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Nucleus No No Yes
Membrane- No No Yes
bound
organelles
Eukaryotic cells:
found in Eukaryotes; Animals, plants, protoctists (i.e; Algae), many fungi
Contain membrane-bounded organelles; A nucleus, Mitochondria, chloroplasts etc…
Prokaryotic cells:
Found in Prokaryotes; most bacteria, green-blue algae
Do not contain membrane-bounded organelles (no mitochondria, ER, golgi body and
chloroplasts)
do not have a nucleus. They have a single strand of DNA coiled to form a loop in the
centre- the nucleoid
Cytoplasm contains enzymes, ribosomes and food storage granules
will sometimes have additional genetic material in rings called plasmids
Respiration takes place in a special part of the cell membrane; a Mesosome
Photosynthesizing prokaryotes will have a form of chlorophyll. *Not in chloroplasts
Membranes
The cell membrane surrounds a cell acting as a boundary which holds the cell together and
controls what goes in and out. *Partially permeable
Intracellular membranes make up/surround organelles and serve many functions.
The protoplasm
Cytoplasm
jelly-like liquid containing organelles
The nucleus
Largest organelle, between 10 and 20 micrometres
Controls events in cytoplasm because contains genetic material of cell; Nucleic acids
(DNA and RNA). Also contains proteins. *when cell is not dividing DNA bonds with a
protein to form chromatin- tiny granules
surrounded by a double nuclear membrane or, envelope, which has many nuclear pores
allowing for the movement of chemicals
Contains at least one nucleolus; dense area of almost pure nucleic acids and proteins
Mitochondria
Surrounded by inner and outer membranes. Inner membrane folded to make cristae
which is surrounded by a fluid matrix
contain their own genetic material; to replicate themselves during cell division
Function: Releases energy from food in the form of ATP using Oxygen in a series of
biochemical reactions → aerobic respiration
More found in cells requiring more energy, i.e; muscle cells
Centrioles
Two found in each cell. Each a bundle of nine tubules.
Function: Pull apart to form a spindle of microtubules in mitosis
Cytoskeleton
Dynamic, 3D, web-like structure made of microfilaments (protein fibres) and microtubules
(protein tubes)
Function: gives cytoplasm structure and keeps organelles in place
vacuoles
Mostly found in plant cells. Formed and lost as needed in some animal cells. i.e; white blood
cells
Golgi body
Made up of stacks of flattened, parallel, membrane pockets called cisternae, found near
the nucleus. Transfer vesicles from the sER fuse to form these
Function: Modify, store and transport proteins received at the cis golgi from the rER.
Carbohydrates can be added to proteins to form glycoproteins.
Secretory vesicles containing proteins bud off the cisternae at the trans golgi
some fuse with the outer cell membrane to release proteins, i.e; extracellular enzymes
Involved in formation + secretion of lysosome
Lysosome
Vesicles containing a powerful mix of digestive enzymes. Used in phagocytosis.
Can rupture to destroy damaged cell- known as apoptosis.
2. organs: Different tissues, grouped into a structure so that they can work effectively
together
3. Organ systems: Organs working together as a system to carry out large-scale
functions
Cell cycle and mitosis:
Stage 1:
Interphase;
G1: cell synthesizes mRNA and proteins
S (Synthesis): DNA replication and cell growth + centrosomes replicate
G2 (gap 2): final cell growth takes place. *At checkpoints, small proteins called cyclins
build up and attach to CDKs to allow the cell to move on to the next stage
Mitosis:
A form of cell division which results in two identical daughter cells being formed.
*Allows for growth, asexual reproduction in some organisms and for damaged tissue to be
replenished after injury by replacing damaged cells.
Prophase:
Chromosomes coil and condense by winding around positively charged histone proteins
and each appear as two chromatids joined by a centromere. (X shape)
Nucleolus breaks down
Centrioles move apart and begin to form the spindle
Metaphase:
Nuclear membrane breaks down
Spindles made of microtubules have been formed (by the centrioles) and chromosomes
line up at the equator of the cell where each is attached to a spindle fibre by its
centromere
Anaphase:
The centromeres separate as the sister chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles,
shortening spindle tubules
Telophase:
Spindle fibres break down and nuclear membranes form around two sets of
chromosomes
Nucleoli and centrioles also re-form. The chromosomes unravel, becoming less dense
Gametogenesis: (meiosis)
Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells (sex cells or
gametes) containing the haploid number of chromosomes.
-It consists of two stages;
Meiosis l
Same process as mitosis; two diploid cells produced
Crossing over occurs during prophase (during synapsis); homologous
chromosomes wind around each other at the chiasmata and sections of each
chromosome switch places; genetic information is shared between the two →
genetic variation even between siblings
independent assortment occurs as a result of the alignment of homologs during
metaphase I, determining which maternal and paternal chromosomes assort to
each daughter cell. Each pair of alleles separates independently of every other
pair of unlinked alleles leading to a new combination of chromosomes.
Meiosis ll
Same process as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) but DNA
is not replicated
Only one of the four cells produced becomes an ovum; the others are polar
bodies
Sperm
Spermatogenesis (in testes) → spermatids → differentiate into mature sperm within about two
months. *occurs from onset of puberty throughout a man’s lifetime.
Secondary oocyte
Cortical granules contain enzymes which are released once a sperm has penetrated the egg,
known as the cortical reaction → Zona pellucida forms hard barrier preventing polyspermy
(the fertilisation membrane)
Oogenesis: Primary oocytes are formed from oogonia (female germ cells) following repeated
mitotic divisions. At puberty meiosis resumes from prophase l and eggs at metaphase ll are
released. The second division of secondary oocytes to produce mature ova is only completed
during fertilisation.
Fertilisation:
Animals
1. Sperm move through the female reproductive tract and the acrosome region matures
2. Sperm cluster around ovum (secondary oocyte)
3. Heads of sperms touch surface of ovum → acrosome reaction
4. One sperm eventually wriggles through the weakened barriers and touches the surface
membrane of the secondary oocyte
5. The oocyte undergoes second meiotic division to provide a haploid egg nucleus
6. A tough fertilisation membrane is formed to prevent polyspermy following the cortical
reaction
7. The head of the sperm enters the oocyte and the tail is left behind; the male and female
chromosomes fuse and a diploid zygote is produced
Plants
1. If the molecules on the surface of the pollen grain and the stigma recognise each other
as being from a different plant from the same species the pollen grain begins to grow or
germinate
2. Pollen tube grows through stigma into the hollow style
3. Nucleus of pollen tube divides to form two male nuclei and the tip of the tube eventually
passes through the micropyle of the ovule *growth of pollen tube is very fast due to rapid
elongation of cell
4. Two male nuclei pass into the ovule
5. Double fertilisation occurs → one male nucleus fuses with the nuclei of the two polar
bodies to form the triploid endosperm nucleus and the other fuses with the egg cell to
form the diploid zygote
Stem cells
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells (Totipotent, Pluripotent or multipotent) which have the
potential to differentiate and give rise to different specialised cells such as muscle cells.
These cells are present in some organs where they will divide to replace and replenish
damaged tissue.
Genetic variation
Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that occupy the same location
(gene locus)
A phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment (e.g.
animal hair colour, human height, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and cancers). For example,
about 400 genes contribute to human height, however, environmental factors which determine a
child’s nutrition and overall health also affect it. The data on the relative contributions of genes
and environment is often difficult to interpret.
Gene locus
A locus (plural loci), in genetics, is the specific location or position of a gene, DNA
sequence, on a chromosome.
When there are large numbers of genes involved, it becomes hard to distinguish the effect of
each individual gene
Topic 4: Biodiversity and natural resources
All living organisms are divided into three domains (established by Woese in 1990); bacteria,
Archaea, Eukarya which stem from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA).
*Bacteria and Archaea, are both single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms with no nucleus.
Despite this, Archaea are known to be more closely related to Eukarya.
feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
Nucleus No No Yes
Membrane- No No Yes
bound
organelles
The theory that there are three domains; two prokaryotes (Archea and bacteria)
and the eukaryotes developed as a result of analysis of ribosomes, enzymes and
chemicals such as DNA and RNA under molecular phylogeny. The three domain
system, remains a source of debate and uncertainty, however, as some scientists argue
that archaea are not more closely linked to eukarya and that the evolution of organisms
would be better represented by a complex web of life rather than a simple tree.
Because plant cells are bounded by cell walls, they appear as more rigid and uniform in shape
than animal cells. *Plant cells contain the same features as animal cells (except centrioles) as
well as some distinguishing features
Plasmodesmata
a narrow thread of cytoplasm that passes through the cell walls of adjacent plant cells and
allows communication between them.
Pits
Pits are cavities in plant cell walls that allow water to be transported more easily.
Chloroplasts
large organelles, biconvex shape
Contain granum made of thylakoid membranes suspended in a liquid called stroma
contain their own DNA and have a double membrane, like mitochondria, giving a large
SA for reactions to take place
function: site of photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll- green pigment that traps energy
from light
Amyloplasts
colourless, like chloroplasts, develop from a plant stem cell known as a leucoplast.
function: store amylopectin. Found in large amounts in starch-storing areas; potato tubers
Cellulose:
Cellulose is made up of long chains of beta glucose joined by 1,4- glycosidic bonds-
cellulose chains.
o One of the monomer units has to be inverted so bonding can take place.
Hydroxyl groups stick out on both sides of the molecule → cross-linking can
occur between parallel chains. These hydrogen bonds make cellulose and plant
Epidermis: outer layer of the stem is the epidermis, protects the cells beneath it. A waxy
substance called cutin is secreted to reduce water loss
Parenchyma: Made up of parenchyma cells- unspecialised cells. Can serve many
functions, i.e; storage and photosynthesis, some can be modified into collenchyma and
sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma: Type of modified parenchyma- for support. Develop around vascular
bundles in older stems, to support bigger upper weight of plant. Sclerenchyma cells have
strong secondary walls made of cellulose microfibrils laid out perpendicularly to each
other. Some form fibers; very long cells found in bundles/cylinders. Lignin is deposited
on the cell walls of fibres. Position: outside phloem
Vascular bundle:
Xylem:
Main functional units; hollow, lignified, xylem vessels made of dead cells with no end
Function: transport water and dissolved mineral ions up the stem
Phloem: Living tissue made up of phloem cells which transport sucrose (the product of
photosynthesis) to where it is needed for growth or to be stored as starch.
Phosphate Needed for phosphate groups in ATP and ADP and· Very dark green
nucleic acids; essential to energy transfers and leaves
growth · Purple veins
· Stunted growth
Calcium Combine with pectin to form calcium pectate found· Growing points die
in middle lamella of plant cells + important to back
permeability of membranes · Yellow and crinkly
younger leaves
cotton:
Short, single fibres found around cotton seeds are spun to form long, continuous threads with
are then woven together to make fabrics.
Wood:
A composite material made of lignified cellulose fibres embedded in hemicelluloses. Wood has
a very high tensile strength at is quite flexible making it suitable for weight-bearing in buildings,
making furniture and making boats.
To make paper:
Soak in a strong alkali such as caustic soda
Pulp consisting of cellulose and lignified cellulose left in water
Thin layers of pulp pressed onto frames
Layers of pulp dry to form paper
Bioplastics are made from renewable biological resources that at the end of their useful life
rapidly biodegrade and return nutrients back into the system.
PRE-CLINICAL TESTING
Animal studies and laboratory studies on isolated cells and tissue cultures assesses safety and
determines whether the compound is effective against the target disease.
Clinical Trials:
PHASE 1
A small group of (usually healthy) volunteers are told about the drug and given doses. The trial
confirms whether or not the compound is being absorbed, distributed, metabolised and excreted
by the body in the way predicted by the laboratory tests.
*They must be of the same age/gender and they must have the same general health
levels and lifestyles
PHASE 2
Small groups of volunteer patients e.g. 100-300 people with the disease, are treated to
determine the drug’s effectiveness.
PHASE 3
Large group of patients (1000-3000 people) are selected and divided into two groups. One is
given the compound being investigated; the second is given a placebo (in some cases an
existing treatment is used rather than a placebo). A placebo is an inactive substance that looks
exactly like the drug but doesn't do anything.
If the results show significant improvements in the patients receiving the treatment compared to
those with the placebo or standard treatment then compound being investigated is effective.
Often a DOUBLE BLIND TRIAL is used which is when neither the patients nor the doctors know
who is having the compound under investigation and who is having the placebo.
Biodiversity
The variety of organisms present in a given habitat
Species richness: The number of species present in a habitat in a given time.
Species evenness: How close in numbers each species in an environment is.
Genetic diversity (within a species): The variety of alleles in a gene pool of a species;
the more genetic variation the better bc. Higher chances of survival
Concept of Niche
A niche is the specific role or function of an organism in its habitat which is a result of its
physical, anatomical and physiological adaptations.
Adaptations:
Behavioral; The ways an organism acts
I.e: bird calls, migration
Physiological: processes that take place inside an organism’s body
I.e: Making venom, secreting slime
Anatomical: Structural features of an organism
I.e: long beaks, sharp claws
Natural selection:
The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.
This is a type of directional selection which shows a change from one phenotypic property to a
new one more advantageous in the circumstances.
*This often begins with geographical isolation which changes the selection pressures on a
species
1. There are genetic differences between organisms within the same species which results
in different phenotypic traits.
2. Some traits are favourable; they make organisms fitter as these adaptations make them
better suited to their environments
3. Many favourable traits are heritable, meaning they can be passed onto offspring
4. The fitter animals are more likely to survive and pass on their advantageous phenotypic
traits to their offspring
Charles Darwin Identified this as a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of
a population over time. Under the idea of the survival of the fittest, organisms with favourable
traits are most likely to reproduce and pass on the alleles that code for these traits as they give
them an advantage in a particular niche. Over generations, the alleles that mark their variation
become more frequent and eventually whole populations change. This can also lead to
speciation whereby new and distinct species are formed in the course of evolution.
Conservation refers to the maintainance and protection of a living and changing environment in
order to maintain biodiversity.
There isn’t enough space or resources in zoos for all endangered species
Reintroduction programmes are very expensive and time consuming and they may fail
Unless the reason for animals being pushed to the brink of extinction is removed,
reintroduction to the wild will be unsuccessful
It is difficult to provide the right conditions for animals to breed, some are reluctant
The gene pool of animals held may be reduced
Animals that have been bred in captivity may struggle to adapt to living unsupported in
the wild
Scientific research is carried out by zoos and botanic gardens which work closely with university
departments. Education regarding the impacts of falling biodiversity and the principles of
conservation can help to raise awareness of conservation issues including the need for
conservation and the available opportunities for it.
*Core practicals; tensile strength, plant mineral deficiencies, antimicrobial properties of plants