is
α β γ  x   x
x3 + 2x2 + 1 = 0 .

( )
3
(b) α 2 , β 2 and γ 2 satisfy x 1/2 + 2 x 1/ 2 + 1 = 0 . Rearrangement gives x 1/ 2 ( x + 2) = −1 . Squaring

and simplifying, the required equation is x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x − 1 = 0 .

1 1 1
(c) From (b) α 2 , β 2 and γ 2 satisfy x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x − 1 = 0 , and hence , and satisfy
2 2
α β γ2
3 2
 1  1  1 3 2
  + 4  + 4  − 1 = 0 . And the required equation is x − 4 x − 4 x − 1 = 0 .
 x  x  x

Problem 28. Given that (a + b + c) = −3 , a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = 29 and abc = −6 , form the monic

cubic equation whose roots are a , b and c . Hence find the values of a , b and c .

Answer: P3 ( x ) = x 3 + 3x 2 − 10 x + 6 ; 1, − 2 ± 10 .

Explanation: Let the desired polynomial be P3 ( x ) = x 3 + d 2 x 2 + d 1 x + d 0 , d 0 , d 1 , d 2

constants. a + b + c = −3 ⇒ − d 2 = −3 ⇒ d 2 = 3 ; abc = −6 ⇒ − d 0 = −6 ⇒ d 0 = 6 ;
(a + b + c) = −3 ⇒ (a + b + c)2 = 9 ⇒ (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) + 2 (ab + bc + ac) = 9 ⇒
9 − 29
ab + bc + ac = = −10 ; ab + bc + ac = −10 ⇒ d1 = −10 .
2
Hence P3 ( x ) = x 3 + 3x 2 − 10 x + 6 .
By inspection P3 (1) = 0 ⇒ ( x − 1) is a factor of P3 ( x ) . Use polynomial division
x2 + 4x − 6

x − 1 x 3 + 3x 2 − 10 x + 6

x3 − x2

4 x 2 − 10 x + 6
4x 2 − 4x
− 6x + 6
− 6x + 6
0
Hence P3 ( x ) = ( x − 1) ( x 2 + 4 x − 6) ; P3 ( x ) = 0 ⇒ x = 1 or x 2 + 4 x − 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 or x = −2 ± 10 .
So the roots a , b, c are 1, − 2 ± 10
Problem 29. The equation x 3 + 2 x + 1 = 0 has roots α, β and γ . Evaluate
(a) α + β + γ (b) α 2 + β 2 + γ 2
(c) α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 (d) α 4 + β 4 + γ 4

Answer: (a) 0; (b) − 4; (c) − 3; (d) 8 .

Explanation: (a) α + β + γ = 0 , as the coefficient of x 2 is zero.

( )
3
(b) α 2 , β 2 and γ 2 satisfy x 1/2 + 2 x 1/ 2 + 1 = 0 . Rearrangement gives x 1/ 2 ( x + 2) = −1 . Squaring

and simplifying, x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x − 1 = 0 . Hence the sum of the roots of this equation

α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 = −4 .
(c) α 3 + 2α + 1 = 0 (since α, β, γ are roots of the given equation),
β 3 + 2β + 1 = 0,
γ 3 + 2 γ + 1 = 0,

( )
hence α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 + 2(α + β + γ ) + 3 = 0 . But from ( a ) α + β + γ = 0 , and α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 = −3 .

(d) From (b) α 2 , β 2 and γ 2 satisfy x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x − 1 = 0 . Hence α 4 , β 4 and γ 4 satisfy

( ) ( )
3 2
x 1/ 2 + 4 x 1/ 2 + 4 x 1/ 2 − 1 = 0 . Rearrangement gives x 1/ 2 ( x + 4) = 1 − 4 x . Squaring and

simplifying, x 3 − 8 x 2 + 24 x − 1 = 0 . Hence the sum of the roots of this equation α 4 + β 4 + γ 4 = 8 .

Problem 30. The equation x 3 − px − q = 0 has roots α, β and γ .

(i) Show that α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 2 p
(ii) Express α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 and α 5 + β 5 + γ 5 in terms of p and q .

Answer: α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 = 3q , α 5 + β 5 + γ 5 = 5 pq .

Explanation: (i) If α, β and γ are roots of the equation x 3 − px − q = 0 , then α + β + γ = 0 and

( )
αβ + αγ + βγ = − p . From here 0 = (α + β + γ ) = α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 + 2 (αβ + αγ + βγ ) ⇒
2

α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 = −2 (αβ + αγ + βγ ) = 2 p .
(ii) α 3 − pα − q = 0 , (Since α, β and γ are the roots of the given equation)
β 3 − pβ − q = 0 ,
γ 3 − pγ − q = 0 .

( )
Summing these equalities, α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 − p (α + β + γ ) − 3q = 0 . But from (i) α + β + γ = 0 , hence

( )
α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 = 3q . Furthermore, since the equation x 2 x 3 − px − q = 0 has the roots α, β, γ , 0 ,0 .

α 5 − pα 3 − qα 2 = 0 ,
β 5 − pβ 3 − qβ 2 = 0 ,
γ 5 − pγ 3 − qγ 2 = 0 .
 ( ) ( ) (
Summing these equalities, α 5 + β 5 + γ 5 = p α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 + q α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 . But )
α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 2 p and α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 = 3q . Hence α 5 + β 5 + γ 5 = p ⋅ 3q + q ⋅ 2 p = 5 pq .

Problem 31. Show that 2i is a zero of P ( x ) = x 3 − 2ix 2 − 3x + 6i . Hence factorise P ( x ) over C.

Answer: P ( x ) = ( x − 2i )( x − 3 )( x + 3 ) .

Explanation: P (2i ) = −8i + 8i − 6i + 6i = 0 ⇒ ( x − 2i ) is a factor of P ( x ) . By inspection, or by

polynomial division, x 3 − 2ix 2 − 3x + 6i = ( x − 2i )( x 2 − 3) .
Hence P ( x ) = ( x − 2i )( x − 3 )( x + 3 ) , and these factors are irreducible over C.

Problem 32. If P ( x ) = 2 x 4 + 7 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 7 x + 2 solve P ( x ) = 0 over C, and factorise P ( x ) over

R.

1
Answer: − 2, , − 1 ± 2 ; P ( x ) = ( x + 1 − 2 )( x + 1 + 2 )( x + 2)( 2 x − 1) .
2

 7 2    1   1 
Explanation: P ( x ) = x 2  2 x 2 + 7 x + 2 − +  = x 2 2 x 2 +  + 7 x −  + 2 .
 x x2    x2   x 
2   2 
Using  x −  = x 2 +
1 1 1  1
− 2 , P ( x ) = x 2 2 x −  + 7 x −  + 6 . Since 0 is a zero of P ( x ) ,
 x x2   x  x 
2
the solutions of P ( x ) = 0 are the solutions of 2 x −  + 7 x −  + 6 = 0 .
1 1
 x  x
By factorizing this quadratic
 1  1 3
P ( x ) = x 2 ⋅ 2  x −  + 2  x −  +  = ( x 2 + 2 x − 1)( 2 x 2 + 3x − 2) . (1)
 x  x 2
Hence
P( x) = 0 ⇒ x 2 + 2 x − 1 = 0 or 2 x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0.
− 3± 5
x = −1 ± 2 x=
4
1
x = −2 or x = .
2
1
Therefore, the roots of P ( x ) = 0 are − 2, , − 1 ± 2 .
2
From (1) P ( x ) = ( x + 1 − 2 )( x + 1 + 2 )( x + 2)( 2 x − 1) over R.

Problem 33. Show that the zeros of P ( x ) = x 4 − x 2 + 1 are included in the zeros of x 6 + 1 .
Hence factorise P ( x ) over R.

Answer: P ( x ) = ( x 2 − 3 x + 1)( x 2 + 3 x + 1) .
Explanation: Let

Q( x ) = x 6 + 1, then Q( ±i ) = 0 and hence ( x − i )( x + i ) = x 2 + 1 is a factor of Q( x ) . By inspection, or

by polynomial division, x 6 + 1 = ( x 2 + 1)( x 4 − x 2 + 1) . Hence
x 6 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±i or x 4 − x 2 + 1 = 0 . Therefore the zeros of P ( x ) = x 4 − x 2 + 1 are the solutions
of x 6 = −1, x ≠ ±i .
π
The sixth roots of − 1 are equally spaced by around a circle of radius 1 and center (0,0) in the
3
Argand diagram. The sixth roots of − 1 different from ± i are:
π π
z2 , z1 = z2 , where z 2 = cos + i sin ,
6 6
5π 5π
z4 , z5 = z4 , where z4 = cos + i sin .
6 6
Hence
P ( x ) = x 4 − x 2 + 1 = ( x − z 2 )( x − z 2 ) ⋅ ( x − z4 )( x − z 4 )
2 2 π 5π
( x 2 − 2 Re z 2 x + z2 )( x 2 − 2 Re z4 x + z 4 ) = ( x 2 − 2 cos x + 1)( x 2 − 2 cos x + 1).
6 6
π 3 5π π 3
Using cos = , cos = − cos = − , x 4 − x 2 + 1 = ( x 2 − 3 x + 1)( x 2 + 3 x + 1) .
6 2 6 6 2
These factors are irreducible over R.

Problem 34. Solve z 5 − 4 z = 0 over C.

Answer: 0, ± 2 ,± 2i .

Explanation:
z 5 − 4 z = 0 ⇒ z( z 4 − 4) = 0 . Hence z = 0 or z is a complex fourth root of 4 . Clearly two such
π
roots are ± 4 4 = ± 2 . The other fourth roots of 4 are equally spaced by around a circle of
2
radius 2 and centre (0,0) in the Argand diagram.
The fourth roots of 4 are y
z0 = 2 , z2 = − 2 , z1 = 2i , z3 = − 2i . z 1

Hence z 5 − 4 z = 0 has roots 0, ± 2 , ± 2i .

π/2
z2 x
z0= 2

z3
Problem 35. Show that cos 4θ = 8 cos 4 θ − 8 cos 2 θ + 1 . Hence solve the equation
π 5π
16 x 4 − 16 x 2 + 1 = 0 and deduce the exact values of cos and cos .
12 12

1 1 π 1 5π 1
Answer: ± 2 + 3; ± 2 − 3 ; cos = 2 + 3 ; cos = 2− 3 .
2 2 12 2 12 2

Explanation: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ . Then by de Moivre’s theorem, z 4 = cos 4θ + i sin 4θ . But by
4
 4
the Binomial theorem, z 4 = (cos θ + i sin θ) 4 = ∑  k  i k sin k θ cos4 − k θ . Equating real parts,
k =0
cos 4θ = cos θ − 6 cos θ sin θ + sin θ = 8 cos θ − 8 cos 2 θ + 1 .
4 2 2 4 4

1 1 1
Let cosθ = x . Then cos4θ = ⇔ 8 x 4 − 8 x 2 + 1 = . Hence if θ is a solution of cos4θ = , cosθ
2 2 2
4 2
is a root of 16 x − 16 x + 1 = 0 .
1 π π π
But cos 4θ = ⇒ 4θ = ± + 2 πn, n integral θ = ± + n, n = 0,±1,±2,K
2 3 12 2
These values of θ give exactly four distinct values of cosθ , namely
π 5 7 5 13 π
cos ,cos π, cos π = − cos π ,cos π = − cos .
12 12 12 12 12 12
At the same time considering 16 x − 16 x + 1 = 0 as a quadratic in x 2 ,
4 2

8 ± 48 2 ± 3
x2 = = ,
16 4
1 1
x=± 2 + 3 or x = ± 2 − 3.
2 2
π 5π π 1 5π 1
But x = cosθ . Since cos > cos > 0 , we deduce that cos = 2 + 3 , cos = 2− 3 .
12 12 12 2 12 2

Problem 36. Show that cos 5θ = 16 cos5 θ − 20 cos 3 θ + 5 cos θ . Hence solve the equation
2 4
16 x 5 − 20 x 3 + 5x − 1 = 0 and deduce the exact values of cos π and cos π .
5 5

Answer: 1, cos π, cos π ,cos π, cos π ; cos 2 π = − 1 + 5 ; cos 4 π = − 1 (1 + 5) .

2 2 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4

Explanation: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ . Then by de Moivre’s theorem, z 5 = cos 5θ + i sin 5θ . But by
5
5
the Binomial theorem, z 5 = ∑  k  i k sin k θ cos5− k θ . Equating real parts,
k =0
cos 5θ = cos θ − 10 sin θ cos θ + 5 sin 4 θ cos θ = 16 cos5 θ − 20 cos 3 θ + 5 cos θ .
5 2 3

( a ) Let cosθ = x . Then cos5θ = 1 ⇔ 16 x 5 − 20 x 3 + 5x = 1 . Hence if θ is a solution of cos5θ = 1 ,

cosθ is a root of 16 x 5 − 20 x 3 + 5x − 1 = 0 .
2
But cos 5θ = 1 ⇒ 5θ = 0 + 2 πn ⇒ θ = πn, n = 0,±1,±2,K
5
Since the period of the function cos t is 2π , this formula gives under n = 0,1,2,3,4 all the values
2 4 π 6 π 8 2
of cos θ , namely cos 0 = 1,cos π,cos π = − cos ,cos π = − cos ,cos π = cos π .
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
 2 2 4 4
But cosθ = x and hence 16 x 5 − 20 x 3 + 5x − 1 = 0 has roots 1, cos π ,cos π,cos π ,cos π .
5 5 5 5
2 4 2
Let cos π = a , then cos π = 2 cos 2 π − 1 = 2a 2 − 1 . The sum of roots of
5 5 5
−1± 5
16 x 5 − 20 x 3 + 5x − 1 = 0 is 1 + 2a + 2( 2a 2 − 1) = 0 ⇒ 4a 2 + 2a − 1 = 0 ⇒ a = . But
4
2
2 2 −1+ 5 4  − 1+ 5 −1− 5 1
a = cos π > 0 ⇒ cos π = , and cos π = 2  −1= = − (1 + 5 )
5 5 4 5  4  4 4
3 tan θ − tan 3 θ
Problem 37. Show that tan 3θ = . Solve the equation x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x + 1 = 0 and
1 − 3 tan θ 2

π 5π
hence find the exact values of tan and tan .
12 12

π 5π
Answer: − 1, 2 ± 3 ; tan = 2 − 3 ; tan =2+ 3.
12 12

Explanation: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ . Then by de Moivre’s theorem, z 3 = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ . But by
the Binomial theorem, z 3 = cos 3 θ + 3i cos 2 θ sin θ − 3 cos θ sin 2 θ − i sin 3 θ . Equating real and
imaginary parts, cos 3θ = cos 3 θ − 3 cos θ sin 2 θ and sin3θ = 3cos 2 θ sin θ − sin 3 θ . Dividing one by
3 cos 2 θ sin θ − sin 3 θ 3 tan θ − tan 3 θ
another, tan 3θ = = .
cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin 2 θ 1 − 3 tan 2 θ
Furthermore, it is clearly that the equation P ( x ) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x + 1 = 0 has the integer root −1.
By polynomial division, x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x + 1 = ( x + 1)( x 2 − 4 x + 1) . Using the quadratic formula, the
roots of the equation are − 1, 2 ± 3 .
π π
If θ = , then 3θ = and tan 3θ = 1 .
12 4
3 tan θ − tan 3 θ
Hence tan 3θ = ⇒ tan 3 θ − 3 tan 2 θ − 3 tan θ + 1 = 0 . Let x = tan θ , then
1 − 3 tan θ
2

π π
tan 3 θ − 3 tan 2 θ − 3 tan θ + 1 = 0 ⇔ x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x + 1 = 0 . But 0 < < .
12 4
π π
Then 0 < tan < 1 ⇒ tan = 2 − 3 .
12 12
5π π π 5π 1 1 2+ 3
Now = − ⇒ tan = = = = 2+ 3.
12 2 12 12 tan π / 12 2 − 3 ( 2 − 3 )( 2 + 3 )

6
Problem 38. Express as a sum of partial fractions .
2 x − 5x + 2
2

6 −4 2
Answer: = + .
2 x 2 − 5x + 2 2x − 1 x − 2

Explanation: Using the quadratic formula, we get

2 x 2 − 5x + 2 = 2( x − 1 / 2)( x − 2) = (2 x − 1)( x − 2) .
 6 c1 c
Let = + 2 . Then 6 = c1 ( x − 2) + c2 (2 x − 1) . Putting x = 2 gives c2 = 2 ,
( 2 x − 1)( x − 2) 2 x − 1 x − 2
while x = 1 / 2 gives c1 = −4 .
6 −4 2
Hence = + .
2 x 2 − 5x + 2 2 x − 1 x − 2

x2 + x + 2
Problem 39. Express as a sum of partial fractions .
x ( x + 1)

x2 + x + 2 2 2
Answer: =1+ − .
x ( x + 1) x x +1

x2 + x + 2 x2 + x + 2 2 2
Explanation: By division, = =1+ =1+ .
x ( x + 1) x2 + x x2 + x x ( x + 1)
2 c c
Let = 1 + 2 . Then 2 = c1 ( x + 1) + c2 x . Putting x = 0 gives c1 = 2 , while x = −1 gives
x ( x + 1) x x + 1
c2 = −2 .
x2 + x + 2 2 2
Hence =1+ − .
x ( x + 1) x x +1

3x 2 − 3x + 2
Problem 40. Express as a sum of a partial fractions .
( 2 x − 1)( x 2 + 1)

3x 2 − 3x + 2 1 x −1
Answer: = + .
( 2 x − 1)( x 2 + 1) 2x − 1 x 2 + 1

3x 2 − 3x + 2 c1 ax + b
Explanation: Let = + . Then
( 2 x − 1)( x + 1)
2 2x − 1 x 2 + 1
3x 2 − 3x + 2 = c1 ( x 2 + 1) + (ax + b)(2 x − 1) . Putting x = 1 / 2 gives c1 = 1 .
Equate coefficients of x 2 : 3 = c1 + 2a ⇒ a = 1 .
Put x = 0 : then 2 = c1 − b ⇒ b = −1 .
3x 2 − 3x + 2 1 x −1
Hence = + .
( 2 x − 1)( x + 1)
2 2x − 1 x 2 + 1