Computer Networks

Case Study
on
IEEE 802.11 Standard (WLANS)

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Computer Science Engineering

Submitted To:​ ​SubmittedBy:

Mr. Vishal Sharma​ ​Anmol Saxena[65311502716]
​Jusleen Kaur Rekhi[65211502716]
​ ​Amandeep Singh Jaggi[60111502716]
​ ​Rishabh Jain[65111502716]
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1. Introduction
IEEE 802.11 is part of the ​IEEE 802 set of LAN protocols, and specifies the set of ​media access
control (MAC) and ​physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing ​wireless local area
network​(WLAN) ​Wi-Fi computer communication in various frequencies, including but not limited to
2.4, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands.
They are the world's most widely used wireless computer networking standards, used in most home
and office networks to allow ​laptops​, ​printers​, and ​smartphones to talk to each other and access the
Internet without connecting wires. They are created and maintained by the ​Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) ​LAN​/​MAN Standards Committee (​IEEE 802​). The base version of the
standard was released in 1997, and has had subsequent amendments. The standard and amendments
provide the basis for wireless network products using the ​Wi-Fi brand. While each amendment is
officially revoked when it is incorporated in the latest version of the standard, the corporate world
tends to market to the revisions because they concisely denote capabilities of their products. As a
result, in the marketplace, each revision tends to become its own standard.
The protocols are typically used in conjunction with ​IEEE 802.2​, and are designed to interwork
seamlessly with ​Ethernet​, and are very often used to carry ​Internet Protocol traffic. Although IEEE
802.11 specifications list channels that might be used, the ​radio frequency spectrum availability
allowed varies significantly by regulatory domain.​The 802.11 family consists of a series of
half-duplex over-the-air ​modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol. The 802.11 protocol
family employ ​carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance whereby equipment listens to a
channel for other users (including non 802.11 users) before transmitting each packet. The 802.11
standard is defined through several specifications of WLANs. It defines an over-the-air interface
between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients.

2.​ A short history of IEEE 802.11

802.11, or “Wi-Fi” as it is popularly known, sprang into existence as a result of a decision in 1985 by
the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to open several bands of the wireless
spectrum for use without a government license. These so-called "garbage bands" were allocated to
equipment such as microwave ovens which use radio waves to heat food. To operate in these bands
though, devices were required to use "spread spectrum" technology. This technology spreads a radio
signal out over a wide range of frequencies, making the signal less susceptible to interference and
difficult to intercept. In 1990, a new IEEE committee called IEEE 802.11 was set up to look into
getting an open standard started. Demand for wireless devices was so high that by the time the
standard was published in 1997, devices adhering to the new standard were already shipping.

Developed under the rules of the IEEE (commonly pronounced as “I triple e”), the IEEE 802.11
standard defines an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station (or access
point), or between two or more wireless clients. As capabilities are added to the IEEE 802.11, some
become known by the name of the amendment. For example, many people recognize IEEE 802.11b,
IEEE 802.11g and IEEE 802.11n as popular wireless solutions for connecting to networks. Each of
these amendments defines a maximum speed of operation, the radio frequency band of operation, how
data is encoded for transmission, and the characteristics of the transmitter and receiver. The first two
variants were IEEE 802.11b (which operates in the industrial, medical and scientific — ISM — band
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2.4 GHz), and IEEE 802.11a, which operates in the available 5 GHz bands (5.15-5.35 GHz,
5.47-5.725 GHz, and 5.725-5.825 GHz). A third variant, IEEE 802.11g, was ratified in June 2003.
Both IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11g use a more advanced form of modulation called orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). Using OFDM in the 2.4 GHz band, IEEE 802.11g achieves
speeds of up to 54 Mbps.

3. ​RFC 7494-IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control (MAC) Profile for

Control and Provisioning of Wireless Access Points (CAPWAP)

The CAPWAP protocol supports two MAC modes of operation: Split and Local MAC. However,
there are MAC functions that have not been clearly defined. For example, IEEE 802.11 encryption is
specified as located in either the AC or the WTP with no clear way to negotiate where it should be
located. Because different vendors have different definitions of the MAC mode, many MAC-layer
functions are mapped differently to either the WTP or the AC by different vendors. Therefore,
depending upon the vendor, the operators in their deployments have to perform different
configurations based on implementation of the two modes by their vendor. If there is no clear
specification, then operators will experience interoperability issues with WTPs and ACs from
different vendors. Specifically, note that in the Split MAC mode, the IEEE
802.11encryption/decryption is specified as WTP/AC, implying that it could be at either location.
This is not an issue with Local MAC because encryption is always at the WTP. To solve this problem,
this specification introduces the IEEE 802.11 MAC Profile. The IEEE 802.11 MAC Profile
unambiguously specifies where the various MAC functionalities should be located.
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3.1 ​Split MAC with WTP Encryption

The functional split for the Split MAC with WTP encryption is provided in Figure 2. This profile is
similar to the Split MAC description in [RFC5416], except that IEEE 802.11 encryption/decryption is
at the WTP. Note that fragmentation is always done at the same entity as the encryption.
Consequently, in this profile fragmentation/defragmentation is also done only at the WTP. Note that
scheduling functionality is denoted as WTP/AC. As explained in [RFC5416], this means that the
admission control component of IEEE 802.11 resides on the AC; the real-time scheduling and queuing
functions are on the WTP.

4. ​Basics of the IEEE 802.11 Standard

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards (first introduced in 1997) that defines how multiple devices can
communicate on a wireless network. The standard has grown into a set of several standards with
alphabetical suffixes that (as of this writing) extend from a to v. The standard defines the physical and
data link layers only. As a part of the IEEE family of standards, it is not surprising that 802.11
WLANs are easily connected to 802.3 (Ethernet) LANs. Higher layer LAN protocols, network
operating systems and internetworking protocols such as TCP/IP integrate seamlessly.

Under the IEEE 802.11 standard there can be two different types of devices on the network: stations
and access points. For wireless office networks a station is usually a desktop PC equipped with a
wireless network interface card (NIC) or a portable computer with built in Wi-Fi or a PCMCIA Wi-Fi
card added. For industrial applications the range of possibilities is wider. For example, a station could
be a Wi-Fi enabled PDA (personal digital assistant) used as an HMI. Another possibility is an 802.11
wireless serial server connected directly to a programmable logic controller (PLC), HMI, or other
field device.

An 802.11 access point is a radio with an interface that allows connection to a wired LAN. Access
points run bridging software (specified by 802.11d) to facilitate the connection from wireless to wired
network. The access point becomes the base station for the WLAN. It aggregates access to the wired
network for multiple wireless stations. An access point could be a standalone device or a card in a PC.

5. ​Applications and Specifications of 802.11

​5.1. Wireless Network Configurations

The 802.11 standard defines two modes of operation: infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode.
Infrastructure mode makes use of one or more access points connected to a wired LAN. Wireless
stations communicate with access points to gain access to each other and/or the LAN. In the Basic
Service Set (BSS) several stations communicate with one access point, which is connected to a wired
LAN. In the Extended Service Set (ESS) two or more access points connect to the LAN creating a
subnetwork.
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In ad hoc mode, also called Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS), access points are not used.
Wireless stations communicate directly with each other in a peer-to-peer fashion. This mode allows
individual computers to set up a network where wireless infrastructure does not exist.

The original physical layer specification of 802.11 defined a WLAN operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM
band, which does not require FCC licensing. Three different options were specified: two using
spread-spectrum radio and one using infrared. The infrared option never gained much traction. The
radio options operate at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps using frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) techniques. The two techniques are not interoperable and
provide different performance characteristics. Frequency hopping has the advantage of providing
better noise immunity but limits the top end data rate.

5.2. 802.11b Raises the Bar

Networks based on the original 802.11 had the advantage of being based on a widely accepted
standard, as opposed to earlier proprietary networks. But it quickly became clear that data rates of 1 to
2 Mbps were inadequate, especially when the goal was often to interconnect with Ethernet LANs that
operated at 10 Mbps (10Base-T) and later 100 Mbps (100Base-TX). The 802.11b standard was the
first attempt to address these data rate limitations. The result was a standard that, like the original
specification, utilizes the 2.4 GHz band, but achieves data rates as high as 11 Mbps, bringing it into
the same range as 10BaseT.

IEEE 802.11b implements the same DSSS modulation scheme used for one mode of 802.11, but
dropped the FHSS mode because of inherent data rate limitations. Although FHSS provided superior
noise immunity for 802.11, the newer standard compensates by incorporating several other
modulation and coding schemes that ensure good noise immunity. One of these is dynamic rate
shifting, which causes it to fallback to lower data rates to compensate for higher noise levels.

5.3. IEEE 802.11g Steps Up

IEEE 802.11g takes a big step forward without cutting ties to its siblings. The standard specifies a
WLAN that operates on the 2.4 GHz band at data rates as high as 54 Mbps, but is backward
compatible with the earlier standard. It incorporates at least two modes of operation, one that is
compatible with the slower 802.11b and another that operates at the higher data rate. Systems can
incorporate 802.11b and 802.11g equipment and they will interoperate. However, when connected
into the same network the 802.11g equipment will operate at the 11 Mbps limitation of the 802.11b
equipment. To overcome this problem separate b and g networks can be created and linked together
through a router or access point (if it is equipped with the necessary capabilities). This keeps slower
802.11b traffic separate and allows the 802.11g WLAN to operate at the higher data rate.
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5.4. IEEE 802.11a an Alternative

Another member of the 802.11 family—the 802.11a version—takes a slightly different approach by
operating in the 5 GHz band. Like the 2.4 GHz band, 5 GHz does not require licensing and has the
added advantage of being less congested. The maximum data rate for 802.11a is 54 Mbps, the same as
for 802.11g. While 802.11a WLANs have some advantages, the downside is that they are not directly
compatible with the b and g versions. In order to connect 802.11a to either of the other networks
special bridging equipment must be used.

5.5. The 802.11 Data Link Layer

Like 802.3 (Ethernet), the 802.11 data link layer is made up of two sub-layers: the Logical Link
Control (LLC) sub-layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer. Both 802.3 and 802.11 use
the same LLC, specified by 802.2, one reason why integrating 802.11 and 802.3 networks is relatively
simple. The 802.11 MAC sub-layer is also similar but does different in the way the shared radio
carrier is accessed. While Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD), 802.11 uses a variation called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA).

In CSMA/CA a station that intends to transmit ‘listens’ for traffic on the radio carrier frequency and
sends if it is clear after a random delay period. If the receiving station receives the packet intact it
sends an acknowledgement (ACK) to confirm the packet has been received. If the transmitting station
does not receive an ACK it assumes a collision occurred and transmits again after a random delay
period.

Another aspect of the 802.11 data link layer that is different than Ethernet is the use of a packet
fragmentation and CRC error checking with each packet. Ethernet implements these functions at
higher protocol layers whereas 802.11 fragments packets and uses CRC at the data link layer. This
allows the WLAN to send smaller packets that are less likely to be corrupted by interference,
decreasing the need for re-transmissions.

5.7. 802.11 Range, Security and Other Considerations

IEEE 802.11 devices communicate via radio signals that must penetrate solid objects to reach other
network nodes. These signals are attenuated to varying degrees depending on the type of material and
its thickness. The transmitter power output, the type of antenna used and the amount of attenuation
through materials affects the useable range. Other factors also affect range and overall performance.
Electromagnetic noise, the amount of network traffic, other radio devices operating in the same
frequency band (e.g. portable phones, etc) and reflections (multipathing) are factors. In an
infrastructure network the number of access points and their coverage pattern also affect how well the
system operates. Typically an 802.11 device operating indoors will have a range from 100 feet
minimum to about 500 feet maximum. Outdoors, some products, using high gain antenna may achieve
line-of-sight ranges of five miles or more.
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Security is a significant concern for WLAN users, and industrial users are not exempt. Whether
security threats originate intentionally or unintentionally, wireless systems are more susceptible than
wired systems. IEEE 802.11b uses Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol to encrypt transmitted
data. Designed to provide the same level of security as that of a wired LAN, WEP operates at the
physical and data link layers of the network and has been found to be somewhat lacking. IEEE
802.11g originally implemented a more robust security standard called Wi-Fi Protected Access
(WPA), a scheme designed to improve on WEP’s limitations. It has better encryption algorithms and
uses a technique called authentication. WPA was considered an interim standard. IEEE’s 802.11i
standard (which was adopted recently) incorporates WPA as well as additional security features. It is
expected to replace WPA