PR Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization - Beta - 355627

The Philippines
Recommends for
Organic Fertilizer
Production
and Utilization
OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Dear Reader:
Organic fertilizer is slowly gaining acceptance throughout the

country. Farmers and producers are now finding the advantages and
benefits that organic fertilizers bring to their crops, land, and environment,
including their health.
However, the rate of adoption is too slow to influence the effects of
even greater economic and environmental issues and concerns.
Thus, there is a need to fast-track the production, promotion, and
advocacy of organic fertilizer to contribute to the achievement of
economic and environmental restoration and recovery.
Through this publication, Philippines Recommends for Organic
Fertilizer Production and Utilization, we hope to realize the ultimate
effect of organic fertilizers—that of maintaining and sustaining our
natural resource base.
This publication provides a baseline explanation of the dynamics and
importance of soil organic matter, along with the technological
recommendations on composting and other treatment procedures for
organic wastes. It also includes valuable information on the economic,
socio-cultural, political, and environmental considerations in the production
and use of organic fertilizers.
We are pleased to share this publication with you.
Sincerely yours,
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD
The Philippines
Recommends for
Organic Fertilizer
Production
and Utilization
PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 92-A
PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT (PCARRD)
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

2006
Disclaimer
Trade names, manufacturers, and distributors are mentioned solely for

the purpose of providing specific information and do not endorse
products named nor imply criticism of similar ones not mentioned.
Mention of a trade name, manufacturer, and distributor does not
constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product. The recommended
practices or technologies are based on research and best information
available so far.
The Cover
Technology unfolding-reaching
out, touching the people's way of
life and their way of doing things,
offering techniques that improve
commodity production. Each
recommendation is a bid to make
the venture more productive and
profitable for the crop, livestock,
or tree farmer.
i
First Printing 2006
ISSN 0115-7833
Bibliographic Citation:
The Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization

Committee 2006. The Philippines recommends for
organic fertilizer production and utilization. Los Baños,
Laguna: PCARRD-DOST, 2006. 146p.– (Philippines
Recommends Series No. 92).
Philippine Copyright © by PCARRD, 2006.
ii
Foreword
The organic fertilizer concept has been existing for quite a long time.
The technologies have been evolving from the simple traditional methods
to more advance, mechanized, and scientific techniques.
Yet in all these developments, adoption in the Philippines remains
sluggard. The prospects for making organic fertilizer as a business
venture has already been realized by a few daring private companies in
the country. They have tried and somehow succeeded in supporting both
the local and export market.
However, the initiatives and the technological developments are
being overtaken by the fast occurrence of emerging economic and
environmental issues. This includes the ever-increasing fuel costs, the
depletion of our dollar reserves, and worse is the destruction of our
natural resources.
These concerns echoes the urgent message of restoration and
recovery. This could start from maintaining our natural resource base —
the soil. It is the land we step on from which all other creatures survive.
Hence, maintaining the soil’s fertility is tantamount to feeding the
country’s increasing population.
It is amazing that organic fertilizer production and utilization in the
country would have this ultimate effect. The hows and the means can
start with this Philippines Recommends publication.
This book explains the dynamics and importance of organic raw
materials. It presents technological recommendations on composting
and other treatment procedures for organic wastes. We have also
provided valuable information on the economic, socio-cultural, political,
and environmental considerations in its production and use. The
technologies presented herein are just a few of the innovations that have
so far been initiated by various sectors.
With this publication, we hope to encourage readers to engage in
producing and using organic fertilizer not only for health and
environment reasons, but for profit as well.
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
iii
Acknowledgment
PCARRD expresses its heartfelt gratitude to the heads of the

following agencies for allowing their respective staff to serve as
members of the Technical Committee in-charge of writing and
reviewing the contents of this publication:
! Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture, University

of the Philippines Los Baños (ASC-CA-UPLB);
! National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
(BIOTECH)-UPLB;
! Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies, College of
Public Affairs, (ISPPS-CPAf)-UPLB; and,
! Organic Producers and Trade Association (OPTA) representing
the private sector.
Also, PCARRD appreciates the participation of Dr. Rafael Barozzo

and Mr. Renato Bayaca of OPTA for contributing their ideas in the
chapter on economic consideration.
Others who have made this publication succesful and are worthy of
commendation are Alexander A. Iranzo, ARMRD staff for providing
the necessary clerical and logistic support; Applied Communication
Division (ACD) Officer-in-Charge, Prof. Cesar M. Frias and his staff,
Ms. Carmelita B. Alamban, Ms. Marina T. Ramos and Mr. Simeon R.
Manahan, Jr. for assisting in the final printing production of this
publication.
iv
Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgment iv
Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization Committee, 2006 xi
Glossary xiii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xvi
Introduction 1
Importance of Organic Materials 1
Role of Soil Organic Matter 3
The Asian Scenario 5
Organic Raw Materials 9

Constituents of Organic Matter in Soils 10
Decomposing Residues of Plants 10
Humic Substances in Soil 14
Soil Organic Matter and Decomposition 14
Types of Organic Raw Materials 15
Plant Residues 15
Farmyard Manure 25
Animal Residues 28
Agri-industrial Wastes 29
Municipal Biodegradable Wastes 33
Important Things to Consider in the Utilization of
Organic Raw Materials 34
Composting and Treatment Procedures for Organic Wastes 36

Objectives of Composting 36
Microbiology of Composting 38
Factors Affecting Composting Rate 40
Aeration 40
Temperature 40
Moisture 41
Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio 41
pH 42
Particle Size 43
Thickness and Bulk Density of Compost Pile 43
v
Determining Compost Maturity 43
Compost Activators 48
Early Composting Technique 50
Recommended Composting Methods 51
Conventional/Traditional Method 51
The IBS (Institute of Biological Science) Rapid Composting
Method 54
The BIOTECH Composting Method 55
The Berkely Rapid Composting Method 55
Composting of Household Kitchen Wastes 56
Composting by Windrow Method 57
Forced Aeration Static Pile Method 57
Vermicomposting 58
Animal Waste Treatment 60
The Maya Farms Method 60
Composting with Azolla 61
Composting Azolla with Rice Straw 61
Composting Practices in Other Countries 64
Chinese Method of Composting 64
Korean Method of Composting 65
Japanese Method of Composting 67
Taiwan Method of Composting 71
Solid Waste Management for Philippine Municipalities 75
Microbial Fertilizers 78
The Need for Microbial Fertilizer 78
The Rhizobial Inoculant as Microbial Fertilizer 79
Production of Rhizobium Microbial Fertilizer 80
Application of Legume Microbial Fertilizer 82
The Mycorrhizal Microbial Fertilizer 84
Algal and Other Microbial Fertilizers 85
Microbial Fertilizers in the Market 86
Current Trends 94
Problems and Constraints 95
Economic Considerations 96
Economic Viability based on Supply and Demand 98
Costs and Returns Analysis based on Actual Experiences
and Surveys 104
vi
Production of Organic Fertilizer 104
Crop Production 104
Socio-Cultural, Environmental, and Policy Considerations 115
Socio-Cultural Considerations 115
Environmental Considerations 117
Benefits from Using Organic Fertilizers 118
Possible Hazards of Organic Materials 119
Policies, Rules, and Regulations 121
Regulations on Handling Organic Fertilizers 121
Government Support on the Production and Utilization
of Organic Fertilizers 122
Marketing and Labeling 130
References 133
Appendices 141
List of Tables
1 Chemical characteristics of different rice varieties and other crop

residues (dry weight basis) 22
2 Chemical characteristics of selected multi-purpose tree and
herbaceous species 24
3 Nutrient (range) composition of selected animal manures 26
4 Average nutrient composition of organic material (% dry weight
basis) 26
5 Chemical composition of some animal residues 28
6 Properties of various coir dusts 31
7 Chemical properties of coir dust 32
8 Thermal deathpoints of pathogens and parasites 37
9 Parameters/indicators of compost maturity 45
10 Analysis of compost at varying maturities 48
11 Maturing period and composition of compost from different materials
using rapid composting technology 49
12 Import of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in 1992 87
13 Common microbial fertilizer products in the country with continuing
R&D and being promoted for use in the farmers’ fields 89
14 Example of rice response to Bio-N, dry season 1987, General Trias,
Cavite 89
vii
15 Example of the yield-enhancing effects of Nitro-Plus on the yield of
soybean 90
16 Example of yield enhancement by Mykovam mycorrhizal inoculant
in eggplant cv. Bingo, wet season, 1997, San Mateo, Dolores,
Quezon 91
17 Example of the effects of processed inoculated compost or bioorganic
fertilizer on growth and yield of rice cv. IR-74 at harvest 91
18 Training activities on bioorganic fertilizer from April 1991 to June
1995 93
19 Yearly production and sales of Bio-N from 1997 to 2000 95
20 Organic fertilizer supply and demand statistics, 1991–2002 99
21 Agricultural crop production statistics, 2000 99
22 Production cost for 1000 bags of ALPHA S.P. organic fertilizer
105
23 Comparison of cost and return for TIPID ABONO users of 50%
ALPHA S.P. and 50% inorganic fertilizers vs. previous practice,
Sta. Elena, Baras, and Nabua, Camarines Sur, dry season, 2005
106
24 Costs and returns in lettuce produced in 403.2 m2 and 1000 m2
GRDC, Oct. 2004–Jan. 2005 107
25 Costs and returns of using Bio-N in corn production per hectare,
Cebu, dry season crop, 2000 109
26 Costs and returns of using Bio-N in rice production per hectare,
Laguna, dry season crop, 2000 110
27 Costs and returns of using Biogreen in rice production per hectare,
Oriental Mindoro, dry season crop, 2000 111
28 Costs and returns of using Biogreen in rice production per hectare,
Nueva Ecija, dry season crop, 2000 112
29 Comparative analysis of rice yields, fertilizer use and labor of RCT
users and nonusers, Iloilo, Ilocos Sur and Davao del Norte, 1993
and 1995 wet seasons 114
30 Comparative analysis of costs and returns per hectare of RCT
users and nonusers, Iloilo, Ilocos Sur, and Davao del Norte, 1993
and 1995 wet seasons 114
31 Heavy metals in agro-industrial and municipal sludge and their
effects on human health, 1990 120
32 Requirements for organic fertilizer product registration 123
33 Registration fees and charges 125
34 Licensing requirements for fertilizer handlers 126
35 License fees and charges 128
viii
36 Specifications of pure and fortified organic fertilizer and compost/
soil conditioner 130
List of Figures
1 The relative composition and rate of mass loss of plant tissue during
decomposition 13
2 Conceptual model of nutrient pathways 15
3 Approximate composition of plant residues 17
4 Burnt rice residues 20
5 Corn residues 20
6 Sesbania with its high N content can hasten composting if mixed with
rice straw at 1:1 ratio 23
7 Rice straw takes more than 3 months to decompose 52
8 Components of a traditional compost pile 52
9 Azolla propagation pond is a continuous source of compost activator
61
10 Pure azolla composted in only 2 weeks 62
11 Azolla-rice straw-chicken manure mixture can be composted in
6 weeks 62
12 Floor plan of composting shed 68
13 Cross-section of composting shed 68
14 Box bin composter 69
15 Rotating drum composter 70
16 Machine used in the Los Baños Ecological Waste Processing
Center 76
17 Composting municipal wastes in Los Baños, Laguna 77
18 Organic fertilizer from municipal wastes in Los Baños, Laguna 77
19 An example of a schematic process of Rhizobium inocula production
81
20 Production of inoculated compost 82
21 Basal application of microbial fertilizers in vegetables 84
22 Farmer-maintained rice crop applied with inoculated compost 92
23 Methods and strategies for fertilizer development and use 93
24 ALPHA S.P. organic fertilizer produced at GRDC, Batangas 101
25 Organic fertilizer production plant at GRDC, Batangas 103
ix
Appendices
A. Regional contribution to total production of selected crops 141

B. Livestock and poultry inventory by animal type 142
C. Regional distribution of production of selected animals 143
D. Guidelines for assessment of organic raw materials for compost
144
E. Organic rice production profile in the Philippines, as of December
2003 145
F. Organic rice production profile in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, as
of Dec. 30, 2003 146
x
Organic Fertilizer Production
and Utilization Committee, 2006
CHAIR
Dr. Eduardo P. Paningbatan, Jr.
Professor
Agricultural Systems Cluster
College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB)
College, Laguna
MEMBERS/CHAPTER WRITERS
Dr. Wilfredo C. Cosico Dr. Bayani M. Espiritu

Associate Professor Research Associate Professor
Agricultural Systems Cluster National Institute of Molecular
College of Agriculture Biology and Biotechnology
UPLB, College, Laguna College of Agriculture
(Composting and Treatment UPLB, College, Laguna
Procedures for Organic (Microbial Fertilizers)
Wastes)
Ms. Rosalina S. Quintos-Tan
Dr. Gina Villegas-Pangga President
University Researcher IV Galactic Resources
Farming Systems and Soil Development Corporation,
Resources Institute “Save our Soil Foundation,” and
Agricultural Systems Cluster Chair, Organic Producers and
College of Agriculture Trade Association
UPLB, College, Laguna 21 Makaturing St.,
(Organic Raw Materials) Brgy. Manresa, Quezon City
(Economic Considerations)
Ms. Agnes Recto-Chupungco

University Researcher III
Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies
College of Public Affairs
UPLB, College, Laguna
(Socio-cultural, Environmental, and Policy Considerations)
xi
TECHNICAL EDITORS
Dr. Digna O. Manzanilla Ms. Jocelyn C. dela Torre

Director Senior Science Research Specialist
Agricultural Resources Management ARMRD
Research Division (ARMRD) PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
VOLUME EDITORS
Ofelia F. Domingo Joel Eneristo A. Joven

Science Research Specialist II Senior Science Research Specialist
ARMRD Applied Communication Division
PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
xii
Glossary
Actinomycetes - a group of organisms intermediate between the

bacteria and the true fungi that usually produces a characteristic
branched mycelium. It includes many, but not all, organisms
belonging to the order of Actinomycetales.
Algae - a large group of microorganisms that has a true nucleus and the
green pigment chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Bacteria- the whole group of microorganisms that lacks a true nucleus
and usually having DNA in a single molecule.
Biodegradable - property of being decomposed by microorganisms.
Biofertilizers - fertilizers derived from living things (generally used
synonymously with organic fertilizers)
Biological nitrogen fixation - the conversion of elemental nitrogen
(N2) as mediated by select groups of microorganisms into organic
combinations or to forms readily utilized in biological processes.
Blue-green algae - blue-green bacteria or cyanobacteria that have no
true nucleus and carry out photosynthesis like green plants
Buffering capacity - ability of the soil to resist drastic change in pH.
Cation exchange capacity - the sum total of exchangeable cations that
a soil can adsorb
Chelate - a metal-organic molecule compound available for plant use
but unreactive to other elements that will render it unavailable
C/N ratio - the ratio of organic carbon and total nitrogen in an organic
material
Co-composting - a composting method whereby different materials
are mixed and treated together
Compost - a product of biological decomposition of organic raw
materials under controlled environmental conditions
Digestible organic matter (DOM) - the primary factor governing the
nutritive value of herbage grasses and considered important in
determining the proportion of feed utilized by a ruminant
Fertilizer - Any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic
origin added to soil to supply certain elements essential to plant
growth
Fulvic acid - mixture of organic substances extractable from soil by
weak alkali and not by precipitation or acidification of the extract.
xiii
Fungi - simple plants that lack photosynthetic pigment. They have
individual cells with a nucleus surrounded by a membrane. They
may bear long filaments called hyphae that may grow together to
form a visible body.
Gamma ray - a high-energy ray or photon emitted during the radioactive
decay of certain elements
Green manure - plant material incorporated into the soil while green or
fresh for improving soil usually to enrich nitrogen content
Heterotroph - an organism which derives energy and carbon from the
decomposition of organic compounds
Humic substances - complex, high molecular weight, brown to black
organic substances that represents 60–80% of soil organic matter
and are resistant to microbial attack
Humification - the processes involved in the decomposition of organic
matter leading to the formation of humus
Humin - the fraction of soil humus that is not dispensable by weak alkali
or pyrophosphate
Humus - a relatively stable fraction of the soil organic matter remaining
after the major portion of added organic materials have decomposed
Inoculation - the introduction of pure or mixed cultures of microorganisms
into a compost pile, seed, soil, or artificial culture media
Lignin - complex component of woody tissues which along with
cellulose bonds cells together and is very resistant to microbial attack
Lyophilization - the process of dehydrating a frozen material for
storage by converting its water content to a gaseous state in a
vacuum, leaving it as a porous solid
Microbial inoculant - live cells of selected strains of effective
microorganisms prepared for application to seed, soil, or composting
materials; also termed as microbial fertilizer or biofertilizer
Mineralization - the conversion of an element from an organic to an
inorganic form as a result of microbial decomposition
Mycorrhizae - an association of fungi and plant roots generally in a
symbiotic relationship
Nitrogen cycle - sequence of chemical and biological changes undergone
by nitrogen as it moves from the atmosphere into water, soil, and
living organisms, and upon death of these organisms, is recycled
through a part or all of the entire process
Nodule - a tumor-like structure produced by the roots of symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing plants. It contains the nitrogen-fixing microbial
component of the symbiosis.
xiv
Organic fertilizer - a product of the processing of materials from animal
and/or plants which can supply one or more of the essential nutrient
elements to plants
Peat - slightly or undecomposed organic material usually deposited in
swampy or low-lying areas
Rhizosphere - a region around the plant root adjacent to the root surface
where microbial activity is usually high
Sludge - the solid component of liquid wastes from industries and
households with varying amounts of water and dissolved materials
Soil conditioner - material added to the soil to improve its physical
condition, usually aggregation or soil structure
Soil fertility - quality of a soil that enables it to provide nutrients in
quantities and proportions for plant growth
Soil organic matter (SOM) - sum of living soil organisms and dead
organic matter (humus) which is integrated into soils
Soil structure - the granulation of soil into aggregates of certain size,
shape, and stability
Soil texture - the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil
Species - collection of closely related strains of organisms
Symbiosis - relationship between two organisms
Thermophiles - organisms that can grow at temperatures above 45oC
Zymogenous - subsisting on easily decomposable organics responding
quickly to freshly added organic materials
xv
List of Acronyms
and Abbreviations
ADF - acid detergent fiber
BAR - Bureau of Agricultural Research
BFS - balanced fertilization scheme
BGA - blue green algae
BIOTECH - National Institute of Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology
BOD - biochemical oxygen demand
BOF - bioorganic fertilizer
CALABARZON - Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, Quezon
CDA - Cooperative Development Authority
CEC - cation exchange capacity
CFA - compost fungus activator
COF - commercial organic fertilizer
CP - crude protein
DA - Department of Agriculture
DA-BAFPS - DA-Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries
Product Standards
EFB - empty fruit bunches
FADINAP - Fertilizer Advisory, Development and
Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
FPA - Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority
FSSRI - Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute
GMA - Ginintuang Masaganang Ani
GPEP - Grains Production Enhancement Program
GRDC - Galactic Resources Development Corporation
HVCC - high value commercial crops
IBS - Institute of Biological Sciences
MPC-CPUs - Mass Production Centers-Compost
Production Units
MSG - monosodium glutamate
MSW - municipal solid wastes
NABCOR - National Agribusiness Corporation
NAFC - National Agriculture and Fisheries Council
NGOs - non-government organizations
xvi
NRAES - Natural Resources, Agriculture, and Extension
Service, Ithaca, New York
NTU - National Taiwan University
OA - organic agriculture
OCCP - Organic Certification Center of the Philippines
OF - organic fertilizer
OM - organic matter
OPTA - Organic Producers and Trade Association
PNS - Philippine National Standards
PO - people’s organization
RCT - rapid composting technology
ROI - return on investment
SEC - Securities and Exchange Commission
SOM - soil organic matter
TDN - total digestible nutrients
VFA - volatile fatty acids
xvii
Introduction
For hundreds of years, farmers particularly in countries like China,

Korea, and Japan have been able to produce sufficiently from their farms
to support the needs of their population. How is it possible that
productivity of the farm has been maintained even as greater demand for
food increases in these countries?
Apparently, one of the keys to the agricultural sustainability in these
countries and perhaps in others is the regular and extensive recycling of
a wide array of organic wastes and residues. These include such
materials as crop residues, animal manures, green manures, and even
sewage and urban wastes. These materials were used either through
direct incorporation into the soil or through composting.
However, through the years, agriculture in the Asia-Pacific region
has changed considerably and farmers are now facing rapid soil
degradation and loss of productivity. It is clear that alternative agricultural
practices and the ultimate goal for a long-term sustainable agriculture
depend largely upon regular additions of various organic amendments to
soils. The quality and acceptability of many organic wastes, from both
on-farm and off-farm sources, can be greatly enhanced through
composting. Some wastes that are not suitable for composting because
of a wide carbon-nitrogen ratio or excessive moisture content can be
blended with other materials to improve their chemical and physical
properties, and to optimize rapid aerobic, thermophilic co-composting of
the mixture. Today, there is a wide array of composting methods and
options for various kinds of organic wastes from the farm and urban
centers.
Importance of Organic Materials
Organic materials when added to the soil have numerous beneficial

effects, which include increased soil fertility, balanced supply of nutrients,
and build up of organic matter (OM). However, these effects are
strongly influenced by the nature of the organic materials, their nutrient
content, and the process of their decomposition in the soil.
PR FOR ORGANIC FERTILIZER PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION 1

There is a diverse array of organic materials, which can be
processed and composted for application in the farm. Most of these are
called wastes but some are by-products that can be put to good use by
simple processes or treatment, e.g., by composting. Such materials are
abundant in Philippine farms and urban areas and include plant residues,
animal manures, green manures, agro-industrial wastes, and garbage.
Organic materials are known to improve rhizosphere ecosystem,
suppress soil-borne phytopathogens, and promote root growth. Plants
treated with farmyard manure have been found to have better root
development during the early growing stage. It is believed that among
the factors affecting root growth, rhizosphere micro flora, root growth
regulators, and behavior of fungi in the rhizosphere may be of particular
importance because of their high saprophytic/parasitic activities.
Application of organic materials reduced incidence of soil-borne
diseases such as rhizoctonia root rot of sugar beet. Pseudomonas spp.
is known to be antagonistic to phyto-pathogens of wheat, sugar beet, and
potato. The increase in their population may contribute to the reduction
of soil-borne disease incidence. Organic materials during decomposition
may release various intermediates, which may activate various kinds of
microorganisms in soils. In the rhizosphere or root area, microorganisms
may proliferate considerably due to an abundant supply of root exudates
or root excretions which may contain growth promoting substances or
food for microorganisms. This may improve microbial balance, which
may suppress multiplication of such specific microorganisms as phyto-
pathogens and stimulate root growth.
It has been reported that the suppression of Sclerotium diseases was
improved when the municipal waste compost incorporated with
Gladiocladium frimbiatum or Trichoderma hamatum was applied to
peanut. Also, application of 10 t of compost/ha increased the pH of the
soil from 5.0 to 5.7, increased available P, exchangeable Ca, and Mg, and
reduced exchangeable Al from 1.68 meq/100 g to non-detectable
concentration.
Organic materials give other numerous benefits aside from being
sources of plant nutrients and as soil conditioners. These have been
shown by many studies from various countries.
Organic materials such as compost have considerable effect on soil
physical properties such as structure, bulk density, porosity, and others.
Korean scientists reported a generally favorable effect of compost, beer
sludge, and treated human waste on soil properties.
2 PR FOR ORGANIC FERTILIZER PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION

Studies in China as reported by FAO (1997) also showed positive
effects of compost on soil porosity, bulk density, stickiness, and water
absorption. The soil which received 200 t/ha of compost had lighter
amount of water absorption (3.2% more). In light loam soils applied with
compost, water evaporation was lower by 14.28% compared with soils
without compost. Similarly, sandy loam soils with compost had lesser
evaporation (13.38%) compared with no compost application. Studies
on paddy soil in Korea showed a decrease in bulk density from
1.29 g/cm3 of the control plots to 1.17 g/cm3 of the plots, which received
compost and crop residues for many years.
An experiment in Taiwan showed an increase of 3.5 g/kg of organic
matter in compost- treated plots. The pH of the soil increased from
6.0 to 6.7 which was attributed to the alkalinity of the compost with a pH
of 7.3 and high K, Ca, and Mg contents. On the other hand, the soil pH
of the plots applied with chemical fertilizer decreased from 6.1 to 5.7.
Plots with compost, increased its available P content by 48.3 mg/kg.
This was attributed to the high P content of the compost. The organic
acids from compost were believed to have helped dissolve and release
some of the fixed P. Some studies reported marked increase in OM ,
available P and K contents, and pH of soil with the application of up to
40 t/ha of chicken dung/sawdust-based compost over a relatively short
period of 4 years (FAO 1997).
A study on the effect on soil properties of continuous application of
a relatively heavy dose (50 t/ha, fresh) of compost (made from chicken
dung and sawdust) on soil grown with red pepper showed that the soil pH,
organic matter content, available P, and exchangeable K increased
considerably in just 4 years. Yet, application of very high amounts of
chemical fertilizers (200 kg P2O5/ha per year and 220 kg K2O/ha per
year) did not increase soil P and K as much suggesting that high rates of
compost application can accumulate soil P and K rapidly and can replace
chemical fertilizers entirely (FAO 1997).
Role of Soil Organic Matter
Organic matter content is usually used as an index of soil fertility. It

influences soil in three ways, i.e., physical, chemical, and biological.
More than 50% of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils is due to
OM. As such, it is important not only for the retention of nutrients from
applied fertilizers but also in increasing the buffering capacity of soils,

thereby enabling crops to better cope with stresses such as soil acidity
and nutrient excess. By itself, OM is also a source of other major and
secondary nutrient elements. About 92–94% of soil nitrogen and
15–18% of total phosphorus are released from organic matter.
Organic matter plays an important role in the improvement of soil
physical properties. It promotes soil aggregation and improves permeability
and aeration of clayey soils. Its high moisture absorbing power and high
carbon for growth of microbial mycelia may help granulation of sandy
soils to improve their nutrient and water-holding capacity.
Organic matter is the main source of carbon and energy for soil
organisms. Application of OM to soils may be beneficial or injurious to
crops depending on the kinds of crops and organic matter applied.
Treatment of soil with sawdust, tree leaves, green manure, oil cake and
rice bran may increase the population of earthworms to inhibit nematode
population. Straw of grasses may reduce wilt and blackleg of potato and
root of common bean, pea, and cotton. Soil treatment with OM may
increase population of Rhizobia and Mycorrhiza.
Organic matter application increased water stable aggregates,
porosity, and air permeability while decreasing bulk density and hardness
in both sandy loam and silty clay loam.
A close relationship was observed between OM content and soil
moisture retention of soil. An increase of 1% OM increased field
capacity of paddy soil surface by 1.7% and of upland soil by 25% (FAO
1997).
Organic matter content of soils is considered as one of the important
indicators of good soil quality and a major key to sustainable productivity
of croplands. Therefore, one of the good soil management practices that
are always advocated is the building up and maintenance of a fairly high
level of soil organic matter (SOM). These cropping practices include
plowing back crop residues onto the soil or regular application of
processed organic materials.
The effects of organic matter on soil properties are summarized as
follows:
On physical properties:
! Promotes granulation of soil particles into water-stable aggregates,

thus, enhancing balanced distribution of macro and micro pores
and giving the soil good aeration porosity, high water-holding
capacity, water permeability, and root penetration;

! Reduces runoff due to high water-holding capacity, which
makes the soil less susceptible to erosion. The stable aggregates
and the OM as soil cover or mulch give the soil protection against
splashing action of raindrops; and,
! Gives dark color to soils. The darker the soil the higher is the OM
and thus generally the higher the fertility level.
On chemical properties:
! Increases supply and availability of N, P, K, S, and other

nutrients. Organic matter contains nearly all the essential
elements;
! Converts chelates metals like Fe, Cu, and Zn into organo metal
compounds, which enhances their availability to plants;
! Increases nutrient retention capacity or CEC of soils;
! Increases buffering capacity or resistance of soils to drastic
changes in pH;
! Reduces Al toxicity in acid soils; and,
! Adsorbs heavy metal pollutants like Pb and Cd.
On biological properties:
! Stimulates activity of soil organisms by providing energy and

carbon source, including other nutrients; and,
! Suppresses plant pathogens through the production of antibiotics.
The urgency to harness the huge supplies of organic wastes has

intensified with the sudden jump of chemical fertilizer cost, the need to
properly dispose wastes, the mounting concern for environmental
quality, and the need to rehabilitate vast hectares of degraded croplands.
The Asian Scenario
In Japan, the total amount of industrial wastes generated annually is

more than 400 M t, the average waste recycling rate for Japanese
industries is only about 41% while that for food industry, 38%. Japanese
scientists are continuously searching for better ways of recycling wastes
and reducing volume by dewatering, incineration, and composting. The
animal industry expanded rapidly during the last four decades and

accordingly, the large amounts of animal wastes amounting to over
90 M t/year created pollution problems, mainly in terms of mal odor and
water pollution.
From the 3 M ha of oil palm plantations in Malaysia, 90 M t of
biomass consisting of trunks, fronds, shells, palm press fiber, and empty
fruit bunches (EFB) are generated per year. There is a growing interest
in composting EFB due to the ban on incineration. In the processing of
100 t of fresh fruit bunches, 20 t of EFB and 50 m3 of liquid wastes are
produced. These plus EFB mixed with chicken manure can be composted.
Since 1990, the use of chemical fertilizers in Korea has been
decreasing and that of organic fertilizers has been increasing. The
primary material used is livestock manure. In 1999, livestock manure
produced from cows, pigs, and poultry amounted to about 35 M t. Interest
in microbial fertilizers is also gaining ground. As of 1991, there were
50 different kinds of microbial and enzymatic materials in the market.
Large amounts of agricultural wastes are produced in Taiwan.
Composting is popular and the raw materials used are crop residues,
mushroom wastes, animal wastes, sludge, vegetable market wastes,
household wastes, food processing wastes, green manure, and municipal
wastes. While Taiwan agriculture uses chemical fertilizers in high doses,
use of organic fertilizers is also being developed and encouraged.
Organic fertilizers have been used in Thailand for hundreds of years
while microbial fertilizers for only about 15 years. About 25 M t of
municipal and agro-industrial wastes are produced each year. About
60% of the total land area of Thailand or about 31 M ha have low organic
matter and low fertility. Organic fertilizers are being eyed as amendments
for these degraded lands.
The cities of Indonesia generate huge amounts of wastes.
Jakarta alone with a population of 8 M produces 18,000 m3 of wastes
daily or 6.6 M m3/year. About 70–80% of these wastes are organic
materials, but only 2 M t of compost is produced from these wastes each
year. It is estimated that 30 M t of compost could be produced
annually. The development of microbial fertilizers have been going
on for several years. Indonesian farmers have been using Rhizobium
and Mycorrhiza inoculants for many years now.
Most of the chemical fertilizers used on agricultural crops in the
Philippines are imported. In 1992 alone, the country paid more than US
$ 168 M for importation of inorganic fertilizers. Lately, the government
has been encouraging the use of a combination of organic and inorganic
fertilizers for rice. The program has been called “balanced fertilization”

whereby five bags of organic fertilizer are applied together with chemical
fertilizers.
The most abundant and commonly used crop residue in the Philippines
is rice straw. From the 4.1 M ha rice lands, the rice straw generated is
huge. The other crop residues are corn stover, peanut hay, and sorghum
stover.
The next most abundant organic wastes are animal manure, which
have higher nutrient content than crop residues. The major types of
livestock are swine, cattle, carabao, chicken, and ducks. These animals
produce an average of about 57 M t of manure annually.
The development of the technology and production of biofertilizers
in the Philippines was spearheaded by the Department of Soil Science
(DSS), National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
(BIOTECH) and the Institute of Biological Sciences (IBS) of the
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). One of the microbial
fertilizers that was developed was Rhizobium inoculants for various
leguminous crops.
The commercial brand name of the Rhizobium inoculant is
Nitroplus and has been tested and shown to be effective for
mungbean, soybean, peanut, and pole sitao. Azospirillium, a nitrogen-
fixing bacteria associated with roots of grasses such as corn and
sugarcane was also developed as microbial inoculant and was produced
under the brand name Bio-N. Azolla, an aquatic fern that thrives on
lowland rice fields has been well researched and promoted in the
countryside as organic fertilizer, among other uses.
Another group of microbial fertilizers is Mycorrhiza – a symbiotic
association between plant roots and fungi. Inoculants have been mass-
produced and commercialized by BIOTECH under the trade names
Mycogroe for ectomycorrhiza and Mykovam for endomycorrhiza.
Mycogroe can substitute from 60% to 85% of the chemical fertilizer
requirements of plants and Mycovam, 50 – 75%. According to de la Cruz
(1994) while farmers are gradually using bioorganic fertilizers, there are
still many constraints for its full adoption. Some of these are:
1) Presence of indigenous species in the soil which can actively

compete with introduced strains;
2) Not all biological fertilizers can always be propagated
successfully, for instance, azolla;
3) Low acceptance by farmers due to insufficient information
campaign for the adoption of the technology;

4) Lack of system/body to monitor the quality of bioorganic
fertilizers;
5) Lack of funding support; and,
6) Lack of more comprehensive field testing/trials of biological
fertilizers.

Organic Raw Materials
Application of organic materials is a common agricultural practice

for maintaining soil nutrient levels and ameliorating soil physical properties
to sustain crop production. This is commonly practiced in many developing
countries in the tropics where fertilizer use is limited due to economic
reasons or unavailability. Assessment of the agronomic value of an
organic material requires analysis of both nutrient benefits and
improvements in soil quality. The peso value of elemental nutrients in the
organic materials per hectare basis is calculated, based on the nutrients’
composition and the current price of inorganic fertilizers. This calculation
is a practice that is commonly ignored because of the difficulty to assign
economic value to non-nutrient effects. However, over the long term, the
non-nutrient benefits can lead to significant improvements in yield and in
the efficiency of the production system.
Much research has already been conducted to develop proper
management strategies for, and utilization of raw organic materials.
This requires knowledge of their decomposition pattern and factors that
are influenced by soil and environment. Early decomposition studies of
Waksman and Tenney (1927), later confirmed by many others, have
considered substrate quality as a critical factor in determining rate of
decay. Chemical indices of substrate quality include element
concentrations and concentrations of various classes of organic
compounds. These include age of plant material, species and cultivar
type, N concentration, carbon and nitrogen ratio (C/N), digestibility,
lignin, tannin, and polyphenolics. The ratios between these parameters
such as lignin/N ratio, polyphenols/N ratio, and lignin + polyphenol/N
ratio have been reported also to affect decomposition and nutrient
release. The rate of decomposition is also influenced by nature of
microbial flora, moisture, temperature, pH, and oxygen. Numerous
authors have identified single factor that influenced the decomposition
rate of residues and green manure. However, Herman et al. (1977)
reported that the decomposition rate of plant residues could not be
predicted from the individual properties of the original material. A
combination of residue “quality” attributes is required to predict rates of
decomposition.

Constituents of Organic Matter in Soil
Soil organic matter can be defined as the sum of living soil organisms
and dead organic matter (humus) which is integrated into soils
(Muller et al. 1988). The equilibrium between the building up and the
degradation of the SOM can be observed over a long period of time.
Depending on the stability of the SOM, the storage period of organic C
in soils can vary widely, from less than a year to more than thousands of
years.
The organic C content is the only reliable parameter to determine the
soil organic matter content. It is common to calculate SOM by multiplying
% organic C by the factor 1.724 or 2, others reported that the conversion
factor ranges between 1.4 and 3.3. Due to the uncertainty, it is more
precise to use % organic C determined by analysis (Korschens et al.
1998).
Decomposing Residues of Plants
The most important input to SOM is in the form of plant residues.

Plant residues can provide input to soil organic matter ranging from
11 t C /ha per year for tropical rain forests, to 6 t for temperate forests,
3 t for temperate grasslands, and down to 0.05 t for deserts (Bolin et al.
1979).
Carbohydrates. Dead vegetative material contributes the major

part of carbohydrates to SOM in the form of different polymer saccharides,
especially cellulose and hemicellulose. Cellulose is the most abundant
constituent of plant residues. It predominates in fibrous and woody
materials such as straw, stubble, weeds, grasses, leaves, branches, and
twigs. The simplicity of cellulosic structure, using repeated identical
glycosidic bonds, means that only a small number of enzymes are
required to decompose this material. Cows and other ruminants create
an environment in their rumen, which encourages the conversion of the
cellulose to volatile fatty acids, and microbial biomass that the ruminant
can digest and use. Under aerobic conditions cellulose can be decomposed
to carbon dioxide, although under anaerobic conditions, organic acids
such as acetic acid are often generated.
Microorganisms decompose cellulose by releasing a hydrolytic
enzyme called cellulase which breaks the polysaccharide molecule into
simple sugar units which their cells can assimilate. Strongly cellulytic

fungi include those species of the genera Trichoderma, Aspergillus,
Chaetomium, Curvularia, Fusarium, Phoma, Memmonilla and
Thielavia. Fungi are the main cellulose decomposing organisms and
these specifically include Trichoderma uride, Mycothecium verrucaria
and some species of Fusarium, Poluporous, and Penicillium. The
more important bacteria which attack cellulose belong to the genera
Cytophaga and Sporocytophaga. The actinomycetes which attack
cellulose include Nocardia, Micromonospera, Streptomyces and
Streptosporangium (Alexander 1977).
Hemicellulose can often constitute up to one third of plant residue C.
It binds bundles of cellulose fibrils to form microfibrils, which enhance the
stability of the plant cell wall. It also crosslinks with lignin, creating
complex web of bonds which provide structural strength, but also
challenge microbial degradation. Fungi are the primary decomposers of
cellulose in humid soils, whereas bacteria are the main decomposers of
cellulose in semi-arid forests. The important hemicellulose decomposers
include the species of bacteria, Bacillus, Cytophaga, Erwinia, and
Pseudomonas. The fungi group includes Alternaria, Aspergillus,
Chaetomium, Fusarium, Glomerella, Penicillium and Trichoderma.
Lignin. Lignins are the most resistant component of plant residues

entering the soil, and are the third most abundant component of plant
residues after cellulose and hemicellulose. They determine the rigidity,
strength, and resistance of a plant structure.
Lignins are found virtually in all plants in varying concentrations
(5–30%) depending on the nature of the plant and the degree of its
maturity (Schomberg et al. 1994). They are considered important
substrate for soil humus formation due to their resistance to decomposition.
The more mature the plant, the higher is its lignin content. Young plants
have comparatively little lignin. Lignin content also increases as crops
are stressed. Materials rich in lignin are resistant to chemical and
biological degradation, and considered to be of ‘low quality’ such as
wheat straw and coir dust with 23% and 65% lignin, respectively. Lignin
in rice straw ranged from 2.4% to 5.1% (Pangga 1999).
The decomposition of lignin is primarily attributed to fungi which
include Agaricus, Clavaria, Ganoderma, Lenzites, Marasmius, Panus,
Schizophyllum, and Ustulina. White-rot fungi are the most active
lignin-degrading microoganisms, resulting in the degradation of all wood
components to CO2 and H2O. Lignin degradation is primarily an aerobic
process and in an anaerobic environment lignin can persist for very long

periods. The fungi actively degrade lignin only in the presence of
adequate O2 (Paul and Clark 1989). Actinomycetes can also decompose
lignin, but typically degrade less than 20% of the total lignin present
(Basaglia et al. 1992).
Phenolic compounds. There are a variety of forms in which

phenolic compounds occur in soil. Simple phenols and phenolic acids may
be present in soil solution or leachates. It may also be present in humus
or plant residues, which together make up a large proportion of SOM
(Lowe 1993).
Tannins are naturally occurring plant polyphenols. Their main
characteristic is that they bind and precipitate proteins. They can have
a large influence on the nutritive value of many foods and feedstuff.
Tannins contribute to many aspects of our daily lives. They are
responsible for the astringent taste we experience when we partake of
wine or unripe fruits, and for the enchanting colors seen in flowers and
in autumn leaves.
They are widely distributed in the plant kingdom, common in
dicotyledons such as in leguminous trees (Acacia sp., Sesbania sp.) and
Eucalyptus sp. Other important tannin containing plants are oak trees
(Quercus sp.), maple trees (Acer sp.), birch trees (Betula sp.), and pine
trees (Pinus sp.). They can also be found in grasses (Sorghum sp. and
corn), are common in fruits (grapes, persimmon, blueberry), tea, chocolate,
legume forages (alfalfa, trefoils), and fodder crops (Flemingia
macrophylla, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala). The
occurrence of tannin in forage legumes may affect ruminant performance
and it has been associated with improved protein-use efficiency and milk
production but reduced palatability and digestibility of the forage.
Moderate to high amount of tannins in organic materials may have slow
decomposition rate.
Nitrogenous compounds. The organic bound-N in the soil

(20 – 50%), which is in the form of amino acids, is degraded. The addition
of decomposable plant material to soils increases the amount of these
amino acids, which are then synthesized by microorganisms. Their build
up in the soil can be attributed to their being a component of a relatively
stable microbial biomass, their interaction with other organic matter, and
with soil clays (Paul and Clark 1989).
The collective effect of the various carbonaceous constituents on
decomposition of organic matter is shown in Figure 1. Although all the

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Solubles
Cellulose/hemicellulose
Remaining Mass
Cellulose/hemicellulose
Lignin complex
Lignin
Time
Fig. 1. The relative composition and rate of mass loss of plant tissue during
decomposition (adapted from Couteaux et al. 1995).
components are constantly decomposing, their importance differs during

decomposition. The mass loss of residues is characterized by an initial
rapid weight loss of soluble compounds, followed by an intermediate
weight loss of cellulose and hemicellulose and finally the slow
decomposition of lignin and lignin-derived compounds (Berg et al. 1984).
Organic phosphates. Soil organic matter contains a small portion

of organic phosphates. Assumptions are that these organic phosphates
are derived from nucleic acids, inositol phosphates, and phospholipids.
These come into the soil by plant materials and by microbial synthesis
(Flaig 1971).
Aliphatic acids. The conditions for the formation of aliphatic acids

by microorganisms are more favorable in poorly drained soils than in
aerobic soils. Tajikama (1963) reported that the accumulation was in the
order of: acetic> butyric> formic > fumaric, propionic, valeric, succinic,
and lactic acids. Another possible source of aliphatic acids in soils is in
the exudation by plant roots (Flaig 1971).

Humic Substances in Soil
The most unmanageable components of SOM are highly polymerized

humic substances, resulting from decomposition of plant debris or
condensation of soluble organic compounds released through the
decomposition of sugars, amino acids, polyphenols, and lignin (Stevenson
1982).
In most soils, humic substances represent 60–80% of SOM
(Woomer et al. 1994). These materials consist of three major classes of
chemicals, generally categorized as fulvic acids, humic acids, and humin.
Fulvic acids. Fulvic acid refers to the mixture of organic substances

remaining in solution upon acidification of a dilute alkali extract from the
soil. The fulvic acid fraction of humus has not been as extensively studied
as humic acid. Fulvic acid contains less C and more N and O than humic
acid and has a smaller proportion of aromatic units and greater peripheral
aliphatic chains.
Humic acids. The most studied group of the humic substances is

the humic acid fraction. Humic acid refers to the mixture of variable or
indefinite composition of dark organic substances, precipitated upon
acidification of a dilute alkali extract from soil. It represents a significant
part of this humic substance as a recalcitrant end product of microbial
activities transformed from plant and animal debris.
Humin. The structure of humin appears to be similar to that of

humic acid, although it contains less N, about one third of that found in
humic acid.
Soil Organic Matter and Decomposition
Decomposition can be divided into three processes: fragmentation of

organic matter, leaching, and microbe-mediated chemical degradation,
with the latter process producing CO2, water, and the energy used by the
microorganisms (Landsberg and Gower 1997). The organic matter of
the soil is derived from plant and animal remains and it exists in all stages
of decomposition.
A simplified model that depicts the flow of C and nutrients is
presented in Figure 2. Some of the C and nutrients are mineralized

Plants
uptake 3
mineralization
1a Inorganic nutrients
Raw organic materials*
2a 2b
immobilization
leaching
Soil Biomass
4
mineralization
humification erosion
1b gaseous loss
1c
t ion
3b
ila
humification
sim
3a
as
Losses
Soil Organic matter
(*Raw organic materials include crop residues, azolla, BGA, animal manures and
residues, agri-industrial wastes, and municipal and household wastes)
Fig. 2. Conceptual model of nutrient pathways (adapted from Myers et al.

1994).
readily (1a) or are immobilized in the soil microbial pool (2a), and later
transformed into other soil organic pools by microbial products (3a).
Recalcitrant plant material may enter the pools directly (3b). There is a
subsequent decomposition of C and nutrients that were held in SOM
pools and then assimilated by soil biomass (1c), yielding in additional
mineralization (1b). Immobilization occurs when the inorganic nutrients,
which are released by mineralization, are assimilated by soil biota (2).
The inorganic nutrients may be used by the plants (3), lost as a result of
leaching or volatilization (4), or remain in the soil (Myers et al. 1994).
Types of Organic Raw Materials
I. Plant Residues
Plant residues are chemically complex organic materials that enter

the soil and play an important role in maintaining soil productivity by
providing source of nutrients and inputs to organic matter (Allison 1973).
They are known to affect soil physical properties, availability of soil
nutrients, and soil faunal populations.

Decomposition may signify the mechanical disintegration of dead
plant structure from the stage where it is still attached to the living plant,
to the humus stage where the gross cell structure is no longer recognizable.
Decomposition of crop residues releases about 55–70% of the C to
the atmosphere as CO2, 5–15% is incorporated into microbial biomass,
and the remaining C (15–40%) is partially stabilized in soil as new humus
(Stott and Martin 1989). The supply of nutrients is relatively easy to
understand, explain, and predict because it is based on the chemistry of
these elements, but as with all nutrient supply, the role of biological
processes in the turnover of nutrients in soil is more complex.
Factors Influencing Decomposition Process of Plant Residues
a) Influence of Resource Quality
Resource quality is a composite definition of the value of a

resource as food to an organism and embodies both physical and
chemical criteria. The food must satisfy the physical (surface
properties, texture, etc.) and chemical (growth factors and nutrients)
requirements for ingestion and colonization to occur (Swift et al.
1979).
Chemical composition. The initial chemical composition of

plant residues will affect its decomposition. The common
carbonaceous constituents of plant tissue include sugars, cellulose
and hemicellulose lignin, phenolics, and tannin. The energy yield of
these tissues varies considerably. If the chemical bonds are difficult
for microbes to break, then the net energy gain from their
decomposition by microorganisms is small. Plants contain 15–60%
cellulose, 10–30% hemicellulose, 5–30% lignin, and 2–15% protein.
Soluble substances (sugar, amino sugars, organic acids, and amino
acids) can constitute 10% of the dry weight (Paul and Clark 1989).
Figure 3 shows the main components of plant residues with their
approximate relative proportions.
Plant physical quality. As the chemical composition of a plant

influences the rate at which it decomposes, so does its physical
character. Some of the physical features of resources are: toughness,
surface properties, and particle size. Toughness has been given
considerable attention as a possible component of resource quality

Lignin
Hemicelluloses
Proteins
18 % Amino Acids &
Sugars
20%
5% Pectin
Waxes and
Pigments
50%
Cellulose
Fig. 3. Approximate composition of plant residues (adapted from Cresser

et al. 1993).
with regard to animal feeding activities. Thin soft leaves are more
readily attacked by animals and decompose more rapidly than the
tough, heavily-cuticularized leaves. The waxy surface of living
leaves is hydrophobic and thus restricts the development of water
films. The structure of the cuticle may also affect the feeding
behavior of animals. Another factor influencing decomposition rate
is the surface area/volume ratio of the tissue. Decreasing particle
size (increasing surface to volume ratio) determines the patterns of
colonization by microorganisms.
Plant age. The younger and less mature the plant is, the more
rapid will be the rate of its decomposition. Slow decomposition rate
takes place when plants have low relative N and ash content, low
total water-soluble substrates, high cellulose and lignin content, and
high maturity. The plant’s digestibility generally declines as it
matures due to a change in leaf-to-stem ratio and a change in
chemical composition.
b) Environmental Factors
Environmental conditions at which decomposition is carried out

(proper aeration, moisture supply, temperature, and soil reaction) modify
the rapidity and nature of plant material decomposition.

Temperature. Decomposition of organic matter is strongly
controlled by environmental conditions that affect the activity of soil
invertebrates and microorganisms. Decomposition rates are faster
in warm, humid areas, however, rates decrease as water availability
and temperatures decrease (Schomberg 1994). As a general rule,
microbial activity increases 2.4-fold with a temperature increase of
10oC across the normal temperature range of soils (Raich and
Schlesinger 1992). However, extreme temperature and moisture
conditions can decrease the efficiency of most soil microorganisms,
resulting in a decrease in decomposition rates and increase in litter
accumulation. Soil microorganisms function at temperatures from
0o to 60oC, with maximum growth and activity occurring between
25oC and 35oC (Paul and Clark 1989).
Moisture and aeration. The moisture environment of litter and

soil depends on the supply of water by precipitation and interception
by vegetation and from losses by evapo-transpiration and drainage.
Moisture availability may limit the catabolic capacity of
microorganisms in the soil. Optimum water potential for residue
decomposition occurs between soil water potentials of - 0.03 and
- 0.10 MPa. Bacterial respiration declines rapidly as potentials
decline below - 0.30 MPa, while fungal activity may continue
down to potentials of - 4 to - 5 MPa (Paul and Clark 1989).
Soil pH. The difficulty in the role of pH lies partly in the complex
interaction of other factors that determine environmental pH.
Although decomposition of plant residues may not be influenced by
pH values 4.5–9.6 (Roper 1985), other processes can be affected.
The residue influence on soil pH appears small, but method of
residue management may greatly influence the soil reaction.
c) Micro- and Macro-organisms
Nature of microorganisms (such as nature of microflora and

microfauna) active in the decomposition processes is one of the important
factors limiting residue decomposition. Soon after organic materials are
incorporated into the soil, microorganisms begin decomposing the material
to obtain energy. Many invertebrates and microorganisms are involved.
During the decomposition process, microorganisms can act as sinks
(immobilization) or sources (mineralization) of C and other nutrients, and

therefore control the availability of nutrients to crops (Landberg and
Gower 1997). Fungi dominate in well-aerated soils, whereas bacteria are
common in anaerobic soils. Fungi also tend to be more prevalent than
bacteria in acidic soils because the latter are less tolerant of low pH.
Types of Plant Residues
Crop residue. Crop residue remaining after harvest accounts for

large portion of the organic matter added to soils. The amount of nutrients
contributed by crop residue depends on the crop and the stage at which
it is incorporated. Contradictory results have been reported when
studying the chemical characteristics of crop residues that control the
decomposition process. Part of this apparent disagreement might be due
to different lengths of the studies, to the absolute content and relative
proportion of the chemical constituents in the plant materials, and to the
methodology and interpretations. The decomposition rate of a range of
plant residues and changes during decomposition cannot be predicted
from properties of the original materials studied when evaluated
individually. When combined, however, these properties could accurately
predict relative rates of decomposition and changes occurring during
decomposition (Pangga and Blair 2001).
Most of the crop residues are not collected for composting and
nutrient recycling, but are used as animal feed (straws/stovers), burnt or
left in the field for natural decomposition (Figs. 4 and 5). Mulching with
fresh straw or leaves is not only a good agronomic practice for
conserving moisture and reducing soil erosion but another best way for
recycling nutrients, if the partly decomposed mulching material is plowed
under for the following crop.
In the Philippines, rice crop can leave 20 M t of residues from
4.1 M ha ricelands. With grain: straw ratio of 1:1.5, 13.5 M t palay will
correspondingly produce 20 M t rice straw (Appendix A). Cagayan
Valley, Central Luzon, and Western Visayas are the highest regional
contributors to total rice production. These areas are producing
18–27 M t rice straw/year.
Sugarcane trash and other sugarcane wastes are assumed to be
abundant in Western Visayas since 65% of the sugarcane production
come from that region. Other crop residues such as corn stover, stalks,
and husks are abundantly available in Mindanao and Cagayan Valley in
Luzon.

Fig. 4. Burnt rice residues.
Fig. 5. Corn residues.

Variation in the nutrient concentration cannot be observed only
between crops but also between varieties. Wide range in the initial
concentration of nutrients between straw samples is presented in
Table 1.
Azolla and blue green algae. Most important biofertilizers for

lowland rice are azolla and blue green algae (BGA). Azolla is an aquatic
fern that lives in symbiotic association with the N-fixing blue-green alga
Anabaena azollae. The biomass of azolla is a good source of organic
fertilizer after decomposition. They are confined to fresh water, where
they float freely. Interest in the Azolla-Anabaena association in relation
to rice production is primarily based on the ability of the association to fix
N2, thus enriching the N status of the soil. The nutrient composition in
azolla vary between species, thus, the level ranges between 2% and 5%
for N, 0.1% to 1.0% for P, 2.0% to 6.5% for K, 0.2% to 1% for Ca and
0.4% to 0.7% for Mg.
Azolla can be used for green manuring, which could contribute from
20 kg to 60 kg N/ha per season. It is considered an efficient scavenger
for K and serves as a source of K for rice crops (FADINAP 2002).
Some blue-green algae (Gloeotrichia, Euglena, Phacus,
Trachelomonas, and Nitzchia) have been known for their N-fixing
property, particularly their role as N sources in rice paddies. Algal
fertilization is comparable to NPK fertilization. As a biofertilizer, BGA
enhances soil N fertility by excreting nitrogenous compounds into the soil
while alive and the release of N-fixed compounds when it decomposes.
BGA was estimated to provide up to 80% of its N content by mineralization
and up to 13% of the total amount through exudation or excretion
(Martinez 1989 cited in dela Cruz 1993).
Indigenous plants/multi-purpose tree species. The potential

of organic fertilizers using indigenous plants/multi-purpose tree species
in reducing mineral fertilizer inputs in lowland- and upland-based farming
systems was observed to be effective. Many researchers have indicated
that plant residues from planted fallows or prunings from hedgerows in
alley cropping systems can contribute significant quantities of nutrients
to many crops.
Green manures. Green manures are crops that are incorporated

into the soil while they are still green and succulent in order to improve
the soil and to supply N to the associated cash crop. If the primary reason

Table 1. Chemical characteristics of different rice varieties and other crop residues (dry weight basis).a
Variety N P K C/N Ratio DOM 1 ADF 2 Cellulose Lignin Phenolics

% (%) (%) (%) (%) (yttb-ppt)
IR-36 0.87 bc 0.13 d 3.0 de 37.7 fg 51.5 b 50.2 47.2 3.0 4.3
IR-54 0.52 hi 0.10 h 3.2 bc 62.7 a 47.2 de 52.7 49.8 2.9 4.1
IR-72 0.69 defg 0.12 ef 2.4 ghi 47.6 cde 49.6 bcd 48.9 46.1 2.8 4.7
PSBRc18 0.65 efgh 0.13 de 2.5 g 51.1 cd 45.9 efg 50.0 47.0 3.0 4.6
Intan 0.48 i 0.11 gh 3.1 cd 63.4 a 43.3 gh 63.8 59.8 4.0 4.1
Khao Seetha 0.93 b 0.13 d 3.3 a 34.7 fg 50.8 bc 52.7 49.2 3.5 1.6
Soc Nau 1.13 a 0.23 a 3.2 ab 30.5 g 55.0 a 50.0 45.9 4.1 1.9
Suakoko 8 0.94 b 0.15 c 3.1 cd 35.9 fg 49.1 bcd 55.5 50.5 5.0 3.3
Ketan Bandang 0.58 ghi 0.08 i 2.3 hij 54.4 bc 44.2 fgh 61.3 56.7 4.6 1.4
Ketan Lombok 0.67 efg 0.12 f 2.8 ef 47.0 cde 43.1 h 61.6 56.5 5.1 1.9
Rodjolele 0.51 hi 0.11 h 1.7 k 63.3 a 46.1 ef 57.5 53.5 4.0 3.8
Rice hull 0.4-0.5 0.1-0.2 0.31-0.70 116-151

Sugarcane trash 0.35 0.04 0.5 112-120
Corn leaves 0.42-0.75 0.06-0.69 0.19-1.37 50-60
Corn stalk 0.91 0.16 1.34 55-61
Corn cobs - - - 65-70

Peanut stem 1.36 0.16 1.09 40
Soybean stem 1.33 0.11 0.91 32-39
Cowpea leaves 1.75 0.58 4.12 —
a
Numbers within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level of significance.
1
Digestible organic matter.
2
Acid-detergent fiber.
Source: Pangga and Blair 2000b.
for growing a green manure is to provide N, then some types of legumes
should be planted. For other reasons, green manures are good materials
for compost production. The Sesbania species (Sesbania sesban,
Sesbania rostrata, and Sesbania aculeate), N-fixing shrubs used to
improve soil organic matter and fodders, are widely promoted in the
humid tropics (Fig. 6). They have the advantage over other green
manures in the lowland rice-based cropping system because they can be
grown under upland or flooded soil conditions. Aeschynomene afraspera
is a stem-nodulating legume that can grow also in upland and lowland
conditions. This legume is less sensitive to photoperiod than Sesbania.
These shrubs re-grow vigorously after being cut, producing abundant
source of organic material. Sesbania are known to have high nutritive
value (> 28% crude protein), low C/N ratio (18%), and high dry matter
digestibility (86%), thus they are considered as fast decomposing
materials.
Green manure crops plowed into the soil after 45–60 days, as
practiced by Indian, Nepali, and Pakistani farmers may contribute about
30–40 kg N per ha for the following crop. However, it seems to be
increasingly difficult to find a niche in the traditional farming calendar and
cropping system to successfully grow a green manure crop, which
Fig. 6. Sesbania with its high N content can hasten composting if mixed with
rice straw at 1:1 ratio.

Table 2. Chemical characteristics of selected multi-purpose tree and
herbaceous species.
Species Total N C P K Poly- Lignin Cellu- Hemice-

phenols lose llulose
(%)
Gliricidia sepium
‘Kakawate’ 4.1 47.0 0.29 2.88 2.1 8.6 13.6 11.5
Macaranga tanarius
‘Binunga’ 2.8 — 0.09 2.11 — 6.7 19.6 7.1
Cicer arietinum
‘Chickpea’ 3.3 43.8 0.21 1.45 9.8 — — —
Leucaena leucoce-
phala ‘Ipil-ipil’ 5.8 45.5 0.20 1.82 4.9 7.1 10.3 5.6
Cajanus cajan 3.5 0.18 1.35 3.3 10.2 — —
Acioa barteri 1.5 45.1 0.10 0.77 3.9 24.5 28.9 9.3
Centrosema
pubescens 5.5 44.1 0.38 1.89 1.50 10.1 40.2 5.
Cassia siamea 2.6 44.0 0.14 1.11 1.57 6.5 18.0 21.6
Calliandra 4.0 — 0.23 0.74 — — — —
Acacia 2.7 — 0.30 1.80 — — — —
Cassia siamea 2.6 44.0 0.14 1.11 1.6 6.5 18.0 21.6
(%, as litterfall*)
Trema orientalis
‘Hanadyong’ 1.4 34.1 0.10 0.52 — 10.2 —
Macaranga tanarius
‘Binunga’ 1.2 55.6 0.13 0.92 — 9.2 — —
Streblus asper
‘Kalyos’ 1.6 28.4 0.08 0.82 — 9.4 — —
Sources: Tian et al. 1992a, Pangga 2001b; * Calub 2000.
occupies the land for several months and needs water and fertilizer,
except N, just to plow it back into the soil. Farmers should be encouraged
to plant grain legumes such as soybeans, peanuts, chickpeas, cowpeas
or mungbean as cash crops, which maintain soil fertility and provide
farmers with extra income and fodder from crop residues (FADINAP
2002).

B . Farmyard Manure
Farmyard manure does not receive the attention it deserves, as it

probably ranks next to plant residues in terms of abundance in the rural
areas. Storage of these animal manures is in heaps exposed to sun, rain,
and wind, which result in substantial nutrient losses. Farmyard manure
can be an economical source of plant nutrients and a valuable soil
amendment to improve soil quality. The increase in animal production
based on 2001–2004 livestock and poultry inventory by the Bureau of
Agricultural Statistics are as follows: poultry 5.5%, swine 13.6%,
carabao 6.7%, and cattle 1.8% (Appendix B). Thus, manure can be a
valuable asset to agricultural production if its nutrients and organic matter
are recycled through land application properly. Best management
practices will minimize the impact of manure on the environment.
Types of Farmyard Manure
The amount and composition of farm animal manures will vary

depending on the type of animal, size and weight of the animal, diet,
moisture content, percentages and type of litter or bedding, age of
manure and storage conditions. All manures can become problems for
the environment if allowed to accumulate. Tables 3 and 4 present the
nutrient composition of selected animal manures.
Poultry. The most important manures in the country are broiler litter
and egg layer manure. Because poultry excrete liquid and solid waste
together, poultry manure is higher in N than manure of other farm
animals. This type of manure is assumed to be abundant in Luzon
particularly in the regions of Central Luzon and Southern Tagalog
(Appendix C).
Commercial broilers are reared in houses with rice hulls or wood
shavings as litter. Egg layers are reared in layered or low-rise houses.
Manure drops to the ground and scraped out more often. In some
operations, poultry manure contains feathers, uneaten feed, and
broken eggs. A stack of manure cleaned out of these poultry houses
may contain materials varying in age from a few weeks to months.
Variation in the age of the material and the type of the amount of litter
in the manure, results in the variations in nutrient content. In Taiwan,
poultry manure can be composted in channel form fermentor with rotary
agitation. Good quality compost is produced in 30–45 days.

Table 3. Nutrient (range) composition of selected animal manures.
Species Moisture N P K C/N ratio
% fresh manure
Poultry (as excreted)
Layer 75 0.83 0.31 0.34 7
Broiler 75 1.1–1.6 0.34–0.85 0.46–1.0 8
Duck 75 0.7 0.30 0.50 6
Cattle
Dairy 88 0.31–0.45 0.04–0.10 0.23–0.60 10-14
Beef 88 0.30–0.60 0.09–0.20 0.20–0.60 10-12
Carabao 81 0.25 0.18 — ---
Swine — —
Grower 90 0.42–1.0 0.16–0.30 0.22–0.70 7
Sow 90 0.19–47 0.06–0.15 0.12–0.30 6
Boar 91 0.15 0.05 0.10 6
Horse 78 0.28 0.05 0.19 19
Sheep — 0.45 0.10 0.30 10
Goat 64 0.7–2.8 0.4–0.6 2.4 ---
kg nutrient/t fresh material = % nutrient content x 10
Table 4. Average nutrient composition of organic material (% dry weight

basis).
Organic Material N P K
Chicken manure 3.23 4.27 2.54
Swine manure 0.81 3.00 0.61
Carabao manure 0.60 2.05 0.50
Cow manure 1.87 2.47 2.11
Goat manure 2.81 2.66 1.20
Horse manure 3.13 2.80 1.88
Bat manure (guano) 1.14 16.30 0.94
Source: FADINAP 2002.

Cattle and carabao. The physical and chemical properties of cow
manure may also depend on the feed proportion and method of waste
collection and disposal. In general, cattle dung consists of 70–88%
moisture, 20% OM, 3% mineral matter, and both macro- and
micronutrients.
Cows are kept in dirt-floor corrals where manure and accumulated
urine is periodically scraped and stacked. Large volume of cattle manure
could be available in Ilocos Region, Central Visayas, and Northern
Mindanao (Appendix C). In some dairy farms, cows are kept in barns
that are cleaned daily. The wastewater flows into a settling basin and
lodged into lagoons. When it is necessary to dredge the lagoon, the
wastewater is dumped in the nearest waterway and the sludge is used
as soil amendment.
Supply of carabao manure is not a problem in Cagayan Valley,
Western Visayas, and Socsargen. Although carabao and cattle manure
are not directly applied in the field as fertilizer, they are commonly
deposited on pasture areas; and others are collected and used in
composting.
Horse. Since there is only a small number of horse in the country,

very little of horse manure is available. Horse manure is often mixed with
high proportion of crop residues such as straw, rice hulls, and coir dust.
Swine. Like chicken dung, hog manure is readily available in Central

Luzon and Southern Tagalog (Appendix C). However, proper disposal
and management of this manure require greater attention than poultry
manure. In commercial swine farm, manures are swept and collected
before flushing them with water that flows into lagoons, river, or nearby
vacant lots. The collected manure is either dried on a drying bed or placed
into the pit. This drying bed is exposed to all types of weather. However,
another way of cleaning the farm is to flush the pigpen with high volume
of water that flows into a lagoon. Like the management of cattle dung,
wastewater from the lagoon is dumped in nearby canals or rivers while
the sludge is incorporated with manures.
Goat and sheep. The presence of medium or large herd of goats

or sheep is rare in the country. However, private farms in Ilocos Region,
Central Luzon and Davao have sufficient quantities of such organic
manure (Appendix C). Central Visayas, as the leading goat-producing
region, is assumed to produce more goat manure than any region in the

country. The manure from sheep and goat is particularly helpful in
quick decomposition of organic residues because of their small size
and large surface area. The microbial activity is enhanced resulting in
quick breakdown of residues into energy-rich nutrients. The nitrogen
content is almost 2.8%.
C. Animal Residues
Some animal residues can also be good sources of nutrients

(Table 5). Animal blood, horn, feet, and feathers are high in nitrogen.
Oyster shells and egg crust have high calcium. Compared with bulk
Table 5. Chemical composition of some animal residues.
Animal Residue N P K Ca Mg
Animal blood 4.0 0.07 0.18 0.2 0.10

Oyster Shell 0.2 0.06 0.02 20.6 0.45
Egg Crust 1.0 0.09 0.12 21.8 0.39
Bone meal 2.0 12 0.22 12.3 0.38
Concentrated animal residues (%)*
Blood meal 10–14 1–5 0.6–0.8 — —

Bone meal 2–4 22–24 0 — —
Hoof and horn meal 10–14 1–2 0 — —
organic material like farmyard manure and crop residues, concentrated

animal residues have high concentration of nutrients. Because they
contain only a small amount of organic C. These residues behave
similarly with synthetic fertilizers when incorporated into the soil,
particularly in terms of nutrient release rates. Unlike synthetic fertilizers,
however, they contain at least trace amounts of most of the plant
nutrients in addition to N, P, and K.

D. Agri-industrial Wastes
Many commodities in the country are associated with processing

industries that generate waste products with potential as soil amendments.
Most agri-industrial waste materials are valuable resources and should
be properly managed and utilized.
Types of Agri-Industrial Wastes
a) Sugarcane Wastes and By-products
! Bagasse. Many sugarcane processing factories produce

substantial quantities of organic by-products such as bagasse,
pith, and mud press.
Sugarcane has been one of the most important agricultural
crops in the country for several decades, and produces million
tons of bagasse per year as a by-product of sugar production.
This material is the largest portion of sugarcane industry wastes.
It is a solid waste produced after extracting the juice from the
sugarcane stalks. There are 39 operating sugar mills in the
country with an average production of 4,600 t of canes/day. Its
production is affected by seasonal factors, but usually in its
peak of operation. Victorias Milling Company produces over
500,000 t of bagasse. Bagasse has high C/N ratio (>150) and
percentage of acid detergent fiber (ADF, 41–62%) but low
crude protein (CP, 2.5%) and total digestible nutrients (TDN,
10–39%). Nevertheless, it has served as a good soil conditioner
when plowed back into the soil. Much of the bagasse is used as
fuel. The bagasse ash contains 0.28% N, 0.84% P and 2–5% K.
! Mud press/filtercake. About 6% of millable cane produces

filtercake or mud press. About half of the sugar centrals in the
country generate nearly 500,000 t of mud press/year. This
material is dark brown to black and is composed of varying
proportions of sand, soil, bagacillo, sugars, flocculants, and
coagulated colloids and sediments which include phosphate,
lime, and albuminoids. The typical composition of mud press is
as follows:

Oil and wax (lipids) - 5–15%
Fiber - 15–30%
Sugars - 5–5%
Crude protein - 5–15%
Total ash - 9–20%
Moisture content - 65–80%
Acevedo-Ramos et.al (1963) determined the organic matter

of mud press as ranging from 20% to30%. In a Taiwan sugar
mill, the composition of mud press generated by carbonation
process is as follows (Sia 1982):
pH - 8.97
Moisture - 56.00%
OM - 23.5%
N - 0.69%
P 2O 5 - 0.65%
K 2O - 0.27%
CaO - 36.00%
MgO - 4.72%
Mud press contains high amounts of cellulose and

hemicellulose and harbors pathogenic organisms that are spore
formers and heat resistant. Hence, the raw material must be
composted completely before using on crops.
! Sugarcane slop. This is spent-wash in the production of

alcohol from sugar. It contains organic and inorganic substances
consisting of potassium and calcium sulfates and phosphates,
traces of iron, magnesium and sodium, proteins, gums, caramel,
organic acids, glycerol, and unfermentable sugars.
In Taiwan alcohol plants, the slop is reported to contain up
to 1.35% K2O and has a pH of 5.0. A mixture of slop, filtercake,
and bagasse pith at a ratio of 1:1:0.3 applied at the rate of
40 t/ha would provide up to 50 kg N, 10 kg P2O5, and 100 kg K2O.
b) Rice Hull and Coir Dust
! Rice hull (husk). The rice hulls generated from all the rice mills
nationwide probably amounts to more than 2 M t/year. It has

very high silica content (up to 14.5%) but the other nutrients are
less than 1%. The C/N ratio is 91, thus very slow to decompose.
It is generally used as bedding in poultry houses. It could be
useful as an absorbent of excess moisture in composting
municipal wastes.
Smoked or carbonized hull is a better material than ordinary
rice hull. It provides a bacteria- and fungus-free material and has
a consistency that can hold onto water and supply nutrients to
crops. Carbonized rice hull could be an important component of
organic fertilizer.
! Coir dust. Coir is a fibrous material that constitutes the thick

mesocarp (middle layer) of coconut fruit (Cocos nucifera).
The long fibers of coir are extracted from the coconut husk and
utilized in the manufacture of brushes, automobile seat and
mattress stuffing, drainage pipe filters, twine, and other products.
The short fibers (2 mm or less) and dust (‘pith’) left behind
accumulate as waste product. The high lignin and cellulose
content (Table 6) of the pith prevents the piles from further
decomposition.
Coir dust or coco peat accumulates in large piles outside
industrial mills. It is abundantly available and the cost is also
reasonable. It acts as excellent mulch in young plantations and
conserves moisture during the dry months. It has the capacity to
absorb moisture many times over its weight and is used in
composting and nursery preparation. Nutrient composition of
coir dust is presented in Table 7.
Table 6. Properties of various coir dust.
Property % Composition
Water holding capacity 65

Total porosity 79-96
Air Space 10-16
Organic carbon 45-50
Cellulose 25-30
Lignin 65-70
C/N ratio 80:1
Source: Meerow 1994.

Table 7. Chemical properties of coir dust.
Property/Nutrient Content Kg/ha*
pH 5.8 – 6.0
Organic C (%) 8.0
N (%) 4.0
P (%) 8.6 -
K (%) 1.5
Electrical Conductivity
(mmhos/cm) 2.4 – 3.7 0 – 0.40
NH4-N (ppm) 0 – 0.20 0.5 – 1.0
NO3-N (ppm) 0.25 – 0.50 88 – 120
Ca (ppm) 4.5 – 10
Mg (ppm) 3.70 6 – 14
Cl (ppm) 600 – 800 1200 – 1600
Na (ppm) 28 – 53 56 – 106
Zn (ppm) 0.12 – 0.71 0.24 – 0.42
Mn (ppm) 0.03 – 0.05 0.06 – 0.10
Cu (ppm) 0.03 – 0.05 0.06 – 0.10
Fe (ppm) 0.37 – 0.65 0.74 – 1.30
B (ppm) 0.10 – 0.16 0.20 – 0.32
CEC (meq/100 g) 37.4 – 40.4
*
Estimated @15-cm depth of coir dust applied/spread in the field per hectare.
Source: Magat 1999.
OtherAgri-industrial Wastes
Agri-industries, such as fruit and vegetable processing, cotton

ginneries, oil mills, breweries, and distilleries, also produce large quantities
of organic waste materials which need to be properly managed and
utilized for nutrient recycling instead of dumping and polluting the
environment.
Lumbang meal and castor bean meal are the residues after oil
extraction from ‘lumbang’ and castor plants. The materials contain
6–7% N.
The production of the food seasoning, monosodium glutamate
(MSG), produces a liquid waste with high N (5%), considerable
concentration of P (0.4%) and K (1.7%). The material is strongly acidic
(pH 3.4) with high chloride content. Nevertheless, it can be used as N

enriching raw material in composting. Approximately 50 t of these
wastes are being produced each day.
In beer making, used hops and sludge are produced. The used hops
contain 2.5–3.5% N and 1.0% P. In Japan, the beer producer Sapporo,
generates sludge cakes with the following composition: total N, 6.93%;
total P2O5, 3.50%; total K2O, 0.37%; CaO, 1.88%; MgO, 0.41%; and
Fe, 2.81%.
E. Municipal Biodegradable Wastes
National strategies to reduce the amount of biodegradable municipal

waste sent to landfill should comprise an integrated package of strategies,
including waste segregation at household level, separate collection by
garbage trucks, penalties and centralized composting, and ensure that
markets exist for compost and other end products.
The production and disposal of municipal solid waste in many
countries, including the Philippines, has become an increasingly difficult
problem. Currently, about 50% of urban trashes are biodegradable
organic materials which can be degraded and processed appropriately as
bioorganic fertilizers. In Metro Manila alone, some 50,000 t of organic
garbage are generated daily, which if not properly disposed may pose
health and environmental problems.
Types of Biodegradable Wastes
As landfills close and other traditional options for disposal of wastes

decrease, wastes from municipal and household are viewed as possible
resources for agricultural uses. With the escalating costs of fertilizers,
utilization of these wastes offers economic and environmental
advantages to the community. Biodegradable municipal waste
comprises food waste, garden waste, paper and cardboard, textiles,
wood, and other miscellaneous biodegradable wastes.
Appropriate management strategies in recycling biodegradable
garbage materials require application of technologies in composting
and its utilization. Through composting, organic wastes are
decomposed, pathogens are destroyed and nutrients are made available
to plants. Also, it resolves some of the problems associated with handling
organic wastes such as odors, flies, diseases, and other handling
constraints.

Household waste. Shredding branches is often a major problem
for homeowners. Many municipalities collect these woody yard wastes
and dump them in landfill. These wastes are potential composting
material.
Wet garbage – kitchen wastes such as leftover food, fruits, and

vegetable peelings, fish wastes.
Dry garbage – papers/cartons (junk mails, newspapers, shoe boxes
etc.); garden wastes (plants, dried leaves, tree
branches); used clothing, shoes
Municipal waste
Wet garbage – solid fruit and vegetable wastes from market; solid
biodegradable wastes from slaughterhouse.
Dry garbage – packaging wastes (cartons, wooden crates) from
market; biodegradable packaging materials from
commercial establishments.
Important Things to Consider in the Utilization

of Organic Raw Materials
Most of the nutrient concentration/content in organic raw materials

reported are not readily available for plant growth. Nutrients in organic
material must be released by soil microorganisms through mineralization.
This biological process is affected by variations in plant resource quality,
moisture, temperature, and the microbial species and population present
in the soil. Therefore, organic materials are less predictable in nutrient
composition, nutrient release, and nutrient-use efficiency than inorganic
fertilizers.
The composition and quality of organic materials are highly variable.
Therefore, if organic materials will be used as fertilizer, it is important to
get accurate information about its nutrient composition. To have accurate
records on nutrient inputs, each load of material applied to the soil should
be analyzed separately in analytical soil testing laboratories.
Utilization of raw organic materials are usually more expensive per
unit nutrient (to collect, purchase, transport, store, and apply) than
inorganic fertilizers. When evaluating the costs and benefits of various
materials, however, consider the two additional benefits in utilizing

organic materials. First, organic materials can supply organic matter,
which improves soil physical and chemical properties. Second, organic
materials provide 'energy' for microorganisms, thereby promoting nutrient
cycling within the production system, and in some cases, suppressing
harmful pathogens. It is, therefore, difficult to assign a peso value to these
non-nutrient benefits.
The use of organic raw materials for composting should not be
focused on single factor such as C/N ratio. It has been shown in many
researches that no single variable has consistently proven to be the best
predictor of decomposition rates of organic materials studied. It is the
combination of many factors that affect the decomposition process of
organic materials, that later may affect the process of composting and
compost quality.

Composting and Treatment
Procedures for Organic Wastes
Objectives of Composting
Composting is the process of allowing organic materials to decompose

under more or less controlled conditions to produce an end product that
can be used as a fertilizer and or soil conditioner. It is a process by which
undesirable properties of organic wastes such as foul odor, presence of
pathogens, and other undesirable physical properties are removed or
abated.
The first systematic process of composting organic materials for use
as fertilizers is perhaps by the Indore method proposed by Howard
(1924–1926) which involved the piling of readily decomposable materials
such as night soil (human waste), animal manure and sewage sludge, and
relatively more decay-resistant materials such as straw, leaves, and
garbage. This earlier procedure took a very long process. Subsequent
methods included more frequent turning of compost piles, among other
improvements, which thus greatly speeded up decomposition. In more
recent methods of composting, forced aeration, mechanical shredding,
mixing, grinding, drying, and even inoculation with microbial decomposers
have been introduced. Composting is basically a microbial bio-oxidative
process aimed at changing the properties of an organic material or
mixture of organic biomass into a material that is safe as fertilizer or soil
conditioner. For composting to be a suitable method of waste disposal,
it must be fairly fast and require low energy. It must also produce a
product that is safe to the environment but satisfactory as a fertilizer or
soil conditioner.
There are many objections and disadvantages in the application of
raw organic materials to soils. Animal wastes, for example, have
offensive odor and may contain live pathogens, which make most of them
unsuitable for direct application to crops. The foul odor emanates mainly
from sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methyl mercaptans,
and methyl sulfides. When fresh animal wastes are applied in large
amounts, the soil may undergo excessive reduction. Nitrogen
concentration may increase to a very high level, producing ammonia

which is harmful to seedlings. Under reduced soil conditions, phytotoxic
substances such as phenolic acids and volatile fatty acids may be
produced. When organic materials such as rice straw or sawdust with
high C/N ratio are applied to soils, immobilization of available soil nitrogen
occurs and young plants suffer from temporary nitrogen starvation.
Also, straws and woody materials contain phytotoxic compounds like p-
hydroxy benzoic acid, p-coumaric acid, and vanilic acid, which may
inhibit plant growth.
Thus, some of the effects of composting is odor abatement and
degradation of phytotoxic substances in organic materials. But perhaps
one of the most important purposes of composting is the killing of
pathogens and parasites, commonly found in animal wastes and sewage
sludge. The temperature of the compost pile gradually rises to 60oC and
higher at which levels most pathogens are killed. The temperatures at
which most pathogens and parasites are killed are shown in Table 8.
Along with the pathogens, weed seeds that may have clung to the
vegetative materials are also killed.
Table 8. Thermal death points of pathogens and parasites .
Organisms Temperature Time

(oC) (minutes)
Salmonella 55–60 30
Salmonella spp. 56 60
Shigella spp. 55 60
Escherichia coli 55 15–20
Streptococcus pyogenes 54 10
Myobacterium diphtheria 55 45
Brucella abortus or suis 61 3
Endamoeba histolytica (cycts) 55
Taenia saginata 55-60 5
Trichnella spiralis 62-65
Necator americanus 45 50
Ascaris lumbricoides (eggs) 60 15 - 20
Source: Gotaas 1956 as cited by Cosico 2004.

Microbiology of Composting
Composting is a biological decomposition and primarily a

microbiological process of organic substances, which results in a product
that is stable, pathogen-free, and contains more readily available nutrients
when applied to the soil.
Most organic substrates contain an indigenous population of bacteria,
fungi, actinomycetes, etc. which multiply rapidly in the compost heap
when provided with the favorable conditions of pH, aeration, moisture,
and temperature. Microorganisms decompose cellulose by releasing a
hydrolytic enzyme, cellulase, that breaks the polysaccharide molecule
into simpler sugar units; strong cellulytic fungi include various species of
the genera Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Curvularia,
Chaetomium, Phoma, Memmovilla, Thielavia, and Penecillium. The
more important bacteria, which attack cellulose, belong to the genera
Cytophaga and Sprocytophaga. The actinomycetes that attack
cellulose include Nocardia, Micromonospera, Striptomyces, and
Stroptosporangium.
The important hemicellulose decomposers include the various species
of bacteria like Bacillus, Cytophaga, Erwinia, and Pseudomonas. The
fungi group includes Alternaria, Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Fusarium,
Glomerella, Penecillium, and Trichoderma.
Lignin is one of the most resistant substrates to decomposition. The
major decomposers of lignin are the higher forms of fungi, which include
agaricus, clavaria, ganoderma, lenzites, marasmius, panus,
schizophyllum, and ustulina.
In the early stages of composting, the first to decompose are the
proteins, sugars, and starches, then the cellulose and hemicellulose, and
lastly, the lignin. There is a succession of organisms of different
temperature adaptation as the temperature rises from mesophilic (20°–
40oC) to thermophilic range (above 40oC) and back again to mesophilic
range or cooling period of the curing stage. The temperature rises
because the organisms are not able to utilize all the energy during
oxidation of organic matter and thus the energy is dissipated as heat.
Temperature of the compost heap can reach up to 80oC. The mesophilic
bacteria prepare the compost pile for eventual attack by thermophilic
bacteria by raising the compost temperature to near 40oC. Their numbers
can reach up to 108/g. The numbers of actinomycetes reach up to 108/
g during the thermophilic stage. During the turning of the heap,

organisms which died during the thermophilic stage are re-introduced
from the cooler part of the compost pile.
The dominant organisms during the two temperature stages of
composting are as follows:
Mesophiles
Bacteria: Pseudomonas spp.
Achromobacter spp.
Bacillus spp.
Flavobacterium spp.
Clostridium spp.
Streptomyces spp.
Fungi: Alternaria spp.

Cladosporium spp.
Aspergillus spp.
Mucor spp.
Humicola spp.
Penicillium spp.
Thermophiles
Bacteria: Bacillus spp.
Streptomyces spp.
Thermoactinomyces spp.
Thermus spp.
Thermonospora spp.
Micropolyopora spp.
Fungi: Aspergillus fumigans

Mucor pusillus
Chaetomium thermophile
Humicola lanuginose
Absidia ramose
Sporotrichum thermophile
Torula thermophile
Thermoascus aurantiacus
During composting, microorganisms produce enzymes that hydrolyze

and depolymerize complex compounds into simpler and water soluble
substances, which they can utilize thus, cellulase break down cellulose
which decreases by about 25% in 3 weeks. The other enzymes are

lipase, protease, and amylase whose activities fluctuate during composting
but generally decrease during the thermophilic phase probably due to
denaturation by the high temperature.
Since composting is primarily a microbial process whatever factor
affects the microorganisms would affect the composting rate. These
factors include aeration, temperature, moisture, carbon/nitrogen ratio,
and polyphenol content of substrates, and pH.
Factors Affecting Composting Rate
Aeration
In aerobic composting, the organisms acting on the materials need

oxygen for their aerobic metabolism and respiration. Oxygen is also
needed to oxidize the organic molecules or compounds in the material.
One of the aims in turning the pile is to allow oxygen to enter the mass
and to expel the accumulated carbon dioxide generated by the
microorganisms. If the compost pile is poorly aerated, O2 is depleted and
CO2 accumulates. According to Yang (1997), the average concentration
of O2 inside a compost pile should ideally be from 0.5% to 5%. According
to him the appropriate aeration is about 100 L O2/minute per cubic meter
of the organic material. For swine manure compost, the optimum
aeration rate is 0.2 m3/minute per metric ton of substrate.
During composting, oxygen consumption in the compost pile is
directly proportional to microbial activity and correspondingly, the
greater the oxygen consumption the higher the rise in temperature. A
continuous supply of oxygen is required to ensure rapid aerobic,
thermophilic composting. A general guide is that the compost biomass
must contain at least 30% of free space or porosity.
Temperature
During the organic matter decomposition, the energy released

which is not used by the organism is liberated as heat. Heat builds
up in the compost pile because natural insulation is high and heat
dispersion is low. High temperature is good for speeding up
composting and for killing the pathogens but excessively high and
prolonged high temperature retards decomposition of organic
materials. According to Yang (1997), only a few species of

thermophilic sporangial bacteria show metabolic activity at
temperature of more than 70°C. Examples of these are Bacillus
strearothermophilus, B. subtilis, Clostridium sp., and non-spore
forming bacteria such as the gram-negative and aerobic genus therms.
The optimum temperature for refuse/sludge mixtures composting is
between 45oC and 60oC. Parr et al. (1994), on the other hand, placed
the optimum temperature for rapid aerobic composting of organic
materials between 55oC and 65oC. As composting proceeds, the
temperature of the compost heap rises from the initial mesophilic range
of 20°–40oC to the thermophilic range >40oC.
Moisture
The moisture content of the organic material must not be too high nor
too low. When the moisture is too low the decomposition rate slows
down and while the pile is physically stable, it is biologically unstable.
When the moisture of the compost heap is too high the pores are
clogged and aeration is hampered. If the moisture content is below 40%,
decomposition is aerobic but slow. On the other hand, if the moisture
content is above 60%, the air space is too little to sustain aerobic
decomposition and anaerobic decomposition will predominate. This
places the optimum range of moisture of organic materials between
50% and 60% (by weight). Yang (1997) gave the optimum moisture
content for compost preparation between 60% and 65%. He said that
when the moisture content of the substrate is too high for composting it
can be modified by:
! supplementation with rice hull or sawdust;

! drying with a mechanized dryer;
! air drying in a plastic chamber; and,
! addition of fermented compost.
Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio
Gotaas (1956) pointed out that microorganisms, which decompose

organic materials, use up 30 parts of carbon for each part of nitrogen, thus
an initial C/N ratio of 30 for organic materials may be considered
optimum for composting. During composting, organisms use the carbon
for growth and energy and nitrogen for protein synthesis. Thus, there
should be a proper balance of C and N if decomposition is to proceed

rapidly. For rapid composting, the suggested C/N ratio of waste mixtures
is between 15 and 35. At C/N ratio greater than 35, the microorganisms
must go through many life cycles, oxidizing off the excess carbon until
a more convenient C/N ratio for their metabolism is reached. Hence,
decay rate of high C/N materials is slow. On the other hand, a low C/
N ratio may result in loss of nitrogen through ammonia volatilization,
particularly if the pH and temperature of the compost pile are high. The
C/N ratio of a compost pile may be adjusted by mixing the right kind of
organic materials. The C/N ratios of some of the organic materials are
as follows:
Organic Material C/N Ratio
Cow manure 20 – 23
Hog manure 10 – 14
Chicken manure 9 – 10
Corn cobs 65 – 70
Rice straw 60 – 65
Cane bagasse 105
Sewage sludge 8–9
Municipal refuse 25
Tree bark 200 – 250
Corn stover 55
Soybean stover 32
Peanut straw 19
Sesbania 18
pH
The optimum pH for composting various mixtures of organic wastes

ranges from 5.0 to 9.0 based on research findings. Bacteria prefer a pH
close to neutral, while fungi develop better in fairly acid environment.
Some organic wastes have the following pH: corncobs, 5.9; vegetable
wastes, 6.8–8.0; green manure, 5.5; hog manure, 8.4; and chicken
manure, 8.7.
When the composting process begins, the pH decreases due to the
breakdown of complex carbonaceous materials to organic acid
intermediates by acid forming bacteria.

Particle Size
Shredding of organic materials into smaller pieces creates more

surface area for biochemical reactions for faster decomposition.
However, excessive fineness of the substrate may result in decreased
porosity of the compost pile, compaction, and anaerobic condition.
Thickness and Bulk Density of Compost Pile
The thicker the pile the lower is the porosity and the higher the bulk
density. This results in the inside of the pile becoming too anaerobic. The
bulk densities of hog manure pile (with initial 64% moisture) at increasing
height or thickness are as follows:
Pile height Bulk density

(m) (kg/m3)
0.5 610
1.0 660
1.5 710
Determining Compost Maturity
Incompletely decomposed compost may harm plants because it

generates heat when applied to the soil due to resumption of decomposition.
Raw organic material that has still high C/N ratio will cause N immobilization
and cause temporary N deficiency in growing plants. Also, phytotoxic
compounds may be released which could adversely affect plants. It has
been suggested that the upper limit of C/N ratio of organic materials for
application to soil is 20. Immature cellulosic compost applied to paddy
soil can cause violent reduction releasing organic acids and toxins, which
rice seedlings cannot tolerate.
Several parameters available can be used as indicators of compost
maturity. These include temperature, odor, texture, C/N ratio, pH value,
gas production, CEC, level of ammonium, nitrate and immobilized
nitrogen, total organic carbon, level of hydrogen sulfide, polysaccharide
analysis, adenosine triphosphate measurements, chromatographic tests
(after extraction of humic components), polymerization of humic
substances, hydrolase activity, respiratory activity test, behavior of

earthworms, and phytotoxicity test (germination and growth tests).
These parameters/indicators of compost maturity are listed in Table 9.
Respirometry measures respiratory activity as the compost matures
through oxygen uptake or carbon dioxide emission as the compost
matures respiratory activity drops. Compost with a respirometer value
of < 2.4 shows a low respiration, hence considered as mature while a
value of 2.7 indicates that the material is still highly degradable and
therefore not yet mature and will stunt plant growth if used.
Chemical changes also indicate degree of maturity of compost.
Biochemical components of organic materials generally undergo
transformations into more stable compounds. Total organic carbon and
easily degradable components decrease. On the other hand, nitrogen
concentration increases thus narrowing the C/N ratio as the compost
ages.
For urban compost, organic matter/nitrogen (OM/N) ratio may also
be used as an indicator of maturity. Matured urban compost has an OM/
N ratio of < 50. The C/N ratio of urban compost drops to a more or less
stable ratio in 120 days. After 240 days, the C/N ratio no longer drops
drastically from a C/N ratio of about 15. In Taiwan, it has been found
that the C/N of compost made up of chicken manure, swine manure,
soybean cake, and used mushroom growth medium decreased from
30 to 15. After composting, it was found out that swine manure
contained 2.8% N, 1.7% P2O5, 0.23% K2O, 86% OM, 249 mg/kg Zn,
and 140 mg/kg Cu.
Tobacco leaves have a high content of nitrogen (3.50%), potassium
(2.54%), calcium (2.49%) and magnesium (1.02%) and low C/N ratio
but have high nicotine content. This high nicotine content decreases upon
composting. In composting corncob that has a high C/N ratio, total
carbon and C/N ratio decrease but the bulk density, water holding
capacity, level of crude ash, and total nitrogen increase (Chung et al.
1993).
As compost matures, the nitrate content increases. Harada et al.
(1984) reported that the nitrate in the water extract from composted
cattle manure can be used as an indicator of maturity, but not of swine
and poultry manure. The nitrate is detected by reacting the extract with
a solution of diphenylamine dissolved in sulfuric acid producing a blue
color.
Organic matter has also been shown to decrease and stabilize as the
compost matures. It has been reported that swine manure and cattle
manure take 3–4 weeks to become stable while chicken manure takes

Table 9. Parameters/indicators of compost maturity.
Parameter Condition of Stability
Fermentation condition
Temperature Stable
pH Alkali (anaerobic, 55oC, 24h)
Microscopy
Direct count Biomass
Image analysis Biomass, residue
Microbes Decreases, stable (thermophilic)
Composition
COD COD <700 mg/g dry compost
Soluble COD Stable
Soluble BOD Stable
C/N ratio < 20
Initial N/final N < 0.75
TOC/TON in aqueous 5–6
Immobilized nitrogen < 1.56% (dry weight basis)
ATP decrease, then stable
Ash increase, then stable
Microbial or enzyme activity
Respiration rate < 10 mg/g compost (7 days)
Color < 7.5 mg/g compost (7 days)
Odor darkish brown, 1<Y<13
Headspace gas earthy
NO2-/NO3- stable
Reductant nitrification start
Organic acid disappear
Sugar
Easy hydrolyze 30–50 mg glucosides/g weight
Polysaccharides < 35%
Reducing sugar/total sugar I.D.* < 2.4 stable, while I.D. < 27
Total organic carbon-soluble
sugar-fermentation Unstable
time
Humic substances
Humic carbon/total carbon > 5%
Alkali soluble humic substance > 110 mg/g total organic substance
Filter paper method dark in center, light in surround
and irregular margin
UV spectrophotometry absorbance of alkali extract is
Gel chromatography stable, high molecular weight

Table 9. (Continued).
Parameter Condition of Stability
Near infrared spectroscopy Correlating to total carbon, total

nitrogen, ash, cellulose,
hemicellulose, CEC, and lignin
contents, and germination index
Cation exchange capacity > 60 meq/100 g ash free matter
Hydrolase Increase very slow, and stable
Bioassay
Germination test G.I.** > 50
* I.D. = 3.166-(0.01 AGE) + (0.059 TOC) + (0.8322 PHs), = AGE =

Day of fermentation, TOC = Total organic carbon, PHs = Hot water
soluble sugar.
** G.I. = Germination index.
Source: Yang 1997.
only 2 weeks, indicating that poultry wastes are more easily decomposed
than cattle and swine wastes. Changes in chemical composition slow
down and level off in about 5 weeks. During composting of cattle wastes,
the hemicellulose and cellulose content decrease rapidly until after
5 weeks after which only slight change occur. Lignin content increases
gradually until composting ends.
For urban compost, the stabilization of polysaccharide content has
been used as an indicator of the composting progress. At the start of
composting, the simple polysaccharide content of urban waste is 20% of
the total organic material. In 240 days, this drops from only 4–10%.
Water-soluble sugars, consisting of mono- or disaccharides, are degraded
faster than the hydrolyzable sugars.
The ash content in relation to the total weight of the substrate also
increases as the compost matures.
Stoffel et al. (1997) reported changes in the concentration of
chemical elements and volatile fatty acids as compost ages. In general,
the concentration of C, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, F, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, Ni, and Zn
increases as the compost matures (Table 10). The C/N ratio decreased
from 32 to 21 but there were only slight changes in pH and EC. On the
other hand, concentration of acetic, propionic, isobutyric, butyric,
isovaleric, and valeric acids decrease drastically.
Harada (1995) summarized the various methods and indices for
determining the degree of maturity of composts. These include biological,

physical, and chemical estimations and estimations based on microbial
activity and humic substances. These were methods suggested by
numerous investigators since the early 1970s to the 1990s.
A. Estimation based on microbial activity

1) Biochemical oxygen demand
2) Chemical oxygen demand
3) Enzymatic activity
B. Biological estimation
1) Germination test
2) Seeding experiment
3) Pollen tube culture
C. Physical estimation
1) Temperature in pile
2) Odor emission
3) Color change
D. Chemical estimation
1) C/N ratio of solid phase
2) C/N ratio of water extract
3) Ratio of reducing sugars to T-C
4) Detection of nitrate
5) Absence of ammonia
6) Gel chromatography of water extract
7) Cation-exchange capacity
E. Estimation based on humic substances

1) Circular paper chromatography test
2) Content of humic compounds
F. Synthetic estimation
1) Examination marks
2) Near infrared spectroscopy analysis

Table 10. Analysis of compost at varying maturities.
Characteristics Compost age

3 days 4 weeks 8 weeks Mature
% dry weight
C 37.1 39.1 35.7 34.3
N 1.15 1.23 1.20 1.60
P 0.24 0.29 0.27 0.32
K 0.28 0.30 0.31 0.31
Ca 2.04 2.18 2.37 3.10
Mg 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.32
Fe 0.77 0.92 0.98 1.15
ppm
Cd 4.30 3.75 3.50 5.63
Cu 127 184 178 229
Mn 174 219 220 300
Pb 207 212 264 283
Ni 32.4 42.8 44.0 51.5
Zn 446 561 552 720
Moisture (%) 47.0 35.6 37.5 47.6
EC (dS*m-1) 6.6 8.8 9.4 6.7
C/N 32:1 32:1 30:1 21:1
pH 7.2 6.8 6.3 7.7
Source: Stoffel 1997.
Compost Activators
Based on the knowledge that certain organisms attack specific

organic substances, many investigators have isolated and made pure
cultures of such organisms to inoculate and speed up the decay of
compost piles. In the Philippines, Cuevas (1997) reported that inoculation
of straw-based compost pile with the fungi Trichoderma harzianum
shortened the composting time to less than half of that of traditional
methods. The fungus is cultured in a medium of sawdust and
leguminous leaves and is broadcast over the layer of rice straw at a
proportion of 1% of the substrate or 1 kg of the activator per 100 kg of
substrate. This fungus activator was tested on various mixtures of
organic materials and found that the maturing period ranges from 22 to
42 days (Table 11).

Table 11. Maturing period and composition of compost from different materials
using rapid composting technology.
Composition
Total Final
Materials pH of Maturing Total Total Phos- Total C/N
(ratio) Mature Period Carbon Nitrogen phorus Potass-
Compost (days) (%) (%) (%) ium (%)
A. Rice straw as 8.4 28 29.5 2.5 1.0 3.7 12:1
main substrate
Rice straw (3)

+ Ipil-ipil*
leaves (1)
Rice straw (3) 8.1 22 30.0 3.0 1.6 1.6 10:1
+ chicken
manure (1)
Rice straw (3) 8 .1 22 30.0 2.6 3.5 3.6 12:1
+ chicken
manure** (1)
Rice straw (3) 6.8 1.0 1.0 1.1
+ chicken
manure (1)
B. Grasses as main substrate
Para grass (1) 7.2 35 31.0 2.1 0.3 1.0 15:1
+Manila
grass (1)
+ Imperata (1)
(cogon) grass
+ Ipil-ipil
leaves (1)
Guinea grass (1) 7.1 32 45.5 2.5 0.1 2.3 18:1
+Para grass (1)
+ Baging ilog (1)
+ Imperata (1)
(cogon) grass
Carabao grass (1) 7.4 32 36.0 4.0 1.0 4.5 9:1
+ Baging ilog (1)
+ Imperata (1)
(cogon) grass
and Napier grass
C. Sugarcane bagasse as main substrate
Bagasse (2) 7.2 42 17.0 1.3 1.3 2.0 13:1
+ animal
manure (1)
Average 7.6 32.2 31.4 2.6 1.3 2.7 13:1
*Ipil-ipil = Leucaena leucocephala (leguminous tree) (Ed.).
**Composted in farmer’s field, Majayjay, Laguna.
Source: Cuevas and Agarrado 1987.

Early Composting Technique
Widely diverse techniques and methods of composting have been

developed and practiced in various countries for over 50 years since the
first systematic composting of organic materials was demonstrated by
Howard at Indore in India in 1924–1926. The method became known
as Indore method of composting. The organic materials used were
weeds, stalks, leaves, and prunings. The plant materials were mixed with
animal dung, soil, and wood ash with the woody materials not exceeding
10% of the total plant residues. The mixture was placed as beddings of
cattle overnight before putting in the composting site. This process was
done by either pit or heap method.
The pit was about 1-m depth, 2-m wide. It had unspecified length and
protected from rainfall by a shed. It was built in an elevated site near the
cattle shed and water source. The organic material was then stacked in
the pit in 10- to 15- cm layers. Each layer was spread with a slurry of
4.5 kg dung, 3.5 kg urine-earth mixture, and 4.5 kg inoculum from a
15-day old composting pit. Sufficient water was sprinkled. The material
was turned two times at 15-day interval and then 1 month later. The
material was mixed thoroughly and moistened at each turning.
In the heap method, the materials were piled above ground under a
shed to a dimension of about 2 m at the base, 1.5 m high and 2 m long.
The first layer of the heap was made up of high-carbon materials such
as straw, sawdust, woodchips, chopped corn stalks, and leaves. This
layer was then followed by 10 cm of nitrogen-rich materials like grass (or
legume-like sun hemp) manure or digested sewage sludge. The piling of
the two layers was repeated until a height of 1.5 m was reached. The
pile was moistened, sometimes covered with soil or hay (or plastic) to
retain heat and turned at 6-week and later 12-week intervals. The
composting time was for a few months.
At about the same time, another method was developed at Bangalore
in India, called Bangalore method. The method used night soil and
garbage and was suitable in low rainfall areas but took longer due to the
anaerobic condition.
The pit of unspecified dimensions was stacked with organic residues
and night soil alternately then covered with a 15- to 20-cm layer of refuse.
The pit was left undisturbed (without turning and watering) for 3 months.
The piles subside and decrease in volume as additional night soil and
refuse were placed and covered with mud or earth to prevent evaporation
of water and infestation with flies.

The initial composting period was aerobic (8–10 days) then later
became anaerobic. Thus composting took 6–8 months to complete.
Recommended Composting Methods
Conventional/Traditional Method
One of the most abundant crop residues in Philippines farms is rice

straw. The country has about 4.0 M ha of riceland. One hectare of rice
with a moderate grain yield of 3 t/ha generates 4–5 t straw/ha per season.
This straw is usually left to rot in one corner or in sporadic mounds in the
field if not burned (Fig.7). Because of its abundance, rice straw along
with animal manures is a basic component in composting rural wastes.
The straw can be composted into organic fertilizer and soil conditioner
in many ways using various organic materials in different proportions.
Figure 8 shows the components of a traditional compost pile.
The basic procedure for the traditional composting of rice straw is
as follows (Cosico 1985):
1. Choose a spot that is protected from excessive rain like a shed

or under a tree. It should preferably be near the source of water
and source of composting materials;
2. Chop the straw (or other vegetative materials, e.g., corn stalks,
grass cuttings, etc.) into shorter pieces to hasten decomposition;
3. Pile the crop residues first to a thickness of 15 cm on the ground
on a spread of about 3-m wide and 4-m long (a fence of bamboo
poles may be built around the pile to restrain the heap). A similar
enclosure may be built alongside to transfer the heap during
turning;
4. Spread about 5-cm thick layer of fresh or dry animal manure,
followed by about 2.5 cm of soil (this will supply additional and
diverse population of microbial decomposers). Sprinkle a little
lime or ash, if available; and,
5. Insert three perforated bamboo poles on the top of the pile for
aeration (for bigger piles horizontal poles may also be inserted
on the sides);
6. Pile another layer of the materials in the same sequence and
repeat until a height of about 1.5 m of heap is attained;

Fig. 7. Rice straw takes more than 3 months to decompose.
Fig. 8. Components of a traditional compost pile.

7. Water the pile until it is sufficiently moist but not excessively wet
(decomposition rate is optimum when moisture content of the
heap is about 60%). If the compost pile is exposed, cover with
plastic sheet when rain is heavy;
8. Turn over the pile (or mix by transferring to the next enclosure)
with spading fork after 3 weeks and then again after 5 weeks;
and,
9. Harvest the compost in about 3 months or whenever the decom-
position is apparently complete. Below are some of the
indicators of the completion of composting :
- The material has lost the foul odor and instead has earthy or
musky smell.
- The original form of the organic materials is lost and the
particles look like soil.
- The temperature inside the mound is the same as outside
and does not heat up any longer even when mixed into the
soil.
One of the modifications of this conventional procedure of composting

to further enhance decomposition rate is as follows:
! Use of high nitrogen containing materials like azolla and fresh

legume leaves, e.g., ‘kakawate’ (Gliricidia sepium), ipil-ipil
(Leucaena leucocephala) and Sesbania sp. as additional
ingredients for piling.
! After piling the layer of rice straw spread on top a similar amount
or thickness of 15 cm of azolla or fresh legume leaves. Thiswill
narrow down the C/N ratio of the compost heap and help to
speed up the decay to only about a month to 1½ months.
To ensure a steady supply of matured compost, make a new pile

every week while maintaining the procedures of turning over and
watering of the previous compost heaps (batch method). A series of
compost piles will therefore be made, each one a week older than the
preceding pile. At the end of the 6th week, the first pile can be harvested
and the next piles thereafter every week.
This procedure entails more space requirement, continuous supply
of organic materials, and more labor but also ensures a shorter period of
1 week to have completed compost.

The IBS (Institute of Biological Sciences)
Rapid Composting Method
The method uses rice straw as the basic organic material (may be
substituted by grass trimmings), chicken manure, and a microbial
inoculant, Trichoderma harzianum. The inoculant is a fungus that
produces the enzyme cellulase to aid in the breakdown of cellulose in
straw. The organism is contained in a medium of sawdust mixed with
ipil-ipil (Leucaena) leaves and is called compost fungus activator
(CFA). The composting procedure is as follows (Cuevas 1997):
1. Chop the rice straw and moisten or soak overnight;

2. Construct a bamboo platform under a big tree or a shed at a
height of about 30 cm from the ground;
3. Pile alternately four parts of rice straw to one part chicken
manure followed by a layer of the activator or CFA
(decomposition is faster if CFA is mixed thoroughly with the
substrate or organic materials. The CFA used is about 1 kg
CFA/100 kg substrate);
4. Insert perforated bamboo poles vertically and horizontally in the
pile;
5. Moisten the pile then cover with plastic sheet to reduce water
evaporation and ammonia volatilization and also maintain the
heat of decomposition. The compost pile heats up in 24–48
hours. The temperature should be kept at 50oC or higher; and,
6. Turn over the pile every week for the first 2 weeks and
thereafter every 2 weeks. The compost maturing time is about
45 days. Composting reduces the total volume of materials to
about half upon completion of decomposition;
For large-scale commercial operations certain machines are needed,

namely, a payloader to mix the compost piles, a hammer mill to break the
big lumps of matured compost and perhaps a dryer.
When composting is done in situ the following modifications are
suggested:
• Soak rice straw in water overnight;

• Pile the straw in the bamboo platform in the field to a thickness
of 10–15 cm;
• Spread two handfuls of CFA on top of the straw layer;

• Repeat piling rice straw and CFA then spread manure or green
legume leaves on top (this component should constitute 15–25%
of the heap);
• Cover with plastic sheets or banana leaves;
• Moisten the pile whenever necessary but leave unturned;
• Composting should be complete in 1 month.
The BIOTECH Composting Method
The composting method developed by BIOTECH makes use of the

cooperative action of inoculants of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and cellulose-
degrading molds to improve the effectiveness of the compost. More
efficient degradation of cellulose is effected by the molds through the
extra nitrogen fixed by the bacteria thereby producing more cellular
biomass and more available nutrients. The updated version of this
method makes use of the following steps (Espiritu 1992; 1994):
1. Prepare manure and crop residues in uniform bagging in feed-

size bags. Layer ten bags of crop residues. Wet with a hose
or by splashing from a pail. Distribute on the surface 2 kg or
2 packs each of the bacterial and fungal inoculants, then layer
five bags of manure. Wet with water at 50–60%. Treat with
the inoculants at 2 kg or 2 packs each of the bacterial and
fungal inoculants. Subsequently pile the next layers of crop
residue and manure, and wet and treat them similarly. Altogether,
there will be two layers each of crop residue and manure piled
alternately; form the pile into a compost heap or windrow.
2. Compost or incubate for 21 days or 3 weeks. Turnover and mix
well once a week for a period of 3 weeks; and,
3. After 21 days, sieve the mixture in 0.5-in screen. Add another
treatment of 10 kg or packs of the bacterial and fungal inoculants.
Mix thoroughly and place in bag.
The Berkeley Rapid Composting Method
The method is suitable for composting crop residues and livestock

manures. The procedure for composting is as follows (Raabe 2001):

1. Chop the crop residues to small pieces of about 1 in;
2. If high carbon materials like straw are used, mix some leaves
of high nitrogen materials like kakawate and ipil-ipil. Azolla
may also be used to somewhat narrow down C/N ratio of
mixture;
3. Make a small pile of only 1 m x 1m x 1m. Preferably put the pile
in a composting bin;
4. Water the pile to about 50% moisture; and,
5. Turn the pile every other day and cover the top with plastic
sheets; The composting is expected to be completed in
2–3 weeks.
Composting of Household Kitchen Wastes
1. Locate a place in the backyard near the kitchen preferably under

a shed or a tree.
2. Place a big plastic drum with fine perforations on the sides near the
bottom.
3. Dump the daily waste output (biodegradable materials only) such
as vegetable trimmings, uneaten food, etc. into the drum. Top it
with a thin layer of soil, grass cuttings, ashes or burned rice hulls to
suppress odor.
4. Repeat the same procedure until the drum is filled.
5. Insert a perforated bamboo or pipe at the center to provide
aeration.
6. Cover the top when there is rain; The compost should mature in
about a month.
Modifications:
! Add paper, garden leaves, and stems mixed after chopping to

provide a loose condition.
! If an aeration pipe cannot be provided, mix the pile by simply
transferring to another drum.
! In place of a stationary plastic drum, a rotary drum may be used
in order to mix the waste more easily.

Composting by Windrow Method
This method is suitable for large-scale operations such as in

composting municipal wastes. The basic procedure is as follows
(NRAES 1992):
1. Pile the segregated biodegradable wastes in a long narrow pile

of about 1.8 m high and about 3.0 m wide (the total length of the
row depends on the amount of space available); and
2. Turn the heap at 1-week interval using a bucket loader by simply
transferring the heap to the adjacent space to reform the pile.
Modifications:
! For excessively wet materials, mix coconut coir dust or grass

trimmings to absorb moisture. Wood ash or rice hull may also be
used by spreading on top of the heap to also absorb the odor.
! Mechanical mixing may be dispensed with by inserting perforated
bamboos or pipes vertically and horizontally.
! Rice straw may also be used as a base layer of the pile to absorb
excess moisture.
Composting should be complete in about 8–10 weeks.
Forced Aeration Static Pile Method
The method uses a blower to aerate the compost pile. The procedure
is as follows (NRAES 1992):
1. Pile the organic materials over a base of chopped rice straw,

wood chips, corncobs, coco fiber, or any other porous material.
After composting, the undecomposed bulking material may be
screened and used as base for a new pile;
2. Lay a perforated pipe of the base of porous material along the
length of the compost heap. Air is forced through the pipe; and,
3. Pile the materials to a height of 1.5–2.4 m. Spread a layer of
finished compost on top to reduce drying, insulate the heap from
heat loss, keep off flies, reduce ammonia volatilization, and
suppress the odor.

Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the use of earthworms for composting organic

materials. Earthworms ingest all kinds of organic matter and can pass
an amount of organic material equal to their body weight per day (FAO
1980). In the Philippines, the popularly used earthworms for composting
are Lumbricus rubellos and Perionyx excavator.
The composting procedure is as follows:
1. Dig a series of pits about 3 m x 4 m x 1 m deep, with sloping sides.

To provide drainage for the worms, lay bamboo poles on the
bottom of the pit and cover with a layer of wood strips;
2. Line the pit with a material, e.g., feedstuff sacks to keep the
worms from going into the surrounding soil;
3. Fill the pit with the available organic materials (crop residues,
animal manure, etc.). Cover lightly with soil and keep moist for
about a week;
4. Water a spot in the pile then transfer the worms from the
breeding boxes to the said spot. They will quickly burrow into
the damp soil;
5. Leave the pit for about 2 months but keep the pile moist. Within
2 months about 10 kg of earthworm cast would be produced per
kilogram of worms; and,
6. Remove about 2/3 of the vermicompost and worms from the pit
but leave enough worms for the continuation of composting.
Refill the pit with fresh organic materials. Below is a typical
analysis of the vermicompost:
! organic matter: 9.3%

! nitrogen: 8.3%
! phosphorus: 4.5%
! potassium: 1.0%
! calcium: 0.4%
! magnesium: 0.1%
Under Philippine conditions, the African night crawler (Eudrilus

eugeniae) has been found to be the most efficient for vermicomposting
(Guerrero and Guerrero 1989). It matures in about 6 weeks and can
breed once a week.

In large-scale vermicomposting done in the National Agribusiness
Corporation (NABCOR) farm in San Ildefonso, Bulacan, the bedding
and food of the earthworms is pig manure. This is mixed with water at
40% by weight, fermented for about 5 days, then stocked with worms at
about 0.5–1 kg worm live weight/m2 of bed. The beds are made of
concrete bins, moistened at least twice a week, and lighted at night.
The earthworm case is harvested in 4–6 weeks. About 60% of the
bedding material is converted into vermicompost.
In another commercial vermicomposting operation in La Carlota,
Negros Oriental, the bedding material consists of dried cattle manure and
chopped rice straw at 50:50 proportion. After watering, the bedding
material is composted for 2–3 weeks in open bins then placed in wood-
sided compartments with the earthworms. The vermicompost is collected
in 30–45 days.
If fresh chicken manure is used, mix sawdust or fine bagasse at a
proportion of 75% sawdust and 25% chicken manure. The high ammonia
content of the chicken dung could be toxic to the earthworms.
The earthworms may be obtained from commercial bred stocks.
They are raised and stored in wooden boxes with dimensions of
45 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm with drainage holes. The bedding material could
be any organic residues like rice straw, rice husk, bagasse, sawdust and
others, which is well moistened and thoroughly mixed. Chicken dung or
green matter like ipil-ipil leaves is added. The material must be as near
neutral (pH) as possible and the boxes kept at 20°–27oC. The worms are
fed with 1-kg organic materials per kg of worm every 24 hours.
Most of the methods in various countries for composting are
patterned after the so-called “Beltsville aerated pile” method.
Sludge is mixed with bulking material, e.g. woodchips and composted
in a stationary aerated pile for 3 weeks (other bulking materials are
leaves, paper, peanut hulls, straw, corn cobs, cotton gin trash, and
sugarcane bagasse). The pile remains undisturbed during the initial
21 days. The base of the pile is composed of a 30.5-cm layer of
woodchips and a 10.2-cm perforated plastic pipe. The sludge and
woodchips are mixed on a 1:1 ratio to reduce moisture content to about
60%. A blower is connected to the pipe and air is drawn through the pile
at predetermined rate. The effluent or dirty air stream is conducted into
a small pile of screened, cured compost where foul smelling gases are
effectively absorbed. The pile is blanketed with a 30.5-cm layer of
screened compost for insulation and odor control. After 21 days, the pile
is dried, screened, and cured for 30 days then stored or used. In this

method, the temperature of the heap can reach up to 80oC, thus giving
greater assurance that the pathogens are killed.
Animal Waste Treatment
The Maya Farms Method
Maya Farms is a piggery farm in Angono, Rizal with more than

60,000 pigs. It produces about 100 t of manure daily. The huge amounts
of excreta have been a big environmental problem until the management
implemented a waste management scheme to make the waste generate
biogas for the company’s power needs as well as fertilizer from the
sludge.
Huge digesters were built and placed at strategic locations in the
39-ha farm. The design was patterned after the biogas works observed
by Dr. Felix Maramba, Sr. in China, India, Taiwan, and other European
countries. The basic design of the digester is an airtight chamber where
the pig manure is directed and mixed with pigpen washings at a 1:3 ratio.
The slurry undergoes anaerobic digestion by methanogenic bacteria for
about 23–30 days. During this period, biogas is generated which is piped
into machines in the farm including the generators for lighting. The biogas
consists of 60–70% methane, 30% CO2, and traces of other gases. The
sludge is taken out after 23 days and allowed to digest further for 37 days
in settling tanks and lagoons. This removes the foul odor of the sludge.
The liquid waste is used to irrigate forage crops for cattle while the solid
sludge is dried to 40% moisture and pelleted as organic fertilizer and soil
conditioner.
At least 2 t of organic fertilizer is produced daily. The fertilizer has
the following analysis:
N 3.6%
P 2O 5 7.0%
K 2O 1.0%
CaO 5.0%
MgO 2.0%
Fe 5520 ppm
Cu 277 ppm
Mn 1978 ppm
Zn 567 ppm
OM 41%

Composting with Azolla
Azolla, with its high nitrogen content of about 4% and narrow

C/N ratio, can be applied as organic fertilizer in fresh, dried, or
composted form (Figs. 9–11).
If composted alone, decomposition takes about 2 weeks. The
procedure is simple:
1. Dig a pit and pile the Azolla to the rim, or pile on the soil surface
with bamboo fencing;
2. Cover with banana leaves or plastic to prevent drying; and,
3. Harvest in about 2 weeks. The recovery is 7–15% of the fresh
weight.
Composting Azolla with Rice Straw
If rice straw alone will be composted it would take more than

10 weeks to decompose fully. However, if composted with Azolla, the
process may be completed in 4 weeks. The prodcedure is as follows:
1. Pile a 15-cm layer of rice straw in the compost pit or in a

rectangular bin (or bamboo enclosure);
Fig. 9. Azolla propagation pond is a continuous source of compost activator.

Fig. 10. Pure azolla composted in only 2 weeks.
Fig. 11. Azolla-rice straw-chicken manure mixture can be composted in

6 weeks.

2. Pile over the straw a 15-cm layer of fresh azolla;
3. If available, spread the same thickness of chicken dung or other
livestock manure to have a straw-azolla- manure ratio of 1:1:1;
and
4. Make a pile of about 1.5 m high for easy handling. Water the pile
as needed and mix every week. The compost should be ready
for use in about 4 weeks.
Azolla, as green manure, can be used directly as organic fertilizer.

The azolla quickly decomposes because of its narrow C/N ratio.
For rice fields with steady supply of water, good drainage, sufficient
soil phosphorus, and where straight row planting is used, the following
procedure for using azolla as fertilizer is suggested:
1. Flood the field then plow and harrow once, 3 weeks before
transplanting;
2. Twenty days before transplanting of rice seedlings, gather the
azolla from the inoculum/propagation pond and spread evenly on
the area to be planted. Leave enough azolla in the propagation
pond for future use;
3. One day before transplanting, drain the water from the paddy
but leave about 1 cm deep of floodwater. Apply the needed
inorganic fertilizer;
4. Let the azolla multiply further for another 20 days then incorporate
into the soil with a rotary weeder during the first weeding;
5. Let the remaining unincorporated azolla grow and if necessary
re-seed the field with a fresh batch of inoculum;
6. Forty days after transplanting (or 20 days after the first weeding),
partly drain the paddies then incorporate again the azolla into the
soil with a rotary weeder during the second weeding; and,
7. Let the surviving azolla multiply until harvest time of the rice
crop. This batch of azolla will be incorporated into the soil during
land preparation for the next rice crop.
The azolla multiplies rapidly. The doubling time is 7 days. Thus, when
the field is inoculated with 50 kg of azolla, this increases to 13 t in 56 days.
Azolla contains 4–5% N, 1–1.5% P and 2 –3% K (dry basis). It has 93%
water and 1% dry matter.

Composting Practices in Other Countries
Chinese Method of Composting
China has been recycling organic wastes for many years. These
organic wastes include animal manures and urine; human habitation
wastes such as night soil, urine, sewage sludge and garbage; crop wastes
such as straw, husk, stalks, stubbles, weeds, grasses, leaves, sugarcane
trash, tea and cotton wastes; green manures; and aquatic plants, silt, and
others.
The methods/techniques in making composts in China depend on the
quantity of raw materials available, circumstances, and environment in
each locality. These were developed over many years and have been
standardized and given scientific basis.
Composting in the field. The various raw materials are piled in

alternate layers in a circular or rectangular pit dug in a corner in the field.
Each layer is about 15 cm thick. The topmost layer is made up of mud
and a layer of water 3–4 cm deep is maintained to create anaerobic
conditions. This is supposed to help in reducing nitrogen loss. The
approximate amounts of composting materials in the pit are:
Material Amount (t)
River silt 7.50

Rice straw 0.15
Pig excreta 1.00
Aquatic plants 0.75
Superphosphate 0.02
The compost pile is turned at 1 and 2 months after piling and at

2 weeks after the second month. Superphosphate is added during the
first turning. The compost is ready for use in 3 months and yields about
8 t of compost with the following composition:
OM, % 7.8–10.3
N, % 0.30
P2O5, % 0.20
K2O, % 0.30
C/N ratio 15–20

Composting with mud. Dried and ground mud is mixed with pig
manure, piled, and covered until needed. Another method is mixing ash
(40%) with night soil or pig manure and then with equal quantities of mud.
This is also covered until used. These kinds of compost are prepared in
a simple shed, 1.0–1.5 m high with tiled or thatched roof.
Composting liquid wastes. Manures and washings from pigsty

are channeled into a cement pit about 3 m in diameter and 1.5 m deep.
Weeds and aquatic plants are added and allowed to decompose for
10–15 days. The liquid is used as fertilizer. In another method, night soil
and urine are placed in tanks with small openings. After filling, the tanks
are sealed and the contents are allowed to decompose for 2–3 weeks.
High temperature compost. This is made up mainly of human and

animal excrement and chopped plant stalks at a ratio of 1:4. The
composting materials are piled in alternate layers starting with plant
materials as the first layer. Bamboo poles are inserted to serve as vents
or chimneys. After piling to the desired height, the heap is sealed with
a 3-cm thick layer of mud. After 1 day, the bamboo poles are withdrawn.
In about 4–5 days, the temperature rises to about 60°–70°C during which
the holes are sealed. The compost pile is turned after 2 weeks. The
compost is ready for use in about 2 months.
Composting city garbage and night soil. City garbage

(70–80%) and night soil (20–30%) are mixed and piled into a heap
4-m wide at the base, 2-m wide at the top, 1–5 m high and 4-m long. After
piling about 30 cm thick of materials, bamboo poles are laid horizontally
on the heap at every 1.5–2.0 m: each set connected at the center with
a bamboo pole set vertically. After piling to the desired height, the
compost heap is sealed with a 2–3 cm coat of 40% soil and 60% cinder
mixed with water. After 1 day, the bamboo poles are withdrawn. In
1–2 days, the temperature of the heap rises to 50°–55°C. The compost
matures in 3–4 months.
Korean Method of Composting
Composting of organic wastes in Korea is being promoted to protect

the soil and water resources from contamination, to recover resources
from waste, to reduce landfill and its cost, and improve compost quality

(Yang et al. 2001). As of 1997, there are 446 composting facilities for
agricultural products in Korea.
The popular method for integrated waste management is termed co-
composting. This is a waste treatment method where different types of
wastes are treated together. The organic material is reduced to
appropriate moisture content by mixing solid wastes materials like liquid
manure so that a material with better handling characteristics and
digestibility is made. Also, dilution of inhibitors such as ammonia is
achieved and certain nutrients are added. The general procedure in co-
composting is as follows:
1. collection and processing of the materials;

2. segregation and preparation of the organic fractions;
3. mixing of the materials with sludge cake;
4. composting of the mixture; and,
5. preparation of the composted product for storage, use or sale.
Some of the problems associated with co-composting are: adequate

mixing of sludge with other wastes, insufficient primary processing,
adequate management of moisture content, tendency of the compost
mass to arch or bridge over when mechanical mixing devices are used,
and lack of understanding of the composting process on the part of the
operators.
The co-composting technology was developed to utilize sludge
cakes produced from potato starch production and swine manure in
Cheju Island located at southernmost part of South Korea. The island
produces about 24% of the national production of potatoes. The sludge
from starch production is rich in cellulose, has high C/N ratio, and thus
very slowly decomposes. It also has 92% moisture. The island also
generates about 150,000 t of manure from 200,000 pigs. The steps
involved in co-composting the potato sludge and pig manure are:
1. Dewatering of the potato starch sludge using the pilot screw

press to produce cakes;
2. Mixing the piggery manure with sludge cakes (potato starch
sludge cakes, 5% dry weight + seed oil cake, 20% dry weight
+ zeolite, 5%) and adjustment of moisture contents from
50% to 55%;
3. Composting for 2 weeks (aerated static pile);

4. Pelletizing and bagging in perforated plastic; and,
5. Curing and storage for 2 months.
Potato starch sludge has very high moisture content and thus cannot
be used as bulking agent for co-composting pig manure as a substitute
for sawdust. The pilot screw press accomplishes dewatering. Treating
the sludge with slaked lime (0.5%) aggregates the particles making
dewatering easier. The procedure reduces the moisture content to about
60% and can dewater 75 t/day.
Tests showed that mixing ratio of pig manure: sawdust: sludge cake
of 1.0:.05:0.5 was the most efficient and practical based on indicators of
compost maturity such as temperature, moisture, and chemical properties.
Application on potato showed better growth and yield than that which
received chemical fertilizer.
Japanese Method of Composting
Composting of animal wastes in Japanese farms are highly

mechanized and categorized as follows (Harada 1995):
! Pile composting;
! Box bin composting;
! Open elongated bin composting;
! Open circular bin composting; and,
! Enclosed vertical reactor composting and rotating drum
composting.
In pile composting , the materials are piled in the open field (in areas
with little rain) or on the floor in a composting shed. The pile is built to
a height of 1–2 m and periodically turned with a bucket loader for mixing
the materials uniformly and improving aeration.
In static piling (no turning), aeration is provided by pipes placed on
the ditch on the floor and a blower supplies air. The recommended
dimensions of the composting shed considering the costs in Japan are
12.0–27.0 m (length of frontage), 4.0–9.0 m (depth) and 48.0–243 m2
(area) as shown in Figures 12 and 13. The height of the shed should be
3.5 cm or more to allow operation of the bucket loader. Height of breast
wall is about 2 m. The breast wall and partition wall are made of ferro-
concrete and concrete block. The roof is made of transparent plastic

12 m - 27 m
(A)
4m-9m
4m-9m
(B)
1.5 m
Fig. 12. Floor plan of composting shed.
Fig. 13. Cross-section of composting shed.

to make use of solar energy. This structure is generally used for cattle
waste composting.
The box bin composting system is similar to the composting shed.
The bin has three walls made up of concrete blocks with a wooden plank
fitted in front of the bin. The length of the frontage is 1.8–3.6 m, the depth
is 1.8–5.6 m, the height is 1.8–2.6 m and the area is 8–50 m2. Five to
twenty aeration pipes are placed on the floor. The materials for
composting are placed on the bins by screen conveyor and belt conveyor
or bucket loader. The box bins allow higher stacking of materials and
better use of floor space than freestanding piles. This system is
suggested for composting swine and cattle waste.
In open elongated bin composting, the process is done in long narrow
bins (Fig. 14.). This system combines forced aeration and mechanical
turning. The turning machine moves over bin on a set of rails. The
aeration pipes are built on the floor and blowers supply air.
The materials for composting are deposited at the front end of the
bin by a conveyor or bucket loader. As the turning machine moves to the
other end of the bin, it mixes and transfers the materials behind.
There are two types of turning machine used. One type (scoop type)
picks up and drops the materials with an inclined elevating conveyor and
another type (rotary type) mixes and transfers the materials with flails
on a rotating drum shaft. With the scoop-type system of turning, the
height of the compost pile is 1.0–1.5 m. With the rotary type, the compost
Fig. 14. Box bin composter.

pile cannot be stacked more than 1m high because the weight will affect
the flails on a shaft. This type is therefore not suitable in cold regions
since temperature cannot rise with such low stacking height. The
composting period takes about 25 days. The system is used for
composting swine and cattle wastes.
In the rotating drum composting system, a horizontal rotary drum
mixes, aerates, and moves the material along (Fig. 15). The drum is
mounted on bearings and turned by a large gear. The air is supplied from
the discharge end and moves in the opposite direction to the composting
material. The materials stay in the drum for only a short time and are
further cured in the composting shed. The system is suggested for
poultry wastes.
Fig. 15. Rotating drum composter.

Composting of animal wastes in Japan is done by mixing with
carbonaceous materials to control both moisture and C/N ratio (Haga
1990). For example, dairy cattle manure is mixed with sawdust or perlite
and then composted. The pile is turned once a day. The temperature
rises steeply to 70oC and is maintained at 60oC for 2–3 weeks then
drops to ambient temperature after 5–6 weeks. Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), volatile fatty acids (VFA), and benzene-ethanol extracts
decrease in 10–15 days. The C/N ratio, hemicellulose, cellulose, and
lignin gradually decrease and become almost constant in about 5 weeks.
The CEC increases up to 110 meq/100g in 30 days and also became
constant. Nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) also appears in 30 days.
The amount of sewage sludge discharged from treatment plants in
Japan is estimated to be about 3.8 x 106 m3/year. Only 1.7% of this is
composted in 19 facilities. The sludge is mixed with bulking materials
such as sawdust, bark, and rice hull to adjust the C/N ratio and moisture
content. The C/N ratio of dewatered sludge ranges from 6.2 to 8.6 and
the moisture content from 63% to 79%. The sludge is composted in the
first fermenter for 10–15 days during which active decomposition and
heat generation occur. The compost is transferred to the second
fermenter for curing. The main apprehension about sewage sludge is
that the heavy metals such as Zn, Cn, Pb, and Ni are retained in the
composted material.
Japan produces about 45 x 106 t/year of municipal refuse. Most of
these are incinerated or used as landfill and only about 0.1% is composted
in 39 facilities. Municipal refuse consists of a compost mixture of kitchen
garbage, papers, plastics, cloth, wood, glass, and metals. The N, P2O5,
and K2O contents range from 1% to 2%, the C/N ratio is about 20, and
the heavy metal contents are about the same as that of the sludge.
The wood wastes bark and sawdust produced in the country
amounts to about 14 x 106 m3/year. Bark is the primary material used
in composting. It is pulverized, mixed with nitrogen-rich materials like
poultry wastes, urea, and ammonium sulfate and composted for
2–3 months with occasional turning. The nitrogenous materials are
added to reduce the C/N ratio of bark from 70 to 500.
Taiwan Method of Composting
Yang (1995) of the Department of Agricultural Chemistry and

Global Change Center of the National Taiwan University listed some of
the easily available materials in Taiwan for composting:

Material Characteristics
1. Straw, husk, sawdust, pulp, ! Porous, low moisture

bark, corncob, bagasse content, not easily
decomposed without
pretreatment
2. Waste mushroom compost ! Porous, cellulosic materials
3. Animal wastes and by-product, ! Sloppy, high moisture

sludge, vegetable market content, offensive smell,
wastes, household wastes easily decomposed
4. Food processing wastes ! High moisture content,

easily decomposed
5. Municipal refuse ! Not easily decomposed
Yang (1995) gave some tips and described the composting

procedures for various organic materials.
Animal wastes. These materials not only have foul odor in raw
state but also lack porosity. The porosity may be improved by mixing the
animal waste with sawdust and husk or drying it beforehand. If the
porosity is improved in less than 70% of the absolute volume, composting
can be done favorably with the use of fan for aeration. Favorable
composting means that the temperature of the compost pile rises
sufficiently (70°–80oC).
Pig manure can be composted using forced aeration. The temperature
reaches the peak of 73oC on the fifth day and maintained at 50°–60oC
for 16 days. After 35 days, the material contains 30.22% moisture,
3.20% nitrogen, 11.5% phosphorus, 0.37% potassium, 15.6% calcium,
1.39% magnesium, 1,000 mg/kg zinc, and 170 mg/kg copper. A microbial
inoculant, TSC reagent is added to reduce the odor of composting.
Cow manure is composted with initial moisture content (MC) of
60%, aerated at the bottom and turned four times a day. The temperature
reaches 75oC on the fifth day and the MC is maintained at 50–60% for
15 days. The moisture content is adjusted to 55% on the 20th day with
the temperature rising again to 65oC and kept at 50°–55°C for 10 days.

After 35 days, the composted product has dark brown color and
contains 1.4% nitrogen, 1.8% phosphorus, 0.9% potassium, 60%
organic matter, and 30% moisture.
Chicken manure is composted in channel form fermentor with rotary
agitation. A good quality compost can be produced in 30–45 days.
These animal manures are composted by any of the following
methods: box type with aeration, pile type without aeration and turning,
pile type with turning and aeration, and channel type with turning (some
with aeration also).
Crop residues. Crop residues are abundant in Taiwan farms.

These include rice straw, rice hull, corn stalks, sorghum stalks, soybean
stems, peanut stems, peanut hulls, bark, and tobacco leaves. The
chemical composition of these materials is given in Table 1 (Hsieh and
Hsu 1993 as cited by Yang 1995).
Rice straw, rice husk, and bark have very low moisture content and
are very resistant to decomposition. To enhance the composting,
preliminary processing such as cutting the straw into smaller pieces
(15–30 cm long) and crushing them while adding water, needs to be done.
This increases the density and water-retaining ability of the straw.
During composting, the hot water-soluble organic matter content decreases
significantly during the first week followed by significant decrease in
hemicellulose and cellulose in the second week. In 3 months, the solids
decrease to 37% and the total carbon content to 23% of its original value.
The total nitrogen content remains fairly constant and C/N ratio decreases
from 51.0 to 11.6. The product turns to brownish red, the fibers weaken,
and the odor changes into matured compost.
Rice husk is similar to rice straw except that it does not contain much
organic matter, thus it is necessary to add water and chicken manure to
initiate composting. A C/N ratio of about 35 has been suggested for
composting rice husk, which by itself has a C/N ratio of 151.
In composting corncobs with urea, the carbon:nitrogen:phosphate
ratio is adjusted to 100:3:0.3 for 42 days. As composting time proceeds,
the maximum water holding capacity, dry weight per unit ash, total
nitrogen, immobilized nitrogen, crude fiber, and crude fat per unit dry
weight increase, while nitrogen free extract unit ash decrease. During
composting, the bulk density, crude ash, pH, total nitrogen, and total
phosphorus increase. The C/N ratio decreases from 70 to 20.

Bagasse. Bagasse is very resistant to decomposition because of its
high lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose composition, and C/N ratio higher
than 150. It takes at least 1 ½ years to fully decompose bagasse. But
there are ways to shorten decomposition time of bagasse. With forced
aeration, composting time takes only 8–12 months. When mixed with
hog manure or alcoholic slops and forced-aeration, composting takes
only 4 months. When piled on the ground then mixed with effluent of hog
waste water treated by facultative aerobic system, the compost matures
in 4–6 months. Bagasse composted with hog manure contains the
highest nitrogen and phosphorus (Huang et al. 1994).
Mushroom growth medium waste. Mushroom medium contains

rice bran, starch, calcium superphosphate, and calcium carbonate.
Among other properties, it has low bulk density and high water holding
capacity. In composting mushroom growth medium, it is mixed thoroughly
with animal wastes, soybean residue, or urea to attain a C/N ratio of
about 30 and a C/P ratio of about 100. The moisture content is adjusted
to 60% and the substrate is turned every 10 days (Jeng and Wu 1995).
Vegetable waste. Vegetable waste from households and markets

have high moisture content, hence are easily decomposed. The porosity
is improved by mixing with corncobs, sawdust, rice hull, and rice straw.
After 45–60 days of composting, the product contains 70.9–75.1%
moisture, 12.6–13.3% ash, 0.2–0.29% soluble nitrogen, 1.41–1.58%
total nitrogen, 2,795–3,203 mg/kg soluble BOD and 15,807–
17,182 mg/kg soluble COD.
Bark. Bark has too low organic matter content to start

decomposition. When composted with chicken dung or other animal
wastes, the temperature is maintained between 65oC and 73oC for
2 weeks and then 60oC for 1.5 months (Wang 1989). Moisture content,
pH, and bulk density decrease initially then increase for 42 days of
composting. The ratio of nitrogen free extract to ash, crude fiber content,
and other extract gradually decrease, while total nitrogen immobilized
nitrogen and ash content gradually increase, when composted with
Ganoderma lucidium, Lentinus edodes, Trichoderma spp., and
Cellulononas spp. In 13 weeks, the composted product contains
35% organic C, 1.3% total N, a C/N ratio of 27, and a CEC of
119 meq/100g.

Municipal refuse. The composition of municipal waste is highly
variable. The following are the changes that take place when municipal
waste is composted:
a) Ash content increases from 1.62- to 2.00- fold in 34–45 days;

b) Total N, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cd, DDT, and dieldrin contents
gradually increase with composting time while C content
decreases; and,
c) The composted product contains 22% organic matter, 0.91%
nitrogen, 0.20% nitrate, 0.74% total phosphorus, and 0.16%
total potassium.
Solid Waste Management for Philippine Municipalities
Composting the biodegradable components of municipal wastes is

the most practical way of alleviating the garbage problem of urban
centers in the Philippines. However, because of the great diversity of
types and volume of municipal wastes there is no standard procedure for
wastes processing (some of the basic steps, machineries, and structures
needed for composting garbage are presented in “The Philippines
Recommends for Agricultural Waste Processing and Management,
PCARRD-PARRFI-BAR, 2004).
Nevertheless, the following are the important considerations in
composting and use of municipal solid wastes (MSW) as organic
fertilizer and soil conditioner:
! The MSW does not contain nonbiodegradable materials during

composting to reduce the contamination with heavy metals and
other pollutants;
! Most MSW, particularly those coming from markets and
households are too wet and bulky. Absorbent materials (e.g.,
sawdust, coir dust, chopped straw, rice hull) should be added
during composting;
! Sludge contains high amounts of pathogens and as a
component in composting, it must undergo aerobic decomposition
to assure the elimination of the harmful organisms. Also, the
compost, due to high probability of containing heavy metals must
be used only for non-food plants (e.g., ornamentals);

! Foul odor and fly infestation are among the biggest problems in
composting MSW, especially if part of the process is under
anaerobic conditions. This may be controlled to a great extent
by:
- Frequent turning to ensure aerobic decomposition or installing

suction or blower system;
- Covering the decomposing pile with a layer of soil, ash, or
matured compost; and,
- Alternating the layers of fine materials with coarse materials
to make the pile more porous.
Figures 16–18 show the Los Baños Ecological Waste Processing

Center under the supervision and management of the town's local
government office.
Among the activities in the Center is the production of organic
fertilizer through composting biodegradable wastes. The municipality's
composting process generally involves shredding the wastes using the
shredder and composting the shredded materials in static concrete pens.
Coir dusts are applied to reduce the odor during the process of
decomposition. Bamboos are inserted into the pile for better aeration. It
takes 45 days to decompose the materials under this method.
Fig. 16. Machine used in the Los Baños Ecological Waste Processing
Center.

Fig. 17. Composting municipal wastes in Los Baños, Laguna.
Fig. 18. Organic fertilizer from municipal wastes in Los Baños, Laguna.

Microbial Fertilizers
Microbial fertilizers are preparations of live cells of microorganisms

strains. These microbes could fix nitrogen, solubilize phosphate, or
degrade cellulose. Microbial fertilizers are also called microbial inoculants
or biofertilizers. Microbial fertilizer is also used as a term to include all
organic resources or manures for plant growth, which are made available
for plant absorption through microbe-plant interaction.
Microbial fertilizers are applied to seed, soil, or composting materials.
The aim in using microbial fertilizers is to increase the number of
microorganisms and accelerate certain microbial processes.
The desired microbial processes may improve nutrient availability by
promoting nutrient forms that can easily be assimilated by plants. Such
microbial processes may include nitrogen conversion from the air into
forms usable by plants; the dissolution of phosphates by acid-secreting
bacteria; or the breakdown of organic matter by bacteria, fungi, and
actinomycetes.
As noted earlier, composting activators which are preparations of
cultures of bacteria and or fungi, are actually microbial fertilizers. These
are mixed with compost to improve the effectiveness of the prepared
organic product. This is by enhancing the number of nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, increasing the population of phosphate-solubilizing fungi, or
enhancing the overall bio-control effects of the organic fertilizer.
The Need for Microbial Fertilizers
An ideal soil has the following main characteristics: 1) optimum

physical properties; 2) with chemical constituents conducive for plant
growth; and 3) possesses balanced microbiological processes.
The microbiological processes are part of the nitrogen, phosphorus,
and carbon cycling. Nitrogen, for example, passes through various kinds
of interconversions in soil due to the microorganisms involved in the
nitrogen cycle.
Wild ecosystems like forests and grasslands have sustained their
productivity through centuries of natural interconversion of essential
elements such as mediated by microorganisms.

The present intensive crop cultivation requires the use of chemical
fertilizers to supply essential nutrients in volume and at the required time.
But fertilizers are in short supply and are expensive in developing
countries.
Exploring the possibility of supplementing chemical fertilizers with
organic ones, and with microbial fertilizers, is thus needed.
The Rhizobial Inoculant as Microbial Fertilizer
The classic example of a microbial fertilizer or inoculant is the

legume inoculant or the Rhizobium-type inoculant. This inoculant was
developed and commercialized based on the knowledge on the bacteria-
plant relationship in the legume system, which makes nitrogen available
for plant use.
The interactive beneficial relationship (or symbiosis) between the
root-nodule bacteria of the genus Rhizobium and legumes results in the
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the legume root nodules. This
symbiotic relationship has special significance to legume production.
Seed inoculation with effective Rhizobium strains can meet the nitrogen
requirements of the legume to achieve increased yields. Such a
phenomenon is of worldwide interest because it could lead to lesser
dependence on expensive petroleum-based nitrogen fertilizers for legumes.
Some common examples of legume crops include soybean, mungbean,
peanut, string beans, pigeon pea, and lima bean. These have special
relevance particularly for global regions where food consumption exceeds
production or where nitrogen fertilizers have to be imported. Food,
forage, and feed legumes are increasingly becoming attractive because
of their self-sufficiency for nitrogen supply, high protein, and calorific
values. In tropical countries like the Philippines, population increase and
food production are out of balance. The purchasing power for imported
chemical fertilizers is least adequate. Therefore, in these areas, the
greater use of legumes can have significant beneficial impact.
About 175 M t of global nitrogen is fixed per year. Legumes fix about
40% of that amount. Higher levels of fixation are contributed by marine
fixation.
Soybean can fix 234 kg N/ha. Naturally occurring populations of
Rhizobia are considered in relation to their inherent values as “natural
inocula” for legumes and to their effects on the introduction of new
strains.

Worldwide production of legume inoculants is static or in decline.
This is a paradoxical situation in a world where improved strategies for
augmenting biological N2 fixation have the potential to contribute enormous
returns in the quality and quantity of food for human and domestic
animals.
Greater use of symbiotic nitrogen fixation can be achieved through
the use of the legume-Rhizobium technology that makes use of rhizobial
inoculants as microbial fertilizers.
Production of Rhizobium Microbial Fertilizer
Production of legume inoculants or rhizobial inoculants for marketing

started in the US and the UK as early as 1895. In 1993, many countries
already produce the inoculants. Most are prepared in powdered organic
carriers such as peat. Peat remains the favored base particularly when
rendered sterile by gamma-ray irradiation. Peat is a heavy organic
material made of partly rotted moss and other plants that is mined from
soil beds.
The search for alternative carrier materials continues particularly in
regions without natural deposits of peat. Resuspension of lyophilized
(frozen in vacuum) cultures of rhizobia in vegetable oil was reported
good or gave better cell survival than in peat cultures and performed well
in field trials. Soil as adhesives for seed inoculation was also reported to
give good results.
Usually, microbial fertilizers or inoculants are prepared by adding
fermenter-grown broth (nutrient medium in tank where the desired
microorganism is grown) containing a large population of Rhizobia
to powdered carrier followed by a period of incubation. Another
method of production uses direct fermentation on nutrient-
supplemented vermiculite for bacterial inoculants production
(Fig. 19).
Figure 20 shows the actual production of inoculated compost.
An Australian company has recently been experimenting with the
production of broth inoculant. A sterile fermentation liquor was used as
a nutrient broth for fermenter cultivation of rhizobia to a population
greater than 1 B cells per mL.

Fig. 19. An example of a schematic process of Rhizobium inocula production
(Modified from Subba Rao, 1988).

Fig. 20. Production of inoculated compost.
Application of Legume Microbial Fertilizer
The Rhizobia or bacteria producing nodulation are as widely

distributed as the legumes themselves. Nevertheless, there are many
soils devoid of strains suitable for introduced legumes and some soils
where Rhizobia are few or absent.
Four conditions which would warrant the use of legume microbial
fertilizers are as follows:
! The absence of the same or a symbiotically related legume in

the immediate past history of the land;
! Poor nodulation when the same crop was previously grown on
the land ;
! When the legume follows a non-leguminous crop in a rotation;
and,
! Inland reclamation undertakings.
When sufficient effective Rhizobia are already present in the soil,

then inoculation is not required. Many farmers inoculate as a form of
insurance, however.
Farmers must obtain and properly use viable effective rhizobial
microbial fertilizer on their legume seeds or soil before planting. This is
necessary in order to realize the agricultural benefits possible from the
use of selected, high nitrogen-fixing strains of nodule bacteria or
Rhizobia. The technology in growing these bacteria, preparing inoculants

with suitable carrier materials, and distributing viable inoculants to
farmers, is essential.
The most common means of introducing Rhizobia to the soil is as
seed-applied inoculum. In its simplest (and least satisfactory) form, peat
inoculant is mixed with water to form a slurry and mixed with the seeds.
Better results are obtained when the inoculant is coated on the seed
with an adhesive such as gum arabic or methyl cellulose. This method
increases survival on the seed coat until before the radicle emerges.
When the seed is sown in stress conditions (soil acidity, non-dependable
rainfall, etc.), an additional coating of calcium carbonate, rock
phosphate, or other pelleting material can enhance the success of
inoculation.
Two other popularly used inoculation techniques are: band application
of liquid inocula into the soil beneath the seeds and placement of granular
inoculum near the seed. These methods are preferred if local conditions
dictate that seed is sown treated with fungicide or pesticide, or if the
species pushes its cotyledons and seed coat above the soil surface.
A prime aim of legume inoculation is to maximize survival of
inoculant during the period between its introduction to the soil and the
development of a legume rhizosphere which it can colonize. Field trials
have shown the significance of high rates of inoculation in achieving
this objective and optimizing subsequent nodulation and biological
nitrogen fixation.
Application of inoculant or microbial fertilizer to the seed surface
prior to sowing is the traditional, most commonly used and easiest means
of inoculation. It must be noted, however, that the viability of the
Rhizobia is subject to the hazards of drying, fertilizer contact, seed coat
toxicity, incompatible pesticidal and mineral additives, and inimical soil
factors. Proposals to extend the life expectancy of Rhizobia on seed
including curing (storing at 20°–27oC for up to 4 weeks) inoculants
before use, and suspending cultures in alginate gel rather than sucrose
before application to seed, have not been adopted by the industry. There
are numerous adhesives suitable for attaching inoculants to seed.
Tenacity is an important characteristic of adhesives to ensure that
inoculant is not lost from the seed during handling and passage through
sowing machinery.
Figure 21 shows the basal application of microbial fertilizers in
vegetables.

Fig. 21. Basal application of microbial fertilizers in vegetables.
The Mycorrhizal Microbial Fertilizer
The Mycorrhiza or fungus root is a structure of root tissue and a

fungus. It is a unique association of a specialized mycorrhizal fungus
with higher plants. The fungus is highly habitat-limited. It is usually found
in the immediate vicinity of or directly within the roots. In a strict sense,
the fungus is not a soil microorganism, but a resident within the root
association. It is adapted to root tissues which may be related to its
complex nutrient demand. Other mycorrhizal fungi may require
mixtures of vitamins and amino acids, while others have never been
cultivated in artificial media.
Mycorrhizae are divided into ectotrophic and endotrophic categories.
The association is ectotrophic when the fungus forms a covering around
the exterior of the roots, where a network composed of a mass of
hyphae enters into the spaces between the individual plant cells that
lead to the formation of a subterranean structure. Many trees including
some economically important ones are of this type. Ectotrophic
mycorrhizae include species of fungi rarely found in soil by dilution
plating. Typical genera active on trees are Boletus, Lactarius, Amanita,
and Elaphomyces.
The fungus penetrates the cells of the host in the endotrophic
Mycorrhiza. This association is quite common among the Ericaceae

and Orchidaceae, as well as in fruit trees, citrus, coffee, and various
legumes.
The formation of Mycorrhizae is particularly pronounced in lands
low in phosphorus and nitrogen. High nutrient levels are correlated with
poor mycorrhizal development. When roots have a large reserve of
available carbohydrates, the production of mycorrhizal structures is most
vigorous. This occurs following intensive photosynthesis. This may be
an indication of the host supplying the fungus with the carbohydrates
necessary for its heterotrophic metabolism. But the root component may
also supply amino acids, B vitamins, or other growth factors.
How valuable are the Mycorrhizae? For many plants, the
Mycorrhiza exerts a beneficial influence. Most of the time, no function
can be attributed to the association. Sometimes, detrimental effects may
ensue from the mycorrhizae.
Mycorrhizae are important in forestry, as they may be important or
essential in reforestation and in afforestation of new lands.
The uptake of inorganic nutrients is often quite pronounced in plants
with Mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizal roots frequently assimilate phosphate
more readily than fungus-free roots. Thus, plants with Mycorrhizae
grow well in phosphorus-deficient lands. The mycorrhizal fungus in
many plant species similarly promotes the uptake of nitrogen, sulfur, zinc,
and other essential elements. Also, the fungus may protect the root
against infection by many different kinds of soil-borne pathogens.
The many benefits of Mycorrhizae have brought about the
development of inoculants or microbial fertilizers of this organism.
Because of the many beneficial effects, extensive research has been
conducted on inoculation of plant species of economic importance.
There are many proven successful field inoculation effects of
Mycorrhizae both here and abroad.
Algal and Other Microbial Fertilizers
Symbiotic systems that fix nitrogen exist in plants that are not
legumes and thus do not create nodules. The Azolla-Anabaena
complex is one such system which involves the blue-green algae. The
Anabaena blue-green algae reside in the leaf cavities of the floating fern
Azolla. This system is abundant in certain rice paddies of tropical and
semitropical areas. The symbiosis could fix some 150–300 kg N/ha per
year.

Other photosynthetic bacteria and blue-green algae are able to fix
nitrogen. These organisms are able to fix both carbon dioxide and
nitrogen simultaneously in the presence of light.
The contribution of blue-green algae is thought to be of some
significance in wetland areas and in rice paddies. The blue-green algae
have been found to fix sufficient nitrogen for moderate rice yields.
Normal levels of blue-green algal fixation are about 20–30 kg N/ha per
year. Such fixation also occurs in upland areas, but is of much lower level
than that of the wetlands.
The established benefits of blue-green algae have led to inoculant
production making use of these organisms.
In the rhizosphere or root environment of non-legumes and grasses,
bacteria of the genera of Azospirillum and Azotobacter carry out a
more widespread but less intense nitrogen-fixing activity. These
organisms use root exudates as energy sources of their fixation of
nitrogen from the air. These can fix at the rates of 5–30 kg N/ha per year,
with total quantities of nitrogen fixed to be most likely very high.
Furthermore, many strains of these organisms have been proven to
exhibit plant growth-promoting activities.
Long-term studies of the biology and activities of these organisms
have led to the development of artificial cultures containing significant
cell numbers, which could be delivered into the soil and crop at the
opportune time. The cultures or inoculants are packaged and used giving
proven benefits.
Microbial Fertilizers in the Market
It is important to recognize that organic and microbial fertilizers

are key tools in helping provide answers to the gargantuan problems of
high-poverty incidence and food shortages in developing countries.
The two financial crises of 1988 and 1997 have brought down a large
proportion of the population below the poverty threshold. Some 40%
of the Filipinos are now said to be poor and are thus finding it hard to
look for sustenance.
This is true for other developing countries. Provisions for food and
income are needed more than ever. Besides, the fundamental need to
reformulate government policies, the initiatives to find the tools to
improve the living standards of people are urgent.

Sufficient food production demands the renewal of soils and
optimum crop growth for yield enhancement and continuing
productivity. Activities surrounding active food production inevitably
generate more income to augment domestic needs.
The use of chemical fertilizers alone for crop nutrition has some
disadvantages. One of these is the long-term decline in soil quality and
the financial costs of supporting its use. The bulk of fertilizer materials
need not come from imports alone as this is a drain on our dollar reserves.
Importation of chemical fertilizers in 1992 amounted to some
$168 M (Table 12). If it were possible, substitution of only 10 % of
these imports with locally made organic fertilizers and microbial
fertilizers will definitely make a difference.
Table 12. Import of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in 1992.
Type Volume (t) Value ($) Value (P)
Chemical fertilizer 1,259,900 168,108,174 4,370,812,524

Chemical pesticide 12,175 82,532,490 1,624,194,000
Total 1,110,770 230,577,174 5,995,006,524
Source: Senate Committee Report 2000.
It is high time that organic fertilizers and microbial fertilizers, which

can be manufactured locally and which make use of environment-
friendly production techniques, be viewed as inseparable component of
active food production and sustainable agriculture.
Organic fertilizers refer to fermented animal manure and crop
residues subjected to microbial action and supplied with air for a definite
period of time until the materials are degraded into fractions no longer
recognizable as the source materials. These are concentrated in
nutrients and of fine texture. These may be fortified with some amounts
of chemical fertilizers or inoculated with prepared cultures of beneficial
microorganisms.
Microbial fertilizers or biofertilizers, on the other hand, refer to
products containing proven beneficial microorganisms or parts thereof
as active ingredients for crop nutrition and promotion of crop growth and
yield. Both organic fertilizers and microbial fertilizers may contain live
microorganisms as active ingredient. These products are directly
renewable, and offer a healthy option for minimizing farm input expense.

These also provide a commercially viable measure to enhance crop-
soil productivity.
Table 13 shows some examples of the organic and microbial
fertilizers now in the market.
! Bio-N – a microbial inoculant of nitrogen-fixing bacteria proven

to enhance growth and yield of rice and corn;
! Nitro-Plus – a microbial inoculant of Rhizobium bacteria
proven to be effective for legumes;
! Mykovam and Mycogro – inoculant preparation of beneficial
fungi of mycorrhiza were effective in field crops and forest
tree seedlings; and,
! Biogreen bioorganic fertilizers – processed inoculated compost
enriched with beneficial microbial inoculants proven effective in
enhancing growth and yield in field crops, ornamentals, and
fishponds.
Bio-N is a microbial inoculant for rice. It comes in 200-g packets

of soil-charcoal carrier seeded with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Research
had shown that when used in the presence of modest amounts of
chemical fertilizer N, Bio-N improves root development, general vigor,
tillering, grain yield, and milling recovery. In the farmers’ field, Bio-N can
complement 50% of the recommended rate of chemical fertilizer N of
100–120 kg/ha. In fertile soils, inoculated treatments produced a mean
of 6.2 t/ha vs. 4.8 t/ha of uninoculated unfertilized control plots, and
5.4 t/ha of uninoculated fertilized control plots. In fertile sites, the yield
of inoculated rice in the presence of ½ the recommended dosage of
chemical fertilizer N was comparable with that of fields supplied with full
chemical fertilizers. Another example of rice yield response to the use
of Bio-N is shown in Table 14 where marked yield increase is noted.
Nitro-Plus is a microbial inoculant for legumes. The use of Nitro-
Plus showed that it can induce response to inoculation in 89 % of the field
tests with an average yield increase of 124%. It can induce response in
50% of the field trials in mungbean and peanut, producing an average
yield increase of 29% in mungbean and 39% in peanut. An example of
response of a target crop (soybean) to application of Nitro-Plus is shown
in Table 15. A significant yield increase over the untreated plants is
obtainable with this product.
Extensive research had also been done with processed
inoculated compost or bioorganic fertilizers (BOF). One such product

Table 13. Common microbial fertilizer products in the country with continuing
R&D and promoted for use in the farmers’ fields.
Microbial
Product Active Product
Name Classification Ingredient Benefits Source
1. Bio-N Microbial Azospirillum Enhances BIOTECH, U.P.

fertilizer growth in Los Baños
rice & corn
with minimal
chemical
fertilizers
2. Nitro-Plus Microbial Rhizobium Enhances BIOTECH, U.P.
fertilizer legume Los Baños
growth &
yield
3. Mykovam Microbial Mycorrhizae Enhances P BIOTECH, U.P.
fertilizer availability Los Baños
in trees
4. Mykogro Microbial Mycorrhizae Enhances P BIOTECH, U.P.
fertilizer availability Los Baños
in field crops
5. a) Biogreen Inoculated Azotobacter Enhances BIOTECH, U.P.
organic Trichoderma crop growth Los Baños
fertilizer & yield with
reduced che-
mical fertilizer
b) Cocorich Inoculated Azotobacter Enhances BIOTECH, U.P.
organic Trichoderma crop growth Los Baños &
fertilizer & yield with Minola,
reduced Corporation
chemical
fertilizer use
Table 14. Example of rice response to Bio-N, dry season 1987, General
Trias, Cavite.
Treatment Yield (t/ha)

cv IR 52 cv IR 64
Uninoculated (+ 24 kg N/ ha) 2.2 b 2.3 b

W/ Bio-N (+ 24 kg N/ha) 4.4 a 4.4 a
Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different at 5% level
of significance.

Table 15. Example of the yield-enhancing effects of Nitro-Plus on the yield
of soybean.
Parameters Monitored Treatment

With Nitro-Plus Without
Nodule/plant, 6 WAP 15 a 8b
Nitrogen uptake, mg/plant, WAP 186 a 106 b
No. of branches/plant 2.55 a 1.92 b
Marketable yield, kg/ha 1482 a 1411 b
Dry matter yield, g/plant, 6 WAP 6a 4a
No. of pods/plant 34 a 24 a
Wt. 100 seeds, g 21 a 18 a
Means within a row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5 % level
of significance.
at BIOTECH-UPLB is Biogreen. These are composts, the fermentation

of which have been semi-controlled such that most of the C, N and P
contents are made highly available; and beneficial organisms have been
added as inoculants for better effectiveness. Controlled experiments
have shown growth enhancements over unfertilized plants by as much
as 30–85 % depending on the soil type. An example of the bioorganic
fertilizer effects in the field is shown in Table 17. Research and extension
activities on this product had helped stimulate the organic fertilizer
business in many areas. So far this is the one product at BIOTECH that
had the benefit of using entrepreneurship development as the key tool for
end-user expansion and product promotion.
Extensive work has been done on Mycovam relevant for use in rice
and agoho trees. Species of endomycorrhizal fungi predominantly
associated with different crops have been identified. Locally isolated
mycorrhizal fungi were found to be more effective compared with those
isolates obtained from abroad. Studies on P-response curves in marginal
soils proved that mycorrhizal inoculation can equal or exceed the effects
provided by chemical fertilizer P. Considerable work has already been
done to show the effectiveness of mycorrhizal inoculation in selected
crops. An example of the yield-enhancing effects of Mykovam
mycorrhizal inoculant is shown in Table 16.
Past researches on these products had dwelt on effectiveness on
test crops, formulation, and production techniques. Presently, research
is continuing on better alternative strains, new formulations, and mass

Table 16. Example of yield enhancement by Mykovam mycorrhizal inoculant in
eggplant cv. Bingo, wet season 1997, San Mateo, Dolores, Quezon.
Treatment Yield Yield Increase

(kg per plot) Over Control (%)
Control 210 -
With Mykovam 1100 424
Table 17. Example of the effects of processed inoculated compost or bioorganic

fertilizer on the growth and yield of rice cv. IR-74 at harvest.
Mean Mean Mean Grain

Treatment Plant Tiller Panicle Yield
Height Count Count (t/ha)
(cm/hill) (no./m2) (no./m2)
(T1) Control (no fertilizer) 59.48 b 606.2 c 304.7 b 4.79 b

(T2) Chemical fertilizer
(90-60-60) 70.22 a 721.9 b 529.7 a 6.02 a
(T3) Chem. fert. (45-30-30) +
bioorganic fertilizer
(500 kg /ha) 70.57 a 764.1 a 531.2 a 6.17 a
(T4) Bioorganic fertilizer
(500 kg / ha) 68.03 a 764.1 a 500.0 a 6.06 a
(T5) Chem. fert. (90-60-60) +
bioorganic fertilizer
(500 kg / ha) 70.18 a 781.2 a 562.5 a 6.35 a
Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different at 5 % level
of significance.
production technologies. Studies on molecular aspects and genetic

improvement for selected strains have been started.
All these organic and microbial fertilizer technologies have concrete
proofs of effectiveness in various crops and soils (Fig. 22). Research
results are further being strengthened with continuing field and
demonstration trials in cooperation with various government, private, and
non-government organizations as well as farmer-cooperatives and
associations in lieu of a national testing program. Testimonials on the
products' effectiveness are also available from various farmer
practitioners who have been using the products for many years.

Fig. 22. Farmer-maintained
rice crop applied with
inoculated compost.
Other organic and microbial fertilizers from private manufacturers

are in the local market as well. These are mainly organic fertilizers.
In the beginning, most work on organic and microbial fertilizers have
been mainly research-driven. In the 1970s, the energy crisis has goaded
most governments to put research funds into biological processes as a
long-term solution to the depletion of fossil-based fuels. The move of
the Philippine government along this line has produced the present
examples of organic and microbial fertilizers.
In the new millennium, when it was identified by many civic and
funding institutions that the greatest need is poverty reduction all over the
world, the drive for enterprise development and income generation has
fostered the commercialization of organic and microbial fertilizers and
similar products. The initiative now of the universities and the government
agencies is for wider adoption of locally-developed organic and microbial
fertilizers, and if possible, linking them with the private sector for wider
dissemination.
The methods and strategies used in organic and microbial fertilizers
development and use are presented in Figure 23.
Besides the field research activities, which at the same time provide
venues for field demonstration, direct seminars, training workshops, and
field demonstration tests, offer opportunities to reach many farmers and
potential product end-users.
The organic and microbial fertilizers coming from other private
manufacturers are also very active in holding product seminars and
demonstration trials (Table 18).

(1)
Laboratory
& Pot
Testing &
Evaluation
(2) (3)
Field testing Cooperators'
& evaluation & farmers' field
trials in various
locations
(5)
Networking with
government & (4)
private sectors, Coordinated
media campaign farmers' use
& product sales in various
regions
Fig. 23. Methods and strategies for fertilizer development and use.
Table 18. Training activities on bioorganic fertilizer from April 1991 to

June 1995.
Services Number
Technical:
Training materials 23
Courses 90
Participants
Seminars 206 (8 courses)
Training courses 1490 (78 courses)
Individual special trainings 1 (1 course)
Special seminars/conferences 189 (3 courses)
Grand total number of participants 1886
Entrepreneural:
Training packages developed 3
Trainors’ training courses held 1
Number of participants 18
Number of entrepreneurial trainings held 6
Total number of participants 145

Current Trends
Most of the organic and microbial fertilizers discussed are now

commercialized or directly sold by some government agencies like U.P.
Los Baños. As a government entity, the BIOTECH-UPLB gets orders
from farmers or cooperatives.
Other private manufacturers of organic and microbial fertilizers are
very active in commercialization. Although they have their own product
sales, not one is a key player in the market. Of course, the market is still
dominated by chemical fertilizers as these have been existing since the
1950s. Field survey would show that Sagana organic fertilizer has
relatively large product sales in Northern Luzon; Phela Resources, Inc.
sells some 60,000 of 50-kg bags of organic fertilizers per year in
Mindanao mainly to Dole Philippines; Sanders organic fertilizer has large
sales in Central Luzon. Effective Micoorganisms (EM) is said to sell well
to piggery and poultry establishments.
The market and general usage for organic and microbial fertilizers
may be considered just starting in the Philippines. This is normal for any
new product introductions. Even chemical fertilizers had to incubate for
more than 20 years for them to become key market players.
But the organic and microbial fertilizers as a product have moved.
Not only are organic farming enthusiasts interested but also commercial
plantations are taking note of the benefits of organic and microbial
fertilizers.
Nevertheless, the organic and microbial fertilizers as an export
product are a long way to global competitiveness. However, these are
becoming significant ingredients in the export crop market. Dole
Philippines has been using local organic fertilizers for its banana export.
AlterTrade Corporation applies the same for its sugar and banana
exports. The local market has been absorbing some organic and
microbial fertilizer sales. The income from these sales provides added
employment and income for workers. The Payoga-Kapatagan, Inc. , an
organic fertilizer business in Isabela being technically assisted by the
BIOTECH-UPLB, has had regular sales of some 2,000 bags of organic
fertilizers per year and is sustaining some five field workers from its
income. This has been going on for the last 7 years. For a small business
like that in a rural community, such an output is a feat in itself.
At BIOTECH-UPLB, the biofertilizer product Bio-N has
registered a dramatic increase in sales in the last 3 years mainly due to
the direct support from the government. The increase in income is shown

in Table 19. If the organic and microbial fertilizer business could be given
more push and support, there is no reason why its status cannot be
elevated from a micro-industry to a major market player. For a
developing country, added income from these new activities is no small
contribution to the sustenance of its people.
Table 19. Yearly production and sales of Bio-N from 1997 to 2000.
Year Production Sales

(in 200-g packs) (P)
1997 527 10,540

1998 1,947 38,925
1999 4,647 92,935
2000 9,600 192,010
The main benefit of organic and microbial fertilizer use is the promise
of enhanced food production at minimum chemical fertilizer inputs.
Research results proved that the combined use of organic fertilizer or
microbial fertilizer with reduced chemical fertilizer input gives higher
yield compared with the use of chemical fertilizers alone. Combined with
the potential of producing organic and microbial fertilizers locally, food
production in this regard would tend to be substantially enhanced and use
of dollar reserves will be reduced. In this light, food production could
really be promoted as an action program promising better income and
nutrition for the many which is the essence of an active food security
measure.
Problems and Constraints
The wider adoption and commercialization of organic and microbial

fertilizers are the biggest constraints of the industry. An organizational
set-up fine-tuned to these goals should aid the process a great deal.
A private organization or a suitably supported university-based business
unit would be in a better position to answer the calls of production,
product linkages, marketing, and sales.
However, more support activities are needed along the following
areas:(a) conduct of more regional and demonstration trials and
collection of only the more important data sets; (b) arrangements for
production linkages and setups to handle inoculum production;
(c) commercial agreements to enhance production and sales of
inoculants.

Economic Considerations
Commercial Organic Fertilizer (COF) plays a central role in organic-

based farming systems also known as sustainable agriculture. Currently,
organic-based agriculture has received increasing attention among
academic researchers, government leaders, and policy makers worldwide.
In the Philippines, the Department of Agriculture (DA), as the lead
agency mandated to ensure sustainability in agricultural production,
incorporated organic-based farming practices in its major programs,
notably the Ginintuang Masaganang Ani (GMA) Programs for rice, corn,
and high value commercial crops (GMA-Rice, GMA-Corn, and GMA-
HVCC). Under the GMA programs, the application of COF ensures a
balance between and among goals of self-sufficiency, cost-efficiency,
and ecological balance.
In June 2004, the DA-Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product
Standards (DA-BAFPS), initiated the First National Planning Workshop
for Organic Agriculture. It was conducted to assess and update all
stakeholders and participants on the status of the organic industry.
Likewise, the participants drafted and presented to the incumbent
Agriculture Secretary a comprehensive action plan to jumpstart and
sustain the organic agriculture development in the country. In September
2004, DA also conducted an accounting of COF to determine the
availability of the product in the market. The study was in preparation for
the implementation of DA’s TIPID ABONO for its GMA-Rice Program.
The study showed that available COF is not enough to meet the expected
demands if DA implements its program nationwide.
In November 2004, DA implemented its TIPID ABONO Program
in selected areas using the Balanced Fertilization Scheme (BFS). The
reason for the piloting of the program is the prohibitive cost of synthetic
fertilizers that could drastically affect the target production for the rice
program.
Other economic considerations influencing the use of and/or shift
to COF are:
! Use of COF increased crop yields by 20–30% and in some

instances even as high as 100% depending on soil condition. In
wetland rice, the COF application gave almost comparable

results with that of farms using chemical fertilizers (Ravago
1992 as cited in Baticados and Calampiano 1996);
! If applied on a regular basis, COF use could reduce and in some
instances eliminate the use of pesticides. Pests are said to avoid
sturdier crops as these have tougher plant cells and emit a taste
that repels insects compared with plants using chemical fertilizers
alone (PCARRD 1987 as cited in Baticados and Calampiano
1996). Also, reports indicated that application of essential
elements using BFS minimized disease incidence;
! Organically grown products aside from being more profitable
due to their higher market prices than conventionally-produced
ones were found to have longer shelf life; and,
! At the farm level, results showed that Rapid Composting
Technology users in rice in Iloilo, Ilocos Sur, and Davao del
Norte and in sugarcane in Bukidnon significantly increased
yields, total returns, and net returns as compared to non-
compost users (Rola et al. 1996).
The following attributes significantly affect the farmers’ decision in

adopting composting and use of COF: farm size, non-farm incomes, and
frequent contacts with extension agents.
In any business venture, profit determines economic viability, hence
entrepreneurs really take time preparing business plans based on the
marketability of their products and services before actually starting their
business ventures. Market research is a key consideration. The major
components of a market research include but are not limited to the
following:
! Product Profile
a) Existing products of the same nature and their respective
market shares
b) Competing products and their market shares
c) Product specifications
! Market Profile
a) Target market
b) Size of current market/s for the product and/or service to
be offered
c) Market expansion potential
d) Market penetration strategies

! Product Promotion
a) Packaging
b) Pricing and pricing schemes
c) Promotional activities
! Budgetary requirements to produce the product/s that could

sustain good market shares.
In the COF business, majority of the entrepreneurs who pioneered

into production were environmentalists and organic advocates with
business interests not directly involved in agricultural production. They
are either introduced to the benefits of “healthy organic lifestyle” by
scientist-friends, or simply socio-civic minded citizens trying to be part of
a growing group of environmental activists.
Economic Viability Based on Supply and Demand
As of June 30, 2005, the Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (FPA)

reported 43 registered companies engaged in the organic fertilizer
business as manufacturers, importers, and traders. However, the FPA
also reported in its “Organic Fertilizer Supply-Demand Statistics” for the
period 1991–2002, the instability of COF production (Table 20). The
report showed that the highest production volume was in 1992 at
1,646,240 bags (73,212 t) and the lowest was in 2001 at 139,376 bags
(6,969 t). In the updated report for 2003, production decreased further
to 2,758.35 t. The report also indicated that from 1999 the number of
companies reporting decreased dramatically. The volume sold annually
is much lower compared to production. Hypothetically, the report gave
an impression that low sales turnout forced some companies to shut
down and or lower production.
Considering the large area for crop production as reflected in
Table 21, the OF sales reported is very low. This means that the COF
manufacturers were not able to penetrate the lucrative fertilizer
market.
Technical Paper #9 of PEARL-2 Project entitled State of the
Sector Report: Philippine Organic and Natural Products published

Table 20. Organic fertilizer supply and demand statistics, 1991–2002.
Year Production Sales

(t) (50 kg /bag) (t) (50 kg /bag)
1991 43,052 861,040 15,828 316,560

1992 73,212 1,646,240 17,138 342,760
1993 7,647 152,940 5,973 119,460
1994 12,458 249,160 11,070 221,400
1995 21,769 435,380 28,090 561,800
1996 14,754 295,080 12,734 254,680
1997 11,651 233,020 12,102 242,040
1998 16,893 337,860 15,684 313,680
1999a 8,951 179,011 9,764 195,279
2000b 12,108 242,169 11,961 239,219
2001c 6,969 139,376 6,770 135,396
2002d 21,160 423,203 1,914 38,277
a
From 13 companies; bfrom 12 companies; cfrom 6 companies; dfrom 6 companies.
Source: FPA 2003.
Table 21. Agricultural crop production statistics, Philippines, 2000.a
Mean Yield Area Harvested Production

Crop (t/ha) (‘ 000 ha) (‘ 000 t)
Palay 3.07 4,038.1 12,389.4

Corn 1.80 2,510.3 4,511.1
Coconut 3.06 4,089.9 12,499.1
Sugarcane 63.20 372.1 23,518.5
Fruits 10.65 678.0 7,219.3
Rootcrops 6.42 405.5 2,603.9
Vegetables 6.38 163.9 1,046.5
Coffee 0.86 136.5 117.0
Fiber Crops 0.72 115.0 83.7
Rubber 2.42 76.8 185.5
Tobacco 1.21 40.8 49.5
Spices 4.25 14.6 62.1
Cacao 0.59 11.1 6.6
Others 15.98 239.0 3,819.4
Total 12,891.6 68,111.6
a
2001 Philippine Statistical Yearbook, National Statistical Coordination Board.

in December 2004, offers an explanation on the downtrend in volume
of production of COF. The paper presented the following findings:
! Generally speaking, the organic industry in the country is still

in its infancy stage, with most firms having an average of
2–5 years of operation. These firms are basically engaged in
processing and trading of organic produce. The “pioneers” in
the inputs/COF sub-sector have been established in the last
15–18 years, hence, the market for the produce of the “pioneers”
is not yet established or not yet fully established.
2. There is no single, unified organic sector at the time the study

was conducted. With government support (i.e., education,
research, and extension) still focused mainly on conventional
agriculture, organic agriculture (OA) remains dependent on the
private sector, non-government organizations (NGOs) and
Peoples’ Organizations (POs). OA is comprised mainly of
small-scale and fragmented projects/initiatives spread across
the country.
3. On market coverage, about 83% of respondents sell their

produce to the domestic market, 56% of which concentrate
their marketing activities in Metro Manila.
Since the processing and trading sub-sector of the OA sector is not

yet fully organized, manufacturers depend mostly on government, like
DA for their market. In 1995, DA implemented a program on COF
use, hence the high volume sold for the year.
The low sales volume of COF production as described and reported
did not discourage Galactic Resources Development Corp. (GRDC).
GRDC manufactures ALPHA S.P. OF, GRO EZ foliar fertilizers, and
natural inputs (Fig. 24) . It started business in 1993. The Corporation
attributes the low sales volume to the “state of readiness of the farmers”
to shift to organic agriculture. The small group who had been advocating
for the shift to the new paradigm cannot compete with the inorganic
fertilizer sub-sector mainly because they have been established for
years. The marketing infrastructure, the government support in terms of
research and development (R&D), training, and credit all favor
conventional agriculture, thus favoring the inorganic fertilizer sub-
sector. The business started with a very high market potential yet

Fig. 24. ALPHA S.P. organic
fertilizer produced at
GRDC, Batangas.
cannot penetrate simply because of lack of policy to support organic

agriculture.
Tan (2000) reported that over the next 10 years, organic global
market would explode. In 2002, the global organic market was valued at
US$23 B, with an estimated annual growth rate of 25.2% based on
global sales of US$11 B in 1998 (Stiftung & Oekologie [SOL] 2002).
The high demand for organic products basically fresh food crops and
herbal products creates the demand for organic inputs, basically OF.
Aside from high cost of inorganic fertilizer, other developments that
could pump-prime the OF industry include:
! The shift in program priorities of the DA through the

implementation of the Balanced Fertilization Scheme under
the TIPID ABONO Project of GMA-Rice Program.
In support of the program, the National Agriculture and
Fisheries Council (NAFC) launched “Organikong Abono
Tulong sa Magsasakang Pilipino,” a bridge financing program
that provides collateral-free, zero-percent interest loan to nine
selected OF producers to enable them to increase production
in time for the cropping season. Land Bank and QUEDANCOR
were also involved in the program. The program is expected
to create demand for at least 5 M COF per cropping cycle,

because a total of 1 M ha are programmed to be planted per
cropping under the GMA-Rice Program.
! The approval of the Philippine National Standards (PNS) for

organic products.
Currently, the BAFPS is reviewing the PNS for OF to
impose stricter quality control that would prevent production
of sub-standard products.
! The recent establishment of the Philippine National Organic

Agriculture Board which supports among others the:
a) implementation of the Philippine National Organic Standards
and Certification System; and b) establishment and adoption
of a five-year Organic Industry Development Program by the
respective units of DA in partnership with the private sector.
Sustained growth of the OF industry depends on the following:
! Organic integrity
This does not apply only to the producers of organic rice,
fruits, vegetables, and other food and non-food commodities.
Organic integrity should emanate from the inputs sub-sector.
The following are MUSTS:
- Maintenance of quality pursuant to existing PNS for

organic fertilizer and to standards set by the FPA.
- Selection of the right and appropriate manufacturing
technology, i.e., waste and compost materials, inoculants,
and compost fungus activator (CFA).
- Composting of raw farmyard manure (poultry, cattle,
swine, goat, and sheep) before application to avoid
spread of pathogenic diseases.
! Good marketing network

Current marketing setup and strategies of COF producers
are heavily dependent on government programs notably the DA
and LGUs. Some firms, like GRDC, have dealers but the main
problem is parallelism of principles. Usually, the distributors and
dealers are the regular agricultural supply stores. These carry
both organic and inorganic inputs which is understandable

because their respective business enterprises are governed by
the “profit syndrome and dictum.” Ideally, the OF manufacturer
and dealer must be organic advocates and must be parallel in
their business thinking and advocacy for them to focus on the
promotion of the organic products they sell. There must also be
harmony of actions like conduct of training of farmers and after-
sales monitoring that would serve as feedback mechanism for
the OF manufacturer.
The following are suggested marketing strategies:
! The producer as marketer. The OF producer must have his

own demo farm and his own outlets outside of Metro Manila.
GRDC, for example, maintains a 5-ha farm in its OF production
plant in Brgy. Masaya, Rosario, Batangas (Fig. 25). The demo
and production farm showcases technologies on 100% organic
and natural farming using GRDC products. Likewise, a regular
training is conducted monthly for organic enthusiasts. Sales and
product turnover was observed to increase because of this
strategy.
! Franchising. One observation highlighted in the PEARL-2

Project study was that firms engaged in organic and natural
products are concentrated in Luzon, particularly Metro Manila.
Fig. 25. Organic fertilizer production plant at GRDC, Batangas.

This is true even for COF producers. Considering that the
consumers for OF are in the countryside, franchising would be
the best marketing strategy to ensure the presence of the OF to
a wider consumer base. This scheme would further boost
profits for the FRANCHISOR (Registered manufacturer)
because he will not spend for transport and his product would
be competitive. The FRANCHISOR must convince a
FRANCHISEE in areas where there are large agricultural
lands. Another major consideration is the availability of raw
materials.
Costs and Returns Analysis Based

on Actual Experiences and Surveys
Production of Organic Fertilizer
To produce 1000 bags of ALPHA S.P. organic fertilizer in 2005,

total production cost incurred by GRDC was P145,142.50 or
P145.14/bag. At a selling price of P200/bag, net income of the
producer was P54,857.50. Hence, return on investment (ROI) was
realized at 38% (Table 22).
Crop Production
For the dry season palay in 2005, Table 23 shows that the TIPID
ABONO users using 50% organic fertilizer and 50% inorganic fertilizer
had considerably higher yield, higher gross income, lower production
cost, and higher net profits compared with their previous practice of
using 100% inorganic fertilizers. Yield and net profit per hectare became
76% and 175% higher, respectively than the previous practice.
The site was located in Sta. Elena, Baras, and Nabua, Camarines
Sur, covering 5 ha. Rice crop (Mestizo 3 variety) was planted on
December 21, 2005 and harvested on April 23, 2005.
Lettuce production using ALPHA S.P. Organic Fertilizer during the
4-month cropping period from October 2004 to January 2005 had a total
of 111 kgs for the 403-m2 lot planted to the crop or an equivalent of
275 kg/1000 m2 lot (Table 24). For a price of P80/kg, ROI was
estimated at 48%. In the computation, however, only variable costs
were included as component of total cost. Fixed cost was not considered.

Table 22. Production cost for 1000 bags of ALPHA S.P. organic fertilizer.
Items Amount (P)
Direct Cost
Raw Materials
1000 bags chicken manure (50 kg/bag)
@ P35.00/bag 35,000.00
250 bags plant waste @P15.00/bag 3,750.00
62.5 L inoculant @ P200.00/L 12,500.00
31 L Biomix (trace elements) @ P200.00/L 6,200.00
Sacks with liner @ 1000 pcs @ P17.00/piece 17,000.00
Sub-Total 74,450.00
Labor
Piling – 1,250 bags @ P1.00/bag 1,250.00
Turning – 3 turning @ P0.90/bag
(P1,125.00/turning x 3) 3,375.00
Harvesting, bagging, and warehousing
(1000 bags @ P7.00/bag) 7,000.00
Sub-Total 11,625.00
Cost of Money (10% of raw materials 8,067.50

and labor)
Fixed Cost (Facilities, supervision, repair,

and maintenance) 51,000.00
Total Production Cost 145,142.50
Note: 1. At 80% recovery = 1000 bags produced.

2. Cost per bag of ALPHA S.P. = P145.14.
3. Selling price (farm gate price) = P200.00/bag.
4. Net income = P200,000.00 – P145,142.50 = P54,857.50.
5. ROI = 38%.
Source: GRDC 2005.

Table 23. Comparison of cost and return for TIPID ABONO Users of 50%
ALPHA S.P. and 50% inorganic fertilizer vs. previous practice,
Sta. Elena, Baras, and Nabua, Camarines Sur, dry season, 2005.
Comparison Previous Tipid Abono

Components Practice/ha Triple Scheme
Yield data (Average/ha) 5.8 t 10.2 t

Gross income (at selling price of
P9.50/kg palay) 55,100 96,900
Cost
Seeds at P1,350/cavan 1,350 1,350
Fertilizer:
14-14-14 @ P 850/bag x 2 bags 1,700
14-14-14 @ P 850/bag x 1 bag 850
16-20-0 @ P 790/bag x 2 bags 1,580
16-20-0 @ P 790/bag x 1 bag 790
45-0-0 @ P 930/bag x 6 bags 5,580
45-0-0 @ P 930/bag x 1 bag 1,860
Alpha S.P. Bioorganic @
P250/bag x 5 bags 1,250
ZnSO4 @ P 20/kg x 15 kg 300
Labor (P)
Land preparation 3,000 3,000
Transplanting 3,000 3,000
Hand weeding 1,500 1,500
Herbicide spraying 300
Insecticide/Molluscide spraying 600
Fertilization 1,200 600
Other inputs (P)
Insecticide/Molluscide 1,800
Herbicide 1,000
Other costs
Hauling of inputs to farm 1,200 1,200
Irrigation 1,600 1,600
TOTAL 25,410 17,300
Cost of money (4% for 4 months) 1,016.40 692

Total production cost (P) 26,426.40 17,992
Cost of production/kg palay (P) 4.56 1.76
Net profit/ha (P) 28,673.60 78,908.00
Notes:
1. No data yet on milling recovery.
2. The techno demo is now being replicated for the same area under wet season
cropping condition.
Source: GRDC 2005.

Table 24. Costs and returns in lettuce produced in 403.2 m2 and 1000 m2,
GRDC, Oct. 2004–Jan. 2005.
Item 403.2 m2 1000 m2
Yield (kg)
- Lollo Rossa 22 55
- Rossete 21 52
- Red Rapid 38 94
- Fanfare 30 74
Total yield 111 275
Average = 27.7 kg/plot/cycle
Sales @ farmgate price of P80.00/kg 8,880 22,000
Expenses
- Plot preparation (double digging)
contractual labor 240 595
- 8 sacks decomposing rice hull
with chicken manure 72 179
- 8 sacks carbonized rice hull 80 198
- ALPHA S.P. Organic Fertilizer
- Plot preparation (2 bags=100 kg) 460 1,141
- Per cropping cycle starting Nov.
(0.5 bags x 3 cycles) 345 856
- Foliar fertilizer: 30 mL/spraying/
week @ P0.18/mL 86 213
- Seedling/potting mix @ P50/
cycle x 4 cycles 200 496
- Seeds @P140/cycle x 4 cycles 560 1,389
- Labor (from seeding at nursery to
harvest) P7/day x 120 days 840 2,083
- Irrigation cost (P375/month x
4 months) 1,500 3,720
-Transport cost (GRDC Farm-
Manila) @ P2.25/kg 249 618
Sub-total 4,632 11,488
Net Income (P) 4,248 10,512

ROI (%) 48 48
Note:
1. Four varieties used, namely, Lollo Rosa, Rossete, Red Rapid and Fanfare.
2. Only variable costs considered.
Source: GRDC 2005.

Corn farmers interviewed in the municipalities of Argao and
Sibonga in Cebu who used Bio-N acknowledged the increase in corn
production which was estimated at 32.5%. Net farm income per
hectare of P8,493 for users was also much higher than the nonusers’
P3,053 (Table 25). The benefit-cost ratio per hectare obtained by
Bio-N users was quite high at 2.12 compared with the 1.40 for
nonusers (Chupungco and Paunlagui 2004).
Reasons given by Bio-N users were mostly the reduction in
production cost and the favorable effects in crop production that
they had experienced. According to them, the positive effects of
Bio-N in crop production include greener color of leaves, improved
soil quality, and less susceptibility of crop to pests and diseases.
No user complained of any negative effects of Bio-N.
On the other hand, rice farmers interviewed in Calamba, Sta.
Cruz, Calauan, and Liliw in the province of Laguna have reported an
average increase of 10% in rice production because of Bio-N use.
Users realized a higher net farm income per hectare of P21,502 than
the nonusers with P12,663. Benefit-cost ratio was also higher for
users with 1.74. It was 1.48 for nonusers (Table 26).
Aside from the positive effects of Bio-N in corn production
mentioned by Cebu users, some rice farmers further observed that the
rice plant grew faster, had more roots and even longer roots, and had
larger, fuller, and heavier grains.
The constraint in adopting the technology in both Cebu and
Laguna was the limited source of Bio-N. Bio-N is only being produced
at BIOTECH in UPLB.
Reasons cited by rice farmer-users of Biogreen in Guimba, Oriental
Mindoro and Socorro, Nueva Ecija were the expected increase in
productivity, its being environment-friendly, and the encouragement
given by local government technicians (Paunlagui and Chupungco 2004).
For its positive environmental impact, farmers from both provinces
reported improvement in the quality of soil, greener leaves, and less
susceptibility to pests and diseases. Nueva Ecija farmers added that
grains were bigger and heavier and had better milling recovery rate.
Net income and benefit-cost ratios accruing to users of Biogreen
were higher than those of nonusers. In Oriental Mindoro, the net income
per hectare was estimated at P12,859 compared with the nonusers’
P11,642 (Table 27). In Nueva Ecija, it was P16,692 for users and
P11,162 for nonusers (Table 28). High benefit-cost ratios of 1.65 and

Table 25. Costs and returns of using Bio- N in corn production per hectare,
Cebu, dry season crop, 2000.
Item Users Nonusers
Total production (kg) 1,727.55 1,146.51

Receipts
Cash
Total volume sold (kg) 552.07 32.38
Price/kg 9.30 9.30
Total cash receipts 5,134.25 301.13
Noncash
Landowner’s share 538.28 435.52
Harvesters’ share 276.12 119.78
Other hired labor 132.90 0
Seeds 164.89 95.14
Home consumption/stored 9,656.75 9,709.76
Given away 163.03 1.21
Total noncash receipts 10,931.97 10,361.41
Total Returns 16,066.22 10,662.54
Expenses (P)
Cash
Seeds 242.54 149.67
Organic fertilizer 576.82 749.67
Inorganic fertilizer 1,735.81 1,495.93
Bio-N 103.75 0
Hired labor 1,244.81 1,013.82
Miscellaneous 902.20 1,165.47
Total cash expenses 4,805.93 4,574.56
Noncash
Family labor 1,789.54 2,442.36
Seeds 27.43 33.78
Landowner’s share 538.28 435.52
Harvesters’ share 276.12 119.78
Other hired labor 132.90 0
Depreciation 3.17 3.97
Total noncash expenses 2,767.44 3,035.41
Total expenses (P) 7,573.37 7,609.97

Returns above cash costs (P) 11,260.29 6,087.98
Returns above noncash costs (P) 13,298.78 7,627.13
Net farm income (P) 8,492.85 3,052.57
Benefit-cost ratio 2.12 1.40
Source: Chupungco and Paunlagui 2004.

Table 26. Costs and returns of using Bio-N in rice production per hectare,
Laguna, dry season crop, 2000.
Item Users Nonusers

Receipts
Cash
Total volume sold (kg) 3,465.20 2,361.15
Price/kg 8.00 8.00
Total cash receipts 27,721.58 18,819.18
Noncash
Landowner’s share 4,498.40 5,433.10
Harvester/Threshers share 7,856.92 5,725.88
Other hired labor 330.40 60.88
Seeds 1,165.77 756.84
Home Consumption/stored 8,594.29 7,926.10
Given away 244.64 166.16
Paid to creditors - 30.61
Total returns 50,412.00 38,918.75
Expenses (P)
Cash
Seeds 594.81 574.30
Bio-N 76.52 0
Pesticides 2,856.94 1,365.75
Hired labor 3,275.08 4,046.12
Others 2,988.41 2,870.30
Noncash
Family labor 1,526.09 2,067.04
Seeds 638.55 309.45
Landowner’s share 4,498.40 5,433.10
Harvester/thresher’s share 7,856.92 5,725.88
Other hired labor 330.40 60.88
Depreciation 1,702.98 2,189.20
Total expenses (P) 28,909.58 26,255.54
Net farm income (P) 21,502.42 12,663.21
Benefit-cost ratio 1.74 1.48
Source: Chupungco and Paunlagui 2004.

Table 27. Costs and returns of using Biogreen in rice production per hectare,
Oriental Mindoro, dry season crop, 2000.
Item Users Nonusers
Receipts
Cash
Total volume sold 1,917.49 1,135.52
Price/kg 8.72 8.72
Noncash
Landowner’s share 741.2 1,222.46
Harvester/thresher share 5,346.11 4,884.94
Seeds 456.43 878.48
Home consumption 9,390.02 13,385.77
Given away 116.27 529.93
Total returns 32,770.54 30,803.31
Expenses (P)
Cash
Seeds 1,060.64 959.81
Biogreen 1,617.16 -
Pesticides 1,681.75 1,774.85
Hired labor 2,014.89 1,433.06
Miscellaneous 1,565.86 2,238.58
Noncash
Family labor 1,905.00 2,640.00
Seeds 1,200.00 1,280.00
Harvester/thresher 5,346.11 4,884.94
Depreciation 989.31 1,137.82
Total expenses (P) 19,911.89 19,161.78

Net farm income (P) 12,858.65 11,641.53
Benefit-cost-ratio 1.65 1.61
Source: Paunlagui and Chupungco 2004.

Table 28. Costs and returns of using Biogreen in rice production per hectare,
Nueva Ecija, dry season crop, 2000.
Item Users Nonusers
Receipts
Cash
Total volume sold 2,977.95 2,495.04
Price/kg 8.56 8.56
Noncash
Harvester/thresher share 4,263.95 3,476.03
Seeds 852.21 1,067.10
Home consumption 8,122.50 8,332.67
Given away 236.42 300.23
Other hired workers’ share 132.77 454.9
Total returns 40,038.27 36,178.84
Expenses (P)
Cash
Seeds 1,283.45 1,546.23
Biogreen 374.8 -
Pesticides 160.63 433.78
Hired labor 1,395.05 2,592.97
Miscellaneous 4,489.73 4,331.22
Noncash
Family labor 5,565.00 5,715.00
Seeds 1,605.18 1,455.63
Harvester/thresher 4,263.95 3,476.03
Depreciation 2,261.77 1,555.15
Total expenses (P) 23,346.79 25,016.64

Net farm income (P) 16,691.58 11,162.20
Benefit-cost-ratio 1.71 1.45
Source: Paunlagui and Chupungco 2004.

1.71 were obtained by users in Oriental Mindoro and Nueva Ecija,
respectively. Benefit-cost ratios for nonusers were 1.61 and 1.45 f in the
two provinces, respectively.
Impact evaluation studies conducted by Dr. Agnes C. Rola and her
group at UPLB in 1994 and 1996 indicated some positive results on the
farmers’ use of the Rapid Composting Technology (PCARRD 2005).
Rice farmers adopting RCT were found to obtain yields of 545 kg/ha
higher than the nonusers’ group (Table 29). Compared with nonusers,
net incomes of users were likewise higher by about P4,784/ha in one
season with a significant decrease in inorganic fertilizer use by 19 kg/ha
(Table 30). A positive rate of growth of Mass Production Centers-
Compost Production Units (MPC-CPUs) was also noted implying that
farmers were increasingly buying the compost rather than just
producing it by themselves.
However, there were problems associated with the use of the RCT
such as laboriousness of the composting process, CFA expiration and
contamination, difficulty in maintaining pure culture and compost quality,
management problems among the centers managed by cooperatives and
local government units, insufficiency of working funds, inadequacy of
market outlets, lack of full time laborers, and inadequate compost
facilities and equipment.
Recommendations cited to address these problems are adequate
funding for project continuation, training on technology innovations,
political will and complementary government programs, marketing
support, continuous product development, technology information
awareness and campaign, policy support through municipal ordinance,
private sector involvement including large producers, mechanization of
the process, and upgrading of the production centers.

Table 29. Comparative analysis of rice yields, fertilizer use, and labor, of RCT
users and nonusers, Iloilo, Ilocos Sur and Davao del Norte , 1993
and 1995 wet seasons.
Item User Nonusers Differences
Yield per hectare 4,252.88 3,707.94 544.90*

Fertilizer use
Nitrogen (kg/ha) 64.67 83.76 -19.09*
Phosphorus (kg/ha) 16.84 18.27 -1.43
Potassium (kg/ha) 9.90 11.67 -1.77
Hired labor use1
(in mandays/hectare) 1.78 2.08 -0.30
Family labor use1
(in mandays/hectare) 2.36 2.37 -0.01
1
Only for composting, inorganic fertilizer application, and organic fertilizer application.
* significant at α .05.
Source: UPLB and PCARRD 1996.
Table 30. Comparative analysis of cost and returns per hectare of RCT users
and nonusers, Iloilo, Ilocos Sur and Davao del Norte, 1993 and 1995
wet seasons.
Variables Users Nonusers Differences
Total returns (in pesos) 27,669.40 23,218.09 4,451.31**
Total cash cost 4,186.62 4,519.62 -333 ns

Inorganic fertilizer 1,437.19 1,808.39 -371.20*
Organic fertilizer 153.75 - 153.75
Other costs 2,595.68 2,711.23 -115.55
Total Returns – Total

Cash Cost 23,482.78 18,698.46 4,784.32*
* significant at α .05.
** significant at α .01.
Source: Rola, Chupungco, Umali, and Callet 1996.

Socio-Cultural, Environmental,
and Policy Considerations
To maximize the benefits and to minimize if not eliminate the risks

and hazards associated with the production and utilization of organic
fertilizer, it is imperative that its socio-cultural and environmental
considerations be understood. Likewise, handlers of this kind of fertilizer,
particularly those involved in the commercialization of organic fertilizer,
have to abide by the policies, rules, and regulations of the government.
Socio-Cultural Considerations
The publication of the Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute

(FSSRI) and Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR) (1999) on successful
and outstanding farmers in the Philippines revealed that these farmers
use compost, animal manure/waste, and other organic materials in their
farms. Some of their stories disclosed the following:
! The success of a vegetable farmer in Atok, Benguet was

attributed to a great extent to his scientific farming practices,
familiarity with supply and demand situations, and positive
attitude toward farming. Among other scientific methods
such as doing crop rotation, contour farming in unterraced
areas, using good quality seeds, and spraying of pesticides.
He also maintains crop productivity by applying 10 t/ha of
chicken manure and 15 t/ha of compost every cropping season
in addition to inorganic fertilizer. To make compost, he gathers
the manure of his six cattle and mixes it with weeds and garden
waste.
! A farmer from Batac, Ilocos Norte usually transplants rice in

July. Fertilizer is applied at the rate of 4 bags/ha of complete
fertilizer and 2 bags/ha of urea per season. This rate of
inorganic fertilizer application is less than what is
recommended because of the compost added every other
2 years before land preparation for rice. He uses grasses/
weeds, rice straw, rice hull, and animal manure as compost, all

found in the farm. These are piled up in an area adjacent to the
farm and utilized after 1 year.
In his tomato farm, he applies rice hull before land preparation
to improve soil porosity, enhance better root growth, and reduce
root damage during seed pulling. He also practices mulching
with rice straw to conserve soil moisture.
According to the farmer, the technology he used in his farm
came from DA, with some modifications and from the
experiences of his father in farming.
! The outstanding farmer from Pila, Laguna was noted for incor-
porating green manure using weeds and rice straw into the soil
during land preparation. He was also known for his two-way
direction of applying inorganic fertilizer at least a day before
planting. Factors that led to his success were his frequent
interaction with extension workers, open-mindedness for new
technologies, and membership in farmers’organization.
! To supplement the use of inorganic fertilizer, the farmer from

Tabango, Leyte tried compost application using decomposed
rice straw in his rice farm. He also utilized the waste of his
animals to serve as fertilizer for his other crops such as
mungbean, corn, and peanut. Hard work and willingness to
learn were some of the factors that made him successful in
farming.
! In the fruit-based farming system used by the outstanding

farmer from Tampakan, South Cotabato, cut grasses, decayed
leaves, and bushels of corn were the materials used in making
compost or organic fertilizer.
In the case of the Ivatans, these indigenous people of Batanes,

imposed a ban on planting crops, except leguminous ones, in communal
pasturelands from September to December (Castro 1998). They set this
time of the year as the fallow period when the soil is made to “rest” to
allow it to replenish its fertility. During this period of soil regeneration,
chemical fertilizers and pesticides are not used. Farmers utilize instead
organic methods such as application of cow or carabao manure or the
planting of leguminous species that provide nitrogen to the soil.

On the other hand, the Ifugaos, for many years have shown that even
under intense pressure to exploit limited resources, indigenous socio-
political and cultural institutions and mechanisms prevent them from
doing so. In the terraces of Central Cordillera, vegetable growing is
simultaneously done with rice growing using the pingkol/inado technology
(Ngidlo 1998). This technology is done by forming a mud mound of
decayed materials from the terraces then planted with vegetables and
rootcrops. Pingkol, an environment-friendly technology, uses a mixture
of mud, decaying rice stalks, and other decayed plant tissues. Moreover,
naturally growing azolla are said to abound in the terraces making the
Ifugaos not dependent on inorganic fertilizers. Control of pests is done
by hand. Pingkol vegetables are thus, free of synthetic chemicals.
Some farmers, however, are difficult to convince to use organic
fertilizers. Farmers are accustomed to using inorganic fertilizers, which
manifest immediate effects on the crop after application. Organic
fertilizers are slow acting, bulky, and have low percentages of NPK ratio.
The negative attitude and the traditional NPK mentality make farmers
reluctant to use organic fertilizers. These people still lack understanding
on the benefits that can be derived from organic fertilizer use.
On the part of the consumers, some consumers reject organically
grown foods knowing that human and animal wastes are being used as
fertilizers. Another concern is that the stench and water pollution caused
by animal wastes could reduce the real estate values of properties as well
as revenues from coastal, commercial, recreational, fishing, and tourism
industries. It is interesting to note, however, that some sectors view the
earth as the creation of God. Organic production of food is considered
as an activity that fulfills the religious stewardship of God’s creation.
Organic fertilizers both increase psychic and economic profits. Organic
farms are also converted into spiritual sanctuaries and tourist destinations.
Environmental Considerations
The country is faced with the worsening problem of environmental

degradation, excessive garbage generation, pollution from factories, and
chemical contamination. Dumpsites are also rapidly being filled-up. To
help ease these problems, recycling, composting, and waste reduction
strategies should be done. Recovering as much reusable materials as
possible by recycling and composting will minimize the use of landfill sites
and prolong the life span of these dumpsites.

Hazards to public health posed by landfill sites will be reduced if
reusable waste products like those coming from wet markets could be
diverted by recycling and composting. Landfill lining wears down after
some time due to rotting and moisture. This will cause toxic materials
called leachates to seep down and possibly contaminate underground
streams and other water sources. In addition, accumulation of such
wastes, which are unsanitary, would surround the environment with foul-
smelling odor, particularly those in the immediate vicinity. Recycling
waste materials and composting will reduce pollution and make a more
healthful environment.
Benefits from Using Organic Fertilizers
Application of organic fertilizer as pointed out earlier helps conserve

the soil, maintain and sustain crop quality and productivity, and protect the
environment. Organic fertilizer maintains if not increases the organic
matter level in the soil; aids in the formation of organo-metallic complexes;
increases soil cation exchange capacity, and serves as soil conditioner.
The addition of organic matter in the soil increases the soil ability to hold
water preventing erosion and cracking. It loosens the soil resulting in
better soil aeration, root growth, drainage, improved tillage, improved soil
property, and increased compaction resistance. Organic fertilizer also
improves the biological activities of the soil as it enhances rapid
multiplication of fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, and other soil organisms.
Many experiments on manures and fertilizers conducted in several
countries, however, noted that neither chemical fertilizer alone nor
organic sources used exclusively can sustain productivity of soils under
highly intensive cropping system (Singh and Yadav 1992 as cited in
Villamor 2002). The experiment made by Capuno (1984) as cited in
Villamor (2002) using organic materials including chicken manure alone
or in concentration with inorganic fertilizer promoted a more vigorous
growth and enhanced production of more leaves and taller solanaceous
crops compared with those treated with inorganic fertilizer alone. The
belief is that combined application of organic fertilizer and inorganic
fertilizer would result in greater efficiency of fertilizer use. The effect
of inorganic fertilizer application is immediate, readily providing nutrients
to plants whereas organic fertilizers, although slow-acting, keep intact
the physical properties of the soil.

Possible Hazards of Organic Materials
Inappropriate disposal of animal manures and municipal sludge and

use of not fully decomposed organic materials may pose hazards to public
health and the environment.
Manure may cause surface and groundwater pollution if mismanaged.
The increase in swine and poultry production in the Philippines, both
backyard and commercial operation, creates a serious odor nuisance,
pollution of the surface water, and health risk as a consequence of the
failure to attend to the environmental impacts of animal production. The
backyard and commercial livestock and poultry production contributes
93% and 7%, respectively, to the estimated average regional water
pollution discharges of livestock and poultry farms (Calara and Orbeta
1996). Manure, wastewater, and unwanted products are discharged to
lagoons or dumped nearby or into waterways and rivers and made to
percolate to the groundwater or drift elsewhere.
All manures can become problems to the environment if allowed to
accumulate. Other problems associated with livestock manures include
odor and fly problems, high moisture content, and poor particle size and
weight uniformity. Proliferation of weed seeds may likewise occur if
livestock manures and other organic materials are not composted
properly.
Heavy metals. Toxic substances and heavy metals (e.g., lead,

copper, cadmium) may be present in industrial and municipal wastes.
Excess amounts of these metals can cause problems in crops and soil and
could pose health hazards to humans and animals. At high levels, copper,
nickel, and zinc can cause phytotoxicity.
Boron, molybdenum, and arsenic could affect both plant and animal
health while selenium could affect animals. Table 31 presents the heavy
metals in sludge, their maximum permissible concentrations, and their
effects on human health as set by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency.
It should be pointed out, however, that organic matter is a very good
chelate that will prevent pollution or leaching of these heavy metals to the
underground water. Chelation enhances availability of micronutrients
(e.g., iron, zinc, copper, molybdenum) essential to plant growth.
Trace organic chemicals. A large array of trace organic chemicals

may be present in organic materials but agronomic or environmental risk

Table 31. Heavy metals in agro-industrial and municipal sludge and their
effects on human health, 1990.
Maximum Content in Cow Human

Element Permissible US Sludge Manure Health
Unit (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) Effects
Arsenic (As) 75 6 4 Poison, cancer

Cadmium (Cd) 85 7 1 Heart, kidney,
brittle bone
Chromium (Cr) 3,000 40 56 Mutagenic
Copper (Cu) 300 463 62 Rare
Lead (Pb) 420 106 16 Brain damage,
convulsions
Mercury (Hg) 840 4 0.2 Nerve damage
Nickel (Ni) 75 29 29 Lung cancer
Zinc (Zn) 7,500 725 71 Rare
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency 1990.
posed by these organic chemicals appears to be minimal. The reason

behind is that many of these chemicals are bound by soil organic matter
and therefore are biologically degraded by soil microorganisms. For
persistent compounds like PCBs, which can accumulate in soils, potential
hazard can be lessened by restricted use of these chemicals.
The potential hazard of an organic chemical depends on its toxicity
to biological organisms, its persistence in the environment, and its bio-
availability for entering into the food chain. Although risk assessment
generally indicates that most sludge organics will not increase health
risks to humans and animals, there is a need for better methodologies and
updated database.
Pathogen. Mishandling of raw materials could lead to an outbreak

of diseases. If not fully decomposed, organic fertilizers may be carriers
of disease-causing organisms. At times, crop residues might also carry
plant pathogens.
Various kinds of enteric microorganisms, like pathogens are present
in most human and animal waste by-products. Night soil, sewage sludge,
animal manure, and to some extent, municipal wastes are examples of
potentially dangerous organic materials. Pathogenic microorganisms
(i.e., bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminthes) in these waste materials

could transmit disease to humans and animals by contaminating
water supplies, feedstuffs, or air.
Increased risks of run-off and erosion into inland surface waters,
ocean bays, or estuaries may result from over application of manure or
its application to sloping land. This run-off may transmit infective agents
to potential hosts like shellfish, which can collect viruses and bacteria in
the water. Without the necessary precaution, excreta, untreated sewage,
sewage effluents, sludge, or septic tank pumping should not be applied
to the soil. To eliminate pathogenic agents and to limit disease
transmission, various treatments of excreta such as anaerobic digestion,
composting, secondary activation, heating, drying, treating with lime, or
aging can be done.
Sewage-related diseases could be due to the use of raw sewage
wastewater, raw sludge, and night soil on food crops eaten raw;
contamination of drinking water from septic tanks; or consumption of
shellfish from water polluted with sewage. It is worth noting that
although sewage sludge is stabilized to reduce disease-causing organisms
in wastewater treatment plants, these organisms may still be transmitted
to humans by eating plant and animal products. It is advised that animals
should not graze on the site where sewage sludge was applied 1 month
after application if humans would eat the animal product raw. Also,
crops eaten raw like vegetables and root crops should not be grown
within 18 months after application of sludge. Fresh sludge and raw
manures should not be applied on vegetables.
Policies, Rules and Regulations
Regulations on Handling Organic Fertilizers
By virtue of Presidential Decree No. 1144, FPA was established to

“assure the agricultural sector of adequate supplies of fertilizer and
pesticide at reasonable prices rationalizing the manufacture and marketing
of fertilizers, protecting the public from the risks inherent in the use of
pesticides, and educating the agricultural sector in the use of these
inputs.” It defines organic fertilizer as any product of plant and or
animal origin that has undergone decomposition through biological,
chemical, and or any other process as long as the original materials
are no longer recognizable, free from plant or animal pathogens, soil-

like in texture, contains not less than 20% organic matter oven-dry
basis, and can supply nutrients to plants.
Fertilizer handlers (e.g., exporters, importers, indentors, processors,
manufacturers, formulators, suppliers, wholesalers, retailers, warehousers,
dealers, and repackers of fertilizer products) must meet the necessary
requirements for registration of fertilizer products and must have license
to operate. Provision on labeling and prohibition of sales of fertilizer with
no guarantee label should likewise be followed. There are guidelines on
importation and exportation of fertilizer raw materials and finished
products from which import certificate or export license have to be
obtained from FPA. The requirements and fees for registration and
licensing of organic fertilizers are in Tables 32–35.
Government Support on the Production

and Utilization of Organic Fertilizers
DA provides assistance to organic fertilizer producers by helping

promote and disseminate information on organic fertilizer use and its
benefits; giving logistical support to sustain production, distribution, and
marketing; and providing access to national food production programs
through fertilizer subsidies and or credit assistance to organic fertilizer
users. There is, however, no clear cut policy pronouncement with regard
to 100% usage of organic fertilizer in the farm.
The DA programs such as the Grains Production Enhancement
Program (GPEP), the Agrikulturang Makamasa Program, and the BFS
(through Proclamation 1071) promote the use of organic fertilizer to
complement the use of inorganic fertilizer. To encourage production and
use of organic fertilizers, cooperatives producing their own organic
fertilizer and selling them to their members are exempted from the
registration and licensing policies of FPA.
With regard to bills passed in Congress, House Bill No. HB00559,
the Organic Farming Act of 2004 aims “to institutionalize the gradual use
of organic fertilizers and pesticides and eventually ease out the use of
petrochemical farm inputs which render agricultural lands acidic and less
productive. It encourages the farmers to revert to organic farming
system in order to cut on agricultural costs as well as to save the
degenerating natural environment in the countryside.” This bill, filed on
July 1, 2004 was primarily referred to the Committee on Agriculture,
Food, and Fisheries and then, to the Committee on Appropriations. This

Table 32. Requirements for organic fertilizer product registration.
Type of Fertilizer
Biofertilizer, Soil Conditioner Plant Growth Raw

Data Required Organic Microbial Promoter Materials
Inoculant, GMO
General Information
- Name/address of applicant v v v v v
- Brand name v v v v v
- Guaranteed/ declared
composition v v v v v
- Certificate of guaranteed
analysis from the supplier.
Local analysis from an
accredited laboratory v v v v v
- Name of supplier and country
of origin (imported products) v v v v v
- Size/type of packaging v v v v v
- Description of manufacturing/
production process v v v v v
- Source and kind of raw material v v v v v
Sample of the product

Organic 2 kg
Inorganic: 1 kg
Liquid: 1 L v v v v v
- Methods of analysis v v v v v
- Test for pathogens v v
- Test for heavy metals v v v

- Test for weed seeds v
Type of Fertilizer
Biofertilizer, Soil Conditioner Plant Growth Raw

Data Required Organic Microbial Promoter Materials
Inoculant, GMO
Label
- For liquid and foliar fertilizer v v
- For organic and other solid
fertilizers/soil conditioners v v v v v
Brochure v v v v v
Bioefficacy data v v v v
Inspection of the fertilizer
manufacturing plant v v v v
Source: FPA

Table 33. Registration fees and charges.
Provisional Full
Registration Fee Local Imported Local Imported
P P P P
New application –
filing fee 600 600 600 600
EUP/product/crop 600 1,200 600 1,200
Inorganic (new) 1,200 1,800 3,600 6,000
Inorganic (old) 1,200 1,800 3,600 5,400
Organic 600 1,800 1,800 4,200
Soil conditioner 600 1,800 1,800 4,200
Raw material 600 1,800 1,800 4,200
Plant growth promoter 1,200 1,800 1,800 4,200
Specialty 1,200 1,800 1,800 4,200
Validity (year/s) 1 1 3 3
Source: FPA.

Table 34. Licensing requirements for fertilizer handlers.
Licensing Requirements
Indentor
Importer
Exporter
Importer-
End-User
Distributor
Repacker
Area Distributor
Manufacturer/
processor
Dealer-Repacker
Bulk Handler
Dealer
Mango Contractor
1. Duly accomplished and notarized application form / / / / / / / / / / / /

2. For corporation, SEC / / / / / / / / / / / /
cooperative – CDA / / / / / / / / / /
single – DTI registration / / / / / / / / / / / /
3. Income tax return and financial statement / / / / / / / / /
4. Product registration of all fertilizer grades to be
manufactured /sold/exported/repacked / / / / / * / * *
5. Distributorship agreement/Certificate from mother
company/ Authority to repack / / / / / /
6. Registration of fertilizer warehouse / / / / / /

7. Filing fee (new) / / / / / / / / /
8. License fee (new/renewal) / / / / / / / / / / / /
9. List of registered fertilizer products to be
manufactured/ repacked/sold / / / / / / / / /
10. Inspection report and recommendation from
FPA-PDO/RDO / / / / / / / /
11. List of bulk handling equipment owned/leased and
port operation /
* All fertilizer sold or repacked should be registered by the distributors, importers and manufacturers.
Licensing Requirements
Indentor
Importer
Exporter
Importer-
End-User
Distributor
Repacker
Area Distributor
Manufacturer/
processor
Dealer-Repacker
Bulk Handler
Dealer
Mango Contractor
12.
2. Pre-licensing inspection report of plant site,
facilities and manpower /
13. Certificate from FPA licensed manufacturer/processor
as to its source and certified analysis of fertilizer products /
14. Copy of contract with manufacturer. For foreign
suppliers, copy of BOI (Phil) and may set-up a Branch
office or appoint local representative to handle their
business on their behalf /
15. Mining permit from Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences /
16. Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) from DENR /
17.
7. Production process/flowch /
18.
8. Weighing scale at the repacking site at the point of s / / /
19. Certificate of membership for agro-dealer/mango
contractor association / / /
20. Certificate of 2-day Agro-Retailers Training / /
21.
1. Mango Contractors Train ** ** /
22. Duration (Year) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1
** For restricted fertilizers (Potassium Nitrate and other Nitrates) importers, disposition should only be to licensed mango contractors

Source: FPA.
Table 35. License fees and charges.
Fees and Charges Amount (P)
License Fees
Fertilizer handlers other than dealers

Over 5 M capitalization
1st activity - 8,400
Additional activities - 4,800
Over 1 M to 5 M capitalization
Over 500,000 to 1 M capitalization
500,000 and below capitalization
Additional activities - 850
Filing fee/activity for new applicants - 3,600
Other activities - 1,800
Dealers (renewable every 3 years)
Fertilizer dealers/repackers - 1,800
Members of dealer’s association - 1,500
Dealers of fertilizer and pesticide - 4,000
Members of dealers association - 3,200
Cooperative -50% of dealer’s fee
Warehouses
Fertilizer - 1,200
Both fertilizer and pesticide - 2,400
Processing Fees
VAT Exemption Certificate - 600
Permit to industrial users - 600
Export permit - 600
Authority to purchase damaged fertilizer - 600
Transshipment permit - 600
Other certifications - 350
Penalty Fees for Late Renewal

Within 1 month after expiry date - 50% surcharge
After 1 month of expiry date - 100% surcharge
Source: FPA

bill, however, has been pending with the Committee on Agriculture, Food,
and Fisheries since July 28, 2004.
The Philippine National Standards on Organic Fertilizer has the
following salient features:
! Definition - Pure organic fertilizer refers to the organic fertilizer,

which has not been added with any chemical or inorganic
fertilizer that will affect the nutrient content.
Fertilized or enriched fertilizer refers to the organic fertilizer
to which macro and microelements, inoculants, hormones, and
other forms of addition have been added to increase nutrient
content.
! Physical requirements
- Original requirements shall be biodegradable.
- Color shall be from brown to black.
- Friable, soil- like in consistency.
- The moisture content shall not exceed 35%.
! Chemical requirements
Table 36 shows the specifications of pure and fortified
organic fertilizer and soil conditioner.
Packaging
- About 5 kg or less should be packed in polyethylene bags with

0.025 thickness.
- More than 5 kg shall be packed in the woven polypropylene sack
lined with polyethylene.
- For bulk purposes, the material may be delivered in any manner
agreed upon by the seller and the buyer.
- Organic fertilizer shall be packed in the following sizes according
to weight or mass.
Mass (kg) Tolerance (g)
50 +200
25 +150
10 +100
5 +50
1 +10

Table 36. Specifications of pure and fortified organic fertilizer and compost/
soil conditioner.
Item Pure Fortified/

Organic Compost/Soil Enriched
Fertilizer Conditioner Organic Fertilizer
Total NPK 5−7% 3–4% 8% minimum

C/N 12:1 12:1 12:1
Moisture content < 35% < 35% < 35%
Organic matter > 20% > 20% > 20%
Note: Total NPK=%N + %P2O5 + %K2O.

Source: FPA (n.d.).
Marketing and Labeling
The following information shall be legibly and indelibly printed

on the bag.
! Name of the material (Pure or Fortified/Enriched Organic

Fertilizer)
! Trade or brand name
! Guaranteed nutrient content
- Pure
% NPK
% OM or % OC
%N
- Fortified/enriched
% NPK
% OM or % OC
% moisture
! Net weight
! Business name
! Name and address of the producer or importer or repacker
! Country of manufacturer if imported
The Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP) initially

prepared the Philippine National Standards Specification for Organic
Agriculture. It was then adopted by the DA through the BAFPS. The
standards for organic agriculture provides a uniform approach to the

requirements or basis of conversion to organic agriculture, crop production,
livestock, processing, special products, labeling, and consumer information.
The minimum requirements set for the policy on fertilization are the
following:
! Biodegradable materials of microbial, plant, or animal origin

produced in organic farms should be the basis of the fertilization
program.
! If biodegradable materials from organic farms are not available
in sufficient amounts, materials from conventional farms may be
used, but shall not exceed 50% of the applied materials. The
proportions of these materials should be reduced with time and
such stopgap measures should not exceed 5 years.
! When supplementary application of fertilizer is needed, the
materials must be certified as organic fertilizer.
! In order to prevent over application of biodegradable material,
a maximum application of material containing 170 kg N/ha shall
not be exceeded on a specific plot. Farms shall keep suitable
records on the application of manures.
! Run-off diversions or other means must be implemented to
prevent contamination of crop production areas with animal
wastes from adjacent livestock holding facilities, fields, or
waste storage areas.
! Raw (uncomposted) manure shall be applied in a manner that
prevents or minimizes contamination of crops, soil or water, by
nitrates or bacteria, pathogenic microbes, heavy metals, and
residues of prohibited substances.
a. For crops not intended for human consumption, including
a cover crop, or
b. For crops intended for human consumption, provided that
the manure is incorporated into the soil and applied with
sufficient time to ensure that the crop is safe for human
consumption.
i. Raw manure maybe applied no less than 90 days prior

to harvest of a crop for human consumption, whose
edible portion does not come in contact with the soil
surface or soil particles;
ii. Products likely to be eaten raw (nitrate accumulators)
leafy greens, or crops exposed to contact with soil,

such as rootcrops, shall require 120 days between
application of raw materials and harvest.
! Organic and mineral fertilizers and particularly those rich in

nitrogen (e.g., blood meal, farmyard slurry) should be applied
in such a way that it will have minimum adverse effect on the
quality of crops (nutritive quality, nitrate content, taste, keeping
quality, and plant resistance) and environment (e.g., on ground
and surface water). Storage places of manure and compost
sites should be covered or sheltered in order to prevent
leaching of nutrients and pollution of water.
! Untreated sewage and manure containing human feces shall
not be used on vegetable production for human consumption,
unless it has undergone a process of anaerobic fermentation
(e.g., biogas process) or high temperature composting.
! Mineral fertilizers shall only be applied in combination with a
fertilization program based on biodegradable material and in
case of obvious nutrient deficiency.
With regard to commercial production of organic fertilizer, the

pertinent policies are:
! For compost activation, appropriate plant-based preparations or

microorganism preparations, not genetically modified, may be
used to hasten decomposition of organic residues. The
introduction of worms for vermicomposting is allowed.
Synthetic nitrogenous additives are prohibited.
! The organic fertilizer produced should be such that the original
materials are no longer recognizable, free from plant and
animal pathogens, soil-like in texture, contain not less than 29%
organic matter oven-dry basis, and can supply nutrients to
plants.
! Care must be exercised to prevent contamination of ground and
surface water due to leaching of nutrients from composted
materials. Safety precautionary measures for production
workers such as wearing masks, gloves, and boots should be
undertaken.
! Packaging shall be “environment-friendly,” simple, and not
deceptive.

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Appendices
Appendix A. Regional contribution to total production of selected crops.
Region Palay Corn Coconut Sugarcane
Volume: ‘000 Metric ton; Contribution: Percent

Philippines (‘000 MT)13.499.9 4615.6 14,121.9 23.981
Luzon (%) 56.48 30.70 24.76 15.29

CAR 2.23 1.82 0.01 0.002
Ilocos 9.66 4.26 0.16 0.08
Cagayan Valley 12.35 17.85 0.35 1.03
Central Luzon 17.75 3.11 1.19 5.95
CALABARZON 2.79 0.93 9.79 6.91
MIMAROPA 6.06 1.29 4.46 -
Bicol 5.64 1.44 8.83 1.32
Visayas (%) 19.51 8.07 18.21 65.01
Western Visayas 13.09 2.79 3.49 53.19
Cental Visayas 1.43 4.16 2.41 9.48
Eastern Visayas 4.99 1.12 12.30 2.33
Mindanao (%) 24.01 61.23 57.03 19.70
Zamboanga Peninsula 3.88 3.82 8.94 0.003
Northern Mindanao 3.63 17.71 10.51 13.20
Davao 3.40 4.64 17.37 2.21
SOCCSKSARGEN 7.59 18.85 5.67 4.02
CARAGA 2.55 1.62 6.58 0.0001
ARMM 2.96 14.59 7.96 0.26
Source: BAS 2004.

Appendix B. Livestock and poultry inventory by animal type.
Item 2001 2002 2003 2004

(Partial)
Livestock (‘000 head)

Carabao 3,066.0 3,122.0 3,179.5R 3,270.0
Dairy 11.9 12.6 13.1 13.1
Cattle 2,496.0 2,548.0 2,557.0 2,540.0
Dairy 7.8 8.2 8.3 8.5
Hog 11,063 0 11,653.0 12,364.0 12,562.0
Goat 3,215.0 3,294.0 3,270.4R 3,355.0
Dairy 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3
Poultry (‘000 head)

Chicken 115,607.0 126,831.0 55,860.0 122,010.0
Broiler 28,959.0 33,342.0 38,154.0 31,527.0
Layer (foreign
strain) 14,866.0 16,787.0 17,706.0 17,795.0
Native 71,782.0 76,703.0 72,355.6R 72,688.0
Duck 9,987.0 9,911.0 9,807.1R 10,202
Source: BAS 2004.

Appendix C. Regional distribution of production of selected animals (BAS
2004).
Region Carabao Cattle Swine Goat Chicken Duck
Philippines
(‘000 MT) 132.40 258.40 1734.10 73.60 1,188.70 53.9
Luzon (%) 41.84 45.07 50.84 34.16 67.02 52.11

CAR 3.39 2.75 2.43 1.27 0.60 1.76
Ilocos 7.05 12.07 4.56 12.37 4.24 4.14
Cagayan
Valley 10.36 5.84 5.69 3.22 4.32 11.47
Central Luzon 4.14 7.46 16.70 9.24 30.85 23.88
CALABARZON 3.65 7.42 12.75 2.83 24.10 6.68
MIMAROPA 5.87 4.09 3.14 2.80 0.61 0.91
Bicol 7.38 5.44 5.57 2.43 2.30 3.27
Visayas (%) 21.15 22.76 21.25 25.65 14.81 16.07

Western
Visayas 11.53 9.53 7.38 8.60 5.23 9.67
Cental Visayas 3.86 11.91 7.50 14.14 6.39 1.98
Eastern Visayas 5.76 1.32 6.37 2.91 3.19 4.42
Mindanao (%) 37.02 32.19 27.91 40.20 18.16 31.82

Zamboanga
Peninsula 6.72 6.24 5.48 5.93 2.39 2.48
Northern
Mindanao 5.39 10.80 5.88 5.76 3.84 6.40
Davao 7.07 4.68 7.53 11.97 7.32 6.77
SOCCSK-
SARGEN 10.54 5.90 5.29 7.19 2.69 9.24
CARAGA 2.67 0.55 3.34 2.44 1.18 2.63
ARMM 4.63 4.02 0.39 6.91 0.74 4.30
Source: BAS 2004.

Appendix D. Guidelines for Assessing Organic Raw Materials
for Compost
The assessment of organic materials of natural origin is addressed

in this guidelines and intended for use by people who are interested in
organic fertilizer production and utilization.
Audit and Organic Waste Management
! Select materials that are available and abundant in the locality.

! Consider cost of organic materials if not locally-available.
! For green manures and tree species, collect less mature plant
material. For crop residues (rice straw, leguminous stalks, and
leaves), decomposition rate is faster when these raw materials are
used after harvest.
Characterization of Raw Materials
A detailed description and characterization of the raw material is an

essential precondition for the selection of raw organic materials.
! For quality raw materials, check their average chemical

composition. Decomposition rate is faster in materials high in
nutrient concentration (N, P, K) and digestibility and low in
organic constituents (lignin, tannin, cellulose, hemicellulose)
that may favor microbial activities.
! Consider physical feature of the raw materials such as
toughness, thickness, particle size, and surface properties
(presence of wax, spines etc.). Thin, soft, non-waxy small-sized
leaves will decompose fast. Shredding or cutting crop residues
enhances the decomposition process. Chicken manure
decomposes faster than livestock manure.
When the organic materials contain high concentration of organic

constituents (lignin, cellulose, polyphenolics), there may be little
mineralization of nitrogen. Thus, the succeeding crop will use a small
proportion of the applied plant N, although it remains in soil. On the
contrary, high quality organic residues (high N and digestibility) that
mineralize rapidly can supply large amount of nutrients during the early
periods of crop growth, but may not contribute much to the maintenance
of soil organic matter. To achieve better quality of organic fertilizer,
combination of these residue qualities is suggested.

AppendixE. Organic rice production profile in the Philippines, as of
December 30, 2003.
Provinces Number of Number of Existing Actual Average
Organiza- Farmer- Area Produc- Produc-
tions Adoptors Planted tion tion per
in per year, hectare
Hectares in cavans per
cropping,
in cavans
Luzon
Tarlac 1 37 60.0 12,000 100.00
Camarines Sur 4 100 223.0 28,080 62.96
Sorsogon 1 90 42.0 5,859 69.75
Catanduanes 1 15 75.0
Ifugao 1 30,000 10,000.0 500,000 50.00
Quezon 2 33 8.0 1,392 87.00
Nueva Ecija 2 620 328.0 65,760 100.24
Sub-total 12 30,895 10,736.0 613,091
Ave production/ha/cropping
(excl. Catanduanes) 10,661.0 78.33
Visayas
Iloilo 10 156 438.0 62,638 71.50
Negros Occidental 4 152 69.7 9,152 65.65
Guimaras 1 56 60.0 10,200 85.00
Kabankalan 1 80 30.0 3,000 50.00
Sub-Total 16 444 597.7 84,990
Ave.production/ha/cropping 68.04
Mindanao
Bukidnon 2 95 87.0 10,530 60.52
South Cotabato 1 91 95.0 11,400 60.00
North Cotabato 5 3,000 1,720.0 532,440 154.78
Agusan del Sur 7 68 206.0 18,495 44.89
Davao del Sur 1 182 327.0 62,130 95.00
Davao Norte 1 150 25.0 4,600 92.00
Zamboanga del Sur 1 50 400.0 64,000 80.00
Misamiz Oriental 1 15 15.0 2,400 80.00
Sub-total 19 3,651 2,875.0 705,995
Ave. Production /ha/cropping 83.40
GRAND TOTAL 47 34,990
National Average Production/ha 99.00
Source: PDAP 2003.

Appendix F. Organic rice production profile in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao,
as of December 30, 2003.
No. of Average
Farmers Area (ha) Production,
(t)
Luzon 30,895 10,736.0 78.33

Visayas 444 597.7 68.04
Mindanao 3,651 2,875.0 83.40
Total 34,990 14,209 99.00
Source: PDAP 2003.

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PR Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization - Beta - 355627

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The Philippines

Organic fertilizer is slowly gaining acceptance throughout the

PCARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 92-A

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE,

Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

Trade names, manufacturers, and distributors are mentioned solely for

The Organic Fertilizer Production and Utilization

Philippine Copyright © by PCARRD, 2006.

PCARRD expresses its heartfelt gratitude to the heads of the

! Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture, University

Also, PCARRD appreciates the participation of Dr. Rafael Barozzo

Organic Raw Materials 9

Composting and Treatment Procedures for Organic Wastes 36

1 Chemical characteristics of different rice varieties and other crop

A. Regional contribution to total production of selected crops 141

Dr. Wilfredo C. Cosico Dr. Bayani M. Espiritu

Ms. Agnes Recto-Chupungco

Dr. Digna O. Manzanilla Ms. Jocelyn C. dela Torre

Ofelia F. Domingo Joel Eneristo A. Joven

Actinomycetes - a group of organisms intermediate between the

For hundreds of years, farmers particularly in countries like China,

Importance of Organic Materials

Organic materials when added to the soil have numerous beneficial

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Role of Soil Organic Matter

Organic matter content is usually used as an index of soil fertility. It

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! Promotes granulation of soil particles into water-stable aggregates,

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! Increases supply and availability of N, P, K, S, and other

! Stimulates activity of soil organisms by providing energy and

The urgency to harness the huge supplies of organic wastes has

The Asian Scenario

In Japan, the total amount of industrial wastes generated annually is

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1) Presence of indigenous species in the soil which can actively

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Application of organic materials is a common agricultural practice

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Decomposing Residues of Plants

The most important input to SOM is in the form of plant residues.

Carbohydrates. Dead vegetative material contributes the major

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Lignin. Lignins are the most resistant component of plant residues

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Phenolic compounds. There are a variety of forms in which

Nitrogenous compounds. The organic bound-N in the soil

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components are constantly decomposing, their importance differs during

Organic phosphates. Soil organic matter contains a small portion

Aliphatic acids. The conditions for the formation of aliphatic acids

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The most unmanageable components of SOM are highly polymerized

Fulvic acids. Fulvic acid refers to the mixture of organic substances

Humic acids. The most studied group of the humic substances is

Humin. The structure of humin appears to be similar to that of

Soil Organic Matter and Decomposition

Decomposition can be divided into three processes: fragmentation of

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Soil Organic matter