A model of consumer response to advertising

music
Geoffrey P. Lantos
Business Administration Department, Stonehill College, North Easton, Massachusetts, USA, and
Lincoln G. Craton
Department of Psychology, Stonehill College, North Easton, Massachusetts, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide a model of consumer response to music in broadcast commercials outlining four variables (listening
situation, musical stimulus, listener characteristics, and advertising processing strategy) that affect a consumer’s attitude toward the advertising music
(Aam).
Design/methodology/approach – The paper takes the form of an integrative review of the relevant literatures from the psychology of music,
marketing, and advertising.
Findings – Aam can be positively but also negatively influenced by many factors. Only some of these variables are employed in any typical study on
consumer response to music, which may account for some conflicting findings.
Practical implications – The paper discusses factors for effectively using commercial music to affect Aam, with special focus on advertising processing
strategy. Advertisers are urged to exercise extreme caution in using music and to always pretest its use considering factors identified in this paper. The
paper suggests ways in which the model can guide future research.
Originality/value – The paper integrates diverse literatures and outlines the major variables comprising our model of consumer response to
advertising music. Advertisers can use these variables as a checklist for factors to consider in selecting ad music.

Keywords Advertisements, Music, Attitude toward the ad, Music-message fit, Advertisement processing,
Central versus peripheral route processing, Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion

Paper type Conceptual paper

An executive summary for managers and executive
readers can be found at the end of this article.
Introduction
Many broadcast ads incorporate music (Stewart et al., 1990),
and most discussions of music in advertising assume that
including music will add value to the commercial (Stout et al.,
1990). This paper challenges that assumption, proposing a
model of consumer response to music in broadcast
commercials that outlines key influential variables (listening
situation, musical stimulus, listener characteristics, and
advertising processing strategy) that determine a consumer’s
cognitive and affective musical responses. These responses
embody a new variable that we introduced previously (Craton
and Lantos, 2011), attitude toward the advertising music
(Aam). After presenting the model, we offer recommendations
for advertisers concerning use of music and for researchers
seeking to learn more about consumer response to music in
advertising.
Our discussion of consumer response to advertising music
addresses four deficiencies in the literature. First is the
assumption that music will always add value to a commercial,
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
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Journal of Consumer Marketing
29/1 (2012) 22– 42
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0736-3761]
[DOI 10.1108/07363761211193028]
receiving a favorable audience response and helping to achieve
advertising objectives so long as it does not distract listeners
from the commercial’s message – what we call the “music as
garnish assumption.” A second inadequacy of the literature
follows from this: Research has not yet explored the factors
potentially causing music to be ineffective or even detrimental
to an ad’s success. Third, although music triggers both
cognitive and affective listener responses, reactions to music
are usually conceptualized as being solely affective (Meyer,
1956, as cited in Kellaris and Kent, 2001; Morris and Boone,
1998). Yet, music ideally cognitively communicates a brand
message or a brand image (Chebat et al., 2001; Hecker, 1984;
Morris and Boone, 1998).
We began addressing these three issues by introducing a
new consumer response variable, Aam, which provides a
framework for conceptualizing both positive and negative
cognitive and affective responses to music (Craton and
Lantos, 2011). The present article builds on that framework
in order to address a fourth shortcoming of the literature:
Advertising music has almost always been treated as a one-
dimensional variable. For instance, studies have investigated
the effect of music’s presence versus absence (Macklin, 1988;
Middlestadt et al., 1994; Morris and Boone, 1998; Olsen,
1995; Park and Young, 1986; Wheatley and Brooker, 1994);
music as a classical conditioning variable (Gorn, 1982;
Kellaris and Cox, 1989; Pitt and Abratt, 1988); music as a
means of enhancing information processing (MacInnis and
Park, 1991; Mitchell and Olson, 1981); structural
characteristics such as tempo, pitch, and loudness (Alpert
and Alpert, 1990; Bruner, 1990; Kellaris and Rice, 1993);
and music-message fit (e.g. Kellaris et al., 1993; Shen and

22
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
Chen, 2006). While progress has been made on these and
other issues, an integrated, comprehensive discussion of
consumer response to advertising music appears to be lacking.
This paper is a first effort to build a model facilitating such a
discussion.
In light of the above insufficiencies, this article has three
purposes:
1 to outline the important factors comprising a broad
conceptual model of consumer response to music in
broadcast commercials;
2 to use this model to point out the many possible hazards
of using music in advertising for which advertisers should
pretest; and
3 to show how the model can help guide future research.
We proceed by presenting and discussing the various
components of our model of consumer response to
advertising (see Figure 1). Throughout, we point out
possible ways music can go awry for the advertiser. We
conclude with managerial and academic research suggestions.
The model
In order to understand the potential perils of using music in
commercials, we propose the model of consumer response to
music in advertising shown in Figure 1, which captures the
key variables that can work both in favor of and also against
music’s communication value for a brand. Audience
responses to music in commercials stem from a complex
interplay of four variables:
1 the listening situation;
2 the musical stimulus;
3 listener characteristics; and
4 the listener’s advertising processing strategy.
Together these four variables influence Figure 1’s centerpiece,
Aam, which we propose is a significant constituent of attitude
toward the ad (Aad) – whether or not a message recipient likes
a particular advertisement during a particular exposure
occasion. An abundance of research – much of which is
cited below – has shown that Aad, in turn, affects the
consumer’s attitude toward the brand (Ab ), which
subsequently impacts purchase intention and brand choice.
This model does not attempt to depict the many possible
interactions between all these variables or their constituent
elements but instead focuses on providing a “checklist” of
factors that influence Aam and its cognitive and affective
elements. We hope the model will be useful to practitioners
and will provide a framework for research, ultimately leading
to a more comprehensive, detailed, process-oriented model
accounting for such interactions. In a subsequent article, we
shall examine the literature on psychological mechanisms in
music processing with an eye toward developing such a
model.
Attitude toward the advertising music (Aam)
In our previous article (Craton and Lantos, 2011), we
introduced and developed our new construct, attitude toward
the music (Aam). There, we discussed the cognitive and
affective components of Aam and how these influence specific
advertising objectives (see Table I). We now summarize the
components of Aam and their related advertising objectives
(objectives are underlined in the following discussion).
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Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
Cognitive components
.
Level and persistence of attention to music. This component
of Aam refers to whether the ad music has contributed to
the long-standing advertising goal of gaining and holding
the consumer’s attention, in turn affecting whether and
how much the consumer attends to the ad as a whole.
.
Depth of processing of music. This construct from cognitive
psychology (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Craik and
Tulving, 1975) is related to the enhance memory of ad
content advertising objective. Deep- or semantic-level
processing focuses on the meaning of the music (its
aesthetic properties), while shallow-level processing
focuses on surface features of the music such as the
timbre of one of the instruments or the physical
appearance of a performer. Perhaps counter-intuitively,
some shallow processing of lyrics (phrasing, line length)
carrying the ad message is required in order for the sung
message to enhance recall relative to a spoken message
(Wallace, 1994).
.
Perceived features of music available for association. Relevant
to the create new music-brand associations objective, this
captures elements of the ad music the consumer has
detected from among the wide range of features present
(structural features of the music such as rhythm or
melody, its expressed emotion, the musical style, etc.),
and especially whether these are perceived as positive,
negative, or neutral.
.
Remembered features of music available for association. This
ties in with the tap prior associations with familiar music
advertising goal. Similar to the previous cognitive element,
this captures what these prior associations are (especially
how common to most people or idiosyncratic to a
particular consumer they might be) and whether the
consumer views these associations as positive, negative, or
neutral.
.
Image suggested by music. This concerns the perceived
“personality” of the music (e.g. sophisticated, sexy, or
lighthearted), and it relates to the create a brand image
goal. A brand personality can be molded either as music
creates new associations or as it uses existing associations.
.
Music perceived as distinctive or not. This concerns the
differentiate the brand objective. We propose that the
consumer makes a distinctiveness judgment, representing
how unique versus prototypical s/he considers the music
to be and the extent to which s/he views this level of
uniqueness as favorable or unfavorable. Distinctive music
that is viewed favorably (unfavorably) will help to
positively (negatively) differentiate the brand.
.
Perceived music-message fit. Linked with the reinforce ad
message with music-message fit objective, this captures
the consumer’s judgment of how well the music suits the
message. High fit leads to a more favorable attitude than
low fit, which can create possible dissonance and/or
confusion (Kellaris et al., 1993; North, Hargreaves,
McKenzie and Law, 2004). For instance, an upbeat
tune could be used for a brand positioned as “fun.” Given
the importance of communicating about the brand as an
overarching advertising objective, we believe this
component is crucial.
Affective components
.
Emotions (feelings) evoked by music. Related to the evoke
emotions (feelings) goal, this concerns whether feeling
states are actually evoked by the music, how intense they
 A model of consumer response to advertising music Journal of Consumer Marketing
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42

Figure 1 The model of consumer response to advertising music

24
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
Table I Components of attitude toward the advertising music (Aam) and corresponding advertising objectives
Aam
Cognitive component
Level and persistence of attention to music
Depth of processing of music
Perceived features of music available for association
Remembered features of music available for association
Image suggested by music
Music perceived as distinctive or not
Perceived music-message fit
Affective component
Emotions (feelings) evoked by music
Mood induced by music
Emotional memories activated by music
Emotional arousal response to music
Hedonic response to music
are, and how favorably or unfavorably the consumer views
those emotional experiences.
.
Mood induced by music. Related to the ad objective to
create a mood, this captures whether the ad music leads to
mood induction, how favorable/unfavorable the mood is,
and whether the mood is perceived as consonant with the
brand’s message and image.
.
Emotional memories activated by music. Related to the tap
into emotion-laden memories ad objective, this reflects
whether such memories occur and how favorably the
consumer views them.
.
Emotional arousal response to music. One advertising goal is
to alter emotional arousal level. This element concerns
whether any changes in emotional arousal occur as a result
of exposure to the ad music and whether or not these
changes are viewed favorably by the consumer.
.
Hedonic response to music. A final ad objective is to provide a
positive hedonic experience. This variable captures how
pleasant/unpleasant the consumer finds the ad music to be.
Because each of the components of Aam described above can
be either positive or negative – that is, they each can
contribute to a favorable or unfavorable Aam – this new
variable allows practitioners and researchers to capture the
complex and sometimes even contradictory nature of
consumer response toward a given piece of ad music. In this
respect Aam is quite different from related constructs in the
marketing and psychology literatures – such as “music
appeal,” “liking,” or “music preference” – which are typically
measured with a single Likert-scale item (Allan, 2007; Finnäs,
1989; Hargreaves et al., 2006; Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003;
Tan et al., 2006). We believe that the present multifaceted
formulation is a step forward that may help marketers and
researchers characterize, study, and weigh the trade-offs
involved in selecting particular candidates for advertising
music.
We distinguish several terms relating to musical response.
Following Allan (2007), we define “music appeal” as the
extent of liking/disliking of a musical stimulus at a particular
point in time but – as we state above and illustrate in Figure 1
– we treat it as synonymous with Aam and thus as multifaceted
rather than unidimensional. We define “music preference” as
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Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
Objectives
Desired cognitive response
Attract attention
Enhance memory of ad content
Create new music-brand associations
Tap prior associations with familiar music
Create a brand image
Differentiate the brand
Reinforce ad message with music-message fit
Desired affective response
Evoke emotions (feelings)
Create a mood
Tap into emotion-laden memories
Alter emotional arousal level
Provide a positive hedonic experience
relative music appeal – that is, liking for one piece of music as
compared to another at a given point in time (Hargreaves
et al., 2006). Finally, we define “musical taste” as an
individual’s pattern of musical preferences over time.
Aam is a product of many influences, to which we turn next.
Variables influencing formation of Aam
As we review each of the four variables influencing formation
of Aam, depicted in Figure 1, we will speculate on which
elements of Aam are most likely to be impacted by each,
referring to prior research when available. Future empirical
research can test each of these presumptions.
(1) The listening situation
A commercial’s music plays in a context, not a vacuum. In
general, music that is inappropriate for the listening situation
could negatively influence Aam. Research on the “uses and
gratifications” of music affirms that music’s effects depend on
listeners’ circumstances (North, Hargreaves and Hargreaves,
2004; North and Hargreaves, 1996a). People most often hear
ad music while engaged in other activities, in a particular
social context, as a break from particular program content,
and either voluntarily or involuntarily. We now briefly
examine each of these types of circumstances.
Ongoing activities
Listeners prefer music deemed appropriate in a particular
setting (North and Hargreaves, 1996a, b, c; North and
Hargreaves, 2000, Experiment 2). For instance, if the
commercial’s music results in an undesirable change in
arousal level (e.g. intense music in an already stressful work
environment), Aam could be negatively influenced. Although
we have not found any directly relevant marketing research, it
seems reasonable to suppose that consumer responses to
identical ad music will vary depending on listeners’ activities
(driving, eating, etc.).
We speculate that the components of Aam most likely to be
directly influenced by current activities may be the
consumer’s level and persistence of attention to the music,
depth of processing of the music, and emotional arousal
response to the music, since ongoing activities can enhance or
inhibit these.
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 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
Social context
Music often occurs in the context of and influences social
behavior (Konecni, 1982; Lull, 1985; Shepherd, 2003). To
predict people’s response to music, it is important to
understand the social context in which music is heard:
whether listeners are alone or with others, and if with others,
what the nature of the relationships is (e.g. lovers versus
coworkers) and whether they are working, socializing,
exercising, etc. (Sloboda et al., 2001). For instance, solemn
music in a radio commercial heard during a party might evoke
a negative listener response.
North, Hargreaves and Hargreaves (2004) suggest that
when people listen to music with others, they have less control
over music choice and so like less what they hear, and
listening alone likely leads to a higher degree of involvement
and hence liking. These findings could potentially hold for ad
music too, affecting the hedonic response element of Aam –
music could be more positively impactful when audience
members are isolated and have selected by themselves the
programming in which the commercial occurs, although this
idea needs to be tested. On the other hand, a solitary
consumer who dislikes the ad music is freer to disengage
(e.g. mute the ad, grab a snack, etc.).
Program content
A consumer’s reaction to an ad’s music might depend in part
on the program content during which the commercial
appears. Goldberg and Gorn (1987) discovered that, relative
to a sad TV program, a cheery TV program induced a happier
mood in viewers, greater perceived commercial effectiveness,
more affectively positive cognitive responses, and, to some
degree, enhanced recall. It appears that program content
could affect almost any Aam component. One interesting
question worth investigating is whether perceived music-
message fit might extend to program-content fit – for
instance, would consumers respond negatively to music with
sexual innuendo that is played in a commercial running
during a family TV program?
Voluntary versus involuntary exposure
North, Hargreaves and Hargreaves (2004) concluded that
under forced exposure, music was generally not enjoyed, a
finding that should be of key concern for advertisers since
most research on ad music is conducted under forced
exposure conditions (Allan, 2007; Bruner, 1990) and since
listeners select neither commercials nor their music. Few
people in North, Hargreaves and Hargreaves’s (2004) study
reported that they were enjoying the music they were being
compelled to listen to, and even fewer agreed with the
statement “I wanted to hear the music for longer.” Forced
exposure would seem to be most likely to negatively affect
attention to, depth of processing of, and hedonic response to
music.
(2) The musical stimulus
The advertising stimulus consists of the advertising message
and interacting executional elements, which include many
factors as well as the ad’s music, such as the setting,
characters, voiceover, and storyline. Although they are
beyond the scope of this model, it should be noted that
these non-musical executional components become
meaningful by their relationships to one another (Scott,
1990). Therefore, such elements must be carefully chosen so
that they work with, not against, the music and brand
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Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
message. For instance, a particular celebrity might be
incongruent with the music (e.g. Britney Spears and
classical music):
Role of music: foreground versus background
Consumer response to commercial music is likely a function
of the role music plays within the ad (Stout and Leckenby,
1988), i.e. whether music serves a lyrical foreground or an
instrumental background (nonvocal) role. Foreground music
is an integral part of the commercial, playing a thematic,
message-enhancing role. Such music tends to be attention-
getting, distinctive, likely to be part of an affect-based
commercial, and probably relies on lyrics. Background music
is the opposite: Less dominant or noticeable – even incidental
– and less distinct, less likely to be affect-based and more
likely to be purely instrumental than foreground music
(Alpert and Alpert, 1991). Yalch (1991) observed that music
assists recall of advertising slogans when the slogans are
included in a commercial as foreground music in the form of a
jingle or song and music performs more effectively than the
same verbal material presented with background music.
Brooker and Wheatley (1994) found that placement of
background music at an ad’s beginning sans voiceover drew
attention (albeit marginally) to and acted as a lead-in for the
message, thereby enhancing it, while music serving as
background for a voiceover drew some attention away from
the message. More research directly comparing the effects of
different uses of foreground and background music on
elements of Aam would be valuable to both practitioners and
academics.
Foreground music can either:
.
carry the ad’s message and meaning through musical
lyrics, usually as a jingle, used to create a brand image,
mood, or feeling;
.
incorporate lyrics not directly carrying the ad’s message
but used nonetheless as the primary means of
communication; or
.
employ instrumental music sans lyrics in the foreground
with little voiceover or verbal message (Alpert and Alpert,
1991).
In this musical hierarchy, we propose that music’s impact will
be strongest in the first bulleted point and least potent in the
third bulleted point , although this remains to be tested. In the
case of the first bulleted point, in order for the sung message
to enhance recall relative to a spoken message some shallow
processing (that is, processing of “superficial” aspects of the
music like the length of sung phrases) of the lyrics carrying the
ad message must occur (Authors, disguised, under review;
Wallace, 1994) – thus, the music should be either simple
enough to learn or familiar to the consumer. In all three cases
above, we suspect that foreground music will usually be a
significant positive or negative influence on Aad. Indeed,
because of its salience, the risks for negative Aam are probably
greater for foreground than for background music. In some
cases, using foreground music at a low volume might prove to
be a useful compromise – appealing to those people who like
the selection while not turning off listeners who dislike it.
The potential risks in using background music, especially if
it is played at a low volume, are unclear. Although
background music is so ubiquitous that we often do not
notice its presence, some evidence suggests that it can
produce emotional and physical responses (Grayston, 1974).
Nonetheless, other research has found that background music
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
had no significant effect on brand recall (Macklin, 1988;
Sewall and Sarel, 1986) nor on Aad or Ab (Macklin, 1988),
suggesting that its impact on consumer response is relatively
insignificant. By definition, background music may not draw
attention or be deeply processed. However, if it is familiar or
in a familiar genre that taps listeners’ associations, it may
suggest an image for the product, much as retail stores use
background music to provide ambience. Given our current
limited knowledge of its effects, background music too should
be selected carefully.
Musical source
Ad music has three possible origins:
1 An original composition written, scored, and recorded
specifically for the commercial. Although initially
unfamiliar to the audience and the most expensive
option, this provides marketers with the most control
over variables affecting Aam. In particular, such music can
be best tailored to the message, thereby enhancing
cognitive elements of Aam. Recognizable jingles create
brand equity and feel more simple and real (Hampp,
2010).
2 An existing tune can either be copyrighted and available
via direct licensing; “needledrop” music (Allan, 2006) in
the public domain, available without cost (Belch and
Belch, 2009), or stock music, prerecorded for purchase or
rental (Allan, 2006). Music that is very well learned draws
attention to linked surface properties of melody and lyrics
(shallow-level processing), which can enhance recall of an
ad message if it is contained in lyrics (Rubin, 1977;
Wallace, 1994). On the other hand, since existing tunes
will be familiar to some or most listeners, they might come
with undesirable remembered features of music available
for association and/or have induced “wearout”
(Hargreaves et al., 2006; Tan et al., 2006), thereby
negatively affecting the music perceived as distinctive or
not Aam component.
3 Altered (adapted) music that modifies existing music
somewhat in order to create some distinctiveness (music
perceived as distinctive or not) and be a better fit with the
commercial (perceived music-message fit), as well as to
avoid royalty payments if copyrighted (e.g. eBay modified
Frank Sinatra’s hit “My Way” to “eBay”) (Allan, 2006).
Until recently, the trend was away from original jingles in
favor of classic pop songs (e.g. Nike’s pioneering use of the
Beatles’ “Revolution” in 1987), current hit songs (e.g. “1 2 3
4” by Feist for iPod Nano in 2008), or potential hit songs, all
in either existing or adapted form (Belch and Belch, 2009;
Howard, 2008; Steinburg and Parekh, 2008). However, in the
late 2000’s the trend of licensing tunes from the ’60s, ’70s,
and ’80s is being replaced by the countertrend of creating or
reprising original branded melodies (e.g. State Farm’s “Like a
good neighbor State Farm is there” and McDonald’s “I’m
lovin’ It” (Hampp, 2010).
Research comparing the effectiveness of these three musical
sources is scarce and has yielded mixed results. Allan’s (2006)
research found that original vocals were more effective for
gaining attention and recall (depth of processing) when a
person found personal significance (emotional meaning) in
popular music integrated with advertising, while altered
vocals were more effective when the opposite is true.
However, we have speculated that advertisers using original
music might be defeating their cognitive goals if consumers
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Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
use cognitive capacity to learn the new music instead of the ad
message (Craton and Lantos, 2011). Allan (2006) reported
that several studies have found original lyrics to be more
effective than altered lyrics for gaining attention and recall,
perhaps because the changed lyrics can irritate listeners. One
of Englis and Pennell’s (1994) studies (not cited by the
authors) found that a well-liked musical piece, when placed in
the context of a commercial communication, might negatively
affect brand perceptions because people dislike “their” music
being appropriated for commercial purposes, thereby
negatively affecting emotions evoked by the music.
However, the growing use of popular music in advertising
and increased willingness of musical artists to “sell out”
suggests that this is now less a problem as people become
more accepting of familiar artists allowing commercialization
of their music and as commercial artists are more willing to
“sell in” new tunes to get them the kind of exposure that radio
airplay no longer provides (Hampp, 2010).
Structural characteristics
Music theorists, psychologists, and marketers interested in
music differ on taxonomies for music’s structural elements.
Bruner (1990) and others (cited in Kellaris and Kent, 2001)
suggest the following parsimonious scheme:
.
Time. Tempo (speed), rhythm (the pattern of accents
given to beats or notes), meter (the division of a
composition into units of equal time value called
measures), and duration.
.
Pitch. Tonality (roughly, the “key” a piece is in), major/
minor modality (Apel, 1973, cited in Kellaris and Kent,
1991; Stout and Leckenby, 1988), melody, and harmony
(chords or the blending of notes played simultaneously).
.
Texture. Timbre or tone color (the distinctiveness in tone
making instruments sound different from one another),
orchestration (the art of weaving together the unique sonic
properties of multiple instruments to produce the complex
textural fabric of a musical piece), and volume.
.
Complexity. Objectively, complexity is the way in which the
music is organized along the preceding three
characteristics. Complex music has more elements and
more variation of them (Finnäs, 1989).
While research results are sometimes contradictory
concerning listener responses to structural characteristics
(Stout et al., 1990), some general patterns have emerged.
Marketing research and work in experimental aesthetics
(Hargreaves et al., 2006) both suggest that musical structure
plays a central role in musical preference and musical taste.
Higher preference is associated with fast tempo, distinct
rhythm, coherent melodies, absence of pronounced
dissonances in harmonies, a moderate amount of
complexity (Finnäs, 1989), and major keys, which lead to
positive thoughts and feelings, while minor keys are
associated with negative cognition and affect (Hevner,
1935, cited in Stout and Leckenby, 1988; Kellaris and
Kent, 1991). However, preferences vary between
sociodemographic groups (Finnäs, 1989; Hargreaves et al.,
2006). Elements including tempo, texture, modality, and
tonality have also been demonstrated to potentially boost
arousal and hedonic response, resulting in greater purchase
intention (Allan, 2007). Stout et al. (1990) and Stout and
Leckenby (1988) found modality was the most influential
structural characteristic of those tested on eliciting consumer
reactions in TV commercials. Major and mixed modes
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
resulted in consumers learning more from, having greater
behavioral intent toward, and making more personal
connections with the ads than did minor modes.
Commercials featuring minor mode music were rated as
more irritating and were generally scored less favorably.
The above general patterns are somewhat misleading,
however, since the literature is quite mixed. Consider the
range of findings on the effect of tempo. Bruner (1990)
reported that Anand and Holbrook (1985) found that a
moderate tempo is preferred. Stout and Leckenby (1988)
reported faster tempo generally elicited positive comments,
whereas commercials featuring moderate or slow tempi
receive less favorable comments. Purchase intent has been
impacted by upbeat music both positively (Kellaris and Kent,
1991) and not at all (Brooker and Wheatley, 1994; Morris
and Boone, 1998). Based on their review, Brooker and
Wheatley (1994) concluded that faster music should increase
attention to the ad and have a positive impact on recall,
emotion, attitudes, and purchase intent, while slower music
should have the opposite effects. However, while uptempo
music was perceived as more cheerful than slower music,
tempo had no significant effects on any of the other
dependent measures. The authors concluded that the
findings contradicted those of Kellaris and Kent (1991)
because the latter’s behavioral intentions concerned listening
to or buying the music, rather than intentions regarding the
advertised product.
Together these findings suggest that negative cognition and
affect arising from any of the Aam components can result
from an unfavorable combination of a commercial’s musical
structural characteristics. Importantly, Bruner (1990) and
Kellaris and Kent (1991) found that structural elements can
produce main effects but also statistically significant
interactions in generating cognitive, affective, and
behavioral consumer responses. They argue that it is
crucial to consider these interactive effects, something that
single-variable studies obviously fail to do.
Genre and style
North and Hargreaves (1997a) found that musical style is
more important than musical piece in determining listeners’
responses: Liking ratings for the same musical piece vary
greatly depending on the style in which it is performed. Thus,
consumer response to musical stimuli, such as whether they
continue to listen to a commercial, will often be determined
by style identification processes, which are very fast
(Gjerdingen and Perrott, 2008; Plazak and Huron, 2010;
Schellenberg et al., 1999); after one second of exposure, style
identification is nearly perfect. This implies that marketers
have a very short window of opportunity before consumers
might decide to change the channel – first impressions as
conveyed by genre/style are, indeed, critical to gaining
attention to both the commercial and its music.
Musical style preferences are firmly rooted in personality
traits (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003), are used by individuals
to communicate information about their personalities and to
form impressions of others (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2006),
and musical preferences are correlated with numerous lifestyle
variables (North and Hargreaves, 2007a, b, c). Consequently,
different genres (e.g. pop, classical, and jazz) and styles within
each genre (e.g. rap, baroque, and bebop, respectively) are
potentially powerful tools for establishing an image for the
brand and for creating the right mood in commercials (e.g. a
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Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
teen-oriented retailer’s ads should feature pop while a high-
end fashion retailer’s commercials should include classical
music).
However, note that negative attitudes toward disliked
musical styles are as intense as positive attitudes toward
favorite musical styles (Craton et al., 2008). Clearly, musical
“pet peeves” are an important advertising consideration since
they can lead to negative hedonic response.
Musical artist/performance
Research on the impact of a musical singer or band is
surprisingly lacking. Hecker (1984) suggested that using a
well-known musical group or singer can add spice, authority,
stature, and/or charm to the commercial. The findings on use
of celebrity endorsers are probably relevant here, especially
that celebrities, and hence musical artists, should “fit” the
brand (“celebrity-brand congruency,” similar to music-
message fit), be attractive, and be credible (Atkin and
Block, 1983; Erdogan et al., 2001; Till, 1998).
Another understudied factor is the expressive actions of the
performer (Thompson et al., 1989). Expressive variations in
timing (Ashley, 2002), loudness (Thompson and Cuddy,
1997), and facial and gestural expressions of emotion
(Thompson et al., 2005, 2008) strongly influence listeners’
emotional reactions and even their perception of musical
structure (perceived features), though we are not aware of any
research exploring these aspects of performance in
advertisements.
(3) Listener characteristics
Many studies demonstrate that consumer taste for art and
entertainment varies predictably with general customer
characteristics, i.e. demographics and socioeconomic status,
psychographics, and personality. The literature on people’s
reactions to music in general (Finnäs, 1989; Shepherd, 2003)
and to music in advertising (references are cited below)
suggests that certain sociodemographic variables – age, sex,
culture, subculture, social class, and social group – plus
personality and mood state will influence a listener’s response
to music in a commercial. Musical training, knowledge, and
experience also influence musical responses (Hargreaves et al.,
2006; Holbrook, 1995; Konecni, 1982), but these listener
characteristics are beyond the scope of this paper.
Musical taste
Marketers seek to know their target audience’s long-term
musical tastes, which intuitively have a direct and powerful
effect on their reaction to ad music and probably influences
every element of Aam. Below, we describe a number of
listener characteristics that appear to affect consumer
musical taste and thus, indirectly, Aam. We focus on
sociodemographic and psychological variables that have
been found to impact musical tastes and, consequently,
music appeal and/or preference for a piece of music at a
particular point in time.
Age
Two age-related phenomena influence music preferences:
1 Life cycle effects are differences due to age-related (1)
physical distinctions, such as older people having difficulty
hearing, and (b) psychological differences, like younger
people craving edgy fun and excitement (and music
reflecting that) (Hamermesh, 1984). Together, these two
life cycle effects would seem to especially impact
emotional arousal response to music.
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
Some work has found that hedonic responses may
change over the life cycle. Young adults report
significantly stronger overall preference ratings for music
than older adults (LeBlanc et al., 1996, cited in Rentfrow
and Gosling, 2006). Consistent with this, Pincus (2004,
cited in North and Hargreaves, 2008) described research
demonstrating that 64 per cent of 14-to-25-year-olds
mentioned music as their greatest influence when
choosing among brands. Intuitively, older adults may be
less influenced by ad music, although we do not know of
any research documenting this. Because exposure to
various styles of music accumulates over the lifespan,
listeners come to understand these styles better with age.
The same music that is regarded as complex and
distasteful in youth may be enjoyed more as one ages,
although to our knowledge this notion remains untested
(Hargreaves et al., 2006).
2 Cohort effects are preferences for elements of popular
culture, such as music, movies, books, fashion, and sports,
due to one’s birth year and consequently the pop culture
in which s/he grew up. Accordingly, in the 1960s, Benny
Goodman music was nostalgic for middle-aged adults,
whereas in the ’80s and ’90s, Beatles and Rolling Stones
tunes became sentimental for this same age group, and in
the current decade artists such as Blondie, Olivia Newton-
John, and Prince are nostalgic for mid-lifers.
Such preferences may arise during the late
adolescence/early adulthood (late teens/early 20s)
“critical period” of development (Hargreaves et al.,
2006; North and Hargreaves, 1995, 2002), being
formed by the time of young adulthood and persisting
into old age (Craton et al., 2008, Study 2; Holbrook and
Schindler, 1989; for a review, see Hargreaves et al., 2006).
Hence, TV commercials aimed at Baby Boomers are
replete with oldies and classic rock, while ads targeted
toward Generations X and Y contain alternative rock and
rap. Cohort effects seem to most influence affective
components of Aam such as emotional memories and
hedonic response.
Sex
Studies on the relationship between sex and musical
preference are conflicting (Wheeler, 1985). Nonetheless,
research reviewed by North and Hargreaves (2008) confirms
the everyday observation that women prefer “softer” musical
styles such as mainstream pop, while males favor “harder,”
more aggressive styles like hard rock. Consistent with
women’s greater emotional expressiveness in non-musical
domains, females rated musical excerpts as more emotionally
expressive and more likeable than did males (Kamenetsky
et al., 1997, citing several studies). Finnäs (1989) reports that,
although in some studies no clear relation between sex and
music preference was found, others have discovered females
preferring serious, traditional, or more “peaceful” music,
whereas males favor “tougher” music like hard rock as well as
sometimes jazz. Kellaris and Rice (1993) also found that
females respond more positively to music at lower volumes. In
short, sex seems to primarily impact the affective elements of
Aam.
Culture
One perspective on perception of music holds that it is
primarily a cultural and social phenomenon reflecting the
values and attitudes of a particular culture, subculture, and
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Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
social class (Alpert and Alpert, 1991; Holbrook and
Schindler, 1989; Pitt and Abratt, 1988; Scott, 1990).
Abundant research suggests that responses to music are
directly related to their cultural meaningfulness (North,
Hargreaves, McKenzie and Law, 2004). For instance,
national anthems help people assert their national identity.
Hence, patriotic music could help create an image as an “all-
American brand.” Consequently, the effects of culture seem
to work more on cognitive elements of Aam such as
remembered features of music available for association and
image suggested, although culturally-based emotional feelings
and memories can also be evoked by music.
Subculture
Each ethnic, religious, geographic, and age cohort subculture
has particular music tastes that can be included in
commercials, such as salsa, polka, gospel, country, and
bluegrass. The prevalence of musical genre radio stations
appealing to the Hispanic subculture – regional Mexican,
tropical Latin, Latin urban, and Spanish contemporary – is
evidence of such ethnic subcultural influence (http://america
smusiccharts.com).
Consumption subcultures based on music are pervasive.
Many print media articles have discussed the variety of
clothing and other lifestyle choices (such as use of specific
illegal drugs and sexual permissiveness) affiliated with
particular musical subcultures (North and Hargreaves,
2007a). Youth tend to form musical subcultures focused on
pop music, such as the 1950s’ Teddy Boys, the 1960s’ flower
children, 1970s’ punks, and the Goths, “metalheads,” and rap
fans of the last few decades (North and Hargreaves, 2008).
Thus, subculture seemingly taps into a wide variety of
cognitive and affective Aam dimensions, with hedonic
response being particularly influenced.
Social class
While some studies have demonstrated a negligible
relationship between socioeconomic status and musical
preference, others have observed higher socioeconomic
groups favoring more serious music, such as classical, opera,
and ballet (Di Maggio and Useem, 1978; Finnäs, 1989).
Research has been conducted on “taste cultures,” which
exist to “entertain, inform, and beautify life and to express
values and standards of taste and aesthetics” (Fox and Wince,
1975, p. 199). These studies categorize fans of particular
musical styles into broader social classes based on lifestyle
preferences. Such groups consist of people subscribing to a
particular taste culture, ranging along a social class
continuum: “high culture,” “upper-middle culture,” “lower-
middle culture,” “low culture,” and “quasi-folk low culture”
(Gans, 1974, cited in Fox and Wince, 1975 and in North and
Hargreaves, 2007b). Fox and Wince (1975) observed that five
musical taste cultures – “jazz-blues,” “popular hits,” “folk
music,” “rock-protest,” and “country and western” – were
strongly correlated with social class. Many studies have
depicted patterned differences in consumer tastes variously
termed as “highbrow” versus “lowbrow,” “high culture”
versus either “mass culture” or “popular culture,” or the
“cultural hierarchy” (Holbrook, 1995, p. 57). At one end of
this spectrum, high culture entails elite activities, such as
museum-caliber art, opera, and ballet. Popular culture is one
of mass appeal, such as movies, books, fashion, sports, and
music, all mass produced and standardized. North and
Hargreaves (2007c) observed that liking for “high-art” music
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
(e.g. opera, classical music, and jazz) correlated with living
the lifestyle of the upper-middle and middle classes, while
preference for “low-art” music (e.g. hip hop/rap, dance/
house, indie, and DJ-based music) was indicative of a lower-
middle and lower-class lifestyle. Hence, it appears that social
class primarily affects the affective aspects of Aam.
Social groups/social identity
People gain an understanding of their “self” or social identity
– who they are as individuals – in part from the social groups
to which they belong (Tarrant et al., 2002). North and
Hargreaves (1999) maintain that people use music as a
“badge” to communicate their values, feelings, and self-views.
Socially consumed products such as music are often
purchased to achieve a sense of belonging or to make a
statement about who we are, not just as individuals, but also
as members of social groups (North and Hargreaves, 2007a;
Tarrant et al., 2002). Individuals respond more positively to
objects that are congruent with their self-image (Landon,
1974), and this includes music (North and Hargreaves,
2007a; Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003).
Recent work on the effect of social influence on musical
preference and taste has been guided by social identity theory
(SIT; Tajfel and Turner, 1979). This approach emphasizes that
individuals strive to evaluate their own social group, and thus
their social identity, positively. For instance, Tarrant et al.
(2002) suggested that a major appeal of music for adolescents
is its differentiation (“badge”) function that helps them form
positive social identities (see also North and Hargreaves, 1999;
North et al., 2000). Indeed, music is more important to young
people’s social identity than other behaviors such as media-
related activities or sports (Hargreaves et al., 2006). Musical
preferences in adolescence are guided by group norms and
tend to conform to the perceived preferences of peer group
leaders (Finnäs, 1989). According to Hargreaves et al. (2006),
expressing liking for a style of music can facilitate group
distinctiveness but also increases intergroup discrimination.
Violation of the group norm for musical preference, on the
other hand, threatens the group’s distinctiveness and often
leads to derogation of the individual expressing the deviant
preference. This sensitivity to group norm violation appears to
develop in late childhood and may have a strong influence on
the development of musical preferences.
The above work from social psychology leads to the
prediction that social group and social identity are important
determinants of the music perceived as distinctive or not and
image elements of Aam.
Personality/personal identity/lifestyle
As opposed to social identity, which is based on social
categorizations, personal identity focuses on personal,
idiosyncratic attributes such as personality or intelligence
(North and Hargreaves, 2008). Rentfrow and Gosling (2003)
note that as early as the 1950s, personality researcher Cattell
suggested that musical preferences reveal important
information about unconscious aspects of personality.
Today, a large number of personality researchers view music
preferences as reflecting more “explicit” personality traits
(North and Hargreaves, 2008; Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003,
2006; Wheeler, 1985).
For instance, easygoing people prefer soothing musical
styles since such music helps them stay calm (Sloboda and
O’Neill, 2001). Rentfrow and Gosling (2003) found that
people with a conservative self-view preferred conventional
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Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
music styles and those with an athletic self-view preferred
vigorous music. High sensation seeking appears to be
positively related to predilections for rock, heavy metal, and
punk music, and it is negatively associated with preferences
for sound tracks and religious music (Little and Zuckerman,
1986). Similarly, a penchant for highly arousing music (heavy
metal, rock, alternative, and rap) is positively correlated with
resting arousal, high sensation seeking, and an antisocial
personality (McNamera and Ballard, 1999, cited in Rentfrow
and Gosling, 2003). North and Hargreaves’ (2008) extensive
literature review reports that numerous studies demonstrate
that devotees of certain “problem music” styles, such as dance
music, rap, and heavy rock, are more involved than other fans
in lifestyles characterized by rebellious and anti-authoritarian
behavior.
Moreover, people use their music preferences to
communicate information regarding their personalities to
others (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2006). Intellectual individuals
favor complex, esoteric music, thinking it projects a
sophisticated image (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2006).
Research also suggests that preference for liberal versus
conservative musical styles (e.g. rap, dance music, and rock
versus classical music, musicals, and opera) is associated with
respectively liberal versus conservative personalities and
lifestyles (North and Hargreaves, 2007a).
All of this suggests that music can have a strong impact on
the image dimension of Aam for so-called “badge” products.
Prior mood state
Mood is a person’s subjectively perceived affective state that is
usually not intense; is not tied to a specifiable behavior, event,
or object (Bharucha et al., 2006; Gardner, 1985a), and can be
either positive or negative (Alpert and Alpert, 1991; Gardner,
1985a). Prior mood states perhaps have their greatest effect in
low involvement circumstances where brand differences are
minimal (Clark and Isen, 1982).
Generally, moods seem to bias evaluations and judgments
in mood-congruent directions (Gardner, 1985a; Srull, 1983)
by evoking mood-congruent thoughts (Clark and Isen, 1982;
Goldberg and Gorn, 1987; Isen et al., 1978), transferring to
product-related attitudes and behaviors (Goldberg and Gorn,
1987). However, there are exceptions; products that alleviate
a negative mood state might be evaluated favorably by
consumers when in such mood states (Gardner, 1985a). So, a
gloomy consumer watching a commercial for an anti-
depressant might react negatively to upbeat music in the ad.
Also noteworthy is that purchase intention can be affected
by interaction of music and mood (Alpert and Alpert, 1990;
Alpert et al., 2003; Brooker and Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris and
Kent, 1991; Morris and Boone, 1998; North, Hargreaves,
McKenzie and Law, 2004). Mood also directly influences Aad
(MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989). Clearly, the mood induced by
music Aam component is influenced here.
(4) Advertisement processing strategy
We turn now to the consumer’s advertisement processing
strategy, which we define as how the consumer acquires
information or meaning from an advertisement. Ad processing
strategy is known to affect Aad (Brown and Stayman, 1992;
Gardner, 1985b; Homer, 1990; Mitchell, 1986; Park and
Young, 1986). Here, we suggest that it also feeds into the
various elements of Aam. This section on ad processing will
explain different theories of how music contributes cognitively
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
and affectively to formation of Aam’s cognitive and affective
components, and hence development of Aad.
Prior research cited below suggests that key elements of
advertisement processing strategy are level of advertising
processing involvement (high versus low) and the
corresponding processing route (central versus peripheral),
nature of product involvement (cognitive versus affective),
and type of advertising processing involvement (ad-message
involvement versus ad-execution involvement, including
involvement with the music). Table II summarizes these
factors, which we now briefly discuss before we look at each of
the relevant persuasion theories through which advertising
music can affect Aam in light of various combinations of these
factors.
Level of advertising processing involvement
Involvement is commonly conceptualized as the degree to
which a purchase decision has perceived personal importance,
relevance, and consequences for the buyer (Greenwald and
Leavitt, 1984; Park and Young, 1986; Petty et al., 1983). A
consumer highly involved with purchasing and/or using the
advertised product is motivated to extensively search for and
deeply process marketplace information (Krugman, 1965),
thereby exhibiting a high level of advertising processing
involvement – the consumer’s degree of interest in paying
attention to advertising (Batra and Ray, 1983; Laczniak et al.,
1989). A strong argument against using music in advertising
is that it can serve as a distraction – an attention-grabber that
is irrelevant to the message (Brooker and Wheatley, 1994;
Macklin, 1988). Based on the available research, we suggest
that high-involvement consumers are likely to perceive music-
message fit and to respond positively (negatively) to good
(poor) fit, creating a favorable (unfavorable) Aam. Negative
response may occur even for music which in other contexts a
consumer would enjoy but which exhibits a poor music-
message fit. For instance, Park and Young (1986) found that
for high-involvement consumers, preselected popular and
liked music was a distraction from the message, lowering
response variable scores because it was unrelated to brand-
attribute message contents. Low-involvement consumers are
unlikely to wish to attend to any aspects of an ad, including
the music, although it may be difficult to ignore. Whether
they distinguish high and low music-message fit is currently
unclear (MacInnis and Park, 1991; North, Hargreaves,
McKenzie and Law, 2004).
Nature of product involvement
Product involvement – the extent of a consumer’s enduring,
inherent interest in a particular product or brand – is of two
types, depending on the nature of the need the product
Table II Components of advertising processing strategy
Level of advertising processing
involvement (including music
involvement)/processing route Nature of product involvement
High/central 1. Cognitive
2. Affective
Low/peripheral 3. Cognitive
4. Affective
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
satisfies: cognitive involvement and affective involvement.
Cognitive involvement relates to thoughtful information
acquisition. Here, persuasion begins with a change in salient
beliefs about brand performance on brand-differentiating
attributes, resulting in attitude change (Fishbein, 1963;
Mitchell and Olson, 1981). Such belief-based processing can
result in attitude change under both high and low cognitive
involvement circumstances (Fishbein, 1963; Middlestadt
et al., 1994). However, high (low) cognitively involved
consumers decide based on a lot of (little to no) brand-
attribute information. All cognitive Aam elements can
potentially be impacted by the consumer’s level of cognitive
involvement.
Affective involvement is founded on emotional, symbolic,
aesthetic, or social needs, relating to pleasure, enjoyment, and
experiences (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982). Here,
persuasion is grounded in nonbelief-based processing and
entails molding attitudes emotionally or experientially, based
on hedonic needs. All affective Aam elements are potentially
influenced by the consumer’s level of affective involvement.
Whether the consumer’s involvement is cognitive or
affective in nature will determine which type of advertising
processing involvement (ad-message or ad-execution) and
which persuasion theory (discussed below) will be operative.
This also determines which components of Aam are affected –
i.e. cognitive (affective) involvement will more likely affect
cognitive (affective) components.
Type of advertising processing involvement
We distinguish two types of advertising processing
involvement: Advertising-message involvement entails the
degree of cognitive effort expended by the consumer toward
processing an ad’s message contents, being high (low) under
high (low)-cognitive involvement conditions (Park and Young,
1986). Under high advertising-message involvement, music
would primarily impact the cognitive Aam dimensions.
Advertising-execution involvement concerns the extent of
cognitive effort exerted by the buyer toward processing an
ad’s executional elements, such as music (MacKenzie and
Lutz, 1989), and it is elevated (depressed) under high (low)-
affective involvement circumstances. It would seem that both
cognitive and affective Aam components could be affected
here since cognitive effort is expended and yet affect is
experienced.
We suggest that music involvement is a type of advertising
processing involvement, that it can occur as either high or low
levels of either cognitive involvement or affective involvement,
irrespective of the product’s inherent involvement level
(MacInnis and Park, 1991), and thus is an aspect of
Type of Advertising processing
involvement and music
involvement Persuasion theory
Ad-message Cognitive response model: Lyrics and musical fit
Ad-execution Emotional appeals
Ad-message or ad-execution Cognitive response model: Ad-execution
thoughts and simple inferences
Ad-execution Mere exposure Classical conditioning: Mood
inducement and cue association
31
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
advertising – message involvement or of advertising-execution
involvement. Indeed, Sullivan (1990) found that high
musical-involvement consumers showed better recall for
radio commercials (we would suggest due to high attention
to and depth of processing of music), Aad, and Ab for low
involvement products than did low music-involvement
consumers.
Processing route
Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) and Petty et al.’s (1983)
elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of ad processing and
persuasion considers the degree of effort consumers exert in
learning about a brand’s attributes and forming an Ab, i.e. how
deeply they process (elaborate on) information on the brand
(Alpert and Alpert, 1989). This model proposes two distinctly
different “routes” to persuasion, depending on consumers’
motivation (i.e. level of advertising processing involvement),
opportunity, and ability (MOA) to process information and
make decisions. Under central-route processing, MOA is
high, and hence active effort is put into information
processing. This can result in either high cognitive, ad-
message involvement, i.e. high engagement with advertising,
focusing on product-relevant information, or high affective,
ad-execution involvement, as evoked by executional elements
such as a picture of a starving child or very solemn music
(Sherman et al., 1999).
Under peripheral-route processing, MOA is low –
consumers devote little energy to ad processing (Petty et al.,
1983) and to making choices, passively encountering
unsought information (Batra and Ray, 1983), such as
commercial jingles or music that evokes a mood. This can
result in either low cognitive, ad-message or ad-execution
involvement, or low affective, ad-execution involvement
(Bordens and Horowitz, 2001).
Under the peripheral route consumers use peripheral cues
– less relevant, easily processed simple positive and negative
executional advertising stimuli (North and Hargreaves,
1997b; Petty et al., 1983). Background (nonvocal) music in
commercials is an important peripheral cue because it can
significantly impact both physiological and psychological
reactions (Grayston, 1974; Jacob, 1968; Ross, 1966;
Uhrbrock, 1961; Zimny and Weidenfeller, 1963). Indeed,
some researchers have discovered that background music
(MacInnis and Park, 1991) as well as foreground music (Park
and Young, 1986) can positively affect message processing
under low involvement conditions.
Persuasion through music based on four consumer advertising
processing situations
We now briefly examine how elements of Aam are influenced
by each of four advertising processing scenarios, based on
whether high/central route or low/peripheral route processing
occurs (column 1 in Table II) and product involvement is
cognitive or affective (column 2 in Table II). Italicized terms in
the next four sections are cognitive and affective dimensions
of Aam found in Figure 1. Bold italicized terms are music
persuasion processes as outlined in column 4 of Table II.
Music’s influence for high cognitive (ad-message) involvement,
central route consumers
High cognitive involvement consumers (first row under
column headings in Table II) do not focus on executional
cues, but ad music might nevertheless influence Ab through
brand cognitions, enhancing or distracting from message
processing (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986; Swasy and Munch,
32
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
1985). If thoughts regarding the brand due to the commercial
(including its music) are favorable (unfavorable), the
consumer’s Ab might also become favorable (unfavorable)
(Shimp, 1981).
Music can alter brand beliefs about brand-attribute
performance through lyrics, usually in a jingle. Catchy
lyrics can grab attention and if simple enough can encourage
an optimal depth of processing of music that enhances recall of
the ad message. They also create new or tap into existing
associations and aid brand distinctiveness. Effective lyrics help
consumers perceive music-message fit by creating an image,
feeling, or mood congruent with the message (Alpert and
Alpert, 1991).
MacInnis and Park (1991) argued that music may positively
influence high-involvement consumers if there is high musical
fit since it primes relevant product beliefs (e.g. sophisticated
classical music featured in a perfume advertisement). Stout
and Leckenby (1990, cited in North and Hargreaves, 1997b
and in North, Hargreaves, McKenzie and Law, 2004)
discovered that commercials were perceived more favorably
and as more informative when containing music easily
associated with the advertised brand, i.e. when there was
musical fit.
Music’s influence for high affective (ad-execution) involvement,
central route consumers
In the cases of affective involvement (second and fourth rows
in Table II), the underlying assumption is that pleasant, well-
liked ads yield a more favorable Aad and Ab than unpleasant
or irritating ads (Mitchell, 1986; Moore and Hutchinson,
1985; Shimp, 1981). Under the central route, sometimes
audience members experience high affective involvement –
strong emotional responses to a commercial, leading to
attitudes founded on feelings as an information source (Pham,
1998). Here, emotional appeals through music can yield
emotional responses changing the consumer’s Aad, leading to
an alteration of Ab (Holbrook and Batra, 1987).
Music is a powerful way to garner emotional responses by
creating a general feeling of global affect or liking for a
particular musical piece or emotional suggestiveness of that
music (Alpert and Alpert, 1990; Galizio and Hendrick, 1972;
Stout and Leckenby, 1988; Zimny and Weidenfeller, 1963).
MacInnis and Park (1991) found that music aroused
emotion-laden memories consistent with the ad’s primary
message and thereby generated positive feelings and Aad In
those studies where music evoked little or no emotional
response (MacInnis and Park, 1991; Stout and Rust, 1986), it
was likely due to a poor fit between the commercial and its
background music (Alpert and Alpert, 1990; MacInnis and
Park, 1991; Morris and Boone, 1998), suggesting that central
route processing is operative and highlighting once again the
centrality of music-message fit. We suggest that all of the
affective Aam components can potentially be affected by music
for high affective involvement consumers.
Music’s influence for low cognitive (ad-message or ad-execution)
involvement, peripheral route consumers
Peripheral route cognitive responses to ad music occur under
low cognitive, low ad-message involvement (third row in
Table II). These include ad execution-related thoughts,
which can arise among low MOA consumers attending to ad
presentation elements such as music (Belch and Belch, 2009),
thereby enhancing Aad and/or Ab. A jingle, although an
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
executional element, can contribute only a small amount of
message information even for low involvement consumers.
Another type of low cognitive involvement ad execution-
related thought is simple inferences – beliefs based on
simple associations of the brand with peripheral cues,
including music (Hoyer and McGinnis, 2007). For example,
jazz music might suggest a “cool,” relaxed brand image.
Again, music-message fit might be relevant, although probably
not to the degree it is under central route processing. We
believe that all other cognitive Aam components might also be
potentially affected by the music for low cognitive
nvolvement, peripheral route consumers, albeit with weaker
effects than with high cognitive involvement consumers.
Music’s influence for low affective (ad-execution) involvement,
peripheral route consumers
One way music can elicit consumer response for low affective
involvement consumers is through mere exposure –
repeated exposure to a stimulus that creates liking for it
(Zajonc, 1968), as demonstrated by substantial evidence
(Mitchell and Olson, 1981). Consequently, frequently
encountered music might become liked, as consequently do
the ad and brand. This would primarily seem to impact the
emotions affective Aam element. However, overplayed jingles
can become annoying due to wearout, and mere exposure
would probably not work for disliked music, even having the
opposite effect, although this merits research.
Low affectively involved consumers might also be
influenced by music via classical conditioning, a passive,
low involvement process of learning stimulus-response
associations. Under this first and most widely discussed
mechanism explaining the influence of Aad on Ab (Allen and
Janiszewski, 1989; Edell and Burke, 1984), Ab is formed via
frequently associating a positively or negatively unconditioned
(natural) stimulus (UCS) such as music with a conditioned
(initially neutral) stimulus (CS) such as a brand. Through
pairings of the UCS and CS, learners attribute to the CS
(brand) whatever thoughts or feelings they have about the
affiliated UCS (e.g. liked or disliked commercial music)
(Gardner, 1985a; Mitchell and Olson, 1981).
One way classical conditioning works is through mood
inducement (Alpert and Alpert, 1991; Galizio and
Hendrick, 1972). Here, music creates an appropriate mood
for the brand, such as upbeat, happy music for an amusement
park, biasing Ab in a mood-congruent direction (Gardner,
1985a; Hoyer and McGinnis, 2007). This later influences
brand choice, such as by the presence of point-of-purchase
cues that reinitiate the original mood (Shimp, 1981). Moods
have been found to affect Aad, Ab, purchase intentions (Edell
and Burke, 1984; Holbrook and Batra, 1987; Stayman and
Aaker, 1988), and behavior (Clark and Isen, cited in Gardner,
1985a).
Classical conditioning can also operate via cue
association, which employs unique marketing stimuli such
as music to identify and differentiate brands. For instance,
very different associations will be developed by upbeat and
zippy versus somber and melancholy songs. This suggests that
classically conditioned cognitions (as well as feelings) can also
be created for low affective involvement consumers.
Classical conditioning has been supported by many studies
(Bierley et al., 1985; Gibson, 2008; Shimp et al. 1991; Stuart
et al., 1987; Tom, 1995). It provides a plausible mechanism
explaining the peripheral route to persuasion through which
33
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
music can effectively operate (Edell and Burke, 1984, Lutz,
1985; Shimp, 1981; Petty et al., 1983). However, research
findings on classical conditioning via advertising are
equivocal. While some researchers report that consumers
can be classically conditioned to prefer a product by pairing it
with well-liked music (e.g. Gorn, 1982), others have failed to
obtain this effect; (Allen and Madden, 1985; Alpert and
Alpert, 1989; Alpert and Alpert, 1990; Gresham and Shimp,
1985; Kellaris and Cox, 1989; Kleine et al., 1986; Macklin,
1986; Pitt and Abratt, 1988). Some research finds that
classical conditioning is successful for novel brands but not
for familiar brands (Shimp et al., 1991) and for unfamiliar
conditioned stimuli having few preexisting associations
(Cacioppo et al., 1992).
It appears that at best classical conditioning occurs
unreliably (Kellaris and Cox, 1989) and only for low
involvement/passive consumers. Tom’s (1995) research also
suggests that classical conditioning is more likely to arise
where there is musical fit, once again highlighting the
criticality of music-message congruence.
Attitude toward the ad (Aad)
The previous discussion suggests that Aam can be a significant
component of Aad – a “predisposition to respond in a
favorable or unfavorable manner to a particular advertising
stimulus during a particular exposure occasion” (Lutz, 1985),
or “an individual’s evaluation of and/or affective feelings
about an advertisement” (Park and Young, 1986). This is
regardless of level of advertising involvement (high/central
versus low/peripheral) and nature of product involvement
(cognitive vs. affective) and advertising processing
involvement (ad-message vs. ad-execution).
Aad’s influence on Ab is well documented (Burke and Edell,
1989; Brown and Stayman, 1992; Gardner, 1985b; Gorn,
1982; Homer, 1990; MacKenzie et al., 1986; Mitchell, 1986;
Muehling and Laczniak, 1988; Stayman and Aaker, 1988). Ab
is affected by both brand beliefs formed via Aad (including
cognitive elements of Aam) as well as by a direct link from Aad
to Ab (Mitchell and Olson, 1981; Park and Young, 1986)
(allowing both cognitive and affective Aam dimensions to be
influential).
Ab, in turn, provokes brand purchase intentions, all else
equal (e.g. brand availability), leading to a brand choice, as
shown in the right-hand portion of Figure 1. Research has
demonstrated Aad’s influence on purchase intention, both
indirectly via Aad’s impact on Ab (Homer, 1990; MacKenzie
and Lutz, 1989; MacKenzie et al., 1986; Mitchell, 1986;
Mitchell and Olson, 1981; Shimp, 1981) and directly
(Gresham and Shimp, 1985; MacKenzie et al., 1986). Aad
also affects brand choice directly as well as indirectly through
Ab (Biehal et al., 1992).
Lutz (1985) posited that Aad has antecedents that are
cognitive, central processing (e.g. ad credibility, ad
perceptions) and affective, peripheral processing (e.g. mood,
attitude toward advertising in general). The cognitive
elements consist of people’s judgments regarding the ad’s
characteristics (e.g. humorous, informative, contains classy
music, i.e. ad-execution thoughts and simple inferences),
while the affective components are founded on feelings people
experience during ad exposure (e.g. amused, moved,
i.e. emotional reactions to emotional appeals) (Burke and
Edell, 1989). Thus, while someone might, for example,
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
believe that an ad is characterized by humor (cognitive), the
person might not find the ad funny (affective).
Similarly, Park and Young’s (1986) research suggests that
Aad can contribute to Ab formation in two ways:
1 through the cognitive route by facilitating communication
of the ad message, such as via simple information and
peripheral cues that relate to the ad’s theme (rows 1 and 3
in Table II), or
2 through the affective route via its effect on positive feeling
states without a relevant connection to the ad’s theme
(rows 2 and 4).
According to the dual-mediation hypothesis, consumers can
have a positive Aad either because:
. they have a favorable cognitive response, i.e. the ad
provides them with useful information (rows 1 and 3 in
Table II); or
.
they have a positive affective response, i.e. they gain good
feelings from or are interested in the ad (Brown and
Stayman, 1992; Homer, 1990; MacKenzie et al., 1986)
(rows 2 and 4).
In either case, Aad is enhanced, leading either to make
consumers more accepting of brand beliefs or claims,
resulting in a more favorable Ab (rows 1 and 3), or to
create affect transfer – positive feelings that directly transfer
from the ad (Aad) to the brand (Ab) (Gresham and Shimp,
1985; MacKenzie et al., 1986; Mitchell and Olson, 1981)
(rows 2 and 4).
Implications and directions for managers and for
future research
Managerial implications
Managers can use Figure 1 as a checklist of considerations to
evaluate how target audience members might respond to music
in their TV and/or radio commercial. They can review Table II
to determine the likely nature of advertisement processing their
target audience uses and to determine which persuasion
theories are likely to be operative so that they can tailor their
use of music accordingly (e.g. use lyrics to teach consumers
about brand benefits in the high ad involvement, central route
scenario). Through all this we suggest they think long and hard
about possible ways proposed music can negatively impact a
significant number of target market members.
For instance, suppose an advertiser of baby furniture (cribs,
changing tables, rockers, strollers, etc.) is trying to decide
between using Brahms’ Lullaby (BL) (“Lullaby, and good
night . . . ”) or a children’s nursery rhyme (NR) (Baa, Baa,
Black Sheep, Hickory Dickory Dock, etc.) to be aired during
particular TV and radio programming. The message is that
the product line is safe, comfortable, comforting, and
protective. The following could be considered as key factors:
.
Listening situation. Many parents (mostly mothers) might
be harried and hassled with attending to the baby’s needs
and somewhat cranky while at home with their spouse
during late evening programming following a hard day’s
work either in the office or home, suggesting the more
relaxing BR. Cognitively this could communicate an
image of comfortable and comforting, and affectively it
could induce emotional memories of the safe, protective
home environment in which most of them grew up.
.
Musical stimulus. If a rocker is featured as a product in the
commercial, BL would achieve excellent music-message fit
34
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
(whereas NR lyrics might distract, although “Good Night,
Sleep Tight” could be a good choice) and would have more
impact as foreground music whose lyrics are attended to.
The tune’s remembered features for association would
likely be positive (whereas some NRs like “Little Miss
Muffet” would tap negative associations). Structural
characteristics of BL would likely create positive thoughts
and feelings, whereas some NRs might be found annoying.
Pop singer-songwriter Jewel, being a mother with an album
Lullaby!, could be the musical artist for NR (Braham’s
Lullaby appears on her album). A relaxed mood could be
induced here, reinforcing the comforting message
.
Listener characteristics. Demographics would not be a
major consideration as either selection is universally
familiar and liked), although they would be relevant if a
particular performer (Jewel) or an idiosyncratic version of
the song was used. Either NR or BL would appeal to
parents who are “into” the parenting lifestyle and view
their parenting role as a primary element of their social
identity and lifestyle – the music’s image would be on
target.
.
Advertisement processing strategy. The products lend
themselves to high cognitive involvement with central
route processing, so no matter the music selection, lyrics
would be important. Since these are products for the
parents’ baby, affective involvement would be high too.
BL would be appropriate since its soft tune brings a
familiar feeling of being protected and warm (emotions
evoked by music).
Research implications
Although our primary concern in this paper has been to assist
managers in the selection of ad music, we hope that the
checklist provided by our model will be useful to researchers
as well. We conclude by pointing out several ways the model
can help guide future research and noting limitations in our
model that might be addressed in future work.
First, the model draws attention to variables that have
generated tantalizing or contradictory findings that beg for
follow-up. For instance, we would like to see further empirical
work comparing the effects of foreground versus background
music and the use versus nonuse of lyrics in foreground
music.
Second, by integrating established variables in a broad
framework, the model underscores the need for research on
the links between them. For instance, little is known about
what factors – musical style/genre, structural characteristics,
etc. – lead to high perceived music-message fit both in general
as well as for various product categories. Because the model
offers a comprehensive list of variables, it can also help
investigators identify factors that need to be strictly controlled
in experiments, which may reduce the mix of findings in
certain portions of the literature. For example, we believe it is
crucial that future research on music-message fit judiciously
avoid confounding fit with other factors such as structural
characteristics of musical stimuli (to take a hypothetical
example, if fast music that experimenters select as having
“good fit” with a product enhances response to the ad, was it
fit or tempo that caused the effect?).
Third, the model may be useful because it includes
variables that have not yet been thoroughly investigated. In
particular, these include elements of Aam, namely level and
persistence of attention to music, depth of processing of
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
music, perceived features of music available for association,
remembered features of music available for association, image
suggested by music, music perceived as distinctive or not,
mood induced by music, and emotional memories activated
by music. Consequently, we hope that researchers will use
Figure 1 as a guide in finding new research topics. We believe
that work on consumer response to ad music will advance as
researchers systematically test the influence of particular
elements subsumed under our four variables (listening
situation, musical stimulus, listener characteristics, and
advertising processing strategy) on these unexplored aspects
of musical response. While we have pointed to some of the
opportunities for new research throughout this paper, the
model is rich enough to generate many more than we have
space to discuss.
Fourth, we hope that the model will provide an impetus for
future theoretical and empirical work that elucidates how the
many elements of the listening situation, musical stimulus,
listener characteristics, and advertising processing strategy
variables interact with each other. Similarly, the components
of Aam probably influence each other. Does low perceived
music-message fit reduce attention to ad music? Does it
produce negative feelings or negative hedonic response
toward the music? Many similar questions can be addressed
in future work.
Fifth, we believe that a strength of the present model is the
multifaceted nature of Aam, which leads to a richer conception
of “music appeal” than is typical in the literature. This
richness provides opportunities for researchers to rigorously
test the intuition that reactions to music are complex and
sometimes contradictory – as when a song performed in a
disliked genre is nevertheless regarded as infectiously upbeat
or catchy, or when listeners enjoy listening to music that
expresses a negatively valenced emotion such as sadness
(Schellenberg et al., 2008). In fact, recent work suggests that
even some individual elements of Aam can be contradictory.
For instance, Hunter et al. (2008) found that music made
listeners feel simultaneously happy and sad when musical
structural characteristics for both emotions (slow tempo
depicting sadness, major mode signaling happiness) were
present. Results like these support anecdotal accounts of the
richness of musical experience, and our model provides a tool
for exploring this systematically.
Sixth, while the current model should be viewed as an
outline of the structural relations of the various factors, we
hope that it will provide a steppingstone for researchers who
aspire to develop a detailed model of the underlying
psychological mechanisms that can help explain the
relationships between the variables in our framework. In
doing so, it will be fruitful to pay attention to emerging work
in psychology. For instance, the richness and sometimes
contradictory nature of musical response alluded to above
may sometimes occur when different affective mechanisms
operate simultaneously and generate contrasting emotions
(Juslin and Västfjäll, 2008). Process-oriented models have
been proposed to account for response to visual art (e.g. Leder
et al., 2004), and comparable work on modeling aesthetic
response to music is progressing rapidly (Bharucha et al.,
2006; Brattico and Jacobsen, 2009). Among other things, a
process-oriented model of consumer response to advertising
music should explicitly capture:
35
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
.
which processes are automatically triggered by a musical
event and which involve conscious or controlled
processing;
.
which reactions are universal or similar among all
individuals and which are subjective, relative, and inter-
individually variable; and
.
which processes are innate and which are learned through
experience and thus possibly dependent on the
individual’s “listening biography” or particular history of
exposure to music (Huron, 2006).
Future researchers should be aware of several limitations of the
current model. For instance, we have not endeavored to offer
measures or strict operational definitions for the various
variables and their elements. This is an important area for
future work. One challenge that arises here is whether to
construe certain variables as objective or subjective. We strongly
caution against the common practice of using experimenter
intuition in selecting “pleasurable” versus “unpleasurable”
musical stimuli, given the strong evidence for variation and
subjectivity in musical preferences and taste. Even pretested
stimuli are unlikely to generate the same response in all
individuals, so it is important at the very least to employ
rigorous manipulation checks in one’s experimental procedures.
Similar concerns apply to constructs such as complexity and
even music-message fit. It would be erroneous to assume that
variables such as these are either objectively present in the
stimulus or uniform across individuals. Consequently, achieving
universal response to any musical selection in a commercial is
most challenging (Craton and Lantos, 2011)!
Several additional limitations concern the scope and
generality of the model. Regarding scope, although we
consider Aam to be a significant and highly influential
component of Aad, we believe that empirical research is
necessary before it will be possible to model the relationship
between these variables. Variables analogous to Aam that also
are constituents of Aad, such as attitude toward the celebrity
and attitude toward the storyline, could also be proposed and
their interactions with music studied. Also, we did not include
the ad message and non-musical executional elements of
commercials as components in the model. This will be
important to do, since these vary in their relationship to the
ad music (Scott, 1990) in ways that probably influence
audience response. Finally, we did not consider ad processing
scenarios that combine different levels of cognitive and
affective involvement (e.g, high cognitive but also high
affective involvement, suggesting emotional but meaningful
lyrics).
Regarding generality, the present model has focused on
television and radio commercials using music. It may be
possible to draw on this work and that of others such as those
noted below to shed light on other uses of music in marketing,
such as:
.
Employing music microchips in print ads.
.
Using in-store background music on the P.A. system
(e.g. in-store irritation caused by loud or disliked music)
to create store “atmospherics” and service establishment
“servicescapes” that enhance buyers’ moods and
contribute to a store image. In fact, Allan (2008)
suggested that in-store music might be the most
important retail atmospheric element. However, disliked
in-store music can adversely change the shopping
experience for patrons and the working experience for
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
employees, whose music preferences are also important,
given employees’ impact on customer service.
.
Sponsoring music concerts. For instance, funding a rock
concert conveys that the brand is cool, while supporting a
symphony orchestra connotes traditionalism and
sophistication.
.
Using music in online advertising such as pre-roll
advertising, webisodes (video webcasting and video ads.
.
Using music in product placements, a marketing
communications strategy reported in many studies cited
in Gibson, 2008 (p. 186), based on associative learning
mechanisms since the brand is affiliated with celebrities in
well-liked entertainment media such as TV shows, movies,
and video games.
.
Using sonic branding – the attempt to use very short
periods of music and other auditory cues to convey core
brand values and prime brand recognition whenever
consumers come into contact with a company (e.g. in
advertising, on their web site, in their premises, while
holding on the phone). (North and Hargreaves, 2008). In
effect, sonic branding is a form of music fit wherein the
advertising tries to raise the salience of particular brand
attributes in listeners’ minds (North and Hargreaves,
2008).
Conclusion
We believe our model of consumer response to advertising
music, despite the limitations just noted, is sufficiently robust
to provide much food for practitioner thought and practice. It
also suggests for advertising researchers in both academia and
practice many opportunities to further empirically investigate
consumer response to advertising music.
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About the author
Geoffrey P. Lantos is Professor of Business Administration
and Marketing Major Program Director, Stonehill College,
Easton, Massachusetts, USA. He is the author of Consumer
Behavior in Action: Real-life Applications for Marketing
Managers (2011, M.E. Sharpe). He has previously published
in such journals as Journal of Consumer Marketing, Strategic
Direction, Journal of Biblical Integration in Business, Marketing
Education Review, Journal of Product & Brand Management,
Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, Journal of the Academy
of Marketing Science, and Journal of the Market Research
Society. He serves as Book Reviews Editor for the Journal of
Consumer Marketing and Journal of Product & Brand
Management and is on several editorial review boards. His
research interests include ethics, corporate social
responsibility, and educational pedagogy. Geoffrey P. Lantos
is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
glantos@stonehill.edu
Lincoln G. Craton is Associate Professor of Psychology,
Stonehill College, Easton, Massachusetts, USA. A
developmental psychologist, he has previously published in
and served as reviewer for such journals as Child
Development, Developmental Psychology, Evolutionary
Psychology, and Perception and Psychophysics. His current
research interests include own-age bias in face recognition
and topics in music perception/cognition, particularly the
cognitive basis of musical preferences and explicit and
implicit knowledge of harmony in listeners without musical
training. He enjoys playing jazz guitar with his trio, Linc
Cray and the CrayTones.
Executive summary and implications for
managers and executives
This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives
a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a
particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in
toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the
research undertaken and its results to get the full benefits of the
material present.
Music is a core element of most broadcast commercials and
the general assumption is that including music enhances the
advertisement. Scholars typically argue that advertising
objectives will be achieved providing that listeners focus
more on the message than the music. According to Lantos
and Craton, this is a serious misconception which ignores the
fact that consumer response to music in advertising is
significantly more intricate. The authors argue that certain
factors make music’s contribution to an ad “ineffective or
even detrimental”. Another concern is that responses to music
are mainly conceptualized as affective, despite the fact that
cognitive responses occur too.
Attitude to advertising music is seen as a key variable
incorporating both cognitive and affective dimensions which
impact on specific advertising aims. Cognitive components
include:
.
Degree of attention to music.
.
Surfacing and deeper level processing.
.
Features of music available.
.
Remembered features of music.
.
Images suggested by the music.
 A model of consumer response to advertising music
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton
.
Musical distinctiveness.
.
Perceived fit between music and advertising message.
These components function to determine attention to and
recall of the commercial, create and remember associations
with the brand, reinforce the message and achieve brand
differentiation.
The affective dimension likewise refers to how music
stimulates and arouses feelings and emotions, mood and
emotional memories. Hedonic response to music and by
extension to the advertisement is another aspect. For many of
both component types, consumer response can be positive,
negative or neutral.
A core premise of the model proposed in the present study
is that attitude towards advertising music is determined by
complex interaction between four variables, each of which has
several strands. It is suggested by Lantos and Craton that each
strand potentially impacts on one or more of the attitude
components.
The listening situation is the first variable and incorporates:
.
Ongoing activities. A commercial’s music plays in a context
and must be appropriate to a particular setting in order to
positively impact on attitude. Response to the music is
determined by what the listener is doing.
.
Social context. Whether listeners are alone or with others
and the nature of the relationships. Working, socializing,
exercising or other activities might also influence their
reaction.
.
Program content. Fit between ad music and what the
program is about.
.
Voluntary or involuntary exposure. Response to advertising
music could be negative when people are forced to listen.
Included in musical stimulus, the second variable are:
.
Whether music is foreground or background. Music can be
distinctive or incidental, in part helped by the inclusion or
omission of words. Slogans or jingles might help message
recall. In the authors’ opinion, selection of foreground
music carries the most risks. Although its impact on
attitude is often inconsequential, background music must
also be carefully chosen.
.
Musical sources. Advertisers can use an original
composition, an existing tune or an adaptation of
existing music. Factors to consider are familiarity or
unfamiliarity to the audience and the music’s level of
distinctiveness. How the music fits with the commercial
and appropriateness of remembered features are other
issues to influence the decision. Investigations into the
relative effectiveness of these musical sources have proved
inconclusive.
.
Structural characteristics. Time, pitch, texture and
complexity are the components here. Listener responses
to these characteristics are often contradictory but certain
elements can positively affect arousal, hedonic response
and purchase intention. However, the wrong combination
of characteristics can negatively impact on cognitive and
affective components.
.
Genre and style. Style significantly influences response and
preference is possibly determined by listener personalities.
Mixing genre and style helps create brand image and
mood of the advertisement.
. Musical artist/performance. Using well-known performers
often boosts ad credibility and scholars claim that timing,
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Journal of Consumer Marketing
Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42
loudness and expressions and gestures can shape the
emotional reaction of listeners.
The third variable is listener characteristics, which impact on
the musical taste of consumers:
.
Age. Life cycle and cohort effects are the two sub-
components. Hedonic responses might alter over time due
to both physical and psychological factors. Preference is
also influenced by the musical culture that people grow up
in.
.
Sex. Some studies concluded that women favor softer
music types, whereas men prefer rock and other harder
forms.
.
Subculture. Particular musical tastes can emerge based on
such as ethnicity, religion, geography or age. Musical
subcultures have been a defining feature of various youth
movements.
.
Social class. Limited evidence suggests possible links such
as higher socioeconomic groups favoring “serious” music
like classical or opera.
Other possible influences on musical taste are group or
individual identity, motivated by such as a need to belong or
personal intelligence. Prior mood is another factor and its
positive or negative nature can impact on response to
advertising music and to purchase intention, certain
academics claim.
What strategies a consumer uses to process advertisements
is the last variable and consists of:
.
Level of ad processing involvement. Individuals highly
involved with the advertised product are likely to
consider music-message fit to be important. When fit is
poor, music becomes a distraction and consumer response
is negative.
.
Nature of product involvement. Interest in a specific product
or brand can be cognitive or affective. The first inspires
information acquisition; the latter reflects a desire to fulfill
needs of a more emotional, aesthetic or social nature.
.
Type of advertising processing involvement. The two types
respectively relate to processing a commercial’s message
content or its ‘executional elements’ like music. Nature of
a consumer’s product involvement determines the type.
.
Processing route. Consumers engaging in central-route
processing are more motivated and able to process
information. Either high cognitive, ad-message
involvement or high affective, ad-executional
involvement can result. Motivation is lower among those
using peripheral-route processing, where response is more
passive using less important cues that are easier to process.
Background music in a commercial can be a key
peripheral cue.
Lantos and Craton make additional suggestions about how
different advertising processing scenarios influence attitude to
advertising music. These include:
.
Simple, catchy lyrics can inspire deeper processing of ad
music and improve recall of ad message.
. Emotional appeals made through music can trigger
emotional responses and influence the listener’s attitude.
.
Repeated exposure to music can create a positive response
among low affective involvement consumers. Although
overkill can damage if a jingle becomes irritating.
 A model of consumer response to advertising music Journal of Consumer Marketing
Geoffrey P. Lantos and Lincoln G. Craton Volume 29 · Number 1 · 2012 · 22 –42

.
Consumers can be conditioned by music if it is able to
generate a mood which is deemed appropriate to the
brand.
The authors alert managers to various considerations that will
help gauge the likely response to their commercial. They also
emphasize the need to identify the type of advertising
processing in order to focus on aspects able to make the music
more effective.
Future research could further explore the impact of
foreground versus background music, other factors that
might affect music-message fit and the relationships and
possible contradictory effects between different variables
included in the present study. An investigation of music
within other contexts like retail environments, online
advertising and sponsorship of music concerts is another
approach to consider.
(A précis of the article “A model of consumer response to
advertising music”. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for
Emerald.)

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