Concerning the mobile phases, there is a wide range of possibilities; however, binary

systems consisting of water and a less polar solvent, such as methanol or acetonitrile,
are the most common mobile phases.

Furthermore, high-resolution mass analyzers offer the possibility to obtain structural information
by accurate mass measurements by offering fragmentation patterns by MS/MS and MSn
experiments.

Reactive oxygen species are normally produced in small quantities during physiological processes
consequent to energy production and as the result of molecular oxygen reduction to water.

Excessive free radical production or impaired capacity of endogenous antioxidants to detoxify or

repair the oxidative injury leads to oxidative stress [5,6].

An excess of MDA can produce adducts with free amino groups of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids,
altering their biological properties.

the possible harmful effects of exogenous antioxidant supplementation may be related to the high
vitamin dosage, the duration of supplementation (the effects of long-term exogenous antioxidant
supplementation on health are unknown) and whether vitamins are used alone or as part of a
combined antioxidant cocktail [32].

Photosynthetic rates vary between species, but leaf nitrogen (N) content and light intensity are
known to be major determinants [2].

The other main factor determining plant carbon gain is leaf area per plant, which is a
function of mean leaf area and leaf number.

Cultivated and semi-natural grasslands cover an area estimated at 52 million km2 [5], and
account for approximately 15% of global primary productivity [4].

As we shall discuss, this requirement for high concentrations of Rubisco in photosynthesizing

leaves limits productivity, and has profound implications for plant form and productivity.

Adaptation may be a constitutional and essentially non-reversible effect, typically following

mutation.

Co-resistance, arising from the selection of linked genes encoding otherwise unrelated resistance
mechanisms to different antimicrobials, is a well-recognized phenomenon in antibiotic use and
resistance, such as in the case of the chromosomally-encoded penta-resistance typical of
Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 [83].

Alternatively, there may be little or no change in MIC value for the training biocide, but more
marked changes in those for certain antibiotics.
Whilst being a useful tool for investigating possible mechanisms of co-selection, the relevance to
“real world” interactions of such carefully-controlled and prolonged exposure to biocides has
often been questioned.

Stepwise training procedures for triclosan may produce dramatic increases in MIC (three or four
orders of magnitude) for E. coli and some Klebsiella isolates, whereas changes reported for other
species including staphylococcal human skin isolates are far smaller, in the order of one- to ten-
fold [68,107–110].

Other chromosomal resistance determinants for heavy metals (mercury and cadmium) have
been associated with meticillin resistance in human MRSA strains [157–159].

As antibiotic and copper use were themselves closely correlated, the extent of actual co-selection
could not be determined.

They are grouped with regard to major molecular characteristics as simple phenols and
acids, lignans, secoiridoids and flavonoids [15], including flavones (luteolin-7-glucoside,
apigenin-7-glucoside, diosmetin-7-glucoside, luteolin, and diosmetin), flavonols (rutin),
flavan-3-ols (catechin), substituted phenols (tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, vanillin, vanillic
acid, and caffeic acid), and oleuropein [16].