BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering

K. R. Road, V. V. Pura, Bangalore – 560 004

LABORATORY MANUAL

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

Prepared By
Dr. Chetan Byrappa
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Lab Instructor
Mr. R. Narayana Swamy

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANGALORE – 560004

Certificate
Certificate that this is the bonafied record of work done in second year
Material Testing Laboratory prescribed by the Visveswaraya Technological
University for the ………. semester B.E. in the year……………….

Reference: Name of the Candidate …………………………...

U. S. N: ………………………………………….
Batch No. ………………………………………..

Signature of the Staff in charge

Name: ……………………………..

Date: …………. Signature of Head of the Department

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 Bangalore Institute of Technology

College Vision

To establish and develop the Institute as a centre of higher learning, ever

abreast with expanding horizon of knowledge in the field of engineering
and technology, with entrepreneurial thinking, leadership excellence for
life-long success and solve societal problem.

College Mission
 Provide high quality education in the engineering disciplines from
the undergraduate through doctoral levels with creative academic
and professional programs.
 Develop the Institute as a leader in Science, Engineering,
Technology and management, Research and apply knowledge for
the benefit of society.
 Establish mutual beneficial partnerships with industry, alumni,
local, state and central governments by public service assistance and
collaborative research.
 Inculcate personality development through sports, cultural and
extracurricular activities and engage in the social, economic and
professional challenges.

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 Bangalore Institute of Technology
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Department Vission

Transform Students to Broadly Educated, Talented and Competent

Mechanical Engineers

Department Mission

 Create an Environment as a Center of Learning.

 Train the Staff to Ensure the Student get an Excellent Education at
par with Latest Technology.
 Provide an Effective Means of Learning, Advance Knowledge, and
Facilitates Personal Commitment to the Educational Success of
Students.
 Preparing the Students for Productive Careers Globally.
 Inspire Hope and Contribute to Society by Providing the Best
Practices.
 Prepares the Students for Research and Advanced Problem Solving
Technique Needed to Address Complex Mechanical Engineering
Problems.
 Educate Students to become Highly Successful Alumni who
contribute to the Profession in the Global Society.

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 MATERIALS TESTING LAB
[As Per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) Scheme]

Subject Code: 17MEL37A /47A Number of Lecture Hours / Week: 01

IA Marks: 40 No of Practical Hours / Week: 03
Exam Marks: 60 Exam Hours: 03

PART – A
1. Preparation of specimen for Metallographic examination of different engineering materials. To report
microstructures of plain carbon steel, tool steel, gray C.I, SG iron, Brass, Bronze & composites.
2. Heat treatment: Annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering of steel. Metallographic specimens of
heat treated components to be supplied and students should report microstructures of furnace cooled, water
cooled, air cooled, tempered steel. Students should be able to distinguish the phase changes in a heat-treated
specimen compared to untreated specimen.
3. Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers’s Hardness tests on untreated and heat-treated specimens.
4. To study the defects of Cast and Welded components using Non-destructive tests like: a) Ultrasonic flaw
detection b) Magnetic crack detection c) Dye penetration testing.

PART – B

5. Tensile, shear and compression tests of steel, aluminum and cast-iron specimens using Universal testing
machine
6. Torsion Test on mild steel bar.
7. Bending Test on steel and wood specimens.
8. Izod and Charpy Tests on mild steel and aluminum specimen.
9. To study the wear characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous materials under different parameters.
10. Fatigue Test (demonstration only).

Scheme of Examination:
ONE question from part -A: 30 Marks
ONE question from part -B: 50 Marks
Viva -Voice: 20 Marks
Total: 100 Marks

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 MATERIALS TESTING LAB

Experiment
Numbers
Details of Experiment CO'S Matching PO'S

Specimen preparation for metallographic

examination of different engineering
1 materials.(Self learning-Assignment 1-To be CO1 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5,PO10,PO12
written in lab record book-To be evaluated for
10 Marks)
2 Wear Test CO1 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5,PO10,PO12
Magnetic Particle Test PO1,PO2,PO4,
3 CO2
PO5,PO8,PO10,PO12
Dye Penetration Test PO1,PO2,PO4,
4 CO2
PO5,PO8,PO10,PO12
Heat treatment processes: Annealing,
normalizing, hardening and tempering of steel. PO1,PO2,PO4,
5 CO2
PO5,PO8,PO10,PO12
(Self-learning-Assignment 2-To be written in
lab record book-To be evaluated for 10 Marks)
6 Tensile Test CO3 PO1,PO2,PO3,PO4, PO5,

7 Compression Test CO3 PO1,PO2,PO3,PO4, PO5,

8 Shear Test CO3 PO1,PO2,PO3,PO4, PO5,

9 Bending Test CO4 PO1,PO2,PO3,PO4, PO5,

10 Torsion Test CO5 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5

11 Rockwell Hardness Test CO5 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5

12 Brinell Hardness Test CO5 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5

13 Vicker's Hardness Test CO5 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5

14 Impact Test - Izod Test CO5 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5

15 Impact Test - Charpy Test CO5 PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5

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 CO TO PO & PSO MAPPING

Material Testing lab-17MEL37A/47A

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C237.1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
C237.2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3
C237.3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2
C237.4 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2
C237.5 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2
AVG 3 3 1.8 3 2.4 0.4 1.2 1.2 3 2.4 2.4

Dr. Chetan. B Dr.T.Jagadish

Lab In charge Staff Professor & HOD

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 LAB TITLE: MATERIALS TESTING LAB
Faculty Dr. Chetan. B Academic Year: 2018
Name: (ODD)
Department: Mechanical Engineering
Course Code Course Title Core / Prerequisite Contact Total
Elective Hours Hrs./
L T P Sessions
17MEL37A MATERIALS Core 1.Basic Mechanical 1 - 2 48
TESTING LAB Engineering
2.Machanics of
Materials
3.Material Science

MATERIALS TESTING LAB

[AS PER CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM (CBCS) SCHEME] SEMESTER – III

Subject Code 17MEL37A/47A IA Marks 40

Exam Hours 03 Number of 01
Lecture Hrs /
Week
Exam Marks 100 No of Practical 03
Hours / Week
CREDITS-02

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 COURSE OBJECTIVES

The Course Objectives Of MATERIALS TESTING LAB

CO's are: PO's

C237.1 To gain knowledge about specimen preparation for metallographic PO1,PO2,PO4,

PO5,PO10,PO12
examination, microstructures and heat treatment processes.

C237.2 To understand wear characteristics of ferrous, nonferrous and PO1,PO2,PO4,

PO5,PO8,PO10,PO1
composite material and to learn about nondestructive testing 2
experiments.

C237.3 To learn about Tensile, shear and compression tests of metallic and PO1,PO2,PO3,PO4,
PO5
nonmetallic specimens using Universal Testing Machine

C237.4 To train on bending test on metallic and nonmetallic specimens. PO1,PO2,PO3,PO4,

PO5

C237.5 To impart knowledge of Izod and Charpy Tests on M.S, C.I Specimen PO1,PO2,PO4, PO5
and to train on Brinell, Rockwell and Vicker's hardness tests.

COURSE OUTCOME

On completion of this Course students will be able to:

C237.1 Learn about specimen preparation for metallographic examination, microstructures and
heat treatment processes.

C237.2 Understand wear characteristics of ferrous , non ferrous and composite material and
learn about non destructive testing experiments.

C237.3 Conduct and analyze tensile, shear and compression tests of metallic and non metallic
specimens using Universal Testing Machine

C237.4 Conduct and analyze experiments on bending test on metallic and nonmetallic
specimens.

C237.5 Acquire knowledge of Izod and Charpy Tests on M.S, C.I Specimen and also on Brinell,
Rockwell and Vickers’s hardness tests.

Dr. Chetan. B Dr.T.Jagadish

Lab In charge Staff Professor & HOD

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 Essential Attributes of Engineering Graduates set by National
Board of Accreditation (NBA)

PROGRAM OUTCOME (POs)

PO1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply basic knowledge of science, mathematics and engineering
fundamentals in the field of Mechanical Engineering to the solution of complex engineering problems
PO2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature and analyze complex mechanical
engineering problems by using basics principles of science, mathematics and engineering for reaching
substantiated conclusions.
PO3. Design/Development of Solutions: Design solution for complex mechanical engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public
health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4. Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems: Design and conduct experiments using research-based
knowledge and methods including design of experiments, analyze, interpret the data, and synthesis of the
information to provide the results with valid conclusion.
PO5. Modern Tool Usage: Create, Select and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and software tools including prediction and modeling to complex mechanical engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
mechanical engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
PO9. Individual and Team Work: Function efficiently as an individual and as a member or leader in diverse
team, and in multidisciplinary settings
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex mechanical engineering activities with
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentation, and give and receive clear instruction
PO11. Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of mechanical
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage project and in multidisciplinary environments
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PO12. Life-Long Learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and lifelong learning in the broadest adapt to emerging field of context of technological change.

Dr.Chetan. B Dr.T.Jagadish
Lab In charge Staff Professor & HOD

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 Bangalore Institute of Technology
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

DO’s
 Come with uniform and shoes always.
 Submit the laboratory record before starting the next experiment.
 Maintain the observatory book duly signed by staff in charge.
 Clean the instruments after the experiment.
 Maintain silence and clean environment.
 Complete the calculation, graph, drawing of experiment pertaining to the
exercise in the same class.
 Use dustbin to dispose water.
 Use first aid in case of injury.

Don’t’s
Don’t stand very close to the experimental set up, maintain safe distance.
Don’t disturb standard setup of the equipment as accuracy might change.
Don’t manipulate the readings.
Don’t copy the readings from others.
Don’t come in civil dress.
Don’t spoil instrument.
Don’t use mobiles in the lab.

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 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

List of Experiments:

Sl
Title Page no.
no.
1 Metallography or Microscopy 14
2 Wear Test 18
3 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) 24
4 Dye Penetrant Test (DPT) 27
5 Heat Treatment of Metals 29
6 Rockwell Hardness Test 31
7 Brinell Hardness Test 34
8 Vickers’s Hardness Test 37
9 Impact Test 39
10 Tensile Test 44
11 Compression Test 51
12 Shear Test 58
13 Bending Test 61
14 Torsion Test 66

Lab Record Evaluation Procedure

Sl No. Description Marks

1 Giving description on the experiment (Aim 4
+Apparatus +Theory +Procedure)
2 Tabular column with giving proper units 4
3 Formulas & Calculations with specified units 4
4 Results & Conclusions 3
5 Total for Lab record 15
6 Test has to be conducted 5
7 Overall Total 20

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 MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY
Safety Rules & Norms
The following instructions should be strictly followed by the students in the laboratory.

1. All the students are expected to come to the lab, with shoe, uniform etc., whenever they come for the
laboratory class.

2. For each lab class, all the students are expected to come with observation note book, record note book,
pencil, eraser, sharpener, scale, divider, graph sheets etc.

3. While coming to each laboratory class, students are expected to come with the observation book for the
class.

4. All the students are expected to complete their laboratory work including calculations and get it corrected
in the laboratory class itself.

5. All the equipment’s, tools, accessories are expensive. Therefore, students are expected to handle the
instruments with utmost care during the experiment.

6. The tools and accessories required for conducting the experiments can be obtained from the
Instructor/technician and the same should be returned as soon as the experiment over.

7. Breakage amount will be collected from the student(S) for causing damage to the instruments / equipment’s
due to wrong operation or carelessness.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
METALLOGRAPHY OR MICROSCOPY
It consists of microscopic study of the structural characteristics of a metal or an alloy. It includes the
study of the microstructure of metals, the space arrangement of the atoms, heat treatment and examination
by X-rays.

METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE:
It is the most important tool of the metallurgist from both the scientific and technical standpoints. It is
possible to determine the grain size and the size, shape and distribution of various phases and inclusions which
have a great effect on the mechanical properties of the metal. The microstructure will reveal the mechanical
and thermal treatment of the metal, and it may be possible to predict its expected behavior under a given set
of conditions.

In comparison with biological type, the metallurgical Microscope differs in the manner by which the
specimen is illuminated. Since the metallographic sample is opaque to light, the sample must be illuminated
by reflected light.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
A horizontal beam of light from some light source is reflected, by means of a plane glass reflector,
downward through the microscope objective onto the surface of the specimen. Some of this incident light
reflected from the specimen surface will be magnified in passing through the lower lens system, the objective,
and will continue upward through the plane glass reflector and be magnified again by the upper lens system,
the eye piece. The initial magnifying power of the objective and the eyepiece is usually engraved on the lens
mount. When a particular combination of the object and eye piece is used at the proper tube length, the total
magnification is equal to the product of the magnification of the objective and the eye piece.

The maximum magnification obtained about 2000X. The principal limitation is the wavelength of
visible light, which limits the resolution of fine details in the metallographic specimen.

Electron & Light Microscopes:

The greatest advance in resolving power was obtained by the Electron Microscope. Under certain
circumstances, high-velocity electrons behave like light of very short wave length. The electron beam has
associated with it a wavelength nearly 100000 times smaller than the wavelength of visible light, thus
increasing the resolving power tremendously.

14
 The lenses of Electron Microscope have powerful magnetic fields of the coils, and the image is brought
into focus by changing the field strength of the coils while the coils remain in a fixed position.

Since metallographic specimens are opaque to an electron beam, it is necessary to prepare a thin replica
of the surface to be studied. The specimen is polished and etched by following normal metallographic practice.
It is then placed on a hot plate with small pellet of suitable plastic on the etched surface. As the temperature
rises, the plastic begins to flow and pressure is applied to ensure intimate contact between the plastic and
surface. After cooling the replica is carefully peeled -off. The disk is then placed over the opening in the
specimen holder, which is inserted in the column of the instrument.

The electrons emitted by a hot tungsten filament cathode are accelerated, to form a high-velocity beam,
by the anode. This beam is concentrated on the replica by the condensing lens. Depending upon the density
and the thickness of the replica at each point, some of the electrons are absorbed or scattered while the
remainder passes through. The magnetic field of the objective lens focuses and enlarges the electron beam
that has passed through the replica. Some of the electrons in this image are brought into a second focus on a
fluorescent screen by the projector lens. It has magnification range of 1400 to 32000 X which may be extended
to 200000X with accessory lenses.

Although in principle, the Electron Microscope is similar to the Light Microscope; its appearance is
very much different. It is much larger because of the highly regulated power supplies that ay needed to produce
and control the electron beam. The entire system must be kept pumped to a high vacuum since air would
interfere with the motion of the electrons.

Steps Involved For Preparation of Metallographic Specimen:

1. Sampling: The choice of a sample may be very important. If a failure is to be investigated, the sample
should be chosen as close as possible to the area of failure and should be compared with one taken
from the normal section. If the material is soft like non-ferrous metals and non-heated-treated steels,
the section may be obtained by manual hack sawing. If the materials are hard, the section may be
obtained by an abrasive cut-off wheel.

2. Rough grinding: whenever possible the specimen should be of a size that is convenient to handle. It
is continued until the surface is flat and free from nicks, burs, etc. And all scratches due to the hacksaw
or cut-off wheel are no longer visible.
3. Mounting: Specimens that are small should be mounted to facilitate intermediate and final polishing.
Wires, small rats, sheet metal specimen, thin sections, etc. must be appropriately mounted in a suitable

15
 material or rigidly clamped in a mechanical mount. Resins used- synthetic plastic material, bakelite
molding powders, Lucite, etc.

4. Intermediate polishing: After mounting, the specimen is polished on a series of emery paper
containing successively finer abrasives (220 grit, 320 grit, 400 grit and 600 grit, from course to fine)
first, the specimen is ground on 220 grit paper, so that the scratches are produced roughly at right angle
to those exiting on the specimen grinding is then continued on 320 grit paper, again turning the
specimen through 90° and polishing until the previous scratch marks are removed. The process is
repeated with 400 and 600 grit papers.

5. Fine polishing: The time consumed and the success of fine polishing largely depends upon the care
that was taken during the previous polishing steps. The final approximation to a flat scratch free surface
is obtained by use of a wet rotating wheel covered with a special cloth that is charged with carefully
sized abrasives particles. Abrasives used aluminum oxide for ferrous and copper based materials,
cerium oxide for Al, Mg and their alloys: diamond paste, chromium oxide and magnesium oxide. The
choice of a proper polishing cloth depends upon the material being polished and the purpose of the
metallographic study. Examples are synthetic polishing clothes (gravel and micro-cloth), broad cloth,
billiard cloth, velvet cloth, canvas duck, etc.

6. Etching: The purpose is to make visible the many structural characters tics of the metal or alloy. The
process must be such that the various parts of the microstructure may be clearly differentiated. This is
accomplished by use of an appropriate reagent which subjects the polished surface to chemical action.
The selection of the appropriate etching reagent is determined by the metal or alloy and the specific
structure desired for viewing as follows:

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TABLE: Etching Reagents for Microscopic Examination:
ETCHING COMPOSITION USES REMARKS
REAGENT

Nitric acid White nitric acid -1 5ml. In carbon steels: Etching rate is increased,
(nital) Ethile or methyl alcohol(95% 1. to darken pearlite A give selectivity decreased with
or absolute) (also amyl contrast b/w pearlite colonies, increasing percentages of HNO*
alcohol)- 100ml 2. to reveal ferrite Reagent 2 (picric acid) usually
foundries, superior Etching time is
3. to differentiate ferrite few seconds to one minute or
from martensite more.

Piric acid Piric acid -4gf Ethyl or For all grades of carbon steels: More dilute solution
(picral) methyl alcohol -100ml Annealed, normalized, and occasionally useful. Does not
(95% or absolute) quenched. & tempered reveal ferrite grain boundaries
spheroidized, austempered. For ail as readily as nital. Etching
low-alloy steels attacked by this time a few seconds to one
reagent minute or more.

Ferric Ferric chloride -5g Structure of austenitic nickel &

chloride & Hydrochloride acid -50ml stainless steels
hydrochloric Water -1 00ml
acid

Ammonia Ammonia hydroxide -5 parts Generally used to copper and Peroxide content varies
hydroxide & Water -5 parts Hydrogen many of its alloys directly with copper
hydrogen peroxide 2-5 parts. content of alloy to be etched
peroxide immersion or swabbing for
about 1-min. Fresh peroxide for
good results.

Ammonium Ammonium persulfate- l0g Copper, brass, bronze, nickel Use either cold or boiling:
persulfate Water -90ml. silver, aluminum bronze immersion

Palmerton Chromic oxide -200g Sodium General reagent for zinc and its Immersion with gentle
reagent oxide- 15g Water -1,000ml alloys agitation

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Ammonium Molybdic acid (85%)-100g
molybdate Ammonium hydroxide(sp Gr
0.9> 140 ml Water-240 ml
Filter & add to nitric acid (sp.
_gr. 1.32)-60ml

Hydrofluoric Hydrofluoric acid (cone) 0.5 General microscopic for Swab with soft cotton for 15
acid ml Water 99.5 ml aluminum & its alloys Seconds

CONCLUSION:

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 EXPERIMENT No. 2
WEAR TEST

AIM: To find out the wear coefficient of the materials of the given specimens (aluminum or brass)
APPARATUS: Pin and Disc Wear Testing machine with weight hanger, electronic weighing balance loads.
THEORY: In materials science, wear is the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another
substance. The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology. There are five principal
wear processes:

1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Surface fatigue
4. Fretting wear
5. Erosion wear

The definition of wear does not include loss of dimension from plastic deformation, although wear has
occurred despite no material removal. This definition also fails to include impact wear, where there is no
sliding motion, cavitation’s, where the counter body is a fluid, and corrosion, where the damage is due to
chemical rather than mechanical action.

Wear can also be defined as a process in which interaction of the surfaces or bounding faces of a solid
with its working environment results in dimensional loss of the solid, with or without loss of material. Aspects
of the working environment which affect wear include loads (such as unidirectional sliding, reciprocating,
rolling, and impact loads), speed, temperature, type of counter body (solid, liquid, or gas), and type of contact
(single phase or multiphase, in which the phases involved can be liquid plus solid particles plus gas bubbles).

In the results of standard wear tests (such as those formulated by the respective subcommittees of ASTM
Committee G-2), the loss of material during wear is expressed in terms of volume. The volume loss gives a
truer picture than weight loss, particularly when comparing the wear resistance properties of materials with
large differences in density. For example, a weight loss of 14 g in a sample of tungsten carbide + cobalt
(density = 14000 kg/m³) and a weight loss of 2.7 g in a similar sample of aluminum alloy (density = 2700
kg/m³) both result in the same level of wear (1 cm³) when expressed as a volume loss.

Adhesive wear

Adhesive wear is also known as scoring, galling, or seizing. It occurs when two solid surfaces slide
over one another under pressure. Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically deformed and eventually
19
welded together by the high local pressure. As sliding continues, these bonds are broken, producing cavities
on the surface, projections on the second surface, and frequently tiny, abrasive particles, all of which contribute
to future wear of surfaces.

Abrasive wear

When material is removed by contact with hard particles, abrasive wear occurs. The particles either
may be present at the surface of a second material (two-body wear) or may exist as loose particles between
two surfaces (three-body wear). Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass by the Taber Abrasion Test
according to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 1044.

Surface fatigue

Surface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one
type of general material fatigue.

Fretting wear

Fretting wear is the repeated cyclical rubbing between two surfaces, which is known as fretting, over
a period of time which will remove material from one or both surfaces in contact. It occurs typically in
bearings, although most bearings have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem. Another problem occurs
when cracks in either surface are created, known as fretting fatigue. It is the more serious of the two
phenomena because it can lead to catastrophic failure of the bearing. An associated problem occurs when the
small particles removed by wear are oxidized in air. The oxides are usually harder than the underlying metal,
so wear accelerates as the harder particles abrade the metal surfaces further. Fretting corrosion acts in the same
way, especially when water is present. Unprotected bearings on large structures like bridges can suffer serious
degradation in behavior, especially when salt is used during winter to deice the highways carried by the
bridges.

PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the given specimen in the proper position after initially weighing it.
2. The hanger facilitates loading of required load.
3. The disc is driven by a motor. The speed of the motor is controlled by dimmer stat. The speed is
adjusted to the required value. The machine is run for 15 minutes.
4. The specimen is removed from the holder and weighed again.
5. The loss in volume is noted.
6. The experiment may be repeated for different materials, loads and speeds.

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Figure 2.1: Setup of Pin –On –Disc Wear Testing
Figure 2.2: Specimen For Wear Testing
Machine

OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. Dia. Of the Specimen ‘d’ Track Radius
Specimen
No. in mm ‘R’ in mm

1 Brass

2 Aluminum

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TABULATION:
Time Weight (grams) Wear
Load based on Wear rate
Seconds
Trail No. Specimen in weight loss W= P/A.S
grams W1 W2 (W1 - W2) gmm-3
(grams)

1
Brass
2

1
Aluminum
2

CALCULATIONS:
The wear volume is related to wear coefficient as follows:
W = P/A.S
Where
W= Wear based on weight loss (grams) (W1 - W2)
A = * d 2 / 4
S= V*T
S= Sliding distance
N = Revolutions per min
T=Time duration in Sec.
V= 2π RN/60
Sliding Pressure: Force /Area
RESULTS:
Weight in Wear rate
Sl. No. Specimen
grams gmm-3
1
Brass
2
1
Aluminum
2

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GRAPHS:
a. Weight loss v/s Sliding Distance.
b. Wear rate v/s Sliding Pressure

CONCLUSION: The wear rate of given specimen is …………...

23
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI)

Aim: To understand the Principal method of detecting Flaws in materials using a Magnetic Particle
Inspection
Apparatus: Magnetic Particle Inspection unit, Red Iron Powder etc.

Theory: Magnetic Particle Inspection method uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles to detect
surface defects or near surface defects in ferrous materials. This method is a relatively simple and easy
technique. It is almost free from any restriction as to size, shape, and composition.
When a piece of metal is placed in a magnetic field and the lines of magnetic flux get intersected by a
discontinuity such a crack or slag inclusion in a casting, magnetic poles are induced on either side of the
discontinuity. The discontinuity causes an abrupt change in the path of magnetic flux-floating through the
casting normal to the discontinuity, resulting a local flux leakage field and interference with the magnetic lines
of force. This local flux-disturbance can be detected by its affect upon magnetic particles which collect on the
region of discontinuity and pile up and bridge over the discontinuity.
A surface crack is indicated by a line of fine particles following the crack outline and a surface detect
by a fuzzy collection of the magnetic particles on the surface near the discontinuity.

Steps involved in the inspection process

1. Magnetizing the part: The part to be inspected is cleaned thoroughly and held on the table. Circular
magnetization is produced by circular fields. A conductor carrying an electric current is surrounded by a
magnetic field which form closed circles in a plane at right angles to the direction of current flow. Circular
magnetization may be produced with the help of prods or contacts. Prods are used to inspect small areas of
large casting by changing the position of prods symmetrically; the entire surface of the large casting can be
surveyed.

2. Applying magnetic powder (particles): The magnetic powder of iron or black magnetic iron oxide base
and having elongated individual particles is used for the purpose; metallic iron particles are coated to prevent
oxidation and sticking. The powder is available in two colors-red and block; a color which shows up to best
advantage on the part to be inspected is selected. Dry powder is applied in form of a color or spray. The dry
powder is better for locating near surface defects; more ever all the powder can be recovered after the test.

3. Locating the defects: Fig shows magnetic flux fields in a magnetized bar containing
24
a) Surface discontinuity b) Subsurface discontinuity
In the magnetized bar or casting if a void interrupt a magnetic field, the magnetic field gets distorted.
The magnetic permeability of air being too low in comparison with iron, the magnetic flux spreads out to get
around the void. Some of the magnetic flux lines extend outside of the metal in the air over the discontinuity
and the discontinuity is noticed or located distinctly because the magnetic particles collect and pile at any
discontinuity or crack.

25
CONCLUSION:

26
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
DYE PENETRANT TEST (DPT)

Aim: To understand the Principal method of detecting Flaws in a both ferrous and non-ferrous material
using a Dye penetrant test.
Apparatus: Dye penetrant test unit, cleaner, red dye penetrant etc.
Theory: This method of inspection is used for testing parts made with ferrous and non-ferrous materials. The
process is preferred for parts with discontinuities like cracks, porosity, shrinkage etc. that are clear and open
to the surface.
Steps involved in the inspection process:
 Clean the surface of the component free of dust and dirt with a piece of cloth.
 Spray the cleaner to remove oil, grease etc.
 Apply the dye penetrant (by spraying) ad equating to cover the area to be inspected. Allow 3 to 5
minutes or more for dye to penetrate in to the cracks.
 Wipe off the excess penetrant on the surface with a rag.
 Again spray the surface with the cleaner to remove the remnants of the red dye.
 Spray the developer evenly on the surface to give a thin even layer absorbs the penetrant from a visible
indication of the flaws.
 The crack if any will be indicated with the red dye absorbed by the white absorbent.

Penetrant seep Developer draws

Into flaw Penetrant onto
Surface

27
CONCLUSION:

28
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS

AIM: - To perform the following heat treatment process on steel

a) Annealing b) Normalizing c) Hardening and Tempering of steel and checking its hardness

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Heat treatment furnace with temperature controller.
2. Carbon steel specimens (3 No’s each 50mm long & 20 mm diameter) containing about 0.6%C
(specimen no1 for annealing, No2 for Normalizing and No3 for hardening and tempering)
3. Quenching bath, fan for cooling.
4. Hardness testing machine.
5. Hammer, number punches, pair of tongs

THEORY:

Heat Treatment Process:

1. Heating the metal to the predetermined temp.
2. Soaking the metal at that temperature until the structure becomes uniform throughout the metal.
3. Cooling the metal at some pre-determined rate to cause the formation of desired structure with in the
metal for desired properties.

PROCEDURE:
1. Keep the Specimen inside the furnace and close the door.
2. Switch on the furnace, set the temperature control knob to given temperature.
3. The specimen kept in the furnace allowed heat between 35 min to 1 Hr.
4. The specimen is taken out and any of the following steps are adopted as required
a) Normalizing:
 The specimen is cooled against the air blower or fan.
 After the specimen reaches the room temp, clean with an abrasive paper.
 Measure the hardness and record it in the observation table.

b) Hardening:
 The specimen is allowed to cool suddenly by quenching in cold water or oil bath or
salt bath.
 Dry the specimen, with the help of a piece of cloth and an abrasive paper is used to
remove the fins or scales adhere to the surface.
 Measure the hardness and record it in the observation table.

c) Tempering:
 After the normalization, the specimen is subjected for reheating between 150 to
4000C.
 Now remove it from the furnace and quench it in the quenching bath.
 Clean it, measure its hardness and record it in the observation table.
29
 d) Annealing:
 The furnace is switched off and the specimen is cooled slowly inside the furnace.
 After the specimen reaches the room temp, measure the Rockwell hardness and record it
in the observation table.

OBSERVATIONS:
Speci RHN RHN
men Before heat treatment After heat treatment
No Heat treatment
process
Average Average
1 2 3 1 2 3
value value

1
Annealing (Furnace)
2
Normalizing (Air)
3
Hardening (Water)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Clean the specimen properly before testing the hardness.
2. The specimen should be heated to the correct temperature and should be kept in the furnace as
required for the particular heat treatment operation.
3. The specimen should be cooled at the correct rate as required for the particular heat treatment.
4. Care should be taken to measure the type of hardness of the specimen before and after the heat
treatment process.

5. Heated specimen should be removed carefully from the furnace with the help of right tongs.

CONCLUSION:

30
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To determine the hardness number of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

APPARATUS: Hardness testing machine, Stop watch.

THEORY: Stanley Prichard Rockwell (1886 – 1940) invented the Rockwell hardness test. Hardness
represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and cutting, hardness after gives clear
indication of strength. In all hardness tests, a define force is mechanically applied on the piece, varies in size
and shape for different tests. Common indentors are made of hardened steel or diamond. Rockwell hardness
tester presents direct reading of hardness number on a dial provided with the m/c. principally this testing is
similar to Brinell hardness testing. It differs only in diameter and material of the indentor and the applied
force. Although there are many scales having different combinations of load and size of indentor but
commonly ‘C’ scale is used and hardness is presented as HRC. Here the indentor has a diamond cone at the
tip and applied force is of 150 kg. Soft materials are often tested in ‘B’ scale with a 1.58 mm dia. Steel indenter
at 100kg.

PROCEDURE:
1. Select the indentor type, Scale and major load accordingly as given in the load test table.
2. Place the specimen on the anvil, and raise the anvil by the elevating screw until the specimen comes
in contact with the tip of the indentor.
3. Continue to rise slowly until the initial load (minor load) is applied i.e. 10 kg. Here the small pointer
in the dial moves and stops over SET RED MARK.
4. For about six seconds, apply the major load by operating the handle.
5. After the major load application, gently bring back the load lever to the initial position.
6. Read the position of the pointer on B or C scale of the dial, which directly gives the Rockwell
Hardness.
7. Make three trials on each specimen.

31
Figure 6.1: Rockwell hardness equipment

Figure 6.2: Rockwell hardness indentor

32
OBSERVATIONS AND SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
Sl Time
Type of Type of Load RHN
no. duration
Type of material
Scale Indenter in Kg
(sec.) 1 2 3 Avg.

1 Cast iron

2 Mild steel

3 Brass

4 Copper

5 Aluminum

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The specimen should be clean properly.

2. Take reading more carefully and correct.
3. Place the specimen properly.
4. Jack adjusting wheel move slowly
5. After applying load remove the load.

CONCLUSION: Rockwell hardness of given specimen is ………………

33
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To determine the Hardness Number of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

APPARATUS: Brinell hardness testing machine, Stop watch, Brinell's microscope.
THEORY: In Brinell hardness testing, steel balls are used as indentor, diameter of the indentor and the applied
force depend upon the thickness of the test specimen because for accurate results, depth of indentation should
be less than 1/8th of the thickness of the test pieces. According to the thickness of the test piece increase, the
diameter of the indentor and force are changed.

SPECIFICATION OF HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE AND INDENTORS:

A hardness test can be conducted on Brinell testing machine, Rockwell hardness machine or Vickers testing
machine. The specimen may be a cylinder, cube, thick or thin metallic sheet. Its specification are as follows:
1. Ability to determine hardness up to 500 BHN.
2. Diameter of ball (as indentor) used D = 2.5mm, 5mm, 10mm.
3. Maximum application load = 3000 kg.
4. Method of load application = Lever type
5. Capability of testing the lower hardness range = 1 BHN on application of 0.5D load
6. Take 5 mm ball indentor for ferrous material and 10 mm ball indentor for non-ferrous material
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the specimen on the anvil so that its surface will be normal to the direction of the applied
load.
2. With the hand wheel, raise the anvil until the specimen just makes contact with the ball.
3. Select the load, ball diameter and time of application of the load according to the material to be
tested as given in the load test table apply the load gradually and maintain it for the specified time.
4. Release the load and remove the specimen. Measure the diameter of impression (indentation) left
by the ball indentor by using Brinell's microscope.
5. Make three trials for each specimen for calculating the hardness number.

Where P= Load in ‘Kgs’

D= Steel ball diameter in ‘mm’
d = Diameter of Indentation in ‘mm’

34
 Figure 7.1: Brinell hardness

Observations and Specimen Calculations:

Sl Material Dia. Of Load
Time Diameter of Indentation
No. Constant Indenter Applied
Type of Material (mm)
K ‘D’ mm P= K x duration
(sec.)
D2 d1 d2 Avg =d1+d2/2

1 Cast iron

2 Mild steel

3 Brass

35
 4 Copper

5 Aluminum

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The specimen should be clean properly.
2. Take reading more carefully and correct.
3. Place the specimen properly.
4. Jack adjusting wheel move slowly
5. After applying load remove the load.

CONCLUSION: The Brinell hardness number of the specimen is ………………

36
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
Aim: To determine the Vickers hardness number of the given material
Apparatus: Vickers hardness tester, Diamond pyramid indentor
Theory: Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material, calculated from the size of an
impression produced under load by a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter. The indenter employed in the
Vickers test is a square-based pyramid whose opposite sides meet at the apex at an angle of 136º. The
diamond is pressed into the surface of the material at loads ranging up to approximately 120 kilograms-
force, and the size of the impression is measured with the aid of a calibrated microscope. The Vickers
hardness number (VHN) is calculated using the following formula:

VHN = 1.854(P/D2)

with ‘P’ being the applied load in Kg and ‘D’ is the arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1and d2 in mm.

Figure 8.1: Vickers’s hardness machine

Procedure:
1. Place the polished specimen on the platform.
2. Raise the platform till the surface of the specimen is focused on the microscope screen.
3. Select the load by pressing the load selector button.
4. Apply a load of P= 30 kg for ferrous & P= 20kg for nonferrous materials.

37
 5. Wait till the handle on the left side of frame comes to rest position and after that allow the load to act
for 15 seconds for ferrous materials and 30 seconds for nonferrous materials.
6. Press the handle down without any jerk to release the load and to bring objective lens back in to
position.
7. Measure the length of the diagonals (d1 and d2) using the travelling micrometer and calculate the
average D
8. For each material make at least three indentations and measure the length of diagonals
9. Using the formula calculate the Vickers hardness number for each trail and calculate their average.

Observations:

Indentor : Diagonal square pyramid ……...º

Least count of travelling microscope = ………..mm

Tabular Column
Sl Material Standard Diagonal width (mm)
No Load P (Kg) d1 Avg d2 Avg

Conclusion: The VHN of given material is found to be ………………

38
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9
IMPACT TEST
AIM: To determine the Impact Strength of given specimen and to study the behavior of materials under
dynamic loading.
APPARATUS: Pendulum type impact testing machine, Slide caliper and scale.
THEORY:
In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. The components are subjected to impact (shock)
loads. These loads are applied suddenly. An impact test signifies toughness of material i.e. ability of material to
absorb energy during plastic deformation. Impact test is a dynamic test in which a selected notched specimen
is struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed machine and the energy absorbed in breaking
the specimen is measured and gives a quality of the material, particularly its brittleness. Highly brittle materials
have low impact strength.

Two general types of notches are used in impact tests, the U-notch and the V-notch. Two types of specimens
are used, the Charpy and the Izod. The Charpy specimen is placed in the vice so that it is a simple beam
supported at the ends. The Izod specimen is placed in the vice so that the one end is free and is therefore a
cantilever beam.

The machine has a swinging pendulum of fixed weight, which is raised to a standard height (angle of drop)
depending upon the type of specimen tested. At that height, with reference to vice, the pendulum has a definite
amount of potential energy. When the pendulum is released, this energy is converted to kinetic energy until it
strikes the specimen. The Charpy specimen will be hit behind the U-notch, while the Izod specimen, placed
with the V-notch facing the pendulum, will hit above the V-notch. In either case, some of the energy of the
pendulum will be used to rupture the specimen so that the pendulum will rise to a height lower than initial
height on the opposite side of the machine. The weight of the pendulum times the difference in heights will
indicate the energy, absorbed by the specimen, or the notched impact strength.

It is used by the aircraft and automobile industries, which have found by experience that high impact
strength by test generally will give satisfactory service where shock loads are encountered.
Significance of Notch In Impact Test Specimen:
1. The stress acting in the material is raised to a peak value (At the base of the notch, determined by
elastic stress concentration factor.
2. The yield stress for the material is raised by the action of elastic and Plastic Constraints.
Combination of these effects makes brittle fracture. The part played by stress concentration is to raise
the stress at the root of the notch and provide the large stress necessary to produce fracture.
39
Notch Sensitivity:
The tendency of some ductile materials to behave in a brittle nature in the presence of notch is called
notch sensitivity.
Specification of machine and specimen details:
Its specifications along-with their typical values are as follows:
 Impact capacity = 164 Joule
 Least count of capacity (dial) scale = 2 joule
 Weight of striking hammer = 25 kg.
 Swing diameter of hammer = 1600 mm.
 Angle of hammer before striking = 90°
 Distance between supports = 40 mm.
 Striking velocity of hammer = 5.6m/sec.
 Specimen dimension for Izod test = 75x10x10 mm, for Charpy test = 55x10x10 mm
 Type of notch = V-notch for Izod test, U-notch for Charpy test
 Angle of notch = 45°
 Depth of notch = 2 mm.

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen at full section and at the notch.
2. With no specimen on the anvil, raise the pendulum to its full level and release it. Note the initial reading
Ri on the graduated scale.
3. Place the specimen accurately in the tension zone.
4. Raise the pendulum to the initial level and release the pendulum
5. Note the reading Rf at the specimen's rupture.
6. Calculate the impact strength.

40
 Figure 9.3 : (a) Izod Specimen dimensions and (b) ) Charpy Specimen dimensions
OBSERVATIONS AND TABULATION:
IZOD TEST:
1) Length of the Specimen l = ……….mm
2) Breadth of the Specimen b = ……….mm
3) Depth of the Specimen d = ……….mm
4) Depth of the Groove dg =………..mm
5) Initial reading on the graduated scale Ri = ……..
6) Final reading on the graduated scale Rf = ……..

Trail Type of Thickness of Area of the Energy Impact

No. Specimen the Specimen Specimen Absorbed Strength
t = (d- dg) in A = (b*t) V = (Rf – Ri) = V/A
mm in mm2 in N N/mm2

1.

2.

Specimen Calculations:
a) Thickness of the Specimen t = (d- dg) ……mm
b) Area of the Specimen A = (b*t) ……mm2
c) Energy Absorbed (V) = (Rf – Ri) = …………. N
d) Impact Strength =Energy Absorbed(V)/C/s area of Specimen at Notch Place A

41
 e) Least Count of the Vernier Caliper(LC) : 1MSD/ Total No. of VSD
f) Min. Value of scale graduation =………….

b) CHARPY TEST:
1. Length of the Specimen l = ……….mm
2. Breadth of the Specimen b = ……….mm
3. Depth of the Specimen d = ……….mm
4. Depth of the Groove dg =………..mm
5. Initial reading on the graduated scale Ri = ……………
6. Final reading on the graduated scale Rf = ……………..
Trail Type of Thickness of Area of the Energy Impact
No. Specimen the Specimen Specimen Absorbed Strength
t = (d- dg) in A = (b*t) V = (Rf – Ri) = V/A
mm in mm2 in N N/mm2

1.

2.

Specimen Calculations:
a) Thickness of the Specimen t = (d- dg) ……..…mm
b) Area of the Specimen A = (b*t) …….…mm2
c) Energy Absorbed (V) = (Rf – Ri) = …………. N
d) Impact Strength =Energy Absorbed (V) / C/s area of Specimen at Notch Place A
e) Least Count of the Vernier Caliper (LC) : 1MSD/ Total No. of VSD
f) Min. Value of scale graduation =………….

Results:
Impact Strength

a. For IZOD Specimen:

i. Mild Steel: …………………….. J/mm2
ii. Aluminum: …………………….. J/mm2

42
b. For CHARPY Specimen:
i. Mild Steel: …………………….. J/mm2
ii. Aluminum: …………………….. J/mm2

Precautions:

1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.

2. Take reading more frequently.
3. Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum.
4. Do not stand in front of swinging hammer or releasing hammer.
5. Place the specimen proper position.

Conclusion: Strain energy of given specimen is …………….

43
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
TENSILE TEST
AIM: To conduct tension test on the given specimen and to determine:
1 Yield strength
2 Ultimate strength
3 Breaking strength
4 Percentage elongation
5 Percentage reduction in area
6 Young’s modulus

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine, Extensometer, Vernier caliper, Scale and Gripping devices
(Shackles).

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT: U.T.M. can be used to conduct tension, compression, bending and shear
tests. This machine mainly consists of testing unit and control unit. Testing unit consists of four cross heads
(lower, middle, Upper and top guide cross heads) and a deformation-measuring device. Control unit consists
of a hydraulic system, load measuring device and an automatic diagram recorder.

THEORY:
Tensile testing is one of the more basic tests to determine stress – strain relationships. A simple uniaxial test
consists of slowly pulling a sample of material in tension until it breaks. Test specimens for tensile testing are
generally either circular or rectangular with larger ends to facilitate gripping the sample. The typical testing
procedure is to deform or “stretch” the material at a constant speed. The testing machine will apply the load
and an extensometer will record the corresponding strain during experimentation. The unit will record the load
deformation data during the experiment so this data can be plotted once the procedure is complete. The
required load that must be applied to achieve this displacement will vary as the test proceeds. During testing,
the stress in the sample can be calculated at any time by dividing the load over the cross-sectional area σ=P/A

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter at three locations and take the average value. Similarly, note down the lengths
of the specimen.
2. Fix the specimen hi the jaws of the UTM.
3. Fix the extensometer on the specimen and note the gauge length of the extensometer.
4. Set the extensometer and side scale to read zero.

44
 5. Apply the load gradually making observations at regular intervals of load, the corresponding reading
on extensometer.
6. Observe the yield point load indicating a slight kickback of the load pointer.
7. Remove the extensometer noting its reading at the yield point.
8. Further load the specimen. Start measuring the change in length with the help of side scale reading on
the UTM. Observe the maximum & breaking load.
9. Remove the broken specimen and measure its final length & diameter at the neck formation.

NOTE: Up to yield point, use gauge length of the given extensometer for calculating the strain and after the
yield point, use the full length of the specimen for calculating the corresponding strain.

Figure 10.1: Universal testing machine

45
 Figure 10.2: Tensile specimen nomenclature

Figure 10.3: Tensile specimen dimensions

OBSERVATIONS AND SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

A. FERROUS MATERIAL(Mild Steel):
1. Initial Diameter (D0) = mm
2. Diameter at fracture (Df) = mm
3. Initial area of cross section (A0) = mm2
4. Final area of cross section (Af) = mm2
5. Initial Length ( L0) = mm
6. Final Length ( Lf) = mm
7. % e = (L0-Lf) / L0 * 100 =
8. % RA = (A0 – Af) / A0 * 100 =

46
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Load Extensometer readings Young’s
No. F Stress = F/A0 Modulus
Strain=∆l/L
in Left Dial Right Dial Avg. (KN/mm2) = / E
KN N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
CONCLUSION:

47
 B. NON- FERROUS MATERIAL(Aluminum)

Sl. Measured
Details Formula used Calculated Value
No. Value

1 Initial area of Cross section (A0) A0= D02 /4

Yield Point (YP)

Yield Stress (YS)
2 YS=YP / A0
Upper Yield Stress
Lower Yield Stress

Max. Load (UL)

3 UTS=UL/A0
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)

Breaking Load (BL)

4 BS=BL/A0
Breaking Stress (BS)

%e=(L0-Lf) / L0
5 % Elongation ( % e)
* 100

Af= Df2 /4
Cross Sectional area at fracture (Af)
6
% Reduction in Area ( % RA) %RA= (A0-Af)
/A0 *100

Young’s Modulus ( E) E= / 

7
Slope of Linear portion of the curve

1. Initial Diameter (D0) = mm

2. Diameter at fracture (Df) = mm
3. Initial area of cross section (A0) = mm2
4. Final area of cross section (Af) = mm2
5. Initial Length ( L0) = mm
6. Initial Length ( Lf) = mm
7. % e = (L0-Lf) / L0 * 100 =
8. % RA = (A0 – Af) / A0 * 100 =

48
TABULAR COLUMN
Load F Extensometer readings Stress = F/A0 Strain=∆l/L Young’s Modulus
in KN Left Dial Right Dial Avg. (KN/mm2) = / E N/mm2

CONCLUSION:

49
 Measured Calculated
Sl.No. Details Formula used
Value Value

Initial area of Cross

1 A0= D02 /4
section (A0)

Yield Point (YP)

2 Yield Stress (YS) YS=YP / A0
0.2% Offset
Max. Load (UL)
3 Ultimate Tensile Stress US=UL/A0
(UTS)

Breaking Load (BL)

4 BS=BL/A0
Breaking Stress (BS)

5 % Elongation ( % e) %e=(L0-Lf) / L0 * 100

Cross Sectional area at Af= Df2 /4

fracture (Af)
6
% Reduction in Area ( % %RA= (A0-Af) /A0
RA) *100
Young’s Modulus ( E)
7 Slope of Linear portion E= / 
of the curve

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. The specimen should be properly to get between the jaws.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After breaking specimen stop to m/c.

50
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11
COMPRESSION TEST

AIM: To study the behavior of different materials under direct compression and to determine.
(a) Young's Modulus
(b) % reduction in length
(c) % increase in area
(d) Ultimate Compressive Stress
(e) Breaking stress

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine, Slide caliper, Dial gauge, and Scale

THEORY:
The compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size.
A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is compressed and
deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-
strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength and, for
some materials, compressive strength.
The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test.
 Concrete
 Metals
 Plastics
 Ceramics
 Composites
 Corrugated Cardboard

PURPOSE OF COMPRESSION TESTS

The goal of a compression test is to determine the behavior or response of a material while it experiences a
compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such as, strain, stress, and deformation. By testing a
material in compression, the compressive strength, yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the
elastic modulus among other parameters may all be determined. With the understanding of these different
parameters and the values associated with a specific material it may be determined whether or not the material
is suited for specific applications or if it will fail under the specified stresses.

51
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter at three locations and take the average value using dial cause Similarly, note
down the lengths of the specimen
2. Place the specimen between the platens of the UTM
3. Adjust the dial gauge to read zero
4. Gradually apply the load and read the corresponding value from the dial gauge
5. Note down the maximum point and breaking point.

BAUSCHINGER EFFECT:
If a specimen is deformed plastically beyond the yield stress in one direct in tension and then after unloading
to zero stress it is reloaded in the opposite direction E.g., in compression, it is found that the yield stress on
reloading is less than the yield stress. This dependence of yield stress on loading path and direction:
Bauchinger effect. It is commonly ignored in plasticity theory, and it is usual to that the yield stress in tension
& compression are same.

Figure 11.1: Compression specimen after loading

OBSERVATIONS & TABULATIONS:

do: Original Diameter of the Specimen
df : Final Diameter of the Specimen
52
 l0: Original Length of the Specimen
lf : Final Length of the Specimen

Original Diameter Final Diameter ‘df’ Original Length Final Length

Material
‘d0’in mm in mm ‘l0’in mm ‘lf’ in mm
CAST IRON
MILD STEEL
ALUMINIUM

CAST IRON
Stress Stress
Sl. Load F Load F Strain Sl. Load F Load F Strain
 = F/A0  = F/A0
No. in Kgs in KN  = ∆l /l0 No. in Kgs in KN  = ∆l /l0
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 21
2 22
3 23
4 24
5 25
6 26
7 27
8 28
9 29
10 30
11 31
12 32
13 33
14 34
15 35
16 36
17 37
18 38
19 39
20 40

53
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

1 Initial Area A0 =  /4 * d02 = mm2

2 Final Area Af =  /4 * d02 = mm2

% decrease in length ( %
3 =
DL) = (l0-lf) / l0*100
% increase in diameter ( %
4 =
ID) = (df-d0) / d0*100
Ultimate Compressive Stress
5 = N/mm2
(UCS) = Ultimate Load /A0
Young’s Modulus (E) =
Slope from the graph =  /
6 = N/mm2
(* From Linear portion of the
graph)
RESULTS:
Measured Calculated
Sl.No. Details
Value Value
Initial Length (l0)
1 Final Length (lf)
% Decrease in Length (%DL)
Initial Diameter (d0)
2
Initial Area (A0)
Final Diameter (f0)
3 Final Area (Af)
% increase in Dia.(%ID)
Ultimate Load (UL)
4
Ultimate Compressive Stress (UCS)
Young’s Modulus (E) * Slope of Linear
5
portion of the curve

CONCLUSION:

54
 MILD STEEL:
Stress Stress
Sl. Load F Load F Strain Sl. Load F Load F Strain
 = F/A0  = F/A0
No. in Kgs in KN  = ∆l /l0 No. in Kgs in KN  = ∆l /l0
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 19
2 20
3 21
4 22
5 23
6 24
7 25
8 26
9 27
10 28
11 29
12 30
13 31
14 32
15 33
16 34
17 35
18 36

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:
1. Initial Area (A0) = mm2

Ultimate Compressive Stress (UCS)

2. = N/mm2
UCS= Ultimate Load /A0

3. Young’s Modulus (E) = Slope from the graph = /  = N/mm2

55
 ALUMINUM

Stress Stress
Sl. Load F Load F Strain Sl. Load F Load F Strain
 = F/A0  = F/A0
No. in Kgs in KN  = ∆l /l0 No. in Kgs in KN  = ∆l /l0
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 19
2 20
3 21
4 22
5 23
6 24
7 25
8 26
9 27
10 28
11 29
12 30
13 31
14 32
15 33
16 34
17 35
18 36

CONCLUSION:
Sl.No. Property Cast Iron (CI) Mild Steel (MS) Aluminum (Al)
1. Yield Stress
2. Ultimate Compressive Stress
3. % Increase in Diameter
4. % Reduction in Length
5. Young’s Modulus
6. Breaking Stress

56
 Comparison of Ultimate Tensile Strength and Ultimate Compressive Strength:
Sl.
Material UTS (N/mm2) UCS (N/mm2)
No.
1. Cast Iron (CI)
2. Mild steel (MS)
3 Aluminum (Al)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The specimen should be straight and ends of specimen must be at right angle to the axis of specimen.
2. The length of specimen has to be kept small to avoid the buckling of the specimen.

57
 EXPERIMENT NO. 12
SHEAR TEST
AIM: To determine the ultimate shear stress of the given material in single shear and double shear.
APPARATUS: UTM, Slide Caliper
THEORY: A type of force which causes or tends to cause two contiguous parts of the body to slide relative
to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact is called the shear force. The stress required to
produce fracture in the plane of cross-section, acted on by the shear force is called shear strength. Place the
shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists of cutter. The specimen is inserted in shear
test attachment & lift the lower table so that the zero is adjusted, then apply the load such that the specimen
breaks in two or three pieces. If the specimen breaks in two pieces then it will be in single shear & if it breaks
in three pieces then it will be in double shear

PROCEDURE:
1. The average diameter of the given specimen is measured.
2. For single shear test, fix the specimen as shown in fig. (a) And apply the load gradually. Note the
fracture load.
3. For double shear test, fix the specimen as shown in fig. (b) And apply the load gradually. Note the
fracture load.
Ultimate shear strength = Load/ C/s area of the specimen (single shear)
= Load / 2 x C/s area of the specimen (double shear)

58
 Figure 12.1: Shear testing on UTM
OBERSEVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Sl.No. Specimen Material Aluminum Mild Steel

1. Diameter of the Specimen (d A) =

Area of the Specimen

2. A = * d 2A / 4 =

59
 Ultimate Load
Sl. No. Type of Shear Shear Strength ( N mm2)
(F in KN)

Double Shear

Single Shear

Note: Shear Strength (N-mm2)

i) For Single Shear (F/A)
ii) For Double Shear (F/2A)
Where A = Area of the Specimen

CONCLUSION: Shear strength of the specimen ………………N/mm2

60
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13
BENDING TEST

AIM: To determine the behavior of a given material or specimen under bending stress for a given load and
also to find out the bending modulus and bending of the structure.

APPARATUS: Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Extensometer, Bending Bar, Vernier Caliper

THEORY: The bending test is done to know the behavior and mechanical properties of a material.
And also, one can know the bending structure of material that at what limit the material can bend. This is done
by placing the specimen on the roller simply supported beam and then applying the load at the center of the
specimen and hence the bending will take place. If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a
concentrated load at its center, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original position
of the beams and its position after bending at different points along the length of the beam, being maximum
at the center in this case. This difference is known as ‘deflection’

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the given specimen and measure the dimensions i.e. (length, width (breadth),
thickness by using the steel rule and Vernier caliper.
2. Mark the center of the specimen by using pencil and steel rule.
3. Place the specimen on the fixed jaw of UTM i.e. on roller, simply supported beam.
4. Place the load divider bar in case of double bending or else simply bar can be placed.
5. And then start the UTM and gradually apply the load on the specimen.
6. Note down the deflection readings with reference to the application of load at each
equal interval, until the material breaks or bends.
7. Tabulate the readings in the tabular column and calculate the necessary calculations
and find out the bending modulus and bending structure.

61
Sl. Load Dial gauge Deflection = Bending Bending stress
No. Kg Newton reading Dial Gauge * Moment σb = M b / Z ss
0.01 M b = Wl/4 N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

62
 Figure 13.1 Load versus deflection curve for single point bending

Tabular Column: Two Point Loading

Sl. Load Dial gauge Deflection = Bending Bending stress

No. Kg Newton reading (Dial Gauge x Moment σ b = M b / Z ss
0.01) M b = Wl/4 N/mm2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

63
 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Figure 13.2: Load versus deflection curve for two-point bending

Specimen calculation;
General Formula for Bending
M/I=σ/y=E/R
1. Distance from Neutral axis, ymax = d/2 mm =
2. Moment of Inertia, I = bd3 / 12 mm4
3. Section modulus, Zss = bd2 / 6 mm3
4. Maximum bending stress, σmax = Mbmax / Zss
5. Young’s modulus, E = (dw / dδ) x l3 / 48I

64
‘
Figure 13.3: Pictures showing final shape of the specimen after Bending Test

CONCLUSION:

Single Point Loading:

1) Young’s Modulus = ……………. N/mm2

2) Maximum Bending Stress = ……………N/mm2

Double Point Loading:

1) Young’s Modulus = …………… N/mm2

2) Maximum Bending Stress = ……………N/mm2

65
 EXPERIMENT NO. 14
TORSION TEST
Aim: To conduct torsion test in the given material and to plot torque vs angle of twist and hence determine
ultimate shear strength, resilience, toughness and ductility.
Apparatus: Given Standard Specimen, Vernier Caliper, Torsion Testing Machine, Torsion shackles.

Figure 14.1: Schematic of a Torsion Test

Theory:

Like bending, torsion is an important type of loading that can produce critical stresses in engineering
applications. Under torsion, shear stresses are produced. The stiffness under shear stress is called the modulus
of rigidity ‘G’ (MPa). It is also called shear modulus. Torsion tests aim to measure the shear modulus (G) of
a material. Although torsion testing is not common, it is a useful experiment and an important partner for
tensile testing in determining the mechanical properties of a material. Torque is a moment that tends to twist
a member about its longitudinal axis. Its effect is of primary concern in the design of axles or drive shafts used
in vehicles and machinery.

Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces during their operation. Products such as shaft,
switches, fasteners, and automotive steering columns are just a few devices subject to such torsional stresses.
By testing these products in torsion testing machine, manufacturers are able to simulate real life service
conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and ensure proper manufacturing techniques.

A torsion test can be conducted on most materials to determine the torsional properties of the material. These
properties are modulus of elasticity in shear, yield shear strength, ultimate shear strength, and modulus of
rupture in shear and ductility. The torsion test generates the "torque versus angle" diagram that looks very
66
similar to a "stress versus strain" curve in a tensile test. They are not the same however they are analogous to
properties that can be determined during a tensile test.

Procedure:
1. First take the standard specimen and measure the diameter and length of the
specimen using the screw gauge.
2. Fix the specimen in the two jaws of the torsion testing machine and tight it.
3. Now start the machine and apply the load gradually by rotating the movable jaw
against the fixed jaw.
4. Now note down the angle of twist in radians at some equal intervals.
5. Now note down the torque at each equal interval of (θ) twist in degrees.
6. Then tabulate the all readings in a tabular column and calculate the torsional
shear stress, rigidity modulus, by using the formula.

7. Plot a graph of torque vs angle of twist and determine the Modulus of rigidity.

Figure 14.2 Dimensions of specimen

The simple torsion equation is T/J = τ/r = Gθ/L

T = Torque applied in N-mm;

J = Polar moment of inertia in mm4;
τ = Shear stress in N/mm2
r = Radius of shaft in mm
G = Modulus of rigidity in N/mm2
θ = Angle of twist
l = gauge length of shaft in mm
D = Diameter of specimen in mm

67
 Figure 14.3: Description of specimen

To measure torque, convert the mass to Newton. (Take the mass in kg and multiply by 9.81 for gravity). Now
multiply by the perpendicular distance to the axis of the rod to get torque in N-mm.

Shear Modulus: It is the ratio of shear stress and shear strain of the material.

Shear Stress τ
G= = (1)
Shear Strain γ

This formula only works when the material is stressed in its elastic region.

Polar Moment of Inertia: A higher polar moment of inertia shows that the beam or specimen can resist a
higher torsion or twisting force. The diameter of the beam determines polar moment of inertia.

68
  D4
J=
32 (2)

Equation (3) is in above figure

Tl
=
GJ (4)

Shear Stress

The theoretical shear stress for a solid circular bar is

TD
τ=
2J (5)

Shear Strain

τ r
γ= 
G l (6)

Rearrange shear modulus:

(TD) / 2 J
G
(r ) / l (7)

TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. No Torque in Angle of twist (θ) Angle of twist (θ) Modulus of rigidity
N-mm in degrees in radians N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

69
 20
21
22
23
24
25

CONCLUSION: Modulus of rigidity of the shaft ………………………

70
 VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How do you define the word 'Engineering Material’?

2. Write brief classification of materials.
3. List out the properties of materials?
4. What are the types of tests on materials with examples?
5. What are the purposes of conducting the following tests?
a). Tensile test b). Compression test c). Shear test d). Impact test c). Hardness test.
6. What is Bauschinger effect?
7. What is the nature of failure for brittle and ductile materials in tensile test?
8. What is the nature of failure for brittle and ductile materials in compression test?
9. What is hardness test? What are the types of hardness measurements? Mention its uses.
10. Mention the different types of hardness testing methods?
11. Give the equation for the calculation of BHN
12. What should be the minimum thickness of material for Brinell hardness testing?
13. Define the following terms:
Proportionality limit, Modulus of elasticity, Hooke’s law, Elastic limit, Gauge limit, Yield point,
Ultimate strength, Rupture strength, % of elongation, reduction in area, Resilience, Toughness,
Ductility, elasticity, Plasticity, Brittleness, malleability, stress, strain, Super plasticity.
14. What are the advantages Rockwell test over Brinell's test.?
15. How do you define single shear and double shear?
16. How do you place the specimen in the tension test.?
17. What is the significance of notch in the impact test.?
18. What is meant by notch sensitivity?
19. What is metallographic?
20. What are the types of metallurgical microscope?
21. What are the steps involved in preparation of metallographic specimen?
22. What is the purpose of conducting the wear test.?
23. Mention the different types of wear.
24. What are the factors affecting the wear?
25. What are the techniques of surfacing protection in wear?
26. What is the importance of creep?
27. Differentiate between Izod and Charpy impact test
28. Define gauge length, what is its importance?
29. What is MS? What is CI? Give the composition and practical application.

71
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72
 Questionnaire – 2

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• You may write your option as a, b, c or d in given blank box.
1. The syllabus was

a) challenging b) dull c) adequate d) inadequate

2. Your background for benefiting from the course was

a) more than b) just adequate c) inadequate d) cannot say

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3. Conceptually understand of the course was :-

a) easy b) manageable c) difficult d) very difficult

4. How much of the syllabus was covered in class?

a) 85 to 100% b) 70 to 85% c) 55 to 70% d) less than 55%

5. What is your opinion about the library materials for the course?

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6. Were you able to get the prescribed readings?

a) easily b) with some c) with a great d) not at all

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a) thoroughly b) satisfactorily c) poorly d) not at all

Material Testing Lab. Manual Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, B.I.T

8. How well was the teacher able to communicate?

a) effectively b) invariably c) satisfactorily d) badly

9. Did the teacher encourage student participation in class?

a) Always b) so often c) sometimes d) rarely

10. If the teacher encourage student participation in class, which of the following
Methods were used?

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questions class outside class individually

11. How helpful was the teacher in advising?

a) always helpful b) often helpful c) sometimes helpful d) unhelpful

12. Was the teacher

a) courteous b) strict c) indifferent d) rude

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74
Material Testing Lab. Manual Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, B.I.T

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75