New Version of Mehta Concrete PDF

Third Edition
CONCRETE
Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Figures Index
Collection of the line drawings
used in the book.
PowerPoint Index
Over 1000 slides are
included to help instructors
prepare lectures and students
to review the material.
Video Index
Selection of videos that
illustrate concrete materials
testing, and construction.
Bonus Materials
More detailed explanation of
microstructure of concrete,
testing, and advanced concrete
behavior.
P. Kumar Mehta & Paulo J.M. Monteiro

Figures Index
Chapter 1 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13
1-11 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 11-1 12-3 13-1
4-2 5-2 6-2 7-3 11-2 12-5 Table 13-1
Chapter 2 4-3 5-3 6-3 7-4 11-3 12-6 13-2
2-2
4-4 5-4 6-4 (b) 7-5 (a) 11-4 12-10 (a) 13-3
2-4
4-5 5-7 (a-c) 6-5 7-5 (b) 11-5 12-10 (b) 13-4
2-5
4-6 5-7 (d) 6-6 7-6 (a) 11-6 12-11 13-5
2-6
4-7 5-8 (a, b) 6-8 7-6 (b) 11-7 12-12 13-6
2-7
4-8 5-8 (c) 6-9 7-7 (a) 11-8 12-13 13-7
2-8 (a)
4-9 5-10 6-10 (a) 7-7 (b) 11-9 12-15 13-8
2-8 (b)
4-10 5-11 6-10 (b) 11-10 12-17 13-9
2-9
4-11 5-12 6-11 (a,b)
Chapter 8 11-11 12-18 13-10
2-10 8-1
4-12 5-14 6-11 (c) 11-12 12-19 13-11
2-11 8-2
4-13 5-15 (a) 6-12 11-13 12-20 13-12
2-12 (a) 8-4
4-14 5-15 (b) 6-13 11-14 12-23 13-13
2-12 (b) 8-5
4-15 5-16 6-14 11-15 12-24 13-14
2-13 8-6
4-16 5-18 6-15 11-16 12-25 13-15
2-14 8-10
4-17 5-19 6-16 (a) 11-17 12-28 13-16
Chapter 3 4-18 5-21 6-16 (b) Chapter 9 11-18 13-17
3-1 4-19 5-23 6-17 9-1 11-19 13-18
3-3 4-20 5-25 6-18 11-20 13-19
3-4 4-21 5-26 6-19 Chapter 10 11-21 13-20
4-22 5-27 (c) 6-20 10-3 11-22 13-22
3-5
4-23 5-28 6-21 10-5 11-23 13-23
3-6
4-24 10-6 11-24 13-24
3-7
10-8 11-25 13-25
3-8
10-9 11-26 13-26
3-9 (a)
10-10 11-27 13-27
3-9 (b)
10-11 11-29 13-28
3-9 (c)
10-12 11-30
3-10 13-30
10-14 11-31
3-11 13-31
10-15 11-32
3-12 13-32
10-16
3-13 11-33 13-33
3-14 11-34
13-34
3-15 11-35
3-16 11-36 Chapter 14
3-17 11-37
14-1
3-18 11-38
14-2
3-19 11-39
14-3
3-20 11-42
14-4
3-21
Figure 1-11
500
Yield Point
Loading and Unloading
400
Stress (MPa)
300
200
100 Plastic
Strain
0
0 .05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Strain
Figure 2-2
200 X
100 mm
2000 X
10 mm
4 mm
5000 X
Figure 2-4
Visible Bleed Water
Internal
Bleed
Water
(a) (b)
Figure 2-5
Monosulfate
Hydrate
Ettringite
70 µm
Figure 2-6
Figure 2-7
Entrapped air void
Hexagonal crystals of
Ca(OH)2 or low sulfate
in cement paste Entrained air bubbles
Interparticle
spacing between Max. spacing of
C-S-H sheets entrained air for
Capillary voids durability to frost
action
Aggregation of
C-S-H particles
0.001 µ m 0.01 µ m 0.1 µ m 1µm 10 µ m 100 µ m 1 mm 10 mm
1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1000 nm 104 nm 105 nm 106 nm 107 nm
(a)
Humans
Mount
Whales Everest
Large Moon Mars

Craters Diameter
Span of the
Golden Gate
Eiffel tower Bridge Hurricane
Floyd
1m 10 m 100 m 1000 m 104 m 105 m 106 m 107 m
(b)
Figure 2-8 (a)
28 Days
0.6
0.9 w/c
0.5
0.8
Penetration Volume (cc/g)
0.4 0.7
0.6
0.3
0.2 0.5
0.4
0.1 0.3
0
10000 1000 100
o
Pore Diameter, A
Figure 2-8 (b)
0.7 w/c
0.5
28 days
Penetration Volume (cc / g)
0.4 90 days
1 year
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10000 1000 100
o
Pore Diameter, A
Figure 2-9
Figure 2-10
CASE A: 100 cm3 of cement, constant W/C=0.63,

varying degree of hydration as shown
300
100 cm3
300-200
Total Volume of Paste (cm3)
or 33%
125 cm3
or 42 %
250
Capilary
= 200 cm3
150 cm3
or 50 %
Pores
300-100
or 66 %
200
Hydration
150 Product
100 Anhydrous
Cement
50
Days
Hydrated
7d 28d 1yr.
None
Days
Degree
50% 75% 100%
CASE B: 100 cm3 of cement, 100% hydration,

varying W/C as shown
57 cm3
= 120 cm3
300
320-100
or 22 %
or 37 %
or 30 %
26 cm3
Total Volume of Paste (cm3)
88 cm3
250 or 11 %
100 + 314 x 0.7 = 320 cm3
100 + 314 x 0.6 = 288 cm3
100 + 314 x 0.5 = 257 cm3
100 + 314 x 0.4 = 225 cm3

200
150
total volume=
total volume=
total volume=
100 total volume=
50
0
W/C 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
Figure 2-11
Permeability Coeff. (cm/sec x 10 -12)

Compressive Strength, ksi (MPa)
30
120
(210)
20
80 (a)
(140)
Strength Permeability
10
40
(70)
0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
Solid/Space Ratio (1-P)
0.3
0.4
Water-Cement Ratio
100% 75% 50% 25%

Hydration
0.5 (b)
0.6
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Capillary Porosity, Vol. Fraction P
Figure 2-12
D
combined C
water
C
bound water
adsorbed
Loss of Water
water Shrinkage
Old
ng
You
B
water
free
B
A A
0 100
Relative Humidity Loss of Water
(a) (b)
Figure 2-13
The pore size distribution of pores less than 1320 A for the
0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9 water/cement ratio specimens at 28 days
0.3
Penetration Volume (cc/g)
0.2
0.1 0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0
1000 100
o
Pore Diameter, A
Figure 2-14
(a)
(b)
C-S-H CH C-A-S-H
(Ettringite)
Aggregate Interfacial Bulk

Transition Zone Cement Paste
Figure 3-1
200 0. 8 120 Mortar

Zirconia Mix A
Compressive Strength, MPa
Iron 100 Mix B
Cube Strength, MPa

150 0. 6
Relative Strength
Plaster of Paris 80 Mix C
Sintered Alumina
100 0. 4 60
40
50 0. 2
20 fc = 234x3
0 0 0
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 50 60 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Capillary Porosity, % Porosity, % Gel/Space Ratio (x)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3-3
50 Non-air entrained concrete

Specimens: 150x300 mm cylinders
made with ASTM Type I or Normal
Portland Cement
40
28 days
30
7
20
3
10
1 day
0
0. 35 0. 4 0 .4 5 0 .5 0. 55 0. 6 0 .6 5 0 .7
Water-Cement Ratio
Figure 3-4
40 40 0% entrained air
35 Non-air-entrained 35 4%
6%
30 30
25 25
Air-entrained
20 20
15 15
10 10
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 450 400 350 300 250 200
Water-Cement ratio Cement Content, kg/m3
a) b)
Figure 3-5
50 w/c= 0.40
40
0.55
30
0.70
20
10
0
10 100
Max. Size Aggregate, mm
Figure 3-6
Cost per cubic meter of Unit Strength, $/MPa

Cost per cubic yard of Unit Strength, $/ksi
Assuming that both aggregates cost $10/ton, and
cement costs $60/ton, the computed costs of one 2.2
cu yd of concrete are: Mix 1 $30.35
Mix 2 $31.30
11
Mix 3 $31.90
2.0
10
1.8
9
Average of Six Tests
1.6
8
1(2.54) 2(5.08) 3(7.62) 4(10.16) 5(12.7) 6(15.24)
Note: All concretes have constant 0.60 water/cement ratio
MIX 1 MIX 2 MIX 3

4000
Average of Six Tests
7-Day Compressive Strength, psi
25
3000
20
MPa
Mix Proportions lb/cu yd 15
2000
Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3
Cement 460 500 600 10
1000 Water 276 300 318
Sand 1360 1310 1250 5
Gravel 1950 1950 1950
0
1(2.54) 2(5.08) 3(7.62) 4(10.16) 5(12.7) 6(15.24)
Concrete Slump, in(cm)
Figure 3-7
Sandstone aggregate
10mm max. size
60 70

25mm max. size
60 limestone aggregate
50
25mm max. size
50
40
40
30 25mm max. size
30
sandstone aggregate
20
20
10 10
0 0
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
Moist Curing Period, Days Moist Curing Period, Days
(a) (b)
Figure 3-8
140
Moist-cured entire time
28 Day Moist-cured Concrete
Compressive Strength, % of
120
In air after 7 days
100
In air after 3 days
80
60 In air entire time
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200
Age, days
Figure 3-9 (a)
100 21 C
O
% of 28 Day Strength of Specimens
O C
80 46
38
Continuously Cured at 21 C
29 13
O
60 Mix Data:
w/c= 0.50
O C
4 Type II cement
40 No air-entrainment
20 Note: Specimens were cast, sealed

and maintained at indicated temperature
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age, Days
Figure 3-9 (b)
45
O
C 29O C
10
O
40 38 C
21 C
O
35
Mix Data
30 O C w/c = 0.53
46 Type II cement
25 No air-entrainment
20 Note: Specimens were cast, sealed and

maintained at indicated temperatures
15 for 2 hours, then stored at 21 C until tested.
O
10
0 5 0 100 150 200
Age, Days
Figure 3-9 (c)
Note: Specimens were cast at 21 C and maintained

at 21 C for 6 hours, then stored in molds at indicated
temperature. w/c = 0.53
100 21 C
O
80
10 C
% Relative Strength
O
(21 C at 28 Days)
60
1 C
O
40
O
20
-9 C
O
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age, Days
Figure 3-10
Height of cylinder = 2 x diameter

110
%, Relative Strength
100
90
80
70
0 20 40 60 80 100
Diameter of Cylinder, cm
Figure 3-11
200 Average from tests by G.W. Hutchinson

%, Strength of Cylinder with H/D = 2
and others, reported in Bulletin 16,

180 Lewis Institute, Chicago
160
Age of specimens, 28 days
140
120
100
80
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
H/D, Ratio of Height of Cylinder to Diameter
Figure 3-12
CONCRETE STRENGTH
SPECIMEN PARAMETERS STRENGTH OF THE LOADING PARAMETERS

COMPONENT PHASES
DIMENSIONS STRESS TYPE
GEOMETRY RATE OF STRESS
MOISTURE STATE APPLICATION
MATRIX POROSITY AGGREGATE TRANSITION ZONE POROSITY

POROSITY WATER - CEMENT RATIO
WATER - CEMENT RATIO MINERAL ADMIXTURES
MINERAL ADMIXTURES BLEEDING CHARACTERISTICS

Aggregate Grading, Max., Size,
DEGREE OF HYDRATION and Geometry
Curing Time, Temp., Humidity
DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION
AIR CONTENT DEGREE OF HYDRATION
Entrapped Air Curing Time, Temp, Humidity
Entrained Air
CHEMICAL INTERACTION BETWEEN
AGGREGATE AND CEMENT PASTE
Figure 3-13
σ / f 'c
1.0
Lateral Strain Proportionality Limit
0.3
Axial Strain
u
(a)
σ / f 'c
1.0
Critical Stress
Volumetric Strain
v= 1 + 2 + 3
(b)
Figure 3-14
n Fa
mi
Ratio of concrete stress to cylinder strength

1.0 ilu
0 re
2
li m i
t
t=
min
100
0.8 =
Ec t ays
7d
t=
0.6
t=∞
0.4 Creep limit
0.2 t= Time under load
0
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Concrete strain
Figure 3-15
Compression
f 'c
Envelope Curve
Stress
f 't
Strain
Figure 3-16
LOAD
Head of Testing Machine
Supplementry
Steel Bar lin. min
1/8 by lin. Steel Ball
Plywood (Typ.)
6x 12 in. Concrete
Cylinder
Plane of tensile d=L/3 Specimen Load-applying and

Failure
Support Blocks (Typ.)
Bed Plate
of Testing
Rigid loading Structure
Machine Steel Rod Steel ball
L/3 L/3 L/3 Bed of Testing Machine
Span length
Tension Compression
Compression
Assumed stress
0 distribution
Distance from top of specimen
D/6 Actual stress

distribution
D/3
D/2 Natural axis
2D/3
5D/6
0
2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Tension
Stress x LD/2P
(a) (b)
Figure 3-17
40 Concrete C
Concrete B
30
Stress, MPa
Concrete A
20
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Strain, x 10-6
Figure 3-18
14
12
gth
en
Str
Tensile Strength, MPa
10
n sile
ic Te
h
8 e ism tre ngt
n tS s ile S
p are Ten
Ap ic gth
6
Sei
sm S tren
Te nsile
a rent
4 App ngth
Stre
nsile
2 Sta tic Te
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 3-19
Mohr rupture envelope

Shear
Compression-Tension
Simple uniaxial tension

Triaxial Simple uniaxial
compression compression
g τo
Compression f ed c ba Tension
Figure 3-20
σ1 / f 'c f 'c = 32 MPa
ε3 ε2
1.2 ε1
ε3 ε1,ε2
1.0
ε2,ε3 ε1
0.8
σ1 (a)
0.6
σ1 /σ2
0.2m σ2
0.4 -1/0
-1/1
0.05m -1/-0.52
0.2m
0.2
0
3 2 0 0 -1 -2 -3
Tensile Strain Compressive Strain
Strain, x 10-3
σ2 / f 'c f 'c = 32 MPa
1.2
1.0 ε1,ε2 ε1
0.8
ε2 ε1
(b)
0.6 ε2 ε1 σ1 /σ2
-1/0
0.4 ε2 ε1
-1/-0.52
-1/-0.103
-1/-0.103
0.2
0
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0
Strain, x 10-3
σ1 / f 'c f 'c = 30 MPa
0.12
0.10 ε3 ε2=ε3 ε2 ε1=ε2 ε1 ε1

ε3
0.8
(c)
0.6
σ1 /σ2
0.4 1/0
1/1
1/-0.55
0.2
0
-0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Compressive Strain Tensile Strain
Strain, x 10-3
Figure 3-21
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
σ2 / f 'c
0.6
f 'c (MPa)
18.6
0.4 30.7
57.6
0.2
-0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
σ1 / f 'c
(a)
0.05
-0.05 f 'c (MPa)

σ1 / f 'c
18.6
-0.10 30.7
57.6
-0.15
-0.20
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
σ2 / f 'c
(b)
Figure 4-1
(a)
Predicted elastic tensile
Predicted
stress when shrinkage
cracking
strains are restrained.
without
stress
relaxation
Tensile strength
of concrete
Stress
Stress relief
(b) Actual tensile stress

after stress relaxation
Delay in cracking
Time
Figure 4-2
Elastic Behavior
45
Aggregate
Concrete
Stress, MPa
30
Cement Paste
15
0
0 1000 2000 3000
-6
Strain, 10
Figure 4-3
(2) 50% of ultimate stress (4) Failure stress
100
Stress, percent of ultimate
4
75
3
50
(1) 30% of ultimate stress 2 (3) 75% of ultimate stress

30
Strain
Microcracks in the
interfacial transition
zone
Table 4-3 Combination of Loading, Restraing , and Humidity Conditions
MECHANISM DIAGRAM STRAIN VERSUS TIME STRESS VERSUS TIME NOTES
σo STRAIN STRESS
NO MOISTURE MOVEMENT
BETWEEN CONCRETE AND
Creep AMBIENT (NO DRYING
σo SHRINKAGE)
BASIC CREEP
Elastic
CONSTANT STRESS OVER
0 0 TIME
TIME TIME
STRAIN STRESS
Initial configuration
Creep Elastic
ε
ο CONSTANT STRAIN OVER
STRESS ε Relaxation
RELAXATION ο TIME
0 0
TIME TIME
STRAIN STRESS
THE MEMBER IS FREE

DRYING TO MOVE
SHRINKAGE
(Unrestrained) NO STRESSES ARE
GENERATED
RH< 100% 0 0
TIME TIME
STRAIN STRESS
0 0
DRYING DEVELOPMENT OF
o TIME TIME
SHRINKAGE TENSILE STRESS
(Restrained)
Initial configuration STRAIN STRESS
DRYING Elastic
ε
ο THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE
SHRINKAGE Shrinkage
(Under Constant ε IS A PARTICULAR CASE
ο WITH ξ=0
Strain)
RH< 100% 0 0
TIME TIME
STRAIN STRESS
σo Drying creep THE TOTAL STRAIN IS NOT
THE SUM OF THE ELASTIC,
CREEP
+ Drying shrinkage BASIC CREEP, AND DRYING
σo SHRINKAGE STRAIN.
DRYING
Basic creep THE STRAIN DUE TO
SHRINKAGE DRYING CREEP SHOULD
0 Elastic 0
RH< 100% BE INCLUDED.
TIME TIME
STRAIN STRESS
DRYING
SHRINKAGE 0 0 THE RELAXATION STRESS
+ TIME TIME OPPOSED THE STRESS
STRESS o Resulting
DUE TO DRYING
Stress
RELAXATION Relaxation
SHRINKAGE
(Restrained)
RH< 100% Shrinkage
DRYING Initial configuration STRAIN STRESS

SHRINKAGE Elastic
ε
+ ο
SHRINKAGE AND
Shrinkage
STRESS ε RELAXATION STRESS ACT
RELAXATION ο Relaxation
IN THE SAME DIRECTION
Resulting
(Under Constant RH< 100% 0 0 Stress
Strain) TIME TIME
Figure 4-4
30 T'
Stress, MPa
20
T 0.68 water-cement ratio

15x30 cm concrete cylinder
10 S cured for 28 days
C
0 50 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Strain, x 10-6
Figure 4-5
Calculated Values of Secant E (Based on Curve No. 3)
Concrete A = 550/250 x 10-6 = 3.4 x 106 psi (23.4 x 103 MPa) Concrete C
1 2 3
Concrete B = 1125/310 x 10-6 = 3.6 x 106 psi (24.8 x 103 MPa)
Concrete C = 1525/400 x 10-6 = 3.8 x 106 psi (26.2 x 103 MPa)
Concrete B
1 2 3
Concrete A
1 2 3
Stress
(1 cm = 680 kPa)
1 in = 250 psi
σ - ε Curves
to 40 % f'c
1 in = 100 x 10-6
(1 cm = 39 x 10-6)
Strain
Figure 4-6
50
48 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity, GPa
62 MPa
40 31 MPa
30
21 MPa
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 4-7
FACTORS AFFECTING MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE
MOISTURE STATE OF ELASTIC MODULUS POROSITY AND ELASTIC MODULUS VOLUME

THE SPECIMENS OF CEMENT PASTE COMPOSITION OF OF THE FRACTION
AND LOADING MATRIX THE INTERFACIAL AGGREGATE
CONDITIONS TRANSITION ZONE
POROSITY POROSITY
TESTING CEMENT PASTE INTERFACIAL AGGREGATE

PARAMETERS MATRIX TRANSITION ZONE
Figure 4-8
1000
Drying Rewetting
800
Negative strain x 10 6
600 Reversible Total
(a)
shrinkage shrinkage
400
200 Irreversible
shrinkage
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (days)
1000
800 Elastic
recovery
Microstrain
(b) 600 Creep Creep

strain recovery
400
0
Irreversible
creep
200
Elastic Concrete
strain unloaded
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time after loading (days)
Figure 4-9
1 0.50 w/c ratio

0.35 w/c ratio
0.8
Shrinkage Ratio
Range for
Normal Concrete
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Content of Aggregate and
Unhydrated Cement, %
(a)
400
Range for
Normal Concrete
300
Creep/N/mm2 x 106
200
100
0
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 100
Volume Concentration
of Aggregate, %
(b)
Figure 4-10
sandstone
gravel
basalt
1500 granite 1500
Drying Shrinakge, 10-6
limestone
quartz
1000 1000
Creep, 10-6
500 500
0 0
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
Time After Exposure, Days Time since Loading, Days
(a) (b)
Figure 4-11
Cement content = kg/m3

2
Creep Coefficient, Kb
Drying Shrinkage or
500 400
300
200
1
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water/Cement ratio
(a)
Creep coefficient, Kd 2 Ordinary Portland Cement
1
High-early-strength
Cement
0
1d 3 7 14 28 56 90 180 360
Age at Loading Days
(b)
kg / m3
200 300 400 500
200
Shrinkage
200
Creep
200
200 400 600 800 1000
Cement Content, lb /cu yd
(c)
Figure 4-12
Average of 56 Cylinders Average of 75 Cylinders
100 100
% of Shrinkage at 20 years
% of Creep at 20 years
80 80
it
im
rL
it
im
pe
rL
60 60
Up
pe
Up
it
im
it
40 40
rL
im
we
rL
Lo
we
Lo
20 20
0 0
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
Time After Exposure, Days Time After Loading, Days
(a) (b)
-5
Drying Shrinkage, x 10
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 4-13
0
Water curing
100
90
Very moist air
80
(a)
Normal air
70
60
Very dry air
Relative Humidity of Air, %

50
40
Creep Coefficient
0
0. 5
1
1. 5
2
2. 5
3
3. 5
100
Water curing
90
Very moist air
80
(b)
70
Normal air
60
Relative Humidity of Air, %
50
Very dry air
40
Figure 4-14
2. 5 1
mm
50% RH
50
0.75
Shrinkage Coefficient
o =
0
2
10
Creep Coefficient
o =
0
h
20
70% RH 0. 5
0
o
40
h
1. 5
o=
h
0.25
90% RH
1 0
0 100 200 300 400 1 10 100 1000 10000
Theoretical Thickness (mm) Time of Drying, Days
(a) (b)
Figure 4-15
4000
71 C
O
Creep, 10-6
3000
2000 46 CO
21 C O
1000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time Under Load, Days
Figure 4-16
Loaded at 3months
Loaded at 28 days
1400 Pa
8M
1200 a
6 MP
1000 Pa
6M
-6
Creep, 10
800
4 MPa
600
Pa
400 4M
200 2 MPa
0
10 100 1000 10000
Time Under Load, Days
Figure 4-17
1. 4
Creep Correction
1. 3
1. 2
Factor
1. 1
1
0. 4 0 .4 5 0 .5 0.55 0. 6
Stress-Strength Ratio
Figure 4-18
L
Continuous Base Restraint
1.0H
10 98
20 7
0.80 6
Proportional Height Above Base
5
4
0.60
3
2
0.40
0.20
L/H = 1.0
0
1 0. 8 0. 6 0. 4 0. 2 0
Restraint, Kr
Figure 4-19
Thermal Shrinkage
Temperature (oC) Tmax
Tplacement Tambient
Time (days)
Figure 4-20
50
I
e II
Typ
40
I
Temperature Rise, C
O
30 II
V
20 IV
10
0
1 1 0 100 1000
Time, days
Figure 4-21
40
O C
38 O C
Adiabatic Temperature Rise, C
32 C
O
30 27
C
O
O C
21
16 0O C
1 4O C
20
Placing Temperatures
10
Type I Cement
0
1 10
Time in Days
Figure 4-22
35
Type I Cement 38 C
O
30 32
27
Temperature Rise in C
25 21
O
16
20 10 C
O
15
10 Placing
Temperatures
5
0
0 1 2 3
Volume to Surface Ratio
in Meters
Figure 4-23
40
Type I-- 223 kg/m3
Type II-- 223 kg/m3

Temperature, C
O
30
Type II -- 164 kg/m3 plus

54 kg/m3 of pozzolan
20 (30% replacement by abs. vol.)
Type II - 112 kg/m3
Type II -- 78 kg/m3 plus

10 27 kg/m3 of pozzolan
(30% replacement by abs. vol.)
0
0 10 20 30
Time, Days
Figure 4-24
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete

(Microstrain Per oC)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4 5
Limestone
6
Basalt & Gabbros
7
Granite
(Microstrain Per oC)

Air-Cooled Blastfurnace Slag
8
Dolerite
Sandstone and Gravels
9 10 11 12 Quartzite
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Aggregate

Figure 5-1
Oriented Water
Water Molecule Bulk water
H+
+ H+
0--
(a) (b)
Figure 5-2
Permeability Coefficient for Cement Paste in

50,000
Concrete, kcp x 10-15 kg/Pa, m.s (S.I. Units)

Max.Aggregate dmax = 75 mm
140 20,000
Permeability Coefficient, Kq x 104
4 1/2 in 10,000 100

120 (114 mm) 38 mm
5,000 113 mm 50
33
3 in 30
100 30 2,000
kc x 10-11 cm/s
kc x 10-11 cm/s
(76 mm) 20
27 1,000 10
80 1 1/2 in 24
21 500 4.8 mm 5
(38 mm) 3
60 18 200 Cement
Mortar 15 100 Paste 1
40 No. 4 12
50
9
20 6 20
10
0 0 0 0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Water-Cement Ratio Water-Cement Ratio
(a) (b)
Figure 5-3
Physical Causes of Deterioration of Concrete
SURFACE WEAR CRACKING
ABRASION EROSION CAVITATION VOLUME CHANGE STRUCTURAL EXPOSURE TO

DUE TO: LOADING TEMP. EXTREMES
1. Normal temperature 1. Overloading 1. Freeze-Thaw
and humidity gradient and Impact 2. Fire
2. Crystalization Pressure 2. Cyclic Loading
of Salts in Pores
Figure 5-4
10 w/c=0.72 10
Limestone
8 8
Abrasion-Erosion Loss
0.54 Quartzite
6 6
Trap Rock
Chert
% by mass
4 4
0.40
2 2
0 0
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 0. 3 0 .4 0. 5 0 .6 0. 7 0 .8
Test Time, Hours Water/Cement Ratio

Figure 5-7 (a-c)
2000 1000 1000
800
800
1500 600
∆L/L, 10-6
∆L/L, 10-6
∆L/L, 10-6
600 400
1000
400 200
0
500
200
-200
0 0 -400
-3 0 - 20 -1 0 0 10 20 30 -3 0 - 20 -1 0 0 10 20 -30 - 20 -10 0 10 20 30
Temperature, C
O
Temperature, C
O
Temperature, C
O
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5-7 (d)
Cold Front
Gel Pores
Air void
Capillary
cavities
Water in
Gel Pores
Escape gel pores
boundary
Gel Pores Capillary

cavities
Water Ice
Figure 5-8 (a, b)
Cement Paste Cement Paste
Water Flow Water Flow

Ice
Void Void
Ice
Ice
Water Pore
Pore Flow
(a) (b)
Figure 5-8 (c)
Air
Void
Ice
Cement
Paste
Figure 5-10
Concrete moist-cured for

Concrete with 19 mm aggregate
7 days before freezing
Water Frozen, grams per specimen
150 w/c = 0.72 16
4% Entrained Air
12
Durability Factor
100
0.49 No added
8 Air
50
0.41 4
0 0
-2 0 - 15 -1 0 - 5 0 0. 3 0 .4 0. 5 0 .6 0. 7 0 .8 0. 9
Concrete Temperature, C O
Water-Cement Ratio
(a) (b)
Figure 5-11
100
Scapo
80
0.8
E6 /E0,%
60 Type I Scrit = 0.9 Scapo
Sact
Type II Scrit = 0.8
0.4
40 Type I
Type II
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1 5 10 hr 1d 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 14 d
Degree of saturation Time for absorption ( time )
(a) (b)
+0.4
Frost Durability Parameter
+0.3
Type II
F= Scrit - Sact
+0.2
Frost Resistant
+0.1
Type I
0
Risk of Frost Damage
-0.1
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
Absorption Time, Hours
(c)
Figure 5-12
UNSTRESSED STRESSED TO 0.4 fc UNSTRESSED RESIDUAL

(Heated then stored 7 days at 21 C) O
Siliceous
120 Carbonate 120 120
Compressive Strength, % of Original

Sanded Lightweight
80 80 80
40 40 40
28 MPa original strength

0 0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature, C O
Temperature, C O
Temperature, C O
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5-14
Deterioration of concrete by chemical reactions
B Exchange reactions between A Reaction involving hydrolysis Reaction involving C

agreessive fluid and components and leaching of the components formation of expansive
of hardened cement paste of hardened cement paste products
l ll lll
Removal of Ca++ ions Removal of Ca++ ions Subtitution
as soluble products as non-expansive reactions replacing
insoluble products Ca++ in C-S-H
Increase in porosity Increase in internal

and permeability stress
Detrimental effects of
chemical reactions
Loss of Loss Increase in Loss of Cracking, Deformation

alkalinity of mass deterioration strength spalling,
processes and rigidity popouts
Figure 5-15 (a)
paste
aggregate
Figure 5-15 (b)
Cement Paste
ite
ng
ttri
E
Aggregate
Restrained thermal and
drying shrinkage
High temperature steam curing HIGH
Severe loading in service PERMEABILITY Gypsum contaminated
Excessive and nonuniform aggregate
stress distribution in Sulfate release from C-S-H
prestressed concrete
DEF
PRESENCE LATE SULFATE
OF WATER RELEASE FROM
INTERNAL
SOURCE
Figure 5-16 (a)

Figure 5-18
KEY
Q - Quartz
E - Ettringite
G - Gypsum
Wall
Sample
G G,Q G
E E E
Floor
Sample
23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9
Degrees 2θ, Cu Kα
Figure 5-19
120 Cement Content

Average Rate of Deterioration, %/year
225 kg/m3
100
V II III I Cement
80 Type
60
40 310 kg/m3
20
390 kg/m3
(a) 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Average C3A Content, %
8
Expansion, percentage/year
6 Fly Ash C3A

a % %
1
(1) 40 7
2 (2) 20 9
4 (a) 0 11
(b) 0 5.1
(c) 0 2.2
b
2
(b) 0
100 150 200 250 300
Cement Content, kg/m3
Figure 5-21
b
c
High Alkali
0.4 Cement
a. Owyhee
a b. Coolidge
c. Friant
0.3 d. American Falls
Expansion, %
e. Buck
f. Parker,
0.2 d Gene, Wash.
e Copper Basin
f
0.1
f
0 a, b, c, d, e Low Alkali
Cement
4 8 12 15 20 24 28 32
Age, Months
Figure 5-23
Cathode Process Anode Process

O2 + 2H2O + 4e-→ 4OH- Fe→ Fe+++ 2e-
O2 O2
Moist Concrete
Fe++ Fe++
as an Electrolyte
Fe2 O3
Surface Film
Steel
Cathode Anode
(b)
e- e- e-
Current Flow
Fe
Fe O
Fe3O4
Fe2O3
Fe (OH)2
Fe (OH)3
Fe (OH)3 3H2O
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Volume, cm3
(c)
Figure 5-25
(a) Concrete contains (b) Frozen Concrete
Microcracks
1. Humidity and temperature gradients 1. Humidity and temperature gradients

2. Impact of floating objects
3. Chemical attacks, and leaching of 2. Chemical attack
the cement paste
4. Freeze-thaw cycles, overloads, and 3. Freezing and thawing cycles
any other factors that would increase
the permeability of concrete. 4. Crystallization
Highly permeable Seawater and air Highly permeable

concrete concrete
Corrosion of the Internal destruction

Crack Growth Increased Saturation
Embedded steel of the surface layer
(c) AAR: Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (d) ESA: External Sulfate Attack
Capillary pores
(High w/c, and poor curing)
WATER WATER
Macrovoids
( Improper compaction
of a very low w/c concrete
related to inadequate
workability)
AAR ESA
SULFATE FROM Microcracks
REACTIVE HIGH
ALKALIES EXTERNAL (Structural loading,
AGGREGATE PERMEABILITY
ENVIRONMENT heating/cooling, and
wetting and drying
cycles in service)
Figure 5-26
Water-tight reinforced concrete structure containing

discontinuous macrocracks, microcracks, and voids
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION (STAGE I)

(No visible damage)
WEATHERING EFFECTS
(heating and cooling, wetting and drying
LOADING EFFECTS
(cyclic loading, impact loading)
Gradual loss of water-tighness as

macrocracks, microcracks, and voids
become more interconnected
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION (STAGE II)

(Initiation and propagation of damage)
PENETRATION OF WATER
PENETRATION OF O2 AND CO2
PENETRATION OF ACIDIC IONS,
e.g.chloride and sulfate
Expansion of Concrete due to Increasing

Hydraulic pressure in pores caused by
Corrosion of Steel
Sulfate attack on cement paste
Alkali attack on aggregates
Freezing of water
and simultaneous
Reduction in the strength and
stiffness of concrete
Cracking, spalling and loss of mass

Figure 5-27 (c)
100 Afte
r Mo
skwi
n
80
AV
ER
60 AG
Strength, %
40
20 After Be
reczky
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Dissolved Calcium Hydroxide
expressed as % CaO
Figure 5-28
Concrete
Atmospheric zone
Cracking due to corrosion of steel

Hide Tide
Cracking due to freezing thawing,
and normal thermal and humidity
gradients
Physical abrasion due to wave Tidal Zone

action, sand and gravel and
floating ice
Alkali aggregate reaction, and

chemical decomposition
of hydrated cement
Low Tide
Reinforcing steel
Chemical decomposition patern Submerged Zone

1. CO2 Attack
2. Mg Ion Attack
3. Sulfate Attack
Figure 6-1
Heat Treatment
CaSO4.2 H2O CaSO4.1/2H2O + CaSO4
o
Natural Gypsum 130 - 150 C Hemihydrate Soluble Anhydrite
Gypsum Cement
H2O
CaSO4.2H2O
(a)
Heat Treatment
CaCO3 CaO
Limestone 900 - 1000o C Quick lime
reactive
SiO2
H2O
H2O
and
Ca(OH)2 CaO-SiO2-H2O
Hydrated Lime Calcium Silicate Hydrate
(b)
Figure 6-2
Air Filter
Quarry
Limestone
Crusher X Ray
Limestone Storage Clay Storage Analizer Blend Silo
Pump
4 Pump
Roller Mill
Coal Storage
Preheater
Air Filter
Coal mill
Clinker Storage
Clinker
Clinker Kiln
Cooler
load out
Clinker Silos Cement Silos
Gypsum Silo
Coal unload To Town Plant
Finish mill Bag Packing
Bag Shipping
Clinker Unload
Pump
Truck & Rail Bulk Shipping
Figure 6-3
Suspension
Preheater Cement
Grinding
Raw Mix Blending;

Storage
Rotary Kiln
Clinker
Storage
Raw Mix Grinding

Figure 6-4 (b)
C3S,C2S
C3S,C2S
C3S,C2S
C3S,C2S
C3 A
C3 S
C4AF
C2 S
29 30 31 32 33 43 35
Degrees 2θ, CuKα
Figure 6-5
2 Ca
(3) 2
1/3C C D
Ca
(2) 3
A B
Ca
1 (1) 1
IA
(a)
Calcium Oxygen
(b)
Figure 6-6
100
Cumulative Mass Percent Finer
High-Early Strength
80 Portland Cement
Blaine = 546 m2/kg
wt% Passing
60
7.5 µm = 22 wt% Passing
15 µm = 46
40 7.5 µm = 42
30 µm = 74 15 µm = 66
45 µm = 88 30 µm = 88
20 Blaine = 345 m2/kg 45 µm = 97
Normal Strength
Portland Cement
0
100 10 1
Equivalent Spherical Diameter, Microns
Figure 6-8
Reactivity of C3 A in Availability of Hydration Age

Clinker sulfate in solution < 10 min 10 - 45 min 1 - 2 hours 2 - 4 hours
workable workable less workable normal set
CASE I
Low Low
workable less workable normal set

CASE II
Ettringite
in pores
High High
workable quick set

CASE III
High Low
flash set
CASE IV
C4AH19 and
None or
High C4ASH18 in pores
very low
false set
CASE V
Crystallization of gypsum
needles in pores
Low High
Figure 6-9
6
Rate of Heat Liberation, cal/g/h
A
5
4
B
3
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time, Hours
Figure 6-10 (a)
C-S-H
Relative Amount
Ca(OH)
2
ite
ing
Ettr Monosulfate
0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10
Hydration Age, minutes
Figure 6-10
Po
Perm
ros
ity
eabili
Relative Amount
th
ty
eng
Str
Initial Set
Final Set Rigid Solid

Time
Figure 6-11 (a, b)
50 120 III
I
40
II
Heat of Hydration, Cal/g

III 80
30
Test Made on 150x300 mm

I
20 Concrete Cylinders;
335 kg/m3 Cement 40
II/IV Content, and 38mm MSA
10
0 0
10 100 1000 1 1 0 100
Time, Days Age, Days
(a) (b)
Figure 6-11 (c)
60 500 m2/kg
400 m2/kg
300 m2/kg
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age, Days
(c)
Figure 6-12
400
1 1: C3S = 64%
C3A = 5%
2
300 2: C3S = 60%
Heat Developed, kJ/kg

C3A = 8%
3
3: C3S = 60%
200 C3A = 0%
100
0
10 100
Time, Hours
(a)
400 400
e)
ain
Bl
300 300
g(
2 /k
0m g
50 2 /k
60
50
m
70
200 200
40
0 40
80
g 30 O
2 /k C
m 20
0
100 30 100
0 0
6 8 10 30 50 70 1 1 0
Time, Hours Time, Days
(b) (c)
Figure 6-13
28 days 90 days 1 year
0.6
Mercury Penetration Volume, cc/cc
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 0% 10% 20% 30% 0% 10% 20% 30%
< 45 A 500 -1000 A
45 -500 A >1000 A
Figure 6-14
Figure 6-15
100
90 days
90
Heat of Hydration, Cal/g
28
80
70 7
60
50
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pozzolan Content in Cement, %
Figure 6-16 (a)
30 50
40
20
30
Portland Cement 20 Portland Cement

10 10% Pozzolan 10% Pozzolan
20% Pozzolan 20% Pozzolan
10
30% Pozzolan 30% Pozzolan
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Age, Days Age, Months
Figure 6-16 (b)
80 No Slag (control)
40% Slag
50% Slag
65% Slag
60
40
20 MOIST CURE
0
0 10 100
Age, Days
Figure 6-17
Portland Cement 8
28 days
Calcium Hydroxide Content
Calcium Hydroxide Content
6
Expressed as CaO
Portland-Pozzolan Cement
Containing 40% Pozzolan
4
3days
0
1 10 100 0 50 100
Curing Age, Days Slag Content, %
(a) (b)
Figure 6-18
Modified (Accelerated)
ASTM C 227 Test Method ASTM C227 Test Method
0.7 0.4
nd Cement
0.6 ali Portla
High-Alk
0.3 ment
0.5 Portland Ce
High-Alkali
Expansion, %
Expansion, %
0.4
0.2
0.3
lan
20% Pozzo
0.2
lan 0.1 40% Slag
30% Pozzo 50% Slag
0.1
65% Slag
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 5 10 15 20
Curing Period, Months Curing Period, Months
(a) (b)
Figure 6-19
80 HAC 80
Rapid-hardening
18 CO
Portland Cement
60 60
Ordinary 0 C
O
Portland Cement
-3 CO
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Age, Days Age, Days
(a) (b)
Figure 6-20
70
60 Water-
Cement
50 Ratio
0.40
40 Laboratory Storage
0.64
30
Laboratory
20 Outdoors Storage
0.40
Outdoors
10
0.64
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age, Days
Figure 6-21
AGGREGATE
phonolite
100
anorthosite
ilmenite
percentage of Initial Strength
80
Compressive Strength as
expanded shale
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature, C
O
Figure 7-1
Figure 7-3
gravel batching various gravel

piles fractions for shipment
sand pile
clay and silt

recreation settling pond
area at the
site of old
quarry
crusher for surge scrubber

oversize pile
Figure 7-4
PARENT ROCK
PRIOR EXPOSURE AND MICROSTRUCTURE

PROCESSING FACTORS
MINERALOGICAL
POROSITY/DENSITY COMPOSITION
PARTICLES
CHARACTERISTICS CRUSHING STRENGTH
- Size ABRASION RESISTANCE
- Shape ELASTIC MODULUS
- Texture SOUNDNESS
PROPERTIES OF PROPERTIES OF
PLASTIC CONCRETE HARDENED CONCRETE
- Consistency 1. Ultimate Strength
CONCRETE MIX
- Cohesiveness 2. Abrasion resistance
PROPORTIONING
- Unit Weight 3. Dimensional Stability
4. Durability
Figure 7-5 (a)
Oven dry Air dry Saturated, Damp or wet

State surface dry
Total None Less than Equal to Greater than

potential potential absorption
Moisture absorption absorption
Moisture conditions of aggregates
(a)
Figure 7-5 (b)
Oven dry Air dry Saturated, Damp or wet

State surface dry
Total None Less than Equal to Greater than

potential potential absorption
Moisture absorption absorption
Moisture conditions of aggregates
(a)
Figure 7-5 (b)

40
30 Fine sands
Percent increase
in volume over Medium sands
dry, rodded sand 20
Coarse sands
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Percent of moisture added by
mass to dry, rodded sand
(b)
Figure 7-6 (a)
Mixture of
25 mm
9 mm and 25 mm
Figure 7-6 (b)
45 45
Gravel 4.75 - 9.50 mm Granite

40 40
4.75 - 19 mm
4.75 - 38 mm
Percentages of Voids
35 9.50 - 19 mm 35
9.50 - 38 mm
30 30
25 25
20 20
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of Sand in Mixed Aggregates
Figure 7-7 (b)
45 45
Gravel 4.75 - 9.50 mm Granite

40 40
4.75 - 19 mm
4.75 - 38 mm
Percentages of Voids
35 9.50 - 19 mm 35
9.50 - 38 mm
30 30
25 25
20 20
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of Sand in Mixed Aggregates
Figure 7-7 (a)
Date January 14, 2005 January 14, 2005 January 14, 2005
Source A (fine
A (fine sand
sand for for blending)
blending) B (Concrete Sand) C (Concrete Sand)
Sample wt. 455 g 450 g 456 g
Sieve Weight Retained, % Weight Retained, % Weight Retained, %

Size Retained Individual Cumulative Retained Individual Cumulative Retained Individual Cumulative
No. 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 0 0 0 40.5 9.1 9 42.1 9.2 9
16 2.8 0.6 1 86.0 19.1 28 137.0 30.2 39
30 10.1 2.2 3 94.5 21.0 49 112.1 24.7 64
50 259.2 56.9 60 135.9 30.2 79 84.9 18.7 83
100 173.1 38.0 98 77.0 17.1 96 48.8 10.8 94
200 5.6 1.2 99 13.5 3.0 99 29.1 6.4 100
Pan 3.3 0.7 100 2.1 0.5 100 1.0 0.2 100
Total 454.1 F.M. 1.62 449.5 F.M. 2.61 455.0 F.M. 2.89
PERCENT RETAINED
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.0029
200
(0.07)
Figure 7-7 (b)
0.0059
100
(0.15)
0.0117
50
(0.30)
0.0232
30
(0.59)
0.047
16
(1.19)
8
0.094
(2.39)
0.187
4
(4.75)
SIEVE NUMBER
0.375
(9.53)
1/8"
SIZE OF OPENING, IN (MM)
0.500
(12.70)
0.750
ASTM C33 Grading Limits
(14.05)
Grading Curve of Sand C
1.000
are shown by this shaded area
3/4" 1"
(25.40)
1.50
(138.1)
2.00
(50.8)
3.00
(76.2)
4.00
(101.6)
2" 3" 4" 6"

6.00
0
(152.4)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
100 PERCENT PASSING

Figure 8-1
Abietic Acid
CH3 COOH
CH3
CH3
CH
CH3
(a)
Non polar Chain

Air
Negative Ion
Cement
Cement Air Cement
(b)
Figure 8-2
COOH
CH2COOH H C OH
HO C COOH HO C H HO O
H
CH2COOH H C OH
CH3 C C C CH2OH
H C OH OH SO3H O
CH2OH
Citric Acid Gluconic Acid Repeating unit of a lignosulphonate polymer

(a)
Molecule with Anionic Polar Group

in the Hydrocarbon Chain
Cement
(b)
water
Before After
(c)
Figure 8-4
Electrostatic Repulsion
Surface Adsorption
-
+ - - + - +
- - -
- - - - - +
- -
-
- - - + - - - - +
+ - -
- - - - - +
Cement - - -
- - - - - +
- - +
+ - - -
- - - - - +
- - - -
+ - - + - - +
- - - +
- + - - -
+
- - - + Ca2+
(a) (b)
Steric Repulsion Inhibition of reactive sites
HMW LMW
(c) (d)
Figure 8-5
IV
V
Time of Initial Set
II I
III
Admixture Concentration
Figure 8-6
Calcium Chloride
2% 0%
100 23 C
80
60
Percentage of 28 days Strength at 23 C

40
20
0
With No Calcium Chloride

100
13 C
80
6 60
Initial Final
Setting Setting 40
5 20
Setting Period, Hours
0
4 80
60
4.5 C
40
3
20
0
2 60
40
-4.0 C
1
20
0
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 1 3 7 28

% Calcium Chloride Curing Period, Days
(a) (b)
Figure 8-10
100 Typical
Low-Calcium
Cumulative Mass, % Finer
80 Fly Ash Condensed

Silica Fume
60
Typical
40
ASTM High-Calcium
Type I Fly Ash
20 Portland
Cement
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Equivalent Spherical Diameter, Microns
Figure 9-1
Concrete production facility has field strength test

records for the specified class or with 1000 PSI (6.9 MPa)
of the specified class of concrete.
NO
YES
> 30 consecutive Two groups of consecutive 15 to 29 consecutive
tests test (total ≥ 30) tests
YES NO YES NO YES NO
Calculate Calculate and increase

Calculate S
Average S using table
Required average strength Required average strength

OR
from EQ from table
Field record of at least ten

consecutive test results using OR
similar materials and under
similar conditions is available
NO
Make trial mixtures using at least three
YES diffferent W/C ratios or cement contents
Results represent
one mixture Plot average strength
versus proportions and
NO interpolate for required
Results represent average strength
two or more mixtures
YES
Average > Plot average strength versus Determine mixture

required proportions and interpolate proportions using
average for required average strength ACI Standard 211.1
NO
YES
SUBMIT FOR APPROVAL

Figure 10-3
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10-5
3 Fill cone to overflowing

1. Stand on the two foot 2. Fill cone 2/3 full by and again rod 25 times with
pieces of cone to hold in firmly volume (half the height) and rod just penetrating into, but
in the place during Steps 1 again rod 25 times with rod not through, the second
though 4. Fill cone mold 1/3 just penetrating into, but not layer. Again distribute
full by volume [2-5/8" (67 mm) througth, the first layer. strokes evenly.
high] with the concrete Distribute strokes evenly as
sample and rod it with 25 described in Step 1.
strokes using a round,
straight steel rod of 5/8" (16
mm) diameter x 24" (600 mm)
long with a hemispherical tip
end. Uniformly distribute
strokes over the cross
section of each layer. For the
botton layer. this will
necessitate inclining the rod
slightly and making
approximately half the
strokes near the perimeter
(out edge), then progressing
with vertical strokes spirally
toward the center. 6 Place the steel rod
horizontally across the
inverted mold so the rod
5 Immediately after
extends over the slumped
completion of Step 4, the
concrete. Immediately
operation of raising the mold
measure the distance from
shall be performed in 5 2
botton of the steel rod to
sec. by a steady upward lift
the displaced original center
with no lateral or torsional
of the specimen. This
motion being imparted to the
distance, to the nearest 1/4
concrete. The entire
inch (6 mm), is the slump of
operation from the start of
the concrete. If a decided
4 Strikes off excess concrete the filling through removal of
falling away or shearing off
form top of cone with the steel the mold shall be carried out
concrete from one side or
rod so the cone is exactly without interruption and
portion of the mass occurs,
level full. Clean the overflow shall be completed within an
disregard the test and make
away from the base of the elasped time of 2-1/2
a new test on another
cone mold. minutes
portion of the sample.
Figure 10-6
Figure 10-8
Degrees C
5 15 25 35
Relative Humidity
100 percent
90
80 Co
70
nc
re
te
60
te
m
50
pe
ra
tu
40
90
re
F
10
(3
30
0
80
F
70 F (1 0 C
C)
F
(3
(2
20
60 F ( (4 C
8
F
5040 F
C)
(2
C)
1
10
C
6
1 )
)
C)
50 60 70 80 90 100
r)
/h
Air Temperature, deg F

km
40
0.8 4.0
To use this chart:
h(
mp
Rate of evaporation, lb / sq ft / hr
Enter with air 0.7

r)
(3 y 25
/h
temperature,
km
it
0.6 r) 3.0
m eloc
move up to
/h
2
relative humidity
20 nd v
km
ph
kg / m2/ hr
0.5 4
(2
i
)
W
Move right to ph /hr

concrete 0.4 m km 2.0
15 16
temperature p h(
0.3 m
10 hr)
Move down to
(3 km/
wind velocity 0.2 ph 1.0
5m / hr)
m ph (3 km
Move left; read 2
0.1 0
approximate rate
of evaporation 0
Figure 10-9
Fluid Transition Rigid

Beginning of mechanical strength (setting)
Final set
Rigidity
Initial set
Limits of handling
Time
Figure 10-10
CEMENT A CEMENT B
40 40 No admixture
Penetration Resistance, MPa
Penetration Resistance, MPa

With admixture
23 C
30 Final set 30
O
Final set
23 C
O
C
20 20
O
32 C
23
O
10 10
C
O
C
10
32 O
Initial set
0 0
0 5 10 15
Time, Hours
(a) (b)
Figure 10-11
Percentage change in water requirements
150 150 180

per mm change in Slump
Water requirement
Water content, kg/m3
100 100 170
Slump, mm
50 50 160
75 mm slump
Slump 38 mm max. aggregate
0 0 150
0 20 40 60 0 10 20 30 40
Concrete temperature, C O
Temperature, CO
(a) (b)
Figure 10-12
C C O
21 27 C
O
140 120 O C O
16 32
Ice Replacing normal mixing water, kg

C
C
16 C
O
Water at 7 C replacing normal
C
O
21
27
120
O
C
O
32
38
38
100
80
80
mixing water, kg
60 Normal mixing
O
water temperatures 40 Normal mixing

40
water temperatures
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 5 10 15 20 25
Reduction in concrete temperature, C O

Reduction in concrete temperature, CO
(a) (b)
Figure 10-14
Kgf / cm2
169 183 197 211 225 239 253 267 281 295 309 323
σ = 462 psi (32.5 Mgf / cm2)

15 v = 13.2%
95.45%
2σ 2σ
68.27%
Number of Test
10
(a)
0
2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400
Compressive Strength (psi)
Upper Action Limit

+3
Upper Warning Limit
+2
+1
Average
(b) x
-1
Lower Warning Limit
-2
Lower Action Limit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 . . . N
Test Number
8.4
Upper Control Limit
8.0
Average Air Content, %
7.6
7.2
6.8 Target Value
(c) 6.4
6.0
5.6
5.2 Lower Control Limit
4.8
4.4
4.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Test Number
Figure 10-15
Charts for individual strength tests
Compressive strength (lb / in2)

Required average strength, σc r Average of 2 cylinders
4000 28
MPa
3000 21
Specified strength, σ'c
2000 Required strength = σ'c + tσ 14
(a)
Compressive strength (lb / in2) Moving average for strength
Required average strength, σc r Each point, average of

4000 5 previous text groups 28
MPa
3000 21
(b)
Moving average for range
Range (lb / in2)
300 2.1
MPa
100 Average range for two cylinders = 0.0564 σc r Each point average 0.7
Average range for three cylinders = 0.0846 σc r of 10 previous ranged
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
Sample numbers
(c)
Figure 10-16
Plastic
Crazing
Settlement (A)
(J)
A
Long-term drying
A
shrinkage (I)
Plastic
Shrinkage
(E)
Crazing
(K)
Plastic
Settlement (C)
Plastic
Shrinkage
Shear cracks (F)
r
fk icke Tension
Early thermal
contraction Topo bending
cracks
(G) B
Plastic
B Settlement (B)
Ineffective
joint
L
Long-term drying
shrinkage (I) Plus
rust
stains
Corrosion of the
Plastic Shrinkage (D) M
reinforcement
Figure 11-1
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Instrument ready Body pushed Hammer is Hammer
for test toward test released rebounds
object
Body
Indicator Latch
Hammer
Spring
Plunger
Figure 11=2
30
Gravel
Cube compressive strength (MPa)

Mohs' No. 3
25
20
15
Gravel
10
Mohs' No. 7
5
35 45 55 65
Exposed probe length (mm)
Figure 11-3
Reaction force Pullout force
Reaction ring
head failure surface

Figure 11-4
40
High T
Strength (MPa) Crossover

20 Low T
0 200 400 600

Maturity (C. Days)
Figure 11-5
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Reservoir
Tap
Inlet Outlet
Cap
Sample
New Text
Figure 11-6
Syringe
Stop-cock
Luer joints
Glass capillary tube
Adaptor piece
100 mm
Luer connectors
Flexible tubing
100 mm
Hypodermic Concrete
needle
Figure 11-7
T
Displacement
(a)
Time
λ
Displacement
(b)
Distance
Figure 11-8
Incident wave Reflected wave
θ1 θ1
Material with
velocity V1
V2 > V1
Material with θ2
velocity V2 Refracted wave
Figure 11-9
Reflected S-wave
Φ1
Incident P-wave Reflected P-wave
Material with θ1
velocity V1
Material with θ2 Refracted P-wave

velocity V2
Φ2 Refracted S-wave
Figure 11-10
P Wave Compressions
Dilations
S Wave
Double amplitude
Wavelength
Love Wave
Rayleigh Wave
Figure 11-11
(a)
Transmitter Receiver
(b) Transmitter Receiver

d
Figure 11-12
(a) x
Transmitter Receivers
Velocity V
Wavefront
(b)
Transient time
slope 1/V
Distance from transmitter

Figure 11-13
Transmitter x Receiver
A D
Path 1
Layer with
velocity V1 θic θic h
Path 2
B C
Material with velocity V2
(a)
Path 1 slope: 1/V1

Arrival Time
Path 2 slope: 1/V2

ti
Experimental Results
Distance from transmitter
(b)
Figure 11-14
Primary wave
5000 5000
Primary wave
4000
4000
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
3000
2000 Shear wave

3000
1000 Shear wave
0 2000
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Porosity Sand Content

(a) (b)
Figure 11-15
Displacement
Force
Time Time
Contact
time
Impact Receiver
D
Flaw
Principle of the impact-echo method
0.25m
0.5m
(a) (b)
1.2 1.2
3.42 KHz 7.32 kHz
Relative Amplitude
Relative Amplitude
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
(b) Solid slab (c) Void in slab
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency (KHz) Frequency (KHz)
Figure 11-16
Impact Spectrum Analyzer
R-wave R-wave Receiver 1 a Receiver 2
Layer 1
Layer 2
Figure 11-17
Receiver
Propagation of
Crack Propagation AE waves
Propagation of
fracture sound
Figure 11-18
a b
(a)
Maximum amplitude
Threshold level
P wave
Duration
Arrival time
(b)
Figure 11-19
P
a
S
r
current
equipotential
dr flow
surfaces
Figure 11-20
Source of current i Sink
P1 P2
c
a
b
d
Figure 11-21
Diffuse ion
Water molecule
Outer-sphere
complex Inner-sphere complex
Metal
Figure 11-22
ηa Anodic
Overpotential 0 Eeq
ηc log io Cathodic
log i
Figure 11-23
Potential
X---> X+ 2e-
Eeq (X/X--)
M -> M++ + 2e-
Ecorr
X+ 2e- -> X--
Eeq(M/M++)
M++ + 2e- -> M
io io icorr current density

Figure 11-24
High impedance voltimeter
Connection to V
reference electrode
reinforcing bar
sponge
concrete
reinforcing bar
Figure 11-25
E i
dEapp
Ecorr
di
to t to t
Input Response
(a) Potentiostatic measurement
i E
dEapp
Ecorr
diapp
to t to t
Input Response
(b) Galvonostatic measurement

Figure 11-26
20
Potencial (mV)
Ecor
Rp = ∆E/∆i
-20
0
Current (ma)
Figure 11-27
Central Counter Electrode

ECE External Counter Electrode (ECE)
Current
lines
Reinforcing bar Concrete

Figure 11-29
Cdl
Rc
Rp
Figure 11-30
-Zi
ωimax
A
|Z| ω
Rp/2
φmax C ω=0
O Zr
Rc Rc+ Rp/2 Rc+Rp
Figure 11-31
1000 100
Phase angle shift

Impedance Modulus (Ω)
Phase angle (degree)

Disperse region
100 10
Impedance Modulus
10
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 11-32
r
P
θ Bp
dipole
B// Br
Figure 11-33
Ferromagnetic core
Excitation Sensing
Coil Flux Coil Flux
A.C. Meter
Source
Flux
reinforcing bar
concrete concrete
Figure 11-34
Current Magnetic Field

Indicator
A.C.
Source
Coil Secondary Magnetic Field
Eddy Currents
Concrete Reinforcing bar

Figure 11-35
A
Tx Rx air
G
d material with dielectric
R
constant ε
1
material with dielectric constant ε

2
Figure 11-36
Tx Rx Tx Rx Tx Rx Tx Rx
Reinforcing bar Concrete
(a)
Air/Ground Wave Arrival Distance along the concrete surface
Two way travel time (ms)

(b)
Hyperbolic reflections caused
by the reinforcing bars
Figure 11-37
Antena
(a)
(b)
Surface of Concrete Deck Delamination
(c)
Rebar Concrete
Bottom of the Deck
Echo from Delamination
(c) Echo from Bottom of Deck
(b) Echo from Reinforcing Bars
(a) Surface Echo

Figure 11-38
Hot Spot Heat flow Cold Spot Heat flow
Heat flow Heat flow
Flaw Flaw
Figure 11-39
y y
X-ray source X-ray source
x x
Detector Detector
Figure 11-42
Microwave Microwave
Source Detector
7-13 GHz
Receiving
Transmitting
Antena
Antena
Linear Sensor Array
Multiplexer
Concrete LF Detection
D/A A/D
Reinforcing bar
Computer
Figure 12-3
2000
1 2 3 4
Creep Strain x 10-6

1600
1200
800
400
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time, Days 150 by 300 mm cylinders
(a) of 35 MPa concrete
Drying Shrinkage Strain x 10-6
1000
1 2 3 4
No. 1 - no replacement
800 No. 2 - 1/3 replaced
No. 3 - 2/3 replaced
600 No. 4 - 100% replaced
400
200
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time, Days
(b)
Figure 12-5
100 14000
f'c range
Diabase
90
Limestone 12000
80
ε'c range
STRESS (MPa)
70 10000
STRESS (psi)
Gravel
60
8000
Granite
50
40 Complete stress/strain at 28 d 6000
E range
30 4000
20 4 x 8 in
~ 100 x 200 mm)
(= 2000
10
(200 Microstrain)
MICROSTRAIN
Figure 12-6
Vapour
r
θ
d/2
θ
Liquid
d
Figure 12-10 (a)
Moist Cure Air Dry

Contraction Expansion
Type K
Length Change
Cement
Concrete
Portland
Cement
Concrete
1 Week 1 Year
Figure 12-10 (b)
Age
Original length Original length
T c T
Shrinkage on drying Expansion puts steel in tension

and concrete in compression
T c T
If not free to shrink tensile Stress loss due to shrinkage

stress develops
Residual expansion or could

be small contraction in type
If tensile stress is greater than K concrete
tensile strength, concrete cracks
PORTLAND CEMENT TYPE K CEMENT

CONCRETE CONCRETE
Figure 12-11
10,000
(700) Limestone, 3/4" (19 mm) MSA; Sand, 2.70 F.M.
Slump, 6 ± 1/2" (15 ± 1.3 cm)
9000 6 x 12" (15 x 30 cm) CYL.
Standard curing (ASTM C192)
Compressive Strength, PSI (kgf / cm2) 8000 60 Days
(560)
7000 28 Days
6000
(420)
5000
7 Days
4000
(280)
3000 Type K Expansive Cement
Type I Portland Cement
2000
(140) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
W/C, by weight
0.06
W/C - 0.40
0.05 Type K Cement
3 x 3 x 10"
0.45 (7.5 x 7.5 x 25 cm)
0.04 0.53 Restrained Concrete
Length of Change, %
0.61 Prisms, P = 0.15%

0.03 Slump = 6 ± 1/2"
(15 ± 1.3 cm)
0.76
0.02
0.01 Water cure In air
-0.01
1 2 3 4 5 67 28
Age of Concrete, Days (Log scale)
0.20
0.15
Burlap or
water cure
Expansion (%)
0.10
0.05 Polyethylene sheet

or waterproof paper
0
Curing compound
Drying
-0.05
0 25 50 75 100
Time (days)
Figure 12-12
40'
(a)
Construction
40'
Joints
Saw Cut
Joints
Portland Cement Concrete
120' 120'
(b)
Construction
Joints 80'
80'
Shrinkage Compensating Concrete

Figure 12-13
Centerline deflection, mm
0 05 10 15
12,000
5,000
Fiber reinforced concrete

(2% by volume) 4,000
8,000 Plain concrete
Load, N
Load, lb
3,000
4,000 2,000
1,000
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Centerline deflection, inches
(a)
Without Fibers
With Fibers
(b) (c)
Figure 12-15
microcrack long fiber

short fiber
macrocrack
A: Effect of short fibers on B: Effect of long fibers on

the microcracking the macrocracking
Rupture without
Rupture short fibers
without
fibers
A B
Tensile Stress
Crack Opening
Figure 12-17
70
l
= 253 = 152 = 100 = 73 = 66
60 d
50
V-B time (s)
40
l
30 d
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 By volume
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 By weight
Percentage content of fibers
(a)
300
20 mm concrete 10 mm concrete
V-B time (s)
200 Aspect ratio

of fibers =100
5 mm mortar
Cement paste
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 By weight
Percentage content of fibers
(b)
Figure 12-18
20 Constant Rate of Loading = 0.01 in/min

(a) (b)
18 Measure of Toughness Aspect
Type ratio Relative Relative
Toughness and Strength in Relation to Plain Concrete
16 reinforcement L/d Strength Toughness

Load
14 Effect of aspect ratio

Center Line Deflection
12 Concrete: 1. 2: 3, 0.60 Plain concrete 0 1.00 1.0

Max. Size = 3/8 in.
14 Days Moist Curing
25 1.50 2.0
10 Relative Random 50 1.60 8.0
Fibers: 0.01 x 0.01 x 3/4 in Toughness
fy = 110, 000 psi fiber 75 1.70 10.5
t.s. = 120,000 psi
8 100 1.50 8.5
Results are Average
6 of 4 Specimens Effect of type reinforcement
4 Conventional
Relative
Strength tensile bar -- 3.15 --
2 Random fibers 75 1.00 --
0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
% Volume of Fibers
Figure 12-19
Low volume of low aspect High volume of high aspect

ratio fibers ratio fibers
Ultimate Strength
Load - Newtons
First Crack Strength
(Prop Limits)
Not to scale
1.9 mm 1.9 mm
Total deflection Total deflection
Deflection - Millimeters
(a)
40
High tensile strength
Crimped fibers
30 0.50 mm diameter
x 50-mm long
Impact toughness (N-mm/mm2)
20
Indented fibers
10
0.25-mm diameter x 25-mm long
0.38-mm diameter x 25-mm long
Matrix
Mortar
10-mm concrete
20-mm concrete
0
1 2
Percentage of fibers, by volume of composite
(b)
Figure 12-20
Flexural Impact Resistance
Flexural Fatigue Strength

to 100,000 Cycles
Flexural Toughness
to Maximum Stress
Flexural Strength
Tensile Strength
Compressive Strength
50 100 150 200 250

Property Improvement - % Relative to Plain Concrete
Figure 12-23
100
6 stress
5 80
Crack Width (m)

Stress (MPa)
4 60
3
crack width 40
2
20
1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4
Strain (%)
Figure 12-24
17 Polymer Impregnated
16 Concrete
110
3" Dia x 6" Cylinder
15
PMMA, loading 5.4 wt % Fracture 100
14
13 90
12
80
Stress. (psi x 10-3)
11
(a) 60
10 70
8000 (b) E = 5.5 x 106 psi
(c) 9
50 60
Pa
7000
8
Plain unimpregnated Concrete
Stress. Pa x 108
6000 7 50
40 3" Dia x 6" Cylinder
Stress, psi
5000 6 40
30 5 Fracture
4000
30
4
3000 20
Polymer Composition 3 20
2000 (a) MMA Only
2 E= 1.8 x 106 psi
(b) 95 wt. % MMA, 5% butyl acrylate 10 10
1000 (c) 80 wt. % MMA, 20% bufyl acrylate 1
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 1000 2000 3000 4000
Strain, µ in/in ( µ m/m) Compressive Strain, µ in/in ( µ m/m)
(a) (b)
Figure 12-25
500
Water, Pounds Per Cu. Yd. of Concrete

400 Non air-entrained concrete
300
200
Air-entrained concrete
100
Slump approximately 3 in.
W/C = 0.54 by weight (gross)
0
3/16 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 6
Max. Size of Aggregate, Inches

(a)
27 100.00
Absolute Volume of Ingredients Per Cu. Yd. of Concrete, Cubic Feet
24 88.89
water
21 ent 77.78
Cem
ir
e dA
rain
18 Ent 66.67
Percent of total Volume

15 Aggregate 55.55
12 44.44
9 33.33
6 22.22
Chart based on natural aggregated of average

3 11.11
grading in mixes having a W/C of 0.54 by weight,
3 in. slump, and recommended air contents.
0 0
3/8 3/4 1-1/2 3 6 9
Max. Size of Aggregate, Inches
(b)
Figure 12-28
Dam cross section Movable hooper

with conveyor system
C1. Back HDE for consolidation of

u/s face conventional concrete
Placement rate
C3. Vibratory roller from
approximately 450 cubic meters
compaction of RCC
Hardened RCC lifts (10 to 24 hours)
Advancement rate Kept continually moist and clean.
approximately 25 m per hour
B A
C2. Back HDE for installation
of contraction joints
water truck
B. Dumping and spreading

C. Conventional concrete
A. Bedding Mortar Aplication
contraction joints
roller compaction Application is 10 to 15 m in front of RCC placement
B1 B2 Application preceeds RCC placement by 10 to 15 minutes
After compaction no vehicular
traffic allowed until RRc has
hardened (13 hours)
24 inches
After depositing RCC into piles by end dump trucks and conveyors.
A) Dozer spreads RCC into many thin sloping layers.
B) Dozer spreads RCC in fan-like manner across width of dam.
C) Dozer continuosly tracks individual layers
Figure 13-1
Paralel model (a) Series model (b)
1-x
Hirsch model (c) Hansen model (d) Counto model (e)

Table 13-1
Name Representation Creep Relaxation

σ ξ
σo ξo
t t
(a) Spring ξ σ
E σo/E Eξo
t t
(b) Dashpoot ξ σ
t t
(c) Maxwell ξ σ
E
σ = Eξ0
η
t t
(d) Kelvin ξ σ
E η
t t
(e) Standard Solid ξ σ

E1
σ
E∞
E2 η
t t
Figure 13-2
100
80
Young's Modulus (GPa)
igt n
60 Vo trikma
-S h
s hin
Ha
uss
40 Re
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Aggregate Volume Fraction
Figure 13-3
sphere
Elastic Modulus
1/5 ratio
2
1/10 ratio
1 1/20 ratio
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Porosity (%)
Figure 13-4
1500
1200
Strain (x 10-6) 900
600
300
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time, days
(a)
14 28 days
60 days
90 days
12
Stress (MPa)
10
0 10 20 30 40
Time since loading, Days
(b)
Figure 13-5
35
30
Elastic Modulus (GPa)
25
20
Ec
15
Er
10
0 90 180 270 360
Time (Days)
Figure 13-6
100 ite
in
i nf
-->
80 v
st in
fa a /m
y MP
v er 5
Stress (MPa)
60 14
v=
in
a/m
40 MP
v= 14.5
ero
v --> z
low
20
e m ely s
ext r
0
0 1000 2000 3000
Micro-strain
Figure 13-7
100 ite
f in
in
-->
80 v
st in
fa -6 /m
ry x 10
ve 00
Stress (MPa)
60 0
v =7
40 -6 /min
x 10
00
v=7 ero
v --> z
20 slow
e mely
extr
0
0 1000 2000 3000
Micro-strain
Figure 13-8
140 Kelvin
105
|E*|, GPa
70
Maxwell
35
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
Log (w)
Figure 13-9
E1
η1
n
1 −1
Ε=
= i=1 Ei
E2
n
1 −1
η2 η=
i=1
ηi
(b)
Ei
ηi
(a)
Figure 13-10
E1 η1
E1 E2 Ei
E2 η2
η1 η2 ηi
Ei ηi
(a) (b)
Figure 13-11
n
=η=
n i=1
E1 η1 E= Ei
i=1
(a) (b)
Figure 13-12
Stress
∆σ
t1 t2 ti Time
Figure 13-13
-k δT dydz - k δT + δ k δT dx dydz
δx δx δx ∂x
0 x
z
Figure 13-14
Γt Γh
n
Figure 13-15
6.0 m
3.0 m A concrete block
foundation rock
5.4 m
10.8 m
Figure 13-16
50 0% Pozzolan
30% Pozzolan
40 50% Pozzolan
Temperature (oC)
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30
Time (Days)
Figure 13-17
8.40
7.90
7.40
46 46
3 m 6.90
44 44 (a)
6.40 42 42
34
40 40
32
30
5.90
34
38 38
26 28
32
26
36 36
30
28
2.90 3.40 3.90 4.40 4.90 5.40 5.90 6.40 6.90 7.40 7.90 8.40
6m
8.40
7.90
7.40
3 m 6.90 (b)
54
56 56 54
6.40
50 52 50 52
40
36
5.90 48 46
32 3 38
46 48
4
36 0
38
32
44 44 42
4
42
34
2.90 3.40 3.90 4.40 4.90 5.40 5.90 6.40 6.90 7.40 7.90 8.40
6m
Figure 13-18
Basalt
Temperature Evolution (oC)
Granite
Gravel
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Time (Hours)
Figure 13-19
0% Pozzolan
Temperature Evolution (oC)
30% Pozzolan
50% Pozzolan
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Time (Hours)
Figure 13-20
8.40
7.90
7.40
3m 6.90 42 42 (a) 10o C

40 40
6.40 38 38
36 36
30
28
5.90
26
34 34
30
28
24
32 32
26
24
2.90 3.40 3.90 4.40 4.90 5.40 5.90 6.40 6.90 7.40 7.90 8.40
6m
8.40
7.90
7.40
52 52
3m 6.90 (b) 25o C
50 50
6.40
44
42
48 48
40
38
44
36
42
46
34
5.90 46
32
40
38
30
36
34
30
32
2.90 3.40 3.90 4.40 4.90 5.40 5.90 6.40 6.90 7.40 7.90 8.40
6m
Figure 13-22
σ
Mesh A
Mesh B Mesh A
3
ε
Energy
Load multiplier
criterion
2 Mesh C
Mesh A
1
Mesh B
Strength criterion
- not objective! Mesh C
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Crack Length
Figure 13-23
2a 2a
2a+∆a
x
∆x
x p
(a) (b)
Figure 13-24
P
d
h
Figure 13-25
y y y
x x x
z z z
Mode I Mode II Mode III

Figure 13-26
r
y
x
Mode I Mode II
Figure 13-27
σy
A
L>>b
c 2a0 c
2a
A
r
σy
a) b)
2b
p
b =constant
kc
Pc= a a
πa f ( b
( log p = constant
b
2
a a 1
(
ft 1- b (
ft 1- b
( ( Pc
a log b
c) d)
Figure 13-28
Figure 13-30
l(1+ )+w
Fracture zone
Real strain
x distribution
Constant
on length
l(1+ )+w
Fictitious
tied crack
w
Figure 13-31
ft
Stress
Ec
Et
1
1
Strain
Figure 13-32
σ σ
l+ Localized
∆l deformation*
a) ∆l
σ σ
Concetrated w
fracture surface*
l+
∆l w
b) ∆l
Before peak stress:∆l= lε
* After peak stress:∆l= lε+w
σ σ
G
c) F
w
σ σ
ft ft
G
F
d)
ft /E 2G /ft w
F
σ (MPa)
Figure 13-33
3 mix 1
mix 2
mix 3
2 mix 4
50 100 w(µm)
(a)
σ/ft
1.0 mix 1
mix 2
mix 3
mix 4
0.5
0
1 2 3 wft/GF
(b)
Figure 13-34
σct σct
fctm fctm
0.9 fctm
0.15 fctm
Ec 0.00015
ct W1 Wc W
Figure 14-3
IV I
Environmental Socio-Economic
Policy Development
Human Values Life Sciences

(Ethics)
III II
Figure 14-1
800
720
CO2 Concentration, ppm

640
560
480
400
320
240
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2100
Year
Figure 14-2
12 24
Concrete Consumption, billion tons/year

11 22
Population
Population, billions
10 20
9 18
Concrete
8 16
7 14
6 12
2000 2025 2050 2075 2100
Year
Figure 14-4
Socio-economic
needs of society
TSD
Human values Unified database
from a holistic from physical and
view life sciences
PowerPoint Presentation Index
Chapter 1: Chapter 8
Introduction Chemical Admixtures
Mineral Admixtures
Chapter 2:
Interfacial Transition Zone Chapter 10:
Early Ages
Chapter 3: Cold and Hot Weather Concrete
Strength Processing
Chapter 4: Chapter 11:

Elastic Modulus Non-Destructive Techniques
Construction Problems
Chapter 5:
Introduction to durability of concrete Chapter 12:
Physical Deterioration Fibers
Alkali-Silica Reaction High-Strength Concrete
Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete High-Workability Concrete
Sulfate Attack Roller-Compacted Concrete
Chapter 6: Chapter 13:

Cements Thermal Stresses in Concrete
Case Study: Los Angeles Cathedral
Chapter 7: Viscoelasticity
Aggregates
Chapter 14:
Concrete and the Environment
Introduction to Concrete
P.K. Mehta and P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Importance
It is estimated that the present consumption of concrete in the

world is of the order of 10 billion tonnes (12 billion tons) every
year.
Humans consume no material except water in such tremendous

quantities
Reasons for success (1)
The ability of concrete to withstand the action of water without

serious deterioration makes it an ideal material for building
structures to control, store, and transport water.
The ease with which structural concrete elements can be

formed into a variety of shapes and sizes.
Reasons for success (2)
This is because freshly made concrete is of a plastic

consistency, which permits the material to flow into
prefabricated formwork. After a number of hours, the formwork
can be removed for reuse when the concrete has solidified and
hardened to a strong mass.
It is usually the cheapest and most readily available material on

the job.
How cheap?
Depending on the components' transportation

cost, in certain geographical locations the price
of concrete may be as high as $150-$200 per
ton, at others it may be as low as $100 per ton.
Strong points (1)
Maintenance
Concrete does not corrode, needs no surface treatment, and its

strength increases with time; therefore, concrete structures
requires essentially no maintenance.
Strong points (2)
Fire resistance
The fire resistance of concrete is perhaps the most important

single aspect of offshore safety and, at the same time, the area
in which the advantages of concrete are most evident.
Strong points (3)
Resistance to cyclic loading
In most codes of practice, the allowable concrete stresses are

limited to about 50 percent of the ultimate strength; thus the
fatigue strength of concrete is generally not a problem.
Components of Modern Concrete
Concrete is a composite material that consists

essentially of a binding medium within which are
embedded particles or fragments of aggregate. In
hydraulic-cement concrete, the binder is formed
from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water.
Aggregate
Aggregate is the granular material, such as sand,

gravel, crushed stone, crushed blast-furnace slag,
or construction and demolition waste that is used
with a cementing medium to produce either
concrete or mortar.
Cement
Cement is a finely pulverized, dry, material that by itself is not a

binder but develops the binding property as a result of
hydration.
A cement is called hydraulic when the hydration products are

stable in an aqueous environment.
Water
Responsible for the hydration reactions with the cement
Admixtures
Admixtures are defined as materials other than aggregates,

cement, and water, which are added to the concrete batch
immediately before or during mixing.
The use of admixtures in concrete is now widespread due to

many benefits which are possible by their application.
Types of concrete
Based on unit weight, concrete can be classified into three

broad categories:
normal-weight concrete (2400kg/m3)
lightweight concrete (< 1800 kg/m3)
heavyweight concrete (>3200 kg/m3)
Types of concrete
Low-strength concrete: less than 20 MPa (3000 psi)

compressive strength
Moderate-strength concrete: 20 to 40 MPa (3000 to 6000 psi)

compressive strength
High-strength concrete: more than 40 MPa (6000 psi)

compressive strength.
Examples
Itaipu Dam
Nervi Structures
Petronas Tower
Itaipu Dam
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties,
Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Materials
General Information
Ambient Conditions
Yearly average temperature 21 C
Maximum Temperature 40 C
Mimimum Temperature -4 C
Volume of materials
Concrete 12.3 million m3
Earth moving 23.6 million m3
Rock excavation 32.0 million m3
Embankments 31.7 million m3
General Information
River Basin
Area 820,000 km2
Average annual precipitation 1,400 mm
Average discharge at Itaipu 9,700 m3/s
Reservoir
Area 1,350 km2
Volume 29 billion m3
Length 170 km
Dam
Maximum height 196 m
Total length 7,760 m
Generating Units
Quantity 18
Capacity 700 MW
The spillway, with a

length of 483 m, was
designed for a
maximum discharge
capacity of 62,220
m3/s.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Sports Palace in Rome
Nervi was a pioneer of “ferro-cemento” or reinforced

mortar, where thin metallic meshes are embedded in a
mortar to form structural elements with high ductility
and crack-resistance
Photo courtesy of Prof. Biolzi
Design work
Thin panels were created with great flexibility, elasticity, and

strength capacity. The Palazzo dello Sport built with a 100-
m span and seating for 16,000 is a beautiful example of
using such structural system.
Courtesy of Prof. Biolzi
Petronas Tower
The 451.9- meter high

structure composed of two,
88-story structures and their
pinnacles, optimized the use
of steel and reinforced
concrete.
Energy Considerations
Energy content charged to concrete
kwh/m3 kwh/ton
Cement, 330 -660 137-275
250 to 500 kg/m3 concrete
Aggregate 20 8
1750-1950 kg/m3
Production and handling 90 37
concrete
TOTAL 440-770 182-320
In these calculations the energy content of cement is assumed to be 1300 kwh/ton.

The energy content of steel is 8000 kwh/ton; six times the amount of cement and 25-40 times of concrete.
Reinforced concrete: 800-3200 kwh/m3
Prestressed concrete: 700-1700 kwh/m3

Example:
1m-high column resisting a 1000 ton load:
Unreinforced concrete: 70 liters of oil
Brick: 210 liters of oil
Steel: 320 liters of oil
Interfacial Transition Zone
Introduction
§ The ITZ represents a small region next to the

particles of coarse aggregate.
§ Existing as a thin shell, typically 10 to 50 µm thick
around large aggregate, the interfacial transition
zone is generally weaker than either of the two
main components of concrete, namely, the
aggregate and the bulk hydrated cement paste.
§ It has a far greater influence on the mechanical
behavior of concrete than is reflected by its size.
Typical stress-strain diagrams of cement paste, aggregate, and concrete
Points to note:
•Aggregate and cement
paste linear up to failure
•Concrete stress-strain
response (elastic) in
between aggregate and
cement paste
•Concrete does not have a
linear behavior up to failure
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties,
and Materials
REASON
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
and Materials
Development
§ in freshly compacted concrete, water films form around the

large aggregate particles. This would account for a higher
water-cement ratio closer to the larger aggregate than away
from it.
§ Due to the high water-cement ratio, calcium hydroxide and
ettringite in the vicinity of the coarse aggregate consist of
relatively larger crystals, and therefore form a more porous
framework than in the bulk cement paste or mortar matrix.
§ The platelike calcium hydroxide crystals tend to form in
oriented layers with the -axis perpendicular to the aggregate
surface.
Transition Zone
cement
Note the open

structure of the Aggregate
matrix
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
and Materials
Cement Paste Side
CH
pores
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
and Materials
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
and Materials
Main Characteristics
Larger porosity than the matrix
Precipitation of CH with a preferred orientation
Larger crystals
Microstructural improvement
Use of silica fume reduces the porosity of the

ITZ due to the geometrical effect and
reduces the amount of CH due to the
pozzolanic reaction
Light weight aggregate
The cellular or highly porous microstructure causes a better

interlocking.
Synthetic LWA are manufactured by thermal treatment which

produces a coating of amorphous silica which can react with
CH.
Carbonate rocks
Calcium carbonate dissolves and reacts with the

hydration products improving the overall bond
strength.
Strength
Strength of
Concrete
Strength
Compressive Strength
ß Fundamental relationship
ß S = So exp (-kp)
ß Where So is the strength at zero porosity, p is

the porosity and k a constant.
Strength
Power’s model
ß S = So(1- p)3
ß Experimentally Power’s found the value of a to be

34,000 psi or 234 MPa
Strength
Effect of Porosity
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete:
Concrete: Microstructure,
Microstructure, Properties,
Properties, and Materials
Materials
Strength
Results for mortar
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
New Generation of Materials
ß MDF (macro defect free): very low w/c, hard

pressed at 80 C.
ß Ductal: interesting material from France with very

high strength and fluidity
Strength
Effect of Mix Proportions
ß Water to cement ratio
ß Abram’s water to cement ratio
ß F = K1/(K2w/c)
Note: it does not consider the size, type, texture, of aggregate
Strength
Effect of water/cement ratio on the compressive
strength
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
and P.J.M.
Materials
Strength
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
and P.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Effect of air-entrainment
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Strength evolution
ß ACI Committee 209 recommends the following

relationship for moist-cured concrete made with
normal portland cement (ASTM Type I)
Ê t ˆ
f c (t ) = f c 28Á ˜
Ë 4 + 0.85t ¯
Strength
Evolution
For concrete specimens cured at 20 oC, the CEB-

FIP Models Code (1990) suggests the following
relationship
f c (t ) = exp s (1 − 5.3 t [ 0.5

)]f cm
s is a coefficient depending on the cement type, such as s = 0.20 for
high early strength cements; s = 0.25 for normal hardening cements; s =
0.38 for slow hardening cements.
Strength
ß Aggregate
ß Maximum Size Aggregate
ß Mineralogical Composition
Strength
Effect of max. aggregate size
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Strength Evolution
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Influence of curing conditions on strength
Strength
Effect Temperature
ß Cast and cured at the same temperature
ß Cast at different temperature but cured at the

same temperature
ß Cast at normal temperature but cured at different

temperatures.
Strength
Effect of temperature
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Size effect
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Effect of L-D Ratio
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Tensile Strength
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Testing parameters
ß Specimen Size: Fracture mechanics will explain

the importance of size effect.
ß Loading Rate: Increasing rates lead to increasing

strength.
Strength
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Behavior of Concrete under Various States
ß Pure compression
ß Pure tension
ß Splitting tension
ß Flexure
ß Multi-axial stress
Strength
Pure compression
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Long-term loading
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Impact
The CEB-FIP Model Code (1990) recommends

that the increase in compressive strength due to
impact, with rates of loading less than 106
MPa/sec., can be computed using the
relationship:
α
f i  σ 
=  
f c  σ o 
Strength
Repeated uniaxial loading
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Pure tension
ß Very difficult test to conduct. We will revisit this

topic when discussing fracture mechanics of
concrete.
Strength
Splitting (Brazilian) Test
ß Interesting history…
Strength
Splitting (Brazilian) Test
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Flexure Test
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Multi-axial stress
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Multi-axial stress
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Strength
Multi-axial stress
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Elastic Modulus of Concrete
Presentation
ß Introduction
ß Testing
ß Materials
ß Poisson’s ratio
ß Composite Models
Introduction
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Different types of elastic moduli
Testing
Types of Elastic Modulus
ASTM Testing
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Various parameters that influence the modulus
of elasticity of concrete
Effect of Materials
ß Water-to-cement ratio
ß Aggregate Type
ß Aggregate Content
Poisson’s ratio
ß How many elastic moduli to characterize a

homogeneous material?
Design Code
ß ACI-318
ß E = 33 w1.5 f 0.5
In the CEB-FIP model code 1990, the modulus of elasticity of normal-weight

concrete can be estimated from
4 1/ 3
E c = 10 x (f cm )
Experimental Results
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Corrections for other aggregates
aggregate typ e αe
basalt, d ense lim estone 1.15
qu artizitic 1.0
lim estone 0.9
sand stone 0.7
Composite Materials
ß Discuss the needs
ß Present various models
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Let’s start with the parallel model
equilibrium equation sA = s 1A1+ s 2A2
compatibility equation e = e 1= e 2
constitutive relationship s = Ee
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Combining the equations:
EA = E 1A 1+ E 2A 2
Or in volumetric basis
EV = E 1V1+ E 2V2
Now the series model
1 c1 c2
= +
E E1 E2
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
To add a bit more complexity
ß The total stored strain energy W is given by:
P2V
W=
2K
or Œ2 KV
W=
2
where dV P
Œ= =-
V K
The parallel model essentially assumes that in the two-phase composite each phase undergoes
the same strain . The total stored energy is
Œ2 K1V1 Œ2 K2V2
W = W1 + W2 = +
2 2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 identify the phases. Equating the strain energy
in the composite to the equivalent homogeneous medium leads to the
following expression for the effective bulk modulus:
K = c 1K1 + c 2K2
The series model assumes that the stress state in each phase will be a uniform
hydrostatic compression of magnitude P. The total stored energy for the composite is
given by:
P2V1
P2 È V1 V2 ˘ P2V2
W = W1 + W2 = + = Í + ˙
2K 1 2K2 2 Î K1 K2 ˚
The effective bulk modulus can be obtained
1 c1 c2
= +
E E1 E2
Importance of bonds
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Materials
If a solid body of modulus Eo and Poisson’s ratio no contains a volume fraction c of

spherical pores, its overall moduli E will be
2
E = E o (1- c )
More general treatments of the effect of pores on the elastic moduli assume that the
pores are oblate spheroids of a certain aspect ratio
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Materials
Introduction
to Durability
of Concrete
Introduction to Durability of Concrete
Concepts
ß Durability of concrete: ability to resist

weathering action, chemical attack,
abrasion, or any process of
deterioration
Keep in mind...
ß Hammurabi, a king of Babylon, who lived four

thousand years ago, had the following rule about
the responsibility of builders enforced:
ß “If a building falls down causing the death of the
owner or his son, whichever may be the case, the
builder or his son will be put to death. If the slave
of the home owner dies, he shall be given a slave
of the same value. If other possessions are
destroyed, these shall be restored, and the
damaged parts of the home shall be reconstructed
at builder’s cost.”
Water Causes
ß chemical processes of degradation
ß physical processes of degradation
Water Structure
ß The H-O-H molecule is covalent bonded. Due to

differences in the charge centers of hydrogen and oxygen,
the positively charged proton of the hydrogen ion
belonging to a water molecule attracts the negatively
charged electrons of the neighboring water molecules.
Water Structure
Water Structure (ice)
In ice each molecule of water is
surrounded by four molecules
such that the group has one
molecule at the center and the
other four at the corners of a
tetrahedron. Ice melts at 0 C
when approximately 15 percent of
the hydrogen bonds break up. As
a result of the partial breakdown
in directionality of the tetrahedral
bond, each water molecule can
acquire more than four nearest
neighbors, the density thus rising
from 0.917 to 1.
Water in Concrete
ß In concrete, water is a necessary ingredient for the
cement hydration reactions and an agent that facilitates
the mixing of the components of concrete, water is
present from the beginning.
ß Gradually, most of the evaporable water in concrete is lost,

leaving the pores empty or unsaturated.
ß Concrete will not be vulnerable to water-related

destructive phenomena if there is a little or no evaporable
water left after drying and provided that the subsequent
exposure of the concrete to the environment did not cause
to resaturation of the pores. The latter, to a large extent,
depends on the hydraulic conductivity, which is also
known as the coefficient of permeability (K).
Water in the capillary
Definition
ß Permeability is defined as the property that

governs the rate of flow of a fluid into a porous
solid.
Darcy’s law
ß For steady-state flow, the coefficient of

permeability K is determined from Darcy's
expression:
Dq/dt = K (D H A)/(Ln)
where Dq/dt is the rate of fluid flow, n the viscosity of the fluid, D H
the pressure gradient, A the surface area, and L the thickness of the solid.
Permeability of the paste
ß the mixing water is indirectly responsible for permeability

of the hydrated cement paste because its content
determines first the total space and subsequently the
unfilled space after the water is consumed by either
cement hydration reactions or evaporation to the
environment.
Permeability of Cement Paste
Age (days) Permeability (cm/s 10-11)

Fresh 20,000,000
5 4,000
6 1,000
8 400
13 50
24 10
ultimate 6
Permeability
When porosity decreases from 40 to 30%, the

coefficient of permeability drops from 110 to 20 x 10-12 cm/sec.
and from a decrease in porosity from 30% to 20%
results in a small drop in permeability.
Reason: large pores are reduced in size and

number creating large tortuosity
Permeability of Aggregate
ß Compared to 30 to 40 percent capillary porosity of typical

cement pastes in hardened concrete, the volume of pores
in most natural aggregates is usually under 3 percent, and
it rarely exceeds 10 percent.
Permeability of Aggregate
ß However, the coefficient of permeability of aggregates are

as variable as those of hydrated cement pastes of
water/cement ratios in the range 0.38 to 0.71
Reason
ß The reason some aggregates give much higher

permeability than the cement paste is that the size of
capillary pores in aggregate is usually much larger.
ß Most of the capillary porosity in a mature cement paste

lies in the range 10 to 100 nm, while pore size in
aggregates are, on the average, larger than 10 microns.
Permeability of Aggregates
Type of Rock permeability (cm/sec)
dense trap 2.47 x 10-12
quartz diorite 8.24 x 10-12
marble 2.39 x 10-10
granite 5.35 x 10-9
sandstone 1.23 x 10-8

Influence of water-cement ratio and MSA on
concrete permeability
Holistic Models of Concrete Deterioration
Holistic Models
of Concrete
Deterioration
Physical
Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Deterioration by surface wear
Abrasion: dry attrition (wear on pavements

and industrial floors by traffic).
Erosion: wear produced by abrasive action of

fluids containing solid particles in suspension
(canal lining, spillways and pipes).
Cavitation: loss of mass by formation of

vapor bubbles and their subsequent collapse.
Abrasion and Erosion
The deterioration starts at the surface,

therefore special attentions should be given
to quality of the concrete surface.
Avoid laitance (layer of fines from cement and

aggregate).
Cavitation
Good-quality concrete shows excellent resistance to

steady high-velocity flow of clear water; however
nonlinear flow at velocities exceeding 40 ft/sec may
cause severe erosion of concrete due to cavitation.
Note: In contrast with erosion or abrasion, a strong
concrete may not necessarily be effective in preventing
damage due to cavitation. Solution: eliminate the
causes of cavitation (review hydraulic design such as
surface misalignments or abrupt change of slope).
Crystallization of salts
•The crystallization of salts in the pores of

concrete can produce stresses that may
damage the concrete structure. This can
happen when the concentration of the solute
(C) exceeds the saturation concentration (Cs).
Higher C/Cs ratio (degree of supersaturation)
produces higher crystallization pressure.
Deterioration by frost action
When water freezes, there is an expansion of

9%. However, some of the water may migrate
through the boundary, decreasing the
hydraulic pressure.
Hydraulic pressure depends on:

(a) rate at which ice is formed;
(b) permeability of the material;
(c) distance to an "escape boundary."
The problem
The transformation of ice from liquid water generates a
volumetric dilation of 9%. If the transformation occurs in
small capillary pores, the ice crystals can damage the
cement paste by pushing the capillary walls and by
generating hydraulic pressure.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
The solution
Air voids can provide an effective escape boundary to
reduce this pressure.
P.K.
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Air-Entraining
P.K.
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andP.J.M.
Materials
Degree of Saturation
P.K.
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andP.J.M.
Materials
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
P.K.
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Low-temperature SEM
P.K.
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andP.J.M.
Materials
Images of Frozen Paste
Increasing temperature
Frozen sample Sample at room temperature
Ice inside the air void
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Images
Ice
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Freezing of concrete
Ice
P.K.
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Does the air void increase or decrease when

ice forms?
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Observation of ice growth
inside an air-void.
The diameter of the air

void decreases as more
ice forms because the
cement paste matrix
shrinks.
Frost action on the aggregate
Aggregates are also porous bodies and depends on:
size of the pores;
number of pores;
continuity of pores.
Frost action on the aggregate
There are three classes of aggregate:
Low permeability and high strength
• No problem! The rock is strong
enough to support the hydraulic pressure.
Intermediate permeability
Potential depending on
• (a) rate of temperature drop;
• (b) distance the water must travel to find an
escape boundary ‡ Critical Aggregate Size
(a large aggregate may cause damage but smaller
particles will not).
High permeability
May cause problem with the transition zone.
Factors Controlling Frost Resistance of Concrete
MSA (in) air content (%)
3/8 7.5
1/2 7
3/4 6
1 6
2 5
3 4.5
•void spacing of order of 0.1 to 0.2 mm

D-cracking
Aggregate problem! Appearance of fine

parallel cracks along transverse and
longitudinal joints and free edges of
pavements.
Deterioration by fire
Concrete is able to retain sufficient strength

for a reasonably long time.
Effect of temperature on the cement paste
degree of hydration
moisture state
de-hydration:
•ettringite > 100o C
•Ca(OH)2 500-600o C
•CSH ~ 900o C
Fire in the
Chunnel
Effect of High Temperature on the Aggegate
•Siliceous quartz: 573o C Æ sudden volume change
•Carbonate: MgCO3 > 700o C, CaCO3 > 900o C
Effect of aggregate type and testing conditions
on fire resistance
on fire resistance
on fire resistance
High-Strength Concrete
For concrete exposed to temperatures in the range of 100o

and 300o C, the strength was higher for the samples tested
after cooling than for those tested hot. For concrete
exposed to temperatures higher than 400o C, the trend
was reversed.
Preloading the samples up to 40% of the compressive
strength at room temperature had no effect on the
strength reduction.
High-strength mixtures made with 0.22 water/cementitious
material (w/cm) showed less strength loss than with 0.33
w/cm. For mixtures made with w/cm in the range of 0.33
to 0.57 the behavior was more complex and depended on
the test method used, making it difficult to draw definitive
conclusions.
High-Strength Concrete
For preloaded specimens, silica fume had no

effect on the behavior of high-strength concrete
exposed to elevated temperatures. For unstressed
specimens, silica fume had no effect on the
strength up to 300o C, however when tested at
higher temperature, the mixtures containing silica
fume showed greater strength loss.
Silica-fume concrete samples showed higher
residual strength (strength after cooling) than
samples without the silica fume when exposed to
temperatures in the range of 150o to 250o C.
Alkali Silica Reaction
Alkali-Silica Reaction
Introduction
This deleterious reaction is known for a long time
Map cracks
Vertical cracks California, 1936

P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Alkali-reactive rocks in concrete
The chemistry is simple
1) The high pH in the cement paste promotes the hydrolysis

of silica:
Si-O-Si + H OH ‡ Si-OH+ Si-OH

Aggregate paste
2) Si-OH react with the paste to form Si-O-
3) Si-O-, acting as a Lewis base, adsorbs Na, K, and Ca to

form a gel.
Microscopy characterization
ß Optical
ß SEM- secondary electrons
ß SEM- environmental
ß SEM- backscatter
ß Atomic force microscope
ß X-ray microscopy
Optical
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Optical
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
SEM
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Backscattered image
P.K.
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Effect of Mineral Admixtures
4% RHA 8% RHA
15% RHA
12% RHA
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Reduction of ASR
ß Effect of Mineral Admixtures
ß Effect of Chemical admixtures
Effect of Amount of Slag
0.2
0%
15% slag
25% slag
0.15 35% slag
Expansion (%)
45% slag
55 % slag
65% slag 45%
70% slag
75% slag
0.1 80% slag
0.05
55%
0
0 10 20 30
Time (days)
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Effect of Chemical Admixtures
Expansion of mortar bars prepared with a 1-M NaOH, KOH,
and LiOH in the mixing water
0.4
188 - Ref
Na
191 - NaOH
194 - KOH
0.3 197 - LiOH K
Expansion (%)
ref
0.2
Li
0.1
0
0 10 20 30
Time (days)
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Map Cracks
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Extremely important when repairing a concrete dam
Typical Options:
n Monitoring
n Slot cut
n Upstream face membrane
n Roller compacted concrete
n Decrease the reservoir
n Dam Removal
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Examples of damage
Built in 1965, this deteriorated bridge is located 9.7 miles west

of Lee Vining at 9400 feet elevation on the eastern slope of the
Sierra Nevada.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Examples of damage
Airfield parking apron at Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California .

courtesy of U.S. Navy, NFESC
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete
Introduction
ß When a metal is inserted in an aqueous environment, a

potential difference develops at the metal-aqueous solution
interface.
ß The rate at which the reactions and the movement of

charges across the interface occurs is determined by the
magnitude of the potential difference.
ß In aqueous solution, the distribution of particles close to the

metal surface is no longer homogeneous, nor are the forces
isotropic.
Double Layer
ß Water molecules are polar and therefore are attracted to the

charged surface and orient themselves along the interface.
Charged ions can also form hydrated units. In analogy with a
parallel-plate condenser, the system of the two oppositely
charged planes is referred to as a double layer
Double Layer
ß Small ions generate large Coloumb forces, and therefore have

greater chance to become hydrated.
ß This means that most cations are solvated and most anions,
being large, are not solvated. This also explains why some
anions cause more corrosion damage.
ß The large anions are unhydrated and can get closer to the
metal surface, even though they may not participate directly
in the corrosion reactions.
Double layer
ß The ion can be adsorbed on the metal surface forming an

inner-sphere complex when no water molecule is between
the surface function group and the ion, or an outer-sphere
complex when at least one water molecule exists between
the surface and the ion. Ions can also be adsorbed in the
diffuse swarm of the double layer in order to neutralize the
surface charge
Double layer
P.K. Mehta
P.K. Mehta andand P.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure,
Corrosion damage
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Corrosion of reinforced concrete
ß Corrosion of reinforcing bars in the electrolytic concrete pore

solution involves electron or charge transfer through the
chemical reactions at the interface. Electrode potential
difference between the reinforcing bars and electrolyte is the
driving force for the charge transfer to occur.
Electrochemical process of steel corrosion in

concrete
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Volumetric change
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Carbonation of Concrete
Painting with Phenolphthalein
Concrete exposed to CO2

Carbonated concrete
(accelerated test)
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Corrosion due to Carbonation
CO2 CO2 CO2

CO2 CO2
Courtesy from Denise Dal Molin

P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Corrosion due to chlorides

Cl- Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl-

P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Factors needed for steel corrosion

H2O H2O H2O
O2 O2
O2 H2O
+ humidity
Corrosion of the rebar

P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Corrosion Potential
ß The corrosion potential of the steel in reinforced concrete

can be measured as the voltage difference between the
steel and a reference electrode in contact with the surface
of the concrete. Half-cell measurements may be made
relatively easily, using only a high impedance voltmeter
and a standard reference electrode, such as a copper-
copper sulfate electrode.
System for measuring the half-cell potential
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
The potential recorded in the half-cell measurement can

be used to indicate the probability of corrosion of the steel
reinforcement.
Measured potential Corrosion probability

(mV vs. CSE)
>-200 Low, less than10

probability of
corrosion
-200 ~ -350 Uncertain
<-350 High, greater than 90%

probability of corrosion
Results affected by
ß Degree of humidity in concrete. The measurement is very

sensitive to the humidity existing in the concrete. More
negative potentials result for concrete with higher degree of
saturation.
ß Stray currents. The presence of stray currents will

significantly affect the measurements of the half-cell potential.
Results affected by
ß Oxygen content near the reinforcement. The lack of

oxygen near the reinforcement results in more negative
potentials as compared to more aerated zones.
ß Microcracks. Localized corrosion can be generated by

microcracks, which also modify the concrete resistivity,
consequently affecting the corrosion potential measurement.
Polarization curve
ß Electrode potential difference between the reinforcing bars and

electrolyte is the driving force for the charge transfer to occur.
Their electrode potentials will change with the corrosion
reaction rate until a stable or equilibrium state (Ecorr) is
achieved. At this potential the anodic (ia) and cathodic (ic)
current densities are opposite and equal and to icorr.
Polarization curve
ß Deviation from the steady-state condition can be expressed by

the electrode polarization potential, also known, as
overpotential (ha or hc) where
ha = E - E corr
hc = E corr - E
Polarization curve
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Polarization Resistance
ß The slope at the origin of the polarization curve is

defined as the polarization resistance, Rp:
Ê dh ˆ ba bc
Rp = Á ˜ =
Ádi ˜
Ë app,c ¯ hÆ 0 2.3 i corr (b a + b c )
Measurement
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Polarization resistance curve
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Typical polarization resistance for steel in concrete
Rate of Polarization Corrosion

corrosion resistance, penetration,
Rp (kΩ.cm2) p (µm/year)
Very high 0.25 < Rp < 2.5 00 < p < 1000
High 2.5 < Rp < 25 10 < p < 100
Low/moderate 25 < Rp < 250 1 < p < 10
Passive 250 < Rp p<1
Experimental set-up
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Electrochemical Impedance
ß Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, or AC impedance,

is an informative method because not Rp only is measured,
but also the physical processes in concrete and steel/
concrete interface are assessed. Impedance measurement
employs small-amplitude alternating (AC) signals in a wide
range of frequency as a perturbation.
Electrochemical Impedance
ß In electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements, a

sine or cosine wave of AC current with magnitude I0 and
frequency f is commonly used as the input. The output is
recorded as a voltage response with the magnitude V(f) and a
phase angle f(f) with respect to the current
Voltage response, V, to sinusoidal current signal i.
V (t)
i (t)
V or i
time
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Equivalent circuit
ß Equivalent circuits have been used to model the impedance of

complex systems.
ß Pure resistance and pure capacitance represent two types of

impedance to the charge transfer.
ß Energy is dissipated through electrons or ions flowing through a

resistance element, which constitutes a non-frequency-
dependent impedance that has only a real part.
ß A capacitance element represents an energy storage process or

charge separation under an electrical field. It creates an
alternating electric current under an alternating electrical field,
and the impedance will decrease with frequency.
Model of equivalent circuit
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Nyquist plot for the impedance of the electric circuit
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Representation of the cracking-corrosion-cracking cycles
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Sulfate Attack
Sulfate attack
Importance
ß Sulfate attack on concrete has been reported

from many other parts of the world.
ß As early as 1936 the concrete construction
manual published by the U. S. Bureau of
Reclamation warned that concentrations of
soluble sulfates greater than 0.1 percent in soil
may have a deleterious effect on concrete, and
more than 0.5 percent soluble sulfate in soil may
have a serious effect.
Sulfate attack
Origin of the problem (1)
ß Most soils contain some sulfate in the form of

gypsum (typically 0.01 to 0.05 percent expressed as
SO4); this amount is harmless to concrete.
ß Higher concentrations of sulfate in groundwaters are
generally due to the presence of magnesium and
alkali sulfates.
ß Ammonium sulfate is frequently present in
agricultural soil and water. Effluents from furnaces
that use high-sulfur fuels and from the chemical
industry may contain sulfuric acid.
Sulfate attack
Origin of the problem (2)
Decay of organic matter in marshes, shallow

lakes, mining pits, and sewer pipes often leads to
the formation of H2S, which can be transformed
into sulfuric acid by bacterial action.
Thus, it is not uncommon to find deleterious
concentrations of sulfate in natural and industrial
waters.
Sulfate attack
Damage
ß Degradation of concrete as a result of chemical

reactions between hydrated portland cement and
sulfate ions takes two forms that are distinctly
different from each other.
ß Which one of the deterioration processes is
predominant in a given case depends on the
concentration and source of sulfate ions.
Sulfate attack
Expansion of concrete
ß When concrete cracks, its permeability increases

and the aggressive water penetrates more easily
into the interior, thus accelerating the process of
deterioration.
ß Sometimes, the expansion of concrete causes
serious structural problems.
Sulfate attack
Loss of Strength and Mass
ß Sulfate attack can also take the form of a

progressive loss of strength and loss of mass due
to loss of cohesiveness in the cement hydration
products.
Sulfate attack
Chemical Reactions
ß Calcium hydroxide and alumina-bearing phases of

hydrated portland cement are more vulnerable to
attack by sulfate ions.
Sulfate attack
Formation of ettringite and monosulfate
C3 A + 3C S H2 + 26H Æ C3 A.3C S.H32

ettringite
2C3 A + C3 A.3C S.H32 + 4H Æ 3C3 A.C S.H12

monosulfate
In the presence of sulfates, the monosulfate can form ettringite

which may lead to expansion
Sulfate attack
Formation of gypsum
ß Deterioration of hardened portland cement paste

by gypsum formation goes through a process that,
at first leads to reduction of stiffness and strength,
then by expansion and cracking, and eventually
the transformation of concrete into a mushy or
non-cohesive mass.
Sulfate attack
Formation of gypsum
Depending on the cation type associated with the

sulfate solution (Na+ or Mg2+), both calcium
hydroxide and C-S-H present in the hydrated
portland cement paste may be converted to
gypsum by sulfate attack
Sulfate attack
Sodium sulfate attack:
ß Na2SO4 +Ca(OH) 2 +2H2O ‡ CaSO4.2H2O + 2NaOH
the formation of sodium hydroxide as a by-product

of the reaction ensures the continuation of high
alkalinity in the system, which is essential for the
stability of the cementitious material C-S-H.
Sulfate attack
Magnesium sulfate attack
ß MgSO4 +Ca(OH) 2 +2H2O ‡ CaSO4.2H2O + Mg(OH) 2

ß 3 MgSO4 + 3CaO .2SiO2 .3H2O + 8 H2O‡
3CaSO4.2H2O + 3 Mg(OH) 2 + 2SiO2.H2O
ß the conversion of calcium hydroxide to gypsum is

accompanied by the simultaneous formation of
relatively insoluble magnesium hydroxide.
ß In the absence of hydroxyl ions in the solution C-S-H
is no longer stable and is also attacked by the sulfate
solution.
ß The magnesium sulfate attack is, therefore, more
severe on concrete.
Sulfate attack
Factors influencing sulfate attack
ß amount and nature of the sulfate present,

ß level of the water table and its seasonal variation,
ß flow of groundwater and soil porosity,
ß form of construction,
ß quality of concrete.
Sulfate attack
Effects of cement type and content on sulfate
attack in concrete
Sulfate attack
Effect of Fly Ash
Sulfate attack
Control of Sulfate Attack
ß The quality of concrete, specifically a low

permeability, is the best protection against sulfate
attack.
ß Adequate concrete thickness, high cement
content, low water/cement ratio and proper
compaction and curing of fresh concrete are
among the important factors that contribute to
low permeability.
ß In the event of cracking due to drying shrinkage,
frost action, corrosion of reinforcement, or other
causes, additional safety can be provided by the
use of sulfate-resisting cements.
Sulfate attack
Control of Sulfate Attack
ß Portland cement containing less than 5 percent

C3A (ASTM Type V) is sufficiently sulfate resisting
under moderate conditions of sulfate attack.
ß For high sulfate concentrations of the order of

1500 mg/liter or more, cements containing little
or no calcium hydroxide on hydration perform
much better: for instance, high-alumina cements,
portland blast-furnace slag cements with more
than 70 percent slag, and portland pozzolan
cements with at lest 25 percent pozzolan (natural
pozzolan, calcined clay, or low-calcium fly ash).
Sulfate attack
ACI Building Code 318
ß Negligible attack: When the sulfate content is

under 0.1 percent in soil, or under 150 ppm
(mg/liter) in water, there shall be no restriction on
the cement type and water/cement ratio.
ß Moderate attack: When the sulfate content is 0.1
to 0.2 percent in soil, or 150 to 1500 ppm in
water, ASTM Type II portland cement or portland
pozzolan or portland slag cement shall be used,
with less than an 0.5 water/cement ratio for
normal-weight concrete.
Sulfate attack
ACI Building Code 318
ß Severe attack: When the sulfate content is 0.2 to

2.00 percent in soil, or 1500 to 10,000 ppm in
water, ASTM Type V portland cement, with less
than an 0.45 water/cement ratio, shall be used.
ß Very severe attack: When the sulfate content is
over 2 percent in soil, or over 10,000 ppm in
water, ASTM Type V cement plus a pozzolanic
admixture shall be used, with less than an 0.45
water/cement ratio.
Sulfate attack
Holistic model
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Sulfate attack
Internal sulfate attack
ß In the 1980s, German researchers reported internal

sulfate attack in heat-cured concrete products. The
typical manifestation of distress is the presence of
voids around the coarse aggregate, indicating
expansion of the cement paste. Often these voids are
filled with ettringite crystals, which also often fill
other voids and cracks in the matrix. Because of the
late precipitation of ettringite, this phenomenon is
called delayed ettringite formation.
Sulfate attack
Mechanism
Ettringite does not precipitates when the cement

paste is cured at temperatures exceeding 70o C.
Instead, calcium monosulfoaluminate is formed
with much of the sulfate adsorbed in the C-S-H.
Sulfate attack
What is DEF?
DEF or Delayed ettringite formation - literally means the
formation of ettringite in concrete at later ages after the initial
curing period.
Occurs in concrete that has experienced elevated early

temperature (≥ 70°C) during curing (imposed heat-treatment
or significant internal heating) which prevents the formation
of normal ettringite (primary).
Delayed ettringite formation per se may or may not be

deleterious.
However, since large ettringite crystals are often observed in

damaged concrete, the term DEF has been associated with
degradation. Courtesy from C. Famy, K.L. Scrivener, A.R. Brough
Sulfate attack
The presence of ettringite is NOT a diagnosis of

deterioration because ettringite crystals are a normal
feature of mature concrete showing no sign of damage.
Sulfate attack
Ettringite in the hydration of OPC at 20°C
Ettringite is a normal and beneficial product of early OPC

hydration. It is necessary for setting regulation and
strength development.
C3A+ 3CSHx + 32H Æ C3A. 3CS.H32 Primary ettringite
Later, when all sulfate has been consumed Monosulfate forms.

HOWEVER
Ettringite may be present indefinitely because:

* Thermodynamically stable,
* Not all alumina is available to convert Ettringite into Monosulfate,
* Monosulfate can react with CO32– to form ettringite and
hemicarboaluminate.
Sulfate attack
Ettringite in the hydration of OPC at 20°C
In presence of moisture, existing ettringite
recrystallises as larger crystals in available spaces of
concrete:
Secondary Ettringite
Even though secondary ettringite

forms during subsequent exposure
to moisture, in a hardened concrete,
no damage occurs in the structure.
Secondary ettringite formation

is not damaging
Courtesy from C. Famy, K.L. Scrivener, A.R. Brough Supersulfated sound concrete 53 years in water
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Sulfate attack
Ettringite in OPC cured at T > 70o C
•Directly after heating, primary ettringite is NOT formed, instead
monosulfate develops within the paste:
C3A + CSHx + 12H → C3A. CS.H12
Monosulfate 800
X-ray diffraction
600
Intensity (counts)
•At the same time, sulfate is sorbed 400 MS
Expansive
into the C-S-H which is rapidly and
extensively formed during high 200
temperature curing: Non-expansive
0
S incorporated in the C-S-H 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19

2 theta
Courtesy from C. Famy, K.L. Scrivener, A.R. Brough
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Materials
Sulfate attack
Directly after heating, Microstructure of a mortar cured at 90°C/12 h
Outer C-S-H:
C-S-H formed outside the
largest cement grains.
Inner C-S-H:
C-S-H formed within the
boundaries of the former
cement grains.
Chemical composition
of
inner and outer C-S-H by
EDS in the SEM.
SEM/BSE image
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Sulfate attack
0.10
INNER C-S-H
Expansive
EDS m-analyses in the
SEM Non-expansive
S/Ca
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10
Al/Ca
During heating, SULFATE and ALUMINIUM incorporated in the Inner

C-S-H.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Sulfate attack
OUTER C-S-H 0.2

EDS m-analyses in the
SEM
0.15
S/Ca
0.1
Monosulfate
0.05
0
SULFATE sorbed
into the outer C-S-H 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
gel Al/Ca
During heating, MONOSULFATE is intermixed in the small
pores of outer C-S-H gel on a sub-micrometre scale.
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andP.J.M.
Materials
Sulfate attack
Mechanism (cont.)
ß Later, when the concrete cools down to ambient

temperature the calcium monosulfoaluminate is
transformed into poorly crystalline ettringite which,
on exposure to high humidity, causes an
expansion and microcracking in the matrix and
generates a gap around the aggregate.
ß With time and in the presence of moisture, large
crystals of ettringite develop from the smaller
ones.
Sulfate attack
Mechanism
Expansion in the paste caused by DEF originates

cracks in the paste and at the aggregate-cement paste
interface. Subsequently, ettringite recrystallises in the
cracks from sub-microscopic crystals dispersed through
the paste.
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Materials
Sulfate attack
DEF Courtesy of C. Famy
P.K.
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Materials
Sulfate attack
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andP.J.M.
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Materials
Sulfate attack
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Materials
Portland Cement
Portland Cement
Portland Cement
Definition
A hydraulic cement capable of setting, hardening and

remaining stable under water. It consists essentially of
hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing calcium
sulfate.
Portland Cement
Manufacture
Raw Materials
ß 2/3 calcareous materials (lime bearing) - limestone
ß 1/3 argillaceous materials (silica, alumina, iron)- clay
Portland Cement
Gypsum and portland cement
Portland Cement
Flow diagram of the dry process for portland
cement manufacture
Portland Cement
Raw Materials
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Materials
Portland Cement
Crushing
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Materials
Portland Cement
Blending
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Materials
Portland Cement
Old Method
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Materials
Portland Cement
Kiln
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Materials
Portland Cement
Grinding
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Materials
Portland Cement
Production Process
Problem
Production of cement
Is responsible for 7%
CO2 production in the
world
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Materials
Portland Cement
Cement grains
Courtesy from
P.K. Mehta andProf. Karen
P.J.M. Scrivener
Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Portland Cement
Notation
C CaO
S SiO2
A Al2O3
F Fe2O3
H H2O
Portland Cement
Cement Minerals
C3S : 3CaOSiO2
C2S : 2CaOSiO2
C3A : 3CaOAl2O3
C4AF : 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3
Portland Cement
Hydration
cement
+ dissolution precipitation
water
Courtesy: Prof. Karen Scivener, EPFL

Portland Cement
Chemical Reactions
2C3S + 6H --> C3S2H3 + 3CH + 120 cal / g

2C2S + 4H --> C3S2H3 + CH + 62 cal / g
C3A + CSH2 --> Ettringite + 300 cal / g
Portland Cement
Heat liberation rate of a portland cement paste
during the setting and early hardening period
Portland Cement
Hydrated Paste
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Portland Cement
Early Hydration
3 hours 10 hours
Courtesy: Prof. Karen Scrivener
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Materials
Portland Cement
Hydration Products
Hadley Grain
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Materials
Portland Cement
Solids in the Cement Paste
Calcium Silicate Hydrate
Notation: C-S-H
C/S Ratio: 1.5 to 2.0
Main Characteristics
High Surface (100 to 700 m2/ g) ---->
High Van der Walls Force -----> Strength.
Volume % : 50 a 60
Portland Cement
C-S-H
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Materials
Portland Cement
Calcium Sulfoaluminate Hydrates

Volume % : 15 to 20
first : ettringite
after : monosulfate hydrated.
Portland Cement
Calcium Hydroxide
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Portland Cement
Calcium Sulfoaluminate Hydrates

Volume % : 15 to 20
first : ettringite
after : monosulfate hydrated.
Portland Cement
Ettringite
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Portland Cement
Hydration of Portland Cement
Courtesy from
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P.J.M. Scrivener
Monteiro, Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
Portland Cement
Review – Identify the crystal
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Portland Cement
Review 2 -- Identify the crystal
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Materials
Portland Cement
Review 3 -- Identify the crystal
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Materials
Portland Cement
pores
Concrete has a complex microstructure
Sand Particle
C-S-H
Cement grain
Calcium hydroxide
Courtesy Prof. K. Scrivener

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Portland Cement
Typical rates of formation of hydration products
in an ordinary portland cement paste
Portland Cement
Influence of formation of hydration products on setting
time, porosity, permeability, and strength of cement paste
Portland Cement
Influence of cement composition on strength
Portland Cement
Influence of cement composition on heat of
hydration
Portland Cement
Influence of cement fineness on strength
Portland Cement
Influence of compound composition on heat
development in cement pastes
Portland Cement
Influence of fineness on heat development in
cement pastes
Portland Cement
Influence of hydration temperature on heat
development in cement pastes
Portland Cement
Hydration process – Initial Condition
Let’s study a cement paste with w/c= 0.63

Start with 100 cm3 of cement.
Compute the mass of cement: Mc = 3.14* 100 = 314 g
Compute the mass of water: Mw = 0.63 * 314 = 200 g
Vw= 200 cm3
Vc= 100 cm3
Portland Cement
Hydration Process
Miracle of hydration: Vp = 2 Vc
Vw= 200 cm3 50% Vw= 150 cm3
Vp = 100 cm3
Vc= 100 cm3 Vc=50 cm3
Portland Cement
Once More…
Vw= 200 cm3 75% Vw= 125 cm3
Vp = 150 cm3
Vc= 100 cm3 Vc=25 cm3
Portland Cement
Finally
Vw= 100 cm3

Vw= 200 cm3 100%
Vp = 200 cm3
Vc= 100 cm3
Portland Cement
Exam question
Calculate the water/cement ratio needed to obtain

zero porosity in a fully hydrated cement paste.
W/c = 100/100*3.14
100 cm3 100% W/c= 0.32

200 cm3
100 cm3
Portland Cement
Voids in the Hydrated Cement Paste (HCP)
ß Interlayer space in CSH
size = 5 to 25 Å
No adverse effect on strength and permeability
Some effect on drying shrinkage and creep
ß Capillary Voids
> 50 nm : detrimental to strength and impermeability
< 50 nm: important to drying shrinkage and creep.
ß Air Voids
entrapped air: ~ 3 mm
entrained air: 50 to 200 microns
Portland Cement
Water inside the pores
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Portland Cement
Orders of magnitude
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Portland Cement
Orders of Magnitude
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Portland Cement
Setting and Hardening
Stiffening: loss of consistency by the plastic cement paste

and it is associated with the slump loss phenomena in
concrete.
Setting: Solidification of the plastic cement paste
Initial Set: Beginning of solidification (point in time when

the paste has become unworkable) (>45 min.)
Final Set: Final solidification (< 375 min.)
Portland Cement
ASTM Portland Cements
Type I General Purpose

Type II Moderate heat of hydration and sulfate resistance (C3A
< 8%) : general construction, sea water, mass concrete
Type III High early strength (C3A < 15%) : emergency repairs,
precast, winter construction.
Type IV Low heat ( C3S < 35%, C3A < 7%, C2S > 40%)
:mass concrete
Type V - sulfate resistant ( C3A < 5%) : sulfate in soil, sewers
Portland Cement
Main Components of PC
Main Components of PC
amount notes
C3S 50% very reactive compound, high heat of
hydration, high early strength
C2S 25% low heat of hydration, slow reaction
C3A 10% problems with sulfate attack, high heat of
hydration
C4AF 10%
gypsum 5% used to control the set of cement
Portland Cement
Typical Compound Composition of Various Types of
Portland Cement
Compound composition range (%)

ASTM type General description C3S C2S C3A C4AF
I General purpose 45-55 20-3O 8-12 6-1O
II General purpose with moderate 40-50 25-35 5-7 6-10
sulfate resistance and moderate
heat of hydration
III High early strength 50-65 15-25 8-14 6-10
V Sulfate resistant 40-50 25-35 0-4 10-20
ASTM also has Types I-A, II-A, III-A -- cements

with air entrainment
Portland Cement
Cement Requirements
Requirement specified Type Type Type Type
by ASTM C 150 I II III V
Fineness: 280 280 None 280
minimum (m2/kg)
Soundness: 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
maximum, autoclave expansion (%)
Time of setting
Initial set 45 45 45 45
minimum (min)
Final set 375 375 375 375
maximum (min)
Compressive strength:
minimum [MPa]
1 day in moist air None None 12.4 None
1 day moist air + 2 days 12.4 10.3 24.1 8.3

water
1 day moist air + 6 days water 19.3 17.2a None 15.2
Portland Cement
Other hydraulic cements
ß a) Blended P.C
ß b) Modified P.C.
ß c) Non-calcium silicate cements
Portland Cement
Blended PC
ß Type I-P P stands for pozzolan. It contains 25 to 30% of

fly ash. It has low heat of hydration, develops strength
over time.
ß Type I-S S stands for slag. It contains 50 to 60% of

Blast-Furnace Slag.
Portland Cement
Changes in pore size distribution of cement
pastes with varying pozzolan content
Portland Cement
Diagrammatic representation of well-hydrated cement
pastes made with a portland pozzolan cement
Portland Cement
Effect of substituting an Italian natural pozzolan on
the heat of hydration of portland cement
Portland Cement
Strength of blended cement containing a
pozzolan
Portland Cement
Strength of blended cement containing a blast-
furnace slag.
Portland Cement
Influence of pozzolan addition on alkali-
aggregate expansion
Portland Cement
Influence of slag addition on alkali-
aggregate expansion
Portland Cement
Effect of curing age on the calcium hydroxide content of
a cement-sand mortar made with a portland-pozzolan
cement
Portland Cement
Effect of curing age and proportion of slag on the lime
content of the portland-slag cement paste.
Portland Cement
Strength development rates for various
cements at normal temperature
Portland Cement
Effect of low curing-temperatures on the
strength of high-alumina cement concrete
Portland Cement
Influence of water-cement ratio on the long time
strength of calcium aluminate cement concretes
Portland Cement
Effect of temperature rise on strength of
calcium aluminate cement concretes
Portland Cement
Modified PC
ß Type K shrinkage compensating cement
ß Jet Set Cement Fast Setting (3-5 min)
Portland Cement
Expansive cement
Portland Cement
Effect of water-cement ratio on strength
Portland Cement
Effect of water-cement ratio on expansion
Portland Cement
Effect of curing conditions on expansion
Portland Cement
Relative proportions of constructions joints in
concrete slabs
Aggregates for Concrete
Significance:
ß Cost
ß Provide dimensional stability
ß Influence hardness, abrasion resistance, elastic modulus
Aggregate Type
Coarse aggregate > 3/16 in. - 4.75 mm (No. 4

sieve)
Fine aggregate < 3/16 in. - 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve)

and > 75 µm (No. 200 sieve)
Aggregate Type -mineralogy
ß Sedimentary Rocks (cost effective - near the surface),

about 80% of aggregates
ß Natural sand and gravel
ß Sandstone, limestone (dolomite), chert, flint, graywacke
ß Metamorphic Rocks: slate, gneiss
ß Excellent to poor
ß Igneous Rocks
ß Intrusive (plutonic): coarse-grained; granite
ß Shallow Intrusive: fine-grained; riolite, andesite, basalt
ß Extrusive: fine-grained; tuff, pumice, basalt hard,
ß Tough, strong : excellent aggregate.
Density
(pcf) concrete (pcf)

Normal weight aggregate 110 150
Lightweight Aggregate < 70 90-115
perlite - thermal insulators
expanded shales - structural
concrete
Heavyweight Aggregate 115-200 <200
Lightweight aggregate spectrum
P.K. Mehta and

P.K. Mehta and P.J.M.
P.J.M.Monteiro,
Monteiro,Concrete:
Concrete:Microstructure,
Microstructure,Properties,
Properties,and
andMaterials
Materials
LWA Concrete
Courtesy from Joao Rossignolo

LWA Concrete

Industrial by-products used in concrete
ß Slags: by-product of metallurgic industries
ß Not a high quality aggregate because it has some impurities
ß Not used for prestressed concrete
ß Used for blocks
ß Much more value as a cementing material
ß Fly-ash: by-product of burning coal (60 million ton/y

in USA)
ß Sintered or pelletized fly-ash has been used for LWA
ß Good to be used in combination with P.C.
ß Aggregate from recycled concrete (demolished

concrete buildings)
ß Aggregate is contaminated with cement paste, gypsum, etc.
ß Cost of crushing, grinding, dust control, and separation of

undesirable constituents
ß Silt, clay increase water requirement (wash them out)
ß Aggregates from Municipal Wastes
ß Not appropriate
Aggregate characteristics that affect concrete properties
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Characteristics controlled by porosity
ß Density
ß I) Apparent specific density: Density of the material

including the internal pores.
ß II) Bulk density (dry-roded unit weight) weight of the

aggregate that would fill a unit volume: affects the following
concrete behavior: mix design, workability, and unit weight.
Absorption and Surface Moisture
ß Affects the following concrete behavior:
ß Mix-design,
ß Soundness,
ß Strength/abrasion resistance.
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Bulking
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Soundness
ß Aggregate is considered unsound when volume changes in
the aggregate induced by weather such as alternate cycles
of getting and drying or freezing and thawing result in
concrete deterioration.
ß Depends on: porosity, flaws and contaminants
ß Pumice- (10% absorption) - no problem with freezing and

thawing
ß Limestone- breaks use smaller aggregate (critical size)
Particle size
ß Size: Affects the following concrete properties: water

demand, cement content, microcracking.
ß Grading
ß Depends on: proportions of coarse and fine
aggregate
ß Affects: paste content (cost economy), workability
Reduction of voids
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Reduction of Voids
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Shape and Surface Texture
ß Round, angular, elongated, flaky
ß Rough-textured and elongated particles require more

cement paste to produce workable concrete mixtures,
this increasing the cost.
Surface Texture
u Depends on u Affects
ß Rock hardness, ß Workability,
ß Grain size, ß Paste demand,
ß Porosity, ß Initial strength
ß Previous exposure
Chemical Admixtures
Chemical Admixtures
Admixtures
ß Reasons
ß (1) Improve or modify some or several

properties of portland concrete.
ß (2) Compensate for some deficiency
Chemical Admixtures
Admixtures
ß Classification
ß Surfactants (0.05-0.5%; new ones 2%)
ß Chemical Admixtures (1-4% by weight of cement)
ß Mineral Admixtures (> 15% by weight of cement)
Chemical Admixtures
A short (but important detour into surface chemistry)
ß The presence of a surface breaks the molecular symmetry that

exists inside a material.
ß The molecules at the surface have different energy than the

molecules inside the bulk material.
Chemical Admixtures
Surface energy
Surface energy, Usurf, is the difference between the energy

of the molecules at the surface and the energy that they
would have within the body.
Usurf = α S
Where S is the area of the interface and α is the surface tension.
Chemical Admixtures
Surface Energy
ß Nature brings a body to its minimum energy.
ß Small spherical drops of liquid and gas bubbles are good

examples of surface minimization for a given volume.
ß The decrease in surface induces a contraction of the drop,

increasing its internal pressure and making it higher than the
external pressure.
Chemical Admixtures
Surface Energy
ß A balance of energy requires that the reduction in surface

energy (adS) be equal to the work done by the surface
forces in reducing the surface.
ß The work done can be expressed as where is the volume

change.
a dS = psurf dV
Chemical Admixtures
Applications
Sphere of radius r, 3
S = 4 p r 2 V = 4p r 3
psurf = 2a r
Cylinder of radius r and height h S = 2p r h V = p r2 h
psurf = a r
as the size of the sphere or the cylinder decreases, the magnitude of
the surface pressure increases greatly
Chemical Admixtures
Consider a thin layer of liquid between two parallel plates
a 2 a cosq
psurf = =
r d
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Chemical Admixtures
Ice Formation in Concrete
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Chemical Admixtures
Air Voids
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Chemical Admixtures
Ice Forming in Air Voids
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Chemical Admixtures
Air-Entraining Surfactants
ß Salts of wood resins, protainaceous materials and

petroleum acids, and some synthetic detergents.
Chemical Admixtures
Air-Entraining Surfactants
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Chemical Admixtures
Advantages of Using Air-Entrained Surfactants
ß Freezing and thawing cycles
ß Improve workability
ß Reduce tendency for segregation and bleeding
Chemical Admixtures
Disadvantages of Using Air-Entrained Surfactants
ß Loss in strength ( for each 1% of air causes 5% loss in strength)
ß Increase permeability
ß In case of overdoses, they cause delay in setting and hardening
Chemical Admixtures
Surface - Active Chemicals (Surfactants)
long-chain organic molecules, one end of each is

hydrophilic (water-attracting) and the other hydrophobic
(water-repelling).
hydrophilic end contains one or more polar groups, such

as -COO- -SO3-, or -NH3+.
Chemical Admixtures
ASTM Categories (C494) : Water Reducers
ß Low range: water reduction of 5% (minimum)

WR (e.g. lignosulfonate)
– Type A : normal
– Type D : WR and retarding
– Type E : WR and accelerating
ß High range: water reduction of 12% (minimum)

HRWR, Superplasticizer (synthetic polymers: naphthalene-,
melamine- or acrylate- based)
– Type F : normal
– Type G : HRWR and retarding
Chemical Admixtures
Water Reducing Agents
ß Salts and derivatives of lignosulfonic acids, hydroxylated

carnoxylic acids, and polysaccharides.
ß The anionic polar group is joined to hydrocarbon chain

which itself is polar or hydrophilic.
Chemical Admixtures
Examples
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Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism
The polar chain is adsorbed alongside the cement particle;

instead of directing a nonpolar end toward water, in this case
the surfactant directs a polar end, lowering the surface tension of
the water and making the cement particle hydrophilic.
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Chemical Admixtures
Consequence
As a result of layers of water dipoles surrounding the hydrophilic

cement particles, their flocculation is prevented and a well-
dispersed system is obtained.
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Chemical Admixtures
Advantages of Using Water-Reducing Admixtures
ß Increase the consistency
ß Achieve higher compressive strength
ß Cement saving
ß Important: not all three benefits can be obtained at the

same time
Chemical Admixtures
Lignosulfonate as a Water Reducer
OH
H 3 CO HO
O O
SO 3 Na
H 3 CO
Courtesy from Carmel JOLICOEUR
Chemical Admixtures
Superplasticizers
ß Consist of sulfonated slats of melamine or napththalene

formaldehyde condensates.
ß Also called high range water-reducing admixtures because

they are able to reduce 3 to 4 times water compared to normal
water-reducing admixtures.
Chemical Admixtures
Superplasticizers
ß Long-chain, high-molecular mass anionic surfactants with

a large number of polar groups in the hydrocarbon chain.
ß Normal dosage: 1-2% by weight of cement.
Chemical Admixtures
Superplasticizers
ß 25 to 30% of water reduction for a given consistency (normal

plasticizer: 5 to 10% of water reduction).
ß No problem with bleeding and segregation because of the

colloidal size of the long-chain particles of the admixture which
obstructs the path of the bleed water.
Mode of Action of Superplasticizers
"Physical" binding and dispersion
flocculated deflocculated dispersed in less water
Low High Intermediate

fluidity fluidity fluidity
"Physical" effects operative in any slurry or paste
Illustration of Physical Dispersion Effect
+10 % water Ô Mineral Paste ! +0.1 wt% PNS

Chemical Admixtures
Characterization of Superplasticizers
Bulk Functional
ß pH, conductivity ß rheology of pastes (inert or
ß % solid reactive minerals)
ß viscosity ß zeta potential on reference
ß specific gravity
minerals (dilute)
ß surface tension
ß loss on ignition, TGA ß adsorption on various minerals
(dilute and pastes)
Physico-chemical ß influence on hydration
ß elemental and ionic analysis reactions
ß acid-base titration ß specific interactions
ß charge density
ß molar mass distribution
ß NMR, IR, UV spectroscopy
Typical Scale of Components in
SF-Cement Paste
SF
50X
Cement
SF 500X SO4

Chemical Admixtures
Influence of PNS on Ettringite Morphology
Without PNS With PNS
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Chemical Admixtures
Mode of Action of Superplasticizers
"Chemical" Effects: Changes in morphology
SEM micrographs of a high alkali cement paste
0% PNS; 30 min hydr. 4% PNS; 30 min hydr.

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Chemical Admixtures
OPTIONS IN SP APPLICATIONS
60
with SP
Increased
Flow table spread (cm)
50 workability
Increased without SP
40 strength
30
120 140 160 180 200 220 240
3
Water content (kg/m ) Courtesy from Carmel JOLICOEUR
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andP.J.M.
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Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism
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Materials
Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism 2
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Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism 3
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Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism 4
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Chemical Admixtures
HRWR or Superplasticizers:
Synthetic Water-Soluble Polyelectrolytes
Type of monomer (building blocks)
Length (Mw)
Branching, cross-
linking
Charge, - - - - - -
M+n
counter-ions
Co-polymers
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Chemical Admixtures
Structure of PolyNaphthaleneSulfonate (PNS)
CH 2
SO 3 Na
n
Chemical Admixtures
Structure of PolyMelamineSulfonate (PMS)
NH N NH O
N N
HN
SO 3 Na
n
Chemical Admixtures
Structure of a Co-Polymer
COONa
CH CH CH 2 CH
O C N
O
NH
n
SO 3 Na
Chemical Admixtures
Structure of PolyAcrylic Esters (PAE)
R1 R1 R1
CH 2 C CH 2 C CH 2 C
COONa n CO X o
m
O
Chemical Admixtures
Set-Controlling Chemicals
ß Rheological changes in a fresh concrete mixture
ß Stiffening: loss of consistency by the plastic cement paste
Chemical Admixtures
Set-Controlling Chemicals
ß Setting: beginning of solidification. At the initial set the

paste becomes unworkable so the placement, compaction
and finishing of concrete beyond this point becomes difficult
(4 to 6 hrs. at 70 F). Final set is the time required for the
paste to solidify completely.
ß Hardening: strength gain with time.
Chemical Admixtures
Classification
ß Accelerator: decreases the setting time.
ß Retarder: increases the setting time.
Chemical Admixtures
Classification
Class I: CaSO4-2H2O; Class

II: CaCl2, Ca (NO3)2; Class
III: K2CO3, NaCO3, NaSiO3;
Class IV: (1) surfactants
with polar groups in the
hydrocarbon chain (i.e.,
gluconates, lignosulfates,
and sugars), (2) sodium
salts of phosphoric, boric,
oxalic, or hydrofluoric acid,
(3) zinc or lead salts; Class
V: salts of formic acid and
triethanolamine.
Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism of Action (I)
ß The action of set-controlling chemicals on portland

cement can be attributed mainly to dissolving of the
anhydrous constituents forming anions (silicate and
aluminate) and cations (calcium), the solubility of each
being dependent on the type and concentration of the
acid and base ions present in the solution.
Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism of Action (II)
ß An accelerating admixture must promote the dissolution of

the cations (calcium ions) and anions from the cement.
ß A retarding admixture must impede the dissolution of the

cement cations (calcium ions) and anions.
Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism of Action (III)
The presence of monovalent cations in solution (i.e., K+ or

Na+) reduces the solubility of Ca2+ ions but tends to
promote the solubility of silicate and aluminate ions. In
small concentrations, the former effect is dominant; in
large concentrations, the latter effect becomes dominant.
Chemical Admixtures
Mechanism of Action (IV)
The presence of certain monovalent anions in solution

(i.e., Cl, N03-, or S042-) reduces the solubility of silicates and
aluminates but tends to promote the solubility of calcium ions.
In small concentrations, the former effect is dominant; in large
concentrations, the latter effect becomes dominant.
Chemical Admixtures
Accelerating admixtures
ß Useful for modifying the properties of concrete, particularly in
cold weather, to:
ß (a) expedite the start of finishing operations and, when
necessary, the application of insulation for protection;
ß (b) reduce the time required for proper curing and protection;
ß (c) increase the rate of early strength development so as to
permit earlier removal of forms and earlier opening of the
construction for service; and
ß (d) permit more efficient plugging of leaks against hydraulic
pressures.
Chemical Admixtures
Accelerating Admixtures
ß Calcium chloride is by far the best known and most widely

used accelerator. See Table 8.3 for the potential problems in
using such admixture.
ß There are accelerators that do not contain choride: calcium

formate, formic acid.
Chemical Admixtures
Accelerating Admixtures
P.K.Mehta
P.K. Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Chemical Admixtures
Retarding admixtures
ß Compensation for adverse ambient temperature conditions

particularly in hot weather. Extensive use is made of retarding
admixtures to permit proper placement and finishing and to
overcome damaging and accelerating effects of high
temperatures.
Chemical Admixtures
Retarding admixtures
ß Control of setting of large structural units to keep concrete

workable through_out the entire placing period.
ß This is particularly important for the elimination of cold joints

and discontinuities in large structural units.
ß Also control of setting may prevent cracking of concrete beams,

bridge decks, and composite construction due to form deflection
of movement associated with placing of adjacent units.
Chemical Admixtures
Chemical Admixtures
ß Type A: water-reducing
ß Type B: retarding
ß Type C: accelerating
ß Type D: water-reducing and retarding
ß Type E: water-reducing and accelerating
ß Type F: high-range water-reducing
ß Type G: high-range and retarding
Chemical Admixtures
Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures
Courtesy from Prof. Gettu
Shrinkage
Drying
Autogenous
Thermal
(contraction)
Plastic
Carbonation
Time
hours days weeks months years
Chemical Admixtures
Shrinkage Mechanisms
• Plastic shrinkage: Due to the loss of water in the plastic state

due to evaporation.
• Autogenous shrinkage: Chemical shrinkage (lower volume of
hydrates than cement and water) + Autodessication (reduction
in the pore water due to hydration).
• Thermal contraction (or thermal shrinkage): Due to the
decrease in temperature after setting.
• Drying shrinkage: Due to the loss of water to the environment
in the hardened state.
• Carbonation shrinkage: Volume reduction due to the reaction
of hydrated cement paste with CO2 in the presence of moisture.
Chemical Admixtures
Ways of Reducing Shrinkage
• Reduction of the water content (by using superplasticizers).
• Reduction of the cement content (by optimizing the paste

volume, using complementary materials).
• Utilization of special cements and expansive agents.
• Utilization of shrinkage-reducing admixtures.

Chemical Admixtures
Shrinkage Reducing Admixture (SRA)
• First used in Japan, in the 1980s.
• Results in the literature:

• Reduces shrinkage by 35-60%.
• Reduces restrained shrinkage cracking.
• Reduces permeability and macro-pore volume in the
cement paste.
• Increases the fluidity (plasticizing effect).
• Slightly reduces the compressive and tensile
strengths, and the modulus of elasticity.
Mechanism of Action
SRA reduces the surface tension of the evaporable

water in the pores.
Leads to lower capillar stresses during drying.
Cement particle
Water
Chemical Admixtures
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
• When the bleed water does not compensate the water

loss due to evaporation, shrinkage occurs.
• When plastic shrinkage is restrained, surface cracking

occurs.
• Elements and structures with high surface/volume ratios,

such as pavements, tunnel linings and bridge decks, are
prone to cracking.

Chemical Admixtures
Plastic Shrinkage Tests
• Normal strength concrete (35 MPa, w/c = 0.45): Fresh

concrete specimens subjected to a temperature of
47°C, relative humidity of 26% and a wind velocity of
26 km/hr; evaporation rate = 1.5 kg/m2/hr.
• High strength concrete (70 MPa, w/c = 0.35): Fresh

concrete specimens subjected to a temperature of
37°C, relative humidity of 31% and a wind velocity of
25 km/hr; evaporation rate = 0.6 kg/m2/hr.

Chemical Admixtures
Plastic shrinkage: Test configuration
Evaporation pan
Prisms
Environment
Sensors
Panel
P.K.Mehta
P.K. Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Chemical Admixtures
Plastic Shrinkage Tests: Prism specimen
Concrete prism,150x142x600 mm Anchor bolts,

5 mm diameter
Displacement sensor
Plastic sheet
“Stress riser”, 106 mm high

Insulation Courtesy from Prof. Gettu
P.K.Mehta
P.K. Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Chemical Admixtures
Admixtures Studied
Admixture Type Density Solids

kg/lt %
Superplasticizer D Naphthalene based (Non-surfactant) 1.15 44.4
Superplasticizer G Polycarboxylate (Ethoxylated 1.06 21.6

non-ionic surfactant)
SRA E Glycol based (Non-ionic surfactant) 0.90 3.7

SRA S Glycol based (Non-ionic surfactant) 0.95 26.9
SRA R Wax based (Ethoxylated non-ionic 0.94 39.8
surfactant)

Plastic Shrinkage Test Results
NORMAL STRENGTH CONCRETE HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
Horizontal Displacements, microns

500
CD-0
Horizontal Displacements, microns
500
400
400 HPD-0
300
300
200
200 CG-S
CG-0
100 100
CG-E
HPD-E
0 0
CG-R
-100 -100
0 60 120 180 240 0 60 120 180 240

Time, min Time, min
Study of Shrinkage and Creep of Concretes with SRA
Strain
Instantaneous strain = ei
ei + Drying
creep strain
ei + Basic creep strain
Drying shrinkage
strain
Autogenous
shrinkage strain
Curing Age
Chemical Admixtures
Properties of the Concretes
Concrete sp/c SRA/c Slump (cm) fc (28 días)
CREF-SN 0.69% 0 17 45.0
CREF-SC 0.14% 0 18 45.2
CSRA1(1.5%)-SN 0.40% 1.5% 17 42.8
CSRA1(2%)-SN 0.33% 2% 17 39.8
CSRA2-SC 0.12% 2.3% 20 43.2
CSRA3-SC 0.14% 1.5% 17 42.2
P.K.Mehta
P.K. Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Results: Autogenous Shrinkage
0.12
0.08
Deformación (mm/m)
Strain (mm/m)
0.04
-0.04 C-SN
C-SC
C-ARR1%
C-ARR2%
-0.08
100 200 300 400
Tiempo (días)
Time (days) Courtesy from Prof. Gettu
Results: Drying Shrinkage
REF-SM
Drying Shrinkage Strain (mm/m)
0.4 REF-SC
Deformación por secado (mm/m)
RE-SN
SRA1(1.5%)-SN
SRA1(2%)-SN
SRA2-SC
0.3
SRA3-SC
SRA4-SN
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 1 10 100
Tiempo de secado (días)
Time (days) Courtesy from Prof. Gettu
Results: Basic Creep
1.2
C-SN
C-SC
Coeficiente de Fluencia Básica
C-ARR1%
Basic Creep Coefficient
C-ARR2%
0.8
0.4
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
log (t-t ), días
Log (Time,o in days) Courtesy from Prof. Gettu
Results: Drying Creep
1.2
C-SN
Drying Creep Coefficient
Coeficiente de Fluencia por secado
C-SC
C-ARR1%
C-ARR2%
0.8
0.4
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

log (t-tin
Log (Time, o ), días
days)
Chemical Admixtures
Results: Summary
• Considerable reduction in the drying shrinkage of

concrete (30-50%), as a function of the type and
dosage of polypropylene glycol SRA. In the case of
a wax-based SRA, the reduction is 13%.
• Absence of autogenous shrinkage in concretes

with SRA.

Aggregate Type
ß Coarse aggregate > 3/16 in. - 4.75 mm (No. 4

sieve)
ß Fine aggregate < 3/16 in. and > 150 (No. 200
sieve)
ß Sedimentary Rocks (cost effective - near the surface),

about 80% of aggregates
ß Natural sand and gravel
ß Sandstone, limestone (dolomite), chert, flint, graywacke
ß Metamorphic Rocks: slate, gneiss
ß Excellent to poor
ß Igneous Rocks
ß Intrusive (plutonic): coarse-grained; granite
ß Shallow Intrusive: fine-grained; riolite, andesite, basalt
ß Extrusive: fine-grained; tuff, pumice, basalt hard,
ß Tough, strong : excellent aggregate.
Density
(pcf) concrete (pcf)

Normal weight aggregate 110 150
Lightweight Aggregate < 70 90-115
perlite - thermal insulators
expanded shales - structural
concrete
Heavyweight Aggregate 115-200 <200
Lightweight aggregate spectrum
P.K. Mehta and

P.K. Mehta and P.J.M.
P.J.M.Monteiro,
Monteiro,Concrete:
Concrete:Microstructure,
Microstructure,Properties,
Properties,and
andMaterials
Materials
LWA Concrete

LWA Concrete

ß Slags: by-product of metallurgic industries
ß Not a high quality aggregate because it has some impurities
ß Not used for prestressed concrete
ß Used for blocks
ß Much more value as a cementing material
ß Fly-ash: by-product of burning coal (60 million ton/y

in USA)
ß Sintered or pelletized fly-ash has been used for LWA
ß Good to be used in combination with P.C.
ß Aggregate from recycled concrete (demolished

concrete buildings)
ß Aggregate is contaminated with cement paste, gypsum, etc.
ß Cost of crushing, grinding, dust control, and separation of

undesirable constituents
ß Silt, clay increase water requirement (wash them out)
ß Aggregates from Municipal Wastes
ß Not appropriate
Aggregate characteristics that affect concrete properties
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
and P.J.M.
Materials
Characteristics controlled by porosity
ß Density
ß I) Apparent specific density: Density of the material

including the internal pores.
ß II) Bulk density (dry-roded unit weight) weight of the

aggregate that would fill a unit volume: affects the following
concrete behavior: mix design, workability, and unit weight.
Absorption and Surface Moisture
ß Affects the following concrete behavior:
ß Mix-design,
ß Soundness,
ß Strength/abrasion resistance.
P.K.
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Mehtaand
and P.J.M.
Materials
Bulking
P.K.
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Mehtaand
and P.J.M.
Materials
Soundness
ß Aggregate is considered unsound when volume changes in
the aggregate induced by weather such as alternate cycles
of getting and drying or freezing and thawing result in
concrete deterioration.
ß Depends on: porosity, flaws and contaminants
ß Pumice- (10% absorption) - no problem with freezing and

thawing
ß Limestone- breaks use smaller aggregate (critical size)
Particle size
ß Size: Affects the following concrete properties: water

demand, cement content, microcracking.
ß Grading
ß Depends on: proportions of coarse and fine
aggregate
ß Affects: paste content (cost economy), workability
Reduction of voids
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
and P.J.M.
Materials
Reduction of Voids
P.K.
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and P.J.M.
Materials
Shape and Surface Texture
ß Round, angular, elongated, flaky
ß Rough-textured and elongated particles require more

cement paste to produce workable concrete mixtures,
this increasing the cost.
Surface Texture
u Depends on u Affects
ß Rock hardness, ß Workability,
ß Grain size, ß Paste demand,
ß Porosity, ß Initial strength
ß Previous exposure
Mineral Admixtures
Mineral Admixtures
The Pantheon, called the Temple of the Gods, is one

of the greatest engineering wonders of the Roman
Empire. Built in 128 A.D. by Emperor Hadrian, the
Pantheon held the world record for the largest dome
diameter (43.2m) for almost 1800 years.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
and Materials
Mineral Admixtures
Archimedes, one of the greatest Greek engineers,

refused to write a textbook on engineering because the
work of an engineer and, indeed, everything that would
in any way make life easier, was ignoble and vulgar
Mineral Admixtures
Mineral Admixtures
ß Mineral admixtures are finely divided siliceous materials which

are added to concrete in relatively large amounts, generally in
the range 20 to 70 percent by mass of the total cementitious
material.
Mineral Admixtures
Ecological Advantage
ß Power plants using coal as fuel and metallurgical

furnaces producing cast iron, silicon metal, and
ferrosilicon alloys are the major sources of by-
products that are being produced at the rate of
millions of tonnes every year in many countries.
ß Dumping of these by-products into landfills and

streams amounts to a waste of the material and
causes serious environmental pollution.
Mineral Admixtures
Ecological Impact
ß Disposal as concrete aggregate or for roadbase

construction is a low-value use which does not
utilize the pozzolanic and cementitious potential of
those materials.
ß With proper quality control, large amounts of

many industrial by-products can be incorporated
into concrete, either in the form of blended
portland cement or as mineral admixtures.
Mineral Admixtures
Ecology
ß Whenever a pozzolanic and/or cementitious

byproduct can be used as a partial replacement for
portland cement in concrete, it represents
significant energy and cost savings.
Mineral Admixtures
Pozzolanic Reaction
ß silica + CH ---> C-S-H
ß The mechanism by which pozzolanic reaction

exercises a beneficial effect on the properties of
concrete is the same irrespective of whether a
pozzolanic material is added to concrete in the
form of a mineral admixture or as a component of
blended portland cement.
Mineral Admixtures
Different Performances
ß pozzolanic (e.g., low-calcium fly ash),

ß cementitious (e.g., granulated iron blast-furnace
slag),
ß both cementitious and pozzolanic (e.g., high-
calcium fly ash)
Mineral Admixtures
Particle size
Mineral Admixtures
Classification
ß Natural materials: have been processed for the

sole purpose of producing a pozzolan. Processing
usually involves crushing, grinding, and size
separation; in some cases it may also involve
thermal activation.
ß By-product materials: are not the primary products
of the industry producing them. Industrial by-
products may or may not require any processing.
Mineral Admixtures
Natural Pozzolans
ß Except diatomaceous earth, all natural pozzolans

are derived from volcanic rocks and minerals.
ß During explosive volcanic eruptions quick cooling
of the magma, which is composed mainly of
aluminosilicates results in the formation of glass or
vitreous phases with disordered structure.
Mineral Admixtures
Natural Pozzolans: Classification (1)
ß Volcanic glasses: Santorini Earth of Greece,

Bacoli Pozzolan of Italy, and Shirasu Pozzolan of
Japan are examples of pozzolanic materials which
derive their lime-reactivity characteristic mainly
from the unaltered aluminosilicate glass.
ß Volcanic tuffs: Pozzolans of Segni-Latium (Italy),

and trass of Rheinland and Bavaria (Germany),
represent typical volcanic tuffs.
Mineral Admixtures
Calcined clays or shales: clay and shales will

not show appreciable reactivity with lime unless
the crystal structures of the clay minerals present
are destroyed by heat treatment.
Temperatures on the order of 600 to 900o C, in
kilns is required for this purpose.
The pozzolanic activity of the product is due
mainly to the formation of an amorphous or
disordered aluminosilicate structure as a result of
the thermal treatment.
Mineral Admixtures
ß Diatomaceous earth: This group of pozzolans is

characterized by materials of organic origin.
ß Diatomite is a hydrated amorphous silica which is

composed of skeletal shells from the cell walls of
many varieties of microscopic aquatic algae. The
largest known deposit is in California.
Mineral Admixtures
By-Product Materials
ß Ashes from the combustion of coal and some crop

residues such as rice hull and rice straw, silica
fume from certain metallurgical operations, and
granulated slag from both ferrous and nonferrous
metal industries are the major industrial by-
products that are suitable for use as mineral
admixtures in portland cement concrete.
Mineral Admixtures
Significance
ß Countries like China, India, the United States,

Russia, Germany, South Africa, and the United
Kingdom, are among the biggest producers of fly
ash which, at the current (Year 2000) rate of
production, some 500 million tonnes a year
constitutes the largest industrial waste product in
the world.
Mineral Admixtures
Fly ash
ß During the combustion of coal in power plants the

volatile matter and carbon are burned off while
most of the mineral impurities such as clays,
quartz, and feldspar, melt at the high temperature.
ß The fused matter is quickly transported to lower-

temperature zones where it solidifies as spherical
particles of glass. Some of the minerals
agglomerate forming the bottom ash, but most of
the fine particles fly out with the flue gas stream
and are called fly ash
Mineral Admixtures
Classification
ß Fly ashes can be divided into two categories which

differ from each other mainly in calcium content.
ß The ash containing less than 10 percent CaO, is
generally a product of the combustion of
anthracite and bituminous coals.
ß The ash typically containing 15 to 35 percent
analytical CaO, is generally a product of
combustion of lignite and subbituminous coals.
Mineral Admixtures
Low-calcium fly ashes
ß Due to the high proportions of silica and alumina

present, consist principally of aluminosilicate glass.
ß The partial devitrification of glass in low-lime fly
ashes accounts for the presence of crystalline
aluminosilicates.
ß Since these crystalline minerals are nonreactive at
ordinary temperature, their presence in large
proportions, at the cost of the noncrystalline
component or glass, tends to reduce the reactivity
of the fly ash.
Mineral Admixtures
High-calcium fly ash
ß It is more reactive because it contains most of the

calcium in the form of reactive crystalline
compounds.
ß More than 5 percent carbon in a fly ash that is
meant for use as a mineral admixture in concrete
is considered undesirable because the cellular
particles of carbon tend to increase both the water
requirement for a given consistency and the
admixture requirement for air entrainment.
Mineral Admixtures
Microstructure
ß Most of the particles in fly ash occur as solid

spheres of glass.
ß Typically, the spherical particles in low-calcium fly
ashes look cleaner than those in high-calcium fly
ashes. As alkalies and sulfate tend to occur in a
relatively larger proportion in the high-calcium fly
ashes, the deposition of alkali sulfates on the
surface of spherical particles accounts for their
dirty appearance of the spheres.
Mineral Admixtures
Particle size
ß Particle size distribution studies show that the

particles in a typical fly ash vary from 1 to 100
micra in diameter, with more than 50 percent
under 20 micra.
ß The particle size distribution, morphology, and
surface characteristics of the fly ash selected for
use as a mineral admixture exercise a considerable
influence on the water requirement and the
workability of fresh concrete, and the rate of
strength development in hardened concrete.
Mineral Admixtures
Iron Blast-furnace slag
ß In the production of cast iron (also called pig iron)

if the liquid slag is rapidly quenched from a high
temperature by either water or a combination of
air and water, most of the lime, magnesia, silica,
and alumina are held in a noncrystalline or glassy
state.
ß The water-quenched product is called granulated
slag due to sand-size particles.
Mineral Admixtures
Strength Contribution
ß Compared to low-calcium fly ash, which usually

does not make any significant contribution to the
strength of portland cement concrete until after
about two weeks of hydration, significant strength
contribution by high-calcium fly ash or granulated
iron blast-furnace slag generally occurs as early as
7 days after hydration.
Mineral Admixtures
Silica fume
is by-product of the induction arc furnaces in the

silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy industries.
Reduction of quartz to silicon at temperatures up
to 2000o C produces SiO vapors, which oxidize and
condense in the low-temperature zone to tiny
spherical particles consisting of noncrystalline
silica.
Mineral Admixtures
Particle size distribution
ß Compared to normal portland cement and typical

fly ashes, silica fume samples show particle size
distributions that are two orders of magnitude
finer.
Mineral Admixtures
Silica Fume Particles
Mineral Admixtures
Rice husk ash
ß Rice husks, also called rice hulls, are the shells

produced during the dehusking operation of paddy
rice. As they are bulky, the husks present an
enormous disposal problem for centralized rice
mills.
ß Each tonne of paddy rice produces about 200 kg

of husk, which on combustion yield approximately
40 kg of ash.
Mineral Admixtures
Rice husk ash: production
ß The ash formed during open-field burning or

uncontrolled combustion in furnaces generally
contains a large proportion of less reactive silica
minerals such as cristobalite and tridymite, and
must be ground to a very fine particle size in order
to develop some pozzolanic activity.
ß A highly pozzolanic ash can be produced by
controlled combustion when silica is retained in
noncrystalline form and a cellular microstructure
Mineral Admixtures
Metakaolin
High-purity kaolinitic clays can be calcined at

relatively low temperature 600-700o C to keep
silica and alumina in amorphous state, then
pulverized to particles smaller than 2 microns. The
product is a highly reactive pozzolan of white color
that is especially suitable for use in architectural
concrete.
Mineral Admixtures
Mechanisms of Action
ß Control of Bleeding: Channels of bleeding water are obstructed

by the small particles.
ß Grain Refinement: without pozzolans large CH crystals develop
ß Pore Refinement: reduction of porosity
Mineral Admixtures
Workability improvement
ß With fresh concrete mixtures that show a tendency

to bleed or segregate, the incorporation of finely
divided particles generally improves the workability
by reducing the size and volume of voids.
ß The finer a mineral admixture, the less will be the
amount needed for enhancement of the
cohesiveness and workability of freshly-mixed
concrete.
ß The small size and the glassy texture of fly ash
and slag makes it possible to reduce the amount
of water required for a given consistency.
Mineral Admixtures
Workability
ß All mineral admixtures tend to improve the

cohesiveness and workability of fresh concrete,
but many do not possess the water-reducing
capability of fly ash and slag.
ß For a given consistency of concrete, the use of

very high surface area materials, such as pumicite,
rich husk ash, and silica fume increases the water
requirement.
Mineral Admixtures
Durability to thermal cracking
ß Mineral admixtures reduces the temperature rise

almost in direct proportion to the amount of
portland cement replaced by the admixture.
ß These admixtures do not react to a significant
degree for several days.
ß As a rule of thumb, the total heat of hydration
produced by the pozzolanic reactions involving
mineral admixtures is considered to be half as
much as the average heat produced by the
hydration of portland cement.
Mineral Admixtures
Durability to chemical attack
ß The permeability of concrete plays a fundamental

role in determining the rate of deterioration due to
destructive chemical actions such as the alkali-
aggregate expansion and attack by acidic or
sulfate solution.
ß The pozzolanic reaction involving mineral
admixtures causes pore refinement which reduces
the permeability of concrete, studies have shown
considerable improvement in the chemical
durability of concrete containing mineral
admixtures.
Mineral Admixtures
Durability
ß Mineral admixtures improves the resistance of the

concrete to acidic water, sulfate water, and
seawater.
ß This is due to the pozzolanic reaction, which is
accompanied by a reduction in permeability as well
as a reduction in the calcium hydroxide content of
the hydrated product.
Mineral Admixtures
Summary: Advantages
ß Removal of CH
ß Densification
ß Improve Durability
ß Reduce Thermal Cracking
ß Improve workability and cohesiveness
ß Reduce bleeding and segregation
ß Increase ultimate strength
Properties of Fresh Concrete
Early Ages
Significance
ß The first 48 hours are very important for the performance

of the concrete structure. It controls the long-term
behavior, influence fc, Ec, creep, and durability.
Early Ages
Properties at Early Ages
ß Workability
ß Slump Loss
ß Segregation/Bleeding
ß Plastic Shrinkage
ß Time of Set
ß Temperature
Early Ages
Workability
ß Definition: Effort required to manipulate a

concrete mixture with a minimum of segregation.
ß It is not a fundamental property of concrete
ß f(conditions, equipment, type of concrete, mix).
ß e.g., dry mix --> poor workability if pumped, but

good workability when placed in a conveyor belt
(mass concrete)
Early Ages
Importance
ß If concrete is very dry, it cannot consolidate well
and will end up with lots of voids.
fc
lab
field
w/c
Labor costs are high when using dry mixes
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Early Ages
Workability
ß consistency (slump) --> how easy to flow and
ß cohesiveness --> tendency to bleed and

segregate.
Early Ages
Consistency Tests
ß Slump test
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Early Ages
Slump test
P.K.
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Early Ages
Consistency tests
Vebe Test; compacting apparatus
P.K.
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Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Early Ages
Workability Test
ß No equipment can measure consistency and cohesiveness

at the same time
Early Ages
Bleeding and Segregation
ß Control:
ß Water content
ß Cement content
ß Friction between aggregates is reduced by increasing
cement paste
ß Aggregate gradient has a big effect
ß Fine/Coarse Aggregate Ratio.
ß Change fineness modulus of the sand --> improve
pumpability and cohesiveness.
ß measured visually and statistically
Early Ages
Control (2)
ß Admixtures
ß Water reducing
ß Air entraining
ß Fly ashes, pozzolans (fine)
Early Ages
Temperature and Time Control
ß If mix for too long, hydration products start to from -->

requires more water --> slump goes down when
transport time and temperature increases
Early Ages
Slump Loss
ß Premature slump loss; any abnormal loss of slump
Slump
elapsed time
2h
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Early Ages
Causes of Slump Loss:
ß 1) Use of an abnormal setting cement
ß 2) unusual long time for mixing, transporting or finishing
ß 3) High T due to excessive heat of hydration.
Early Ages
Example:
ß Type II cement (low in C3A ~6%)
ß T= 70 F
Initial Slump 30 min 60 min 2h
5 in 4 3/8 3 1/8 1 1/2
Type I cement (10% C3A)

Initial Slump 30 min 60 min 2h
5 in 3 1/4 2 1/4 1
Increasing the water content

Initial 30 min 60 min 2h
Type II 7 1/2 7 5 1/2 2
Type I 7 1/2 4 3/4 3 1/4 1 1/2
so, adding more water does not solve the problem

Early Ages
Time of Set
Strength (psi)
4000 beginning of hardening
500
beginning of solidification
initial final Time
Final and Initial Set --> arbitrary values of strength.

Cannot consolidate, vibrate and finish after starting the initial set.
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Early Ages
Setting and Hardening
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Early Ages
Effect of temperature on initial and final setting
times of concrete
Early Ages
Effect of a retarding admixture on setting times
of concrete
Early Ages
Set time
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Early Ages
Cont
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Early Ages
Early Stiffening
ß Solution
ß Retempering: adding more water at the job site

(note: total water/cement ratio should be kept
constant)
ß Use superplasticizers at the job site.
Early Ages
Segregation and Bleeding
ß Segregation: coarse aggregate tends to segregate due

to gravity. Typical of dry mixes.
ß Bleeding: water rising to the surface. Typical of wet

mixes.
ß when excessive, cement particles and water go to the

surface (laitance) --> porosity goes up --> paste can
easily be abraded --> dusting.
Early Ages
Causes of bleeding and segregation:
ß Improper slump
ß Excessive amount of coarse aggregate
ß Lack of fines
ß Inappropriate placing and compacting
Early Ages
Control of Bleeding
ß Reduction of water
ß Introduction of fines and air
ß Proper Compaction (too much compaction causes bleeding)
Early Ages
Plastic Shrinkage
ß In slabs, rapid drying of fresh concrete causes plastic

shrinkage.
ß Rate of water loss > rate of bleed water
ß It happens when concrete is not a solid yet.
ß Loss of bond between concrete and rebar
ß Crazing (Surface cracks develop)
ß High temperature, high wind velocity, low RH
ß Rate of evaporation > 0.2 lb/ft2/hr
Early Ages
Control of Plastic Shrinkage
ß Moisten subgrade and forms
ß Erection of wind barriers
ß Cool concrete
ß Spray water
ß Membrane coating
Cold and Hot Weather Concreting
Introduction
ß In hot weather, unprotected concrete is subject to

plastic shrinkage cracking.
ß In cold weather the low temperature of concrete
curing may seriously impede the rate of strength
development.
Cold Weather Concreting
No strength gain occurs when the concrete is

frozen and is kept frozen below -10o C. Therefore,
fresh concrete must be protected from freezing
until adequate strength has been gained.
The heat of cement hydration in large and well-

insulated concrete members may be adequate to
maintain a satisfactory curing temperatures.
Concreting in Cold Weather
ß Summary of the Problems:

ß Aggregate, cement, and water will be at cold
temperature
ß Low temperature --> slow hydration
ß Influences setting, hardening, strength
development
ACI 306
ß A minimum compressive strength of 3.5 MPa (500

psi) prior to freezing is stated in ACI 306R as a
criterion for preventing frost damage.
Effect of concrete temperature on the slump and the
water requirement to the change slump
Effect of ambient temperature on the water
requirement of concrete.
Time of Set
Final 73 F 40 F
Penetration
Resistance
Initial
2 4 6
Time (h)
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Strength
Strength (psi) 73 F
50 F
1000
20 F
Time (h)
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Temperature Control
ß Of all the concrete-making components, mixing

water is the easiest to heat.
ß Compared to a specific heat of 1.0 for water, the
average specific heat for cement and aggregates
is 0.22.
ß At temperatures above freezing, it is rarely
necessary to heat aggregates. At temperatures
below freezing, often only the fine aggregate
needs to be heated to keep the freshly produced
concrete at the required temperature.
Precautions/Solutions
ß 1) Materials and Proportions (indirect way)

ß Set Accelerators
ß Type III cement
ß Use more cement (more heat generation)
ß 2) Mix Temperature
ß Heat aggregates
ß Replace some of the mixing water with hot water
Common Practice
ß Insulating formwork (keep heat inside)

ß Use blankets, heaters
ß Air shelters (small jobs)
ß Keep formwork for a longer period of time
Hot Weather Concreting
ß ACI Committee 305 defines hot weather as any combination

of high air temperature, low relative humidity, and wind
velocity tending to impair the quality of fresh or hardened
concrete or otherwise resulting in abnormal properties.
ß In addition to the increase in slump loss and plastic-
shrinkage cracking, and the decrease of setting time in
fresh concrete hot weather increases the mixing water
requirement for a given consistency.
ß Concrete placed and cured at higher than moderate
ambient temperatures normally develops high early strength
but at 28 days and later ages the strength is usually lower
than the same concrete placed and cured at a relatively
lower temperature.
Hot Weather Concreting
ß Summary of the Problems

ß High temperature --> fast hydration --> loss of
water
ß Form hydration products quickly
ß Loss of slump, time of set reduced
ß Loss of consistency
Rapid Hydration
1) More mixing water required due to the loss of

consistency
2) Rapid Setting time
Final 110
73 F 73 FF
40
Penetration
Resistance
Initial
21 42 6
Time (h)
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Rapid Hydration
ß 3) Plastic Shrinkage: cracks due to quick

evaporation of bleed water from the surface
ß 4) Ultimate strength is always lower
Solution:
ß Selection of material and mix proportions.

ß 1) Set retarders
ß 2) Cement Type II, IP
ß 3) Less cement
ß 4) Air entrainment to control slump
ß 5) Mineral admixtures
ß 6) Use cooled water or ice
Determination of reduction in concrete
temperature by adding cooled water
Determination of reduction in concrete
temperature by adding ice
Processing
Sequence
ß Batching
ß Mixing
ß Transport to the job site/Placement in the
Formwork
ß Consolidation
ß Finishing
ß Curing
ß Formwork Removal
Processing
Batching
ß measurement of components of concrete

ß measurement by weight (water and liquid
admixtures both by volume or weight)
ß accuracy: cement 1%, aggregates: 2%, water
1%, admixtures 3%
ß air-entraining admixtures and other chemical
admixtures should be added as solutions.
Processing
Ready Mixed Concrete
ß central-mixed concrete is mixed in a stationary

mixer and then delivered in trucks.
ß concrete is mixed partially in a stationary mixer
and completed in truck mixer.
ß truck-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a
truck mixer.
Processing
Mixing
ß trucks
ß 6-18 rpm --> mixing speed in trucks (1 to 2 min)
ß 1-6 rpm --> agitation speed
ß Rule of thumb: After mixing, concrete should be
placed within 1.5 hours
ß Delay will cause slump loss and reduce workability
ß 300 revolutions are the maximum number allowed
Processing
Remixing
ß In case of accidents concrete will not be as

workable as it should. It is allowed to add some
water provided that the total w/c is not exceeded.
Processing
Transport – Truck agitator
ß Range: Used to transport concrete to all uses in

pavements, structures and buildings.
ß Advantages
ß Good quality control (from central mixing plants).
ß Well-controlled discharge from agitadors.
ß Points to watch for
ß Careful timing of deliveries
ß Concrete crew and equipment must be ready
Processing
Truck mixer
ß Type and range: Mix and transport concrete to

site over short and long hauls.
ß Advantages:
ß No central mixing plant is needed
ß Concrete is mixed completely in truck mixer.
ß Points to watch for:
ß Control of concrete quality is not as good as with
central mixing.
Crane
Processing
Cranes
Courtesy from Jose Marques Filho

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Processing
Crane
ß Type and range: The right tool for work above

ground level.
ß Advantages:
ß Can handle concrete, steel, formwork.
ß Has only one hook
ß Careful scheduling is needed to keep it busy.
Processing
Aerial Cable

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Buckets
Processing
Buckets

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Processing
Buckets
ß Type and range of work: Used on cranes and
cableways
ß Convey concrete direct from central discharge
point to formwork.
ß Advantages:
ß Enable full versatility of cranes and cableways.
ß Clean discharge.
ß Select bucket capacity to conform with concrete
batch.
ß Discharge should be controllable.
Processing
Buggies
ß Type and range of work: Short hauls on all types

of construction.
ß Advantages:
ß Very versatile and ideal for sites where placing
conditions are constantly changing.
ß Slow and labor intensive.
Processing
Chutes

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Processing
Chutes
ß Type and range of work: For conveying concrete

to lower level
ß Advantages:
ß Low cost and easy to maneuver.
ß No power required, gravity does the work
ß Segregation
ß Slopes range between 1 to 3 and chutes must be
properly supported
Processing
Belt Conveyors

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Processing
Belt conveyors
ß Type and range: For conveying concrete
horizontally or to a higher level.
ß Not suitable for delivering concrete directly to
formwork.
ß Advantages
ß Have adjustable reach and variable speed both
forward and reverse. Can place large volumes of
concrete quickly when access is limited.
ß End-discharge arrangement needed to prevent
segregation. In hot and windy weather the belt
may need cover
Processing
Shotcrete

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Processing
Pneumatic guns
ß Type and range of work: Used where concrete is

placed in difficult locations and where thin
sections are needed.
ß Advantages:
ß Ideal for placing concrete in free-form shapes.
ß for repairing buildings, for protective coatings,
and thin linings.
ß Quality of work depends on skill of nozzlemen
Processing
Pumped concrete

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Processing
Concrete pumps
ß Type and range of work: Used to convey concrete

direct from central discharge point to formwork.
ß Advantages:
ß Pipelines take up little space and can be readily
extended.
ß Deliver concrete in continuous stream.
ß Constant supply of fresh concrete is needed.
ß Ensure an even flow and clean out at the end of
each operation.
Processing
Examples of construction practice
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Processing
Tremie
ß Type and range of work: For placing concrete

under water
ß Advantages:
ß Can be used to funnel concrete down through the
water into the foundation
ß Precautions are needed to ensure that the tremie
discharge end is always buried in fresh concrete
Processing
CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE
ß The process of molding concrete within the

formwork around embedded rebars producing the
removal of entrapped air.
Processing
Reasons:
ß Remove pockets, honeycombs, uneven surfaces,

unfilled spaces --> reduce strength
ß Place concrete around rebar to develop bond
ß Concrete will be weak and porous if air bubbles
are left
Processing
Methods
ß External
ß 1) Form vibrators --> connect the forms to a
vibrating mechanism (shake the entire form)
ß 2) Vibrating table
ß Internal
ß Immersion Type (poker, spud)
Processing
Two step process:
ß 1) Fill the form --> concrete is moved around to

fill the empty spaces and eliminate honeycombs --
> slumping action.
ß 2) Eliminate air bubbles
Processing
Determining the Adequacy of the Process
ß 1) The coarse aggregates should be completely

embedded (no aggregate sticking out)
ß first remove honeycombs
ß second instead of a dullness see a
shining surface when the mortar involves the
aggregate
ß 2) Shine on the surface (removal of air)
ß 3) cessation of bubbling action
ß Most of the problems are caused by
undervibration (overvibration tends to cause
segregation).
Processing
The mix is introduced into the form
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Processing
The vibrator moves aggregate closer together at the form

face and cement-sand mortar begins to move outward; air
pockets collect on the face of the forms
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Processing
The mortar continues to move through the coarse

aggregate toward the face of the form
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Processing
The movement of the mortar toward the face is

complete, air bubbles move upward along the form and
out of concrete
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Processing
Vibrating concrete
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Processing
Factors influencing the radius of action of an

internal vibrator:
ß 1) Diameter of vibrator head
ß 2) Frequency
ß 3) Amplitude
Head diameter Radius of Influence

3/4 - 1 in 3-6 in
2 - 3 1/2in 7-14
Processing
Imperfections due to poor consolidation:
ß Honeycombs --> voids, irregular surface

ß Excessive entrapped air
ß Poor lines
Processing
When vibration is not enough:
ß Reduce spacing between insertions

ß Increase insertion time
ß Vibrate as close as possible to forms (but do not
touch it. Vibrator head may be damaged if it is
not covered with rubber).
ß Avoid sticky or oversanded mixes because they
tend not to flow and to entrap air).
Processing
Revibration
ß Vibrating concrete again for a second time after 1

or 2 hr from first vibration.
ß In deep walls and columns, concrete tends to
settle and the bond between concrete and rebars
is lost --> revibration increases bond strength.
Processing
Points to notice:
ß Concrete should not show any sign of setting

ß Reasonable time: 30 to 45 min
Processing
Vibrators
ß low diameter --> 10,000 rpm

ß large diameter --> 5,000 rpm
Processing
FINISHING OF CONCRETE
ß Flatwork such as slabs and pavements require

proper finishing to produce dense surfaces that
will remain maintenance-free.
ß Sequence of steps must be carefully coordinated
with the setting and hardening of the concrete
mixture.
Processing
1) Screeding is the process of striking-off the excess

concrete to bring the top surface to the desired
grade.
With a sawing motion a straight edge is moved

across the surface with a surplus of concrete against
the front face of the straight edge to fill the low
areas.
Processing
2) Darby (Bull Float) is used immediately after screeding

to firmly embedded large aggregates and to remove
any remaining high and low spots.
1) and 2) must be completed before any excess

bleed water accumulates on the surface because this
is one of the main causes of surface defects such as
dusting or sealing in concrete slabs.
Processing
ß 3) Floating is an operation carried out with flat

wood or metal blades with the purpose of
embedding the aggregate, compacting the
surface, and removing any remaining
imperfections.
ß Floating tend to bring paste to the surface, so
floating too early or too long can weaken the
surface.
Processing
4) After floating, the surface may be steel-trowled

if a very smooth and highly wear resistant
surface is desired.
5) Trowling should not be done on a surface that

has not been floated.
Processing
ß 5) Brooming is done if skid resistance is required,

by brooming with a rake or a steel-wire broom
before the concrete has fully hardened.
Processing
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Processing
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Materials
Processing
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Processing
Slab Placement
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Processing
Slab Placement
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Processing
Beam staight edge
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Screeding
Processing
Finishing
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Processing
Bull-floating
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Processing
Power Float
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Processing
Saw-cut
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Processing
Laitance
ß Laitance is associated to the external manifestation of
bleeding. It is caused by the tendency of water to rise
carrying fine particles and depositing them in the form of a
scum at the concrete surface. It contains a large w/c ratio
and it is porous, soft and weak.
ß When a floor slab or a pavement develops laitance the
concrete will be soft and prone to dusting.
ß The hydration products in the porous cement paste of the
laitance layer will easily carbonate in air.
ß Laitance should be removed by brushing and washing or
by sand blasting before new concrete is placed.
Processing
Scaling
ß Scaling: the finished surface flakes or peels off.

Concrete slabs exposed to freezing and thawing in
the presence of moisture and deicing chemicals
are susceptible to scaling. Because of laitance --
> higher w/c ratio on the surface --> higher
degree of saturation --> expansion on freezing --
> greater damage.
Processing
Crazing
ß Crazing: When the temperature is too high, RH

low and windy the bleeding water evaporates
very quickly and microcracks develops (map
cracks).
ß When the bleed-water sheen has evaporated and
the concrete is able to sustain a foot pressure
with only slight indentation, the surface is ready
for floating and final finishing operations.
Processing
Control Joints
ß Narrow Slabs (< 8 ft)

ß Joint spacing should not exceed 1.5 times the slab
width
ß e.g.: 5 ft --> 7.5 ft joint spacing
ß The cut should be about 1/4 of the slab thickness.
ß Pavements (> 8 ft)
ß Joint spacing in ft should not exceed 3 slab
thickness in inches.
ß e.g.: d =6in
ß joint spacing: 3 x 6 = 18 ft
Non-destructive methods
Non-destructive techniques
Motivation
Many industrialized nations currently dedicate a

considerable portion of the construction budget for
restoration, repair, and maintenance of old
structures as opposed to new construction.
Motivation (2)
In 1991 the U.S. Department of Transportation

reported that $90.9 billion dollars were required for
the rehabilitation and repair of the highway
infrastructure system.
By 1997, the estimated cost had risen to $212 billion.
SURFACE HARDNESS METHODS
Essentially, the surface hardness method consists of

impacting a concrete surface in a standard
manner with a given energy of impact and then
measuring the size of indentation or rebound.
SURFACE HARDNESS METHODS
The most commonly used method employs the

Schmidt rebound hammer which consists of a
spring-controlled hammer that imparts on a
plunger.
Schmidt rebound hammer
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and Materials
Penetration Resistance Techniques
The equipment used to determine the penetration

resistance of concrete consists of a powder-
activated device.
Windsor probe
The Windsor probe uses a powder-activated driver

to fire a hardened-alloy probe into the concrete.
The exposed length of the probe is a measure
of the penetration resistance of concrete. The
standard test procedure is described in ASTM C-
803
Windsor probe
The type and amount of aggregate play an important role

in the penetration resistance.
The variation in the Windsor probe-test results is higher

when compared with the variation in standard
compressive strength tests on companion specimens.
This method is excellent for measuring the relative rate of

strength development of concrete at early ages,
especially for determining stripping time for formwork.
Windsor probe
Compressive strength as a function of exposed probe

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Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and
and Materials
Materials
PULLOUT TESTS
A pullout test consists of casting a specially-

shaped steel insert with an enlarged end into
fresh concrete.
This steel insert is then pulled-out from the
concrete and the force required for pullout is
measured using a dynamometer.
A bearing ring is used to confine failure to a well-
defined shape.
PULLOUT TESTS
As the steel insert is pulled out, a cone of

concrete is also removed, thereby damaging
the concrete surface (which must be repaired
after the test).
PULLOUT TESTS
Schematic diagram of the pullout test
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Maturity Tests
Since the degree of cement hydration depends on

both time and temperature, the strength of
concrete may be evaluated from the concept of
maturity, which is expressed as a function of the
time and the temperature of curing.
MATURITY METHOD
It is assumed that batches of the same

concrete mixtures of same maturity will
attain the same strength regardless of the
time-temperature combinations leading to
that maturity.
MATURITY METHOD
A simple maturity function M(t) can be defined as the

product between time and temperature:
M (t ) = ∑ (T a − To ) ∆ t
or in the limit
M (t ) = ∫ (T − To ) dt
t
a
0
where ,Dt, Ta , and To are time interval, average concrete

temperature during the time interval Dt, and the datum
temperature, respectively. Traditionally, -10°C or 14°F is
assumed to be the datum temperature below which there is no
additional gain in strength.. ASTM C 1074 recommends a
datum temperature of 0 °C or 32 °F.
Maturity
Influence of curing temperature at early ages on the strength-

maturity relationship when equation (1) is used with T0 = - 10
°C. This early-age difference can be reduced when better
maturity functions are used.
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Absortion and Permeability Tests
The rate of water absorption by capillary suction is a

good measure of the quality of a concrete and its
potential durability when exposed to aggressive
environments. Low values of absorption indicate
that aggressive ions will have difficulty penetrating
the concrete.
Absortion and Permeability Tests
The rate of water absorption by capillary

suction is a good measure of the quality of
a concrete and its potential durability when
exposed to aggressive environments.
Low values of absorption indicate that

aggressive ions will have difficulty
penetrating the concrete.
ABSORPTION AND PERMEABILITY
Experimental research indicates that the

water absorption values are reduced which
decrease in the water-to-cement ratio;
increase in the curing time; decrease in
curing temperature; and increase in the
degree of consolidation.
Absorption and Permeability
The term permeation is used to describe the mass

transport of liquids or gases induced by pressure
and concentration gradients or by capillary
forces.
Permeation is influenced by the volume and

connectivity of the capillary pores in the cement
paste matrix.
Absorption and Permeability
The air permeability of concrete increases when the

moisture is eliminated, which in turn increases the
connectivity of the pores.
The water absorption also increases when the
capillary pores are empty.
Initial Surface Absorption Test
Methods to measure the water absorption under field conditions

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and Materials
Configuration of the Figg test
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and Materials
STRESS WAVE PROPAGATION METHODS
The maximum displacement is the amplitude A, the

time between two successive wave crests is the
period T and the distance between two successive
wave crests is the wavelength λ.
Τ λ
Displacement
Displacement
A A
T im e D is ta n c e
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Reflection and refraction
sin q1 V1 Ê V1 ˆ
-1
= qic = sin ÁÁ ˜˜
sin q 2 V2 Ë V2 ¯
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and Materials
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Methods
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Many receivers
Transient time
slo p e: 1 /V
D ista nce fro m tra nsmitter
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and Materials
Materials
Detect the presence of layers
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and Materials
Method to determine the thickness of the layer
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and Materials
Impact Methods
A simple method of assessing the condition of concrete

is to tap the surface with a hammer and listen to
the resulting tone.
A high-frequency pitch indicates a sound concrete and

a low-frequency pitch indicates the presence of
flaws.
Impact Methods
A trained operator can delineate zones of high and

low pitch using this method.
The disadvantage of the method is that it is

dependent on the skill level of the operator and
does not provide quantitative information on the
amount of damage in the interior of the concrete.
Impact Methods
To overcome these limitations, different methods

were developed
To control the duration of the impact force so as to

assure the reproducibility of the test and
(b) to characterize the surface displacement

generated by the impact on concrete.
Impact-echo
Impact forces generated by steel spheres
Use of sensitive broadband transducer at the

surface.
Analysis of the waveforms in frequency domain
Impact-echo
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Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves
Surface waves are not confined to the surface but,

rather, are capable of penetrating a finite depth
inside the material, sensing its properties.
Waves with short wavelength may not be able to
sense a discontinuity deep in the interior of a
structure, however waves with long wavelengths
will be affected by its presence and their velocity
will change.
This change of velocity with wavelength can be used
to establish layers of high and low velocities.
Set up for the SASW method
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Acoustic Emission
Acoustic Emission (AE) is a noninvasive, nondestructive

method that analyzes the noises created when
materials deform or fracture. Each acoustic emission
event is a signature of an actual mechanism, a
discrete event that reflects a given material
response.
Acoustic Emission
Acoustic emission waves propagate through the

material and can be detected on the surface by a
sensor, which turns the vibrations into electrical
signals. The sound of fracture propagation was
originally called acoustic emission since it is acoustic
and audible, however the frequency of these
emissions can range from the audible range to
many megahertz.
Generation, propagation, and detection of Acoustic Emission
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Acoustic Emission
There is a critical difference between acoustic emission

and ultrasonic methods. In the former, a known
signal is imparted into a material and the material’s
response to on the signal is studied while in the latter
the signal is generated by the material itself.
Typical Result
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Resistivity
The relationship between current, i, and potential,
V, is given by Ohm’s law:
V
i=
R
where R is the resistance of the system.
Resistance is not a material property as it depends on the
dimensions of the system. The resistance is normalized to establish
resistivity, r, as a material property
L
R=r
A
where L is the length and A is the cross-section.
Wenner array (a=c=b/2)
2 p a DV
r =
i
CEB (Comite Euro-International du Beton)

recommendations
Concrete Resistivity (Ω.m) Likely Corrosion rate
> 200 Negligible

100 to 200 Low
50 to 100 High
<50 Very high
Corrosion Potential
Can be measured as the voltage difference between

the steel and a reference electrode in contact with
the surface of the concrete.
Half-cell measurements may be made using only a high

impedance voltmeter and a standard reference
electrode, such as a copper-copper sulfate electrode.
Corrosion Potential
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Polarization Resistance
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Typical polarization resistance for steel in concrete
Polarization resistance, Corrosion penetration,

Rate of corrosion Rp (kΩ.cm2) p (µm/year)
Very high 0.25 < Rp < 2.5 100 < p < 1000
High 2.5 < Rp < 25 10 < p < 100
Low/moderate 25 < Rp < 250 1 < p < 10
Passive 250 < Rp p<1
Advantages in using linear polarization technique
The determination of the corrosion rate is an important

parameter in the assessment of the life cycle of the
structure.
Commercial equipment is available to measure the

polarization resistance in existing structures.
Advantages in using linear polarization technique
It has been verified experimentally that the magnitude

of the corrosion rate measured by polarization
resistance is similar to that measured by gravimetry.
The measurement times are small.
The method applies small pertubations that do not

interfere with the existing electrochemical processes.
Limitations
The whole reinforcing bar or the steel mat along which

uniform corrosion is rare, must be polarized.
Therefore, the measured Rp is essentially an
average result for all of the steel in the structures
whereas the actual corrosion is non-uniform.
Limitations
This method assumes that the concrete resistivity is

low, when in reality the concrete resistivity is usually
high. Linear polarization is a DC method. Because of
the electrical capacitance across the steel/concrete
interface, it takes time of obtain a full response. As
a result, the scanning rate plays an important role in
obtaining accurate measurements.
Equipment
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Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, or AC

impedance, is an informative method because not
Rp only is measured, but also the physical processes
in concrete and steel/ concrete interface are
assessed.
Impedance measurement employs small-amplitude

alternating (AC) signals in a wide range of frequency
as a perturbation.
Voltage response, V, to sinusoidal current signal i
V (t)
i (t)
V or i
time
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Model of equivalent circuit
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Limitations
The equipment used is quite bulky and complex.
The entire reinforcing bar or network must be

polarized.
Similar to the linear polarization, this method also

requires a physical connection to the steel
embedded in concrete. AC impedance
measurements can have lengthy data acquisition
times, especially for low frequency measurements.
Covermeter
Covermeter is the generic term for equipment used to

locate steel reinforcing bar in concrete and to
estimate the thickness of the concrete cover over
the reinforcement. Unlike concrete, steel bars
interact strongly with low-frequency
electromagnetic waves applied at the surface of the
concrete, making it easy to identify their location.
Equipment I
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Equipment II
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Ground Penetrating Radar
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) methods use

electromagnetic energy, typically at frequencies of
50-1500 MHz, to probe the subsurface.
This method has been used in concrete structures to

detect voids and delaminations, locate the
reinforcing bars, measure the pavement thickness,
and monitor structural changes.
Ground Penetrating Radar
Recently, field research has been performed on the

material characterization of concrete, such as water
content, degree of cement hydration, and presence
of chlorides.
Method
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Example
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To Find Delamination
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Infrared Thermography
Imperfections and localized zones of high porosity have

different thermal properties than the rest of the
concrete, so under heat flux they will produce zones
with different temperatures than the surrounding
concrete.
Effect of a flaw or imperfection on the temperature

distribution of a concrete slab
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Tomography of Reinforced Concrete
Tomography comes from the Greek word tomos (slice)

and it has the goal of imaging an object by taking
measurements from “slices” of its cross-section.
X-ray Computed tomography
In computed tomography, the image of an object is

reconstructed from projections of the object.
Most commonly the projections are obtained by using

penetrating x-rays, although other modalities for
measuring projection data are also available.
X-ray Computed tomography
A radiation source (x-rays or γ-rays) is rotated a full

360o around the structure under inspection, and at
each source position, the attenuation of the
radiation penetrating through the material is
measured with a linear array, or a 2D array of
detectors at the opposite side.
Configuration
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Examples
Radiographic (left) and CT image (right) images of the

unloaded fiber-reinforced concrete cylinder
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Examples
Radiographic (left) and CT image (right) images of the

loaded fiber-reinforced concrete cylinder
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Examples
Radiographic (left) and CT (right) image.
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Example
Backscattering Microwave Tomography
To obtain higher resolution, it is necessary to employ

electromagnetic radiation with shorter wave-length,
leading to the use of microwave frequencies in the
range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
This frequency range corresponds to wavelengths in the

air of 1 m to 1 mm, respectively.
Microwave camera
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Construction Defects and Inspection
Hammurabi code (1686 BC)
ß If a builder build a house for some one and

complete it, he shall give him a fee of two shekels
in money for each sar of surface.
ß If a builder build a house for some one, and does
not construct it properly, and the house which he
built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder
shall be put to death.
ß If it kill the son of the owner the son of that
builder shall be put to death.
Hammurabi code (1686 BC)
ß If it kill a slave of the owner, then he shall pay

slave for slave to the owner of the house.
ß If it ruin goods, he shall make compensation for
all that has been ruined, and inasmuch as he did
not construct properly this house which he built
and it fell, he shall re-erect the house from his
own means.
ß If a builder build a house for some one, even
though he has not yet completed it; if then the
walls seem toppling, the builder must make the
walls solid from his own means.
Poor vibration
Courtesy from Paulo Barbosa

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Plastic Shrinkage
Courtesy from Carlos Videla

Carlos Videla C.
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Plastic Shrinkage
Courtesy from Rubens Bittencourt

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Plastic Settlement

Carlos Videla C.
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1.5 Patologías Constr. Hormigón Causas de Patologías
Segregation

Carlos Videla C.
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Crazing

Carlos Videla C.
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Poor construction joint

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Inadequate construction joint

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Good construction joint

Carlos Videla C.
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Insuficient cover

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Desplazamiento
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Shrinkage

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Corrosion

Carlos Videla C.
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Corrosion
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Corrosion

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Corrosion

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Corrosion

Crack and carbonation

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Attack by
micro-organisms

Freezing of concrete

Carlos Videla C.
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Efflorescence

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Poor joints
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Fire in the
Chunnel
ASR damage
Furnas Dam
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ASR damage
Built in 1965, this deteriorated bridge is located 9.7 miles west

of Lee Vining at 9400 feet elevation on the eastern slope of the
Sierra Nevada.
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ASR damage
Airfield parking apron at Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California .

courtesy of U.S. Navy, NFESC
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Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Fibers in Concrete
Old Concept
ß Exodus 5:6,
ß And Pharaoh commanded the same day the
taskmasters of the people, and their officers,
saying,
ß Ye shall no more give the people straw to make
brick, as heretofore: let them go and gather
straw for themselves
ß Egyptians used straw to reinforce mud bricks,
but there is evidence that asbestos fiber was
used to reinforce clay posts about 5000 years
ago.
Fibers in Concrete
Growth Industry
ß Even though the market for fiber reinforced

concrete is still small compared to the overall
production of concrete, in North America there
has been an yearly growth rate of 20% and that
the worldwide yearly consumption of fibers used
in concrete is 300,000 tons.
Fibers in Concrete
Classification according to volume fraction
ß Low volume fraction (<1%)
ß Moderate volume fraction (between 1 and

2%)
ß High volume fraction (greater than 2)
Fibers in Concrete
Low volume fraction
ß The fibers are used to reduce shrinkage cracking.

These fibers are used in slabs and pavements that
have large exposed surface leading to high
shrinkage crack.
ß Disperse fibers offer various advantages of steel
bars and wiremesh to reduce shrinkage cracks:
– (a) the fibers are uniformly distributed in
three-dimensions making an efficient load
distribution;
– (b) the fibers are less sensitive to corrosion
than the reinforcing steel bars,
– (c) the fibers can reduce the labor cost of
placing the bars and wiremesh.
Fibers in Concrete
Moderate volume fraction
ß The presence of fibers at this volume fraction

increase the modulus of rupture, fracture
toughness, and impact resistance. These
composite are used in construction methods such
as shotcrete and in structures that require energy
absorption capability, improved capacity against
delamination, spalling, and fatigue.
Fibers in Concrete
High volume fraction
ß The fibers used at this level lead to strain-

hardening of the composites. Because of this
improved behavior, these composites are often
referred as high-performance fiber-reinforced
composites (HPFRC). In the last decade, even
better composites were developed and are
referred as ultra-high-performance fiber-
reinforced concretes (UHPFRC).
Fibers in Concrete
Toughening Mechanism
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Fibers in Concrete
Mechanism
ß The composite will carry increasing loads after the

first cracking of the matrix if the pull-out
resistance of the fibers at the first crack is greater
than the load at first cracking;
ß At the cracked section, the matrix does not resist
any tension and the fibers carry the entire load
taken by the composite.
ß With an increasing load on the composite, the
fibers will tend to transfer the additional stress to
the matrix through bond stresses. This process of
multiple cracking will continue until either fibers
fail or the accumulated local debonding will lead
to fiber pull-out .
Fibers in Concrete
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Fibers in Concrete
Total Energy
ß According to the report by ACI Committee 554 the

total energy absorbed in fiber debonding as
measured by the area under the load-deflection
curve before complete separation of a beam is at
least 10 to 40 times higher for fiber-reinforced
concrete than for plain concrete.
ß The magnitude of improvement in toughness is
strongly influenced by fiber concentration and
resistance of fibers to pull-out which, other
factors, such as shape or surface texture.
Fibers in Concrete
Optimization Process
ß From a material and structural point of view,

there is a delicate balance in optimizing the bond
between the fiber and the matrix.
ß If the fibers have a weak bond with the matrix,
they can slip out at low loads and do not
contribute very much to bridge the cracks. In this
situation, the fibers do not increase the toughness
of the system.
ß If the bond with the matrix is too strong, many of
the fibers may break before they dissipate energy
by sliding out. In this case, the fibers behave as
non-active inclusions leading to only marginal
improvement in the mechanical properties.
Fibers in Concrete
Role of Fiber Size
ß To bridge the large number of microcracks in the

composite under load and to avoid large strain
localization it is necessary to have a large number
of short fibers. The uniform distribution of short
fibers can increase the strength and ductility of
the composite.
ß Long fibers are needed to bridge discrete
macrocracks at higher loads; however the volume
fraction of long fibers can be much smaller than
the volume fraction of short fibers. The presence
of long fibers significantly reduces the workability
of the mix.
Fibers in Concrete
Fiber size
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Fibers in Concrete
Materials
ß It is well known that the addition of any type of fibers to

plain concrete reduces the workability.
ß Since fibers impart considerable stability to a fresh concrete
mass, the slump cone test is not a good index of workability.
For example, introduction of 1.5 volume percent steel or
glass fibers to a concrete with 200 mm of slump is likely to
reduce the slum of the mixture to about 25 mm, but the
placeability of the concrete and its compactability under
vibration may still be satisfactory.
ß Therefore, the Vebe test is considered more appropriate for
evaluating the workability of fiber-reinforce concrete
mixtures.
Fibers in Concrete
Vebe Test
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Fibers in Concrete
Elastic modulus, creep, and drying shrinkage
ß Inclusion of steel fibers in concrete has little

effect on the modulus of elasticity, drying
shrinkage, and compressive creep.
ß Tensile creep is reduced slightly, but flexural
creep can be substantially reduced when very stiff
carbon fibers are used.
ß However, in most studies, because of the low
volume the fibers simply acted as rigid inclusions
in the matrix, without producing much effect on
the dimensional stability of the composite
Fibers in Concrete
Durability
ß When well compacted and cured, concretes

containing steel fibers seem to possess excellent
durability as long as fibers remain protected by
the cement paste.
ß In most environments, especially those containing
chloride, surface rusting is inevitable but the
fibers in the interior usually remain uncorroded.
ß Long-term tests of steel-fiber concrete durability
at the Battelle Laboratories in Columbus, Ohio,
showed minimum corrosion of fibers and no
adverse effect after 7 years of exposure to deicing
salt
Fibers in Concrete
Glass Fibers
ß Ordinary glass fiber cannot be used in portland

cement mortars or concretes because of chemical
attack by the alkaline cement paste.
ß Zirconia and other alkali-resistant glass fibers
possess better durability to alkaline environments,
but even these are reported to show a gradual
deterioration with time.
ß Similarly, most natural fibers, such as cotton and
wool, and many synthetic polymers suffer from
lack of durability to the alkaline environment of
the portland cement paste.
Fibers in Concrete
Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Composites
ß There is a new generation of high performance

fiber-reinforced composites. In many of these
materials the strength, toughness, and durability
are significantly improved.
Fibers in Concrete
Compact Reinforced Composites (CRC)
ß Researchers in Denmark created Compact

Reinforced Composites using metal fibers, 6 mm
long and 0.15 mm in diameter, and volume
fractions in the range of 5 to 10 %.
ß High frequency vibration is needed to obtain
adequate compaction. These short fibers increase
the tensile strength and toughness of the material.
ß The increase of strength is greater than the
increase in ductility, therefore the structural
design of large beams and slabs requires that a
higher amount of reinforcing bars be used to take
advantage of the composite.
Fibers in Concrete
Compact Reinforced Composites (CRC)
ß The short fibers are an efficient mechanism of

crack control around the reinforcing bars.
ß The final cost of the structure will be much higher
than if the structure would be made by traditional
methods, therefore the use of compact reinforced
composites is mainly justified when the structure
requires special behavior, such as high impact
resistance or very high mechanical properties.
Fibers in Concrete
Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC)
ß Investigators in France by adding metal fibers, 13

mm long and 0.15 mm in diameter, with a
maximum volume fraction of 2.5%.
ß This composite uses fibers that are twice as long
as the compact reinforced composites therefore,
because of workability limitations, cannot
incorporate the same volume fraction of fibers.
ß The smaller volume fraction results in a smaller
increase in the tensile strength of the concrete.
Commercial versions of this product have further
improved the strength of the matrix, chemically
treated the surface of the fiber, and added
microfibers.
Fibers in Concrete
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Fibers in Concrete
Another view
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Fibers in Concrete
Slurry-Infiltrated-fibered concrete (SIFCON)
ß The processing of this composite consists in

placing the fibers in a formwork and then
infiltrating a high w/c ratio mortar slurry to coat
the fibers.
ß Compressive and tensile strengths up to 120 MPa
and 40 MPa, respectively have been obtained.
Modulus of rupture up 90 MPa and shear strength
up to 28 MPa have been also reported.
ß In direct tension along the direction of the fibers,
the material shows a very ductile response. This
composite has been used in pavements slabs, and
repair
Fibers in Concrete
SiFCON
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Fibers in Concrete
SIFCON
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Fibers in Concrete
Engineered Cementitious Composite (EEC)
ß The ultra high-ductility of this composite, 3-7%,

was obtained by optimizing the interactions
between fiber, matrix and its interface.
ß Mathematical were developed so that a small
volume fraction of 2% was able to provide the
large ductility.
ß The material has a very high stain capacity and
toughness and controlled crack propagation
Fibers in Concrete
ß The manufacturing of ECC can be done by normal

casting or by extrusion.
ß By using an optimum amount of superplasticizer
and non-ionic polymer with steric action, it was
possible to obtain self-compacting casting.
ß Experimental results with extruded pipes indicate
that the system has a plastic yielding behavior
instead of the typical brittle fracture exhibited
when plain concrete is used.
Fibers in Concrete
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Fibers in Concrete
Multiscale-Scale Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (MSFRC)}
ß Researchers the Laboratoire Central des Ponts et

Chaussees (France) proposed to combine short
and long fibers to increase the tensile strength,
the bearing capacity, and the ductility).
ß With this blend, good workability was achieved
with fiber volume fractions up to 7%.
ß One typical combination of fibers is 5% straight
drawn steel fibers, 5-mm long and 0.25 mm in
diameter, and 2% hooked-end drawn steel fibers,
25-mm long and 0.3 mm in diameter.
High Strength Concrete
High-strength concrete
Definitions
ß The definition of high-performance concrete is

more controversial.
ß Mehta and Aitcin used the term, high-

performance concrete (HPC) for concrete
mixtures possessing high workability, high
durability and high ultimate strength.
Definitions
ß ACI defined high-performance concrete as a

concrete meeting special combinations of
performance and uniformity requirements that
cannot always be achieved routinely using
conventional constituents and normal mixing,
placing, and curing practice.
Typical Classification
Normal Strength 20-50 MPa
High Strength 50-100 MPa
Ultra High Strength 100-150 MPa
Especial > 150 MPa
Microstructure
ß From the general principles behind the design of

high-strength concrete mixtures, it is apparent
that high strengths are made possible by reducing
porosity, inhomogeneity, and microcracks in the
hydrated cement paste and the transition zone.
Microstructure
ß The utilization of fine pozzolanic materials in high-strength

concrete leads to a reduction of the size of the crystalline
compounds, particularly, calcium hydroxide.
ß Consequently, there is a reduction of the thickness of the

interfacial transition zone in high-strength concrete.
ß The densification of the interfacial transition zone allows

for efficient load transfer between the cement mortar and
the coarse aggregate, contributing to the strength of the
concrete.
ß For very high-strength concrete where the matrix is

extremely dense, a weak aggregate may become the
weak link in concrete strength.
Materials - Cement
ß Almost any ASTM portland cement type can be used to

obtain concrete with adequate rheology and with
compressive strength up to 60 MPa.
ß In order to obtain higher strength mixtures while

maintaining good workability, it is necessary to study
carefully the cement composition and finenesses and its
compatibility with the chemical admixtures.
ß Experience has shown that low-C3A cements generally

produce concrete with improved rheology.
Materials -- Aggregate
ß In high-strength concrete, the aggregate plays an

important role on the strength of concrete.
ß The low-water to cement ratio used in high-strength

concrete causes densification in both the matrix and
interfacial transition zone, and the aggregate may
become the weak link in the development of the
mechanical strength.
ß Extreme care is necessary, therefore, in the selection of

aggregate to be used in very high-strength concrete.
ß The particle size distribution of fine aggregate that meets
the ASTM specifications is adequate for high-strength
concrete mixtures.
ß If possible, Aitcin recommends using fine aggregates with

higher fineness modulus (around 3.0). His reasoning is as
follows:
– a) high-strength concrete mixtures already have large
amounts of small particles of cement and pozzolan,
therefore fine particles of aggregate will not improve
the workability of the mix;
– b) the use of coarser fine aggregates requires less
water to obtain the same workability; and
– c) during the mixing process, the coarser fine
aggregates will generate higher shearing stresses that
can help prevent flocculation of the cement paste.
Guidelines for the selection of materials
ß The higher the targeted compressive strength, the

smaller the maximum size of coarse aggregate.
ß Up to 70 MPa compressive strength can be produced

with a good coarse aggregate of a maximum size ranging
from 20 to 28 mm.
ß To produce 100 MPa compressive strength aggregate

with a maximum size of 10 to 20 mm should be used.
ß To date, concretes with compressive strengths of over

125 MPa have been produced, with 10 to 14 mm
maximum size coarse aggregate.
Guidelines for the selection of materials
ß Using supplementary cementitious materials, such as

blast-furnace slag, fly ash and natural pozzolans, not only
reduces the production cost of concrete, but also
addresses the slump loss problem.
ß The optimum substitution level is often determined by the

loss in 12- or 24-hour strength that is considered
acceptable, given climatic conditions or the minimum
strength required.
ß While silica fume is usually not really necessary for

compressive strengths under 70 MPa, most concrete
mixtures contain it when higher strengths are specified.
Usage of Superplasticizers
Constant w/c: Increase in the Constant workability:
workability
Lower w/c
same workability
No MLS SMF SC
admixture
LOWER WATER CONTENT
Lower w/c

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Superplasticizer-Silica Fume Interaction
Without superplasticizer, the cement + water +

silica fume system tends to coagulate, making the
use of a superplasticizer essential.
REPULSIVE FORCES
Silica Silica
fume fume
COAGULATION DISPERSION

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Selection of the Superplasticizer
Study of the compatibility
Optimum superplasticizer dosage
Cost-benefit considerations
In several cases, this order is inverted,

resulting in costly consequences

Marsh Cone Test: Evaluation of the compatibility and dosage
800-1000 ml Comparison with yield shear stresses

obtained with a viscometer
7. 0 25
Cement I 52.5R
w/c=0.33
Superplasticizer SD1
15.5 cm
20
6.5
Bingham yield stress (Pa)

Marsh cone flow time (s) 15
29 cm
Flow time (s)
t 0 (Pa)
6.0
10
6 cm 5. 5
5
Diameter: 8 mm
5. 0 0
200-500 ml 0.5 1.0 1.5 2. 0 2.5 3.0 3.5
% sp/c
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Practical Significance of the Saturation Point
210
w/c = 0.35
T = 22°C
60 min
Marsh cone flow time, s
170
130 Saturation Point
90 5 min
50
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
Superplasticizer dosage (% sp/c) Courtesy from Prof. Gettu
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Cement/Superplasticizer Compatibility
200
w/c = 0.35
180 T = 23° C
60 min
Marsh cone flow time, s
160
140
120
60 min
100 Cement A
Cement B
80
5 min 5 min
60
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
Superplasticizer dosage (% sp/c)
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Selection of Superplasticizer
COST-BENEFIT RATIO
% sp/c
CBR = ¥ (cost/kg)¥ time (s)
s.r.
Time (s)
0.25 % sp/c
CBR = ¥ ( 3 euros/kg)¥ 5 s = 12.5
0.3 s.r.
w/c = 1.5 % sp/c

CBR = ¥ ( 1 euro/kg ) ¥ 7 s = 26.3
0.33 0.4 s.r.

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Factors that Affect the Saturation Point
• Type of cement
• Water/cement ratio
• Presence of mineral admixtures
• Mixing sequence (better to separate the
incorporation of water and superplasticizer
by at least 1 minute of mixing)
• Temperature

Effect of Temperature on the Loss of Fluidity
20 16
Marsh Cone flow time (s)

c = I 52.5 R
Marsh Cone flow time (s)
c = I 52.5 R
35ºC sp = SC
sp = SN
w/c = 0.33 w/c = 0.33
sp/c = 1% sp/c = 0.3%
15 12 35ºC
45ºC 5ºC 25ºC
10 8 15ºC
15ºC
25ºC 45ºC
5ºC
5 4
0 5 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 5 15 30 45 60 75 90
Time (min) Time (min)
• Loss of fluidity in the paste is lower for polycarboxylate based
superplasticizers.
• There is no clear trend with respect to temperature.
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Effect of Temperature on the Water Demand of Cement
0.30
c = I 52.5 R • The water demand of
sp = SN
Water demand (w/c)
0.28 cement increases

0.26
with an increase in
temperature.
0.24
45 ºC
0.22 35 ºC • This demand

25 ºC decreases due to
0.20
5 ºC
15 ºC
incorporation of
0.18 superplasticizer until
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
% sp/c the saturation point.
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Differences Between NSC and HSC
ß In normal strength concrete, the microcracks form when

the compressive stress reaches ~ 40% of the strength.
The cracks interconnect when the stress reaches 80-90%
of the strength
ß For HSC, Iravani and MacGregor reported linearity of the

stress-strain diagram at 65 to 70, 75 to 80 and above 85%
of the peak load for concrete with compressive strengths
of 65, 95, and 105 MPa.
Differences Between NSC and HSC (2)
ß The fracture surface in NSC is rough. The fracture

develops along the transition zone between the matrix
and aggregates. Fewer aggregate particles are broken.
ß The fracture surface in HSC is smooth. The cracks move

without discontinuities between the matrix and
aggregates.
Mechanical Behavior
ß Stress-strain curve is more linear
ß The strain corresponding to the maximum stress

increases with strength
ß The post-peak domain gets steeper
ß The ultimate deformation decreases with the

increasing strength
Strength
ß Based on 289 observations of moist-cured high-

strength concrete samples made with Type III
cement, Mokhtarzadeh and French obtained the
following relationship
Ê t ˆ
fcm = fc2 8
Ë 0.89 + 0.97t ¯
Long-term strength
ß Iravani and MacGregor suggested the following strength

values for sustained loading:
ß 70 to 75% (of the short-time loading strength) for 65

MPa concrete
ß 75 to 80% for 95 MPa concrete, without silica fume
ß 85 to 90% for 105 MPa concrete, with silica fume
ß 85 to 90% for 120 MPa concrete, with silica fume
Elastic Modulus
ß Great care should be taken if using well-established
equations developed for normal-strength concrete to
estimate the elastic modulus of high-strength concrete.
Extrapolation beyond the validity of the equations often
leads to overestimation of the elastic modulus.
Elastic Modulus
ß for normal weight concrete with 21 MPa < fc < 83 MPa
ß where Ec is the elastic modulus of concrete, fc the

compressive strength.
E c = 3320 fc + 6900 MPa
Data from Tomosawa and Noguchi
60000
40000
Elastic Modulus (MPa)
river gravel
Crushed Graywack
Crushed Quartz
20000 Crushed Limestone
Crushed Andesite
Blast furnace slag
Calcined bauxite
Crushed Cobble
Crushed Basalt
Lightweight CA
Lightweight FA + CA
Model
0 50 100 150 200
Compressive Strength (MPa)
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Chemical and Autogeneous shrinkage
ß During hydration of the cement paste in a closed system,

the volume of the hydration products, , is less than the
sum of the volume of water and the volume of cement
that is hydrated. This leads to chemical shrinkage whose
magnitude can be expressed by
e ch =
(Vc + Vw ) - Vh
Vci + Vwi
where and are the current and initial volume of cement, and and
are the current and initial volume of water, respectively.
Early Volume Change
ß Before setting, the chemical shrinkage is not constrained

and, therefore, it will induce shrinkage of the same
magnitude in the cement paste. As a rigid network of
hydration products starts to develop, the values of the
chemical shrinkage and that of the measured shrinkage
in the cement paste start to diverge, since the rigidity of
the paste restrains the deformation.
Definition of the autogenous shrinkage according to
the Japanese Concrete Institute
ß macroscopic volume reduction of cementitious materials

when cement hydrates after initial setting. Autogenous
shrinkage does not include volume change due to loss
or ingress of substances, temperature variation, and
application of an external force and restraint.
Petronas Tower
(photograph courtesy from Leornardo Garzon)

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Jan 1994

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April 1994

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August 1994

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September 1994

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October 1994

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November 1994

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December 1994

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February 1995

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May 1995

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September 1995

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February 1996

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High-Performance Concrete
ß Concrete mixtures that possess the following

three properties:
ß high-workability,
ß high-strength, and
ß high durability
ACI Definition
ß HPC is defined as a concrete meeting special

combination of performance and uniformity
requirements that cannot always be achieved
routinely using conventional constituents and
normal mixing, placing, and curing practices.
Examples
ß Ease of placement
ß Compaction without segregation
ß Early age strength
ß Long-term strength and mechanical properties
ß Permeability
ß Density
ß Heat of hydration
ß Toughness
ß Volume stability
ß Long life in severe environments
Applications
ß Many sophisticated concrete structures are now

being designed for longer service life, e.g. 100 to
120 years.
ß When exposed to aggressive fluids and
demanding environmental exposure conditions, it
is essential that the concrete should remain crack-
free and impermeable for a long period.
ß HPC mixtures are being used for the construction
of structural components of offshore oil-drilling
platforms, long-span bridges, and highway bridge
decks.
Off-shore, Oil Drilling Platforms
ß The construction process involves the fabrication

of massive oil-storage cells and prestressed
concrete shafts on a dry dock under rigorous
quality control conditions, and then towing the
structural components to the job site.
ß The concrete is required to withstand the
corrosive action of sea water, and impacts and
erosion from high tidal waves
Off-shore, Oil Drilling Platforms
ß Extra precautions were taken to prevent thermal cracking:

– cooling the concrete constitutes,
– partly replacing the mixing water with crushed ice,
– increasing the silica fume content from 3 to 9%,
– and decreasing the w/cm ratio from about 0.40 to
0.36.
ß The mix proportions of the lightweight (1940 kg/m3), high-
strength (70 MPa specified cube strength at 28 days) and
pumpable (220-250 mm slump) concrete for the Heidrun
offshore platform, which contains a unique tension-leg
floating in 345 m deep sea water
Port de Normandie cable-stay bridge
It was the longest in the world when it was built

in 1993: 2141m overall length and a center span
of 856m.
Approximately 35,000 m3 of 60-Grade HPC (60
MPa specified strength at 28 days) were used in
the construction of pylons and cantilever beams.
The concrete mixture was composed of 425
kg/m3 blended portland cement containing 8%
silica fume, 770 kg/m3 fine aggregate, 1065
kg/m3 coarse aggregate of 20mm max. size, 153
kg/m3 water (w/cm=0.36), and 11L/m3 of
melamine-type superplasticizer.
Port de Normandie cable-stay bridge
ß It was the longest in the world when it was built

in 1993: 2141m overall length and a center span
of 856m.
ß Approximately 35,000 m3 of 60-Grade HPC (60
MPa specified strength at 28 days) were used in
the construction of pylons and cantilever beams.
ß The concrete mixture was composed of 425
kg/m3 blended portland cement containing 8%
silica fume, 770 kg/m3 fine aggregate, 1065
kg/m3 coarse aggregate of 20mm max. size, 153
kg/m3 water (w/cm=0.36), and 11L/m3 of
melamine-type superplasticizer.
Construction of the Great Belt Link
Great Belt Link
ß At a cost of USD 4 billion, the Great Belt fixed link

in Denmark was a major improvement to northern
European transportation system.
ß The Great Belt link has a railway tunnel, a high
level motorway bridge across the East Channel
and a low level bridge for rail and motorway
across the West Channel.
ß High-quality precast concrete segments were
fabricated on dry docks under controlled
environment. Even for the 50,000-tonne precast
concrete units, construction tolerances were
within a few centimeters.
Bridge-decks, Pavements, and Parking
Structures
ß The advent of superplasticizers provided an

impetus for the development of very high-
strength concrete mixtures that found their way
quickly into structures designed for long-term
durability under severe environmental conditions.
Quality control
ß Good construction practice and adequate curing

are critical for achieving a long service life in the
field.
ß lack of good construction practice and quality
control were the principal causes for premature
deterioration of concrete due to the corrosion of
reinforcement in bridge decks exposed to
Norwegian marine environment.
High-workability concrete
Introduction
ß High- workability relates to both high consistency

and high cohesiveness.
ß Pioneering work by Japanese and German

researchers during the 1980s has led to the
development of high-workability concrete
mixtures that are commercially known as self-
compacting concrete.
Self-compacting concrete
ß Flowing-concrete that can be cast into place and

can achieve de-aeration without the application of
a vibrator, with no segregation and honey-
combing
Motivations
ß The constructability of heavily congested

reinforced concrete structures requires that the
fresh concrete mixture should possess high
fluidity.
ß With the advent of superplasticizers, it is possible

now to achieve values of the order of 200 to 250
mm without an increase in the water/cement ratio
Potential problems
ß Flowing concrete mixtures run the risk of bleeding,

settlement, and segregation.
ß Weak interfacial transition zone between cement

paste and aggregate, as well as between cement
paste and reinforcing steel.
ß This risk becomes especially great with high

placement heights, high shear rates in pumping,
and excessive vibration during the consolidation
of concrete.
Japanese experience
ß Reasons for the increasing demand of SCC in Japan:

– a) complex shape of concrete structures and densely
arranged bars make it more difficult to use a vibrator;
– b) vibration compaction is noisy and deleterious to the

health of construction worker, as well as an annoyance
to people in the neighborhood;
– d) in remote areas it is difficult to find skilled workers

to carry out the compacting work at construction sites
Materials and Mixture Proportions
ß volume and maximum size of coarse aggregate must be

controlled.
ß Compared to conventional superplasticized concrete,

which typically contains about 45% coarse aggregate and
25% fine aggregate (by absolute volume), SCC concrete
mixtures are composed of approximately 25 to 30%
coarse aggregate, 30-35% fine aggregate, and
about 10% extra-fine particles (exclusive of cement).
Materials and Mixture Proportions
ß In high-strength concrete, the aggregate plays an

important role on the strength of concrete.
ß The low-water to cement ratio used in high-strength

concrete causes densification in both the matrix and
interfacial transition zone, and the aggregate may
become the weak link in the development of the
mechanical strength.
ß Extreme care is necessary, therefore, in the selection of

aggregate to be used in very high-strength concrete.
ß SCC the total volume of coarse and fine aggregate remains

below 60% so that 40% or more of the volume consists of
suspension (cement + extra-fine material + water + air).
The maximum size of coarse aggregate is generally limited
to a maximum of 20 mm.
Japanese experience
According to Nagataki and Fujiwara, in an experimental

study when the volume of coarse aggregate was 24.5%,
most concrete was able to pass through the reinforcing
bars.
When the volume of coarse aggregate was 34.5% concrete

was unable to pass through the bars under all conditions.
Materials
ß High fluidity with relatively low water content is achieved

by the use of a superplasticing admixture.
ß Fly ash, ground blast-furnace slag, and limestone powder

are normally used to provide the extra-fine particles other
than cement; using cements alone would increase the cost
and heat of hydration.
Admixtures
ß Commonly used viscosity-modifying agents in concrete

include acrylic- or cellulose- based water-soluble
polymers or polysacchrides of microbial sources, such as
welan gum.
ß Water-soluble polymers can imbibe some of the free

water in the system, thus increasing the viscosity of the
cement paste which, in turn, enables the paste to hold
aggregate particles in a stable suspension.
ß Incorporation of extra-fine materials in the SCC mixtures

is not necessary if a viscosity-modifying agent is used.
Viscosity-Modifying Agents
• Enhance the cohesion of the concrete.

• Minimize the accumulation of bleed water.
• Formulation:
• Water-soluble synthetic or natural organic polymers
with high molecular weight
• Emulsions of several organic materials
ESEM images of welan gum particles
(scalebar is 100mm).
(a) Dry particles at 70% RH (b) After 5 minutes at 100% RH (c) After 12 minutes at 100% RH
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Applications of Viscosity-Modifying Agents
• Underwater concrete
• Facilitates sufficient mobility of the concrete
under water with little loss of cement.
• Self-compacting concrete
• Leads to high flowability with no segregation.
• Grouting
• Eliminates the migration of water from the
grout due to the differential pressure.
• Helps maintain the cement particles in
suspension once injection ceases.
Applications
ß The anchorage for a long bridge connecting the island

of Honshi and Awajishima,
ß bridge piers and high-rise buildings with dense steel

reinforcement,
ß stadiums with are complex in shape and where

vibratory compaction is difficult.
Applications
ß In 1994, a ship ran aground at

the Looe Key damaging over
1000 square meters and
destroying 75 percent of the
coral colonies. Underwater
concrete was placed to stabilize
the boulders and the
surrounding reefs. Due to the
sensitive environmental
conditions at the site, the
underwater concrete had to be
flowable, but yet without causing
turbidity and pollution in water.
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Florida Keys
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Coral Reef in Florida Keys
Courtesy from Sam Yao

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One of the Ground Sites
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Damaged Coral Reef

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Repair Design

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Precast Repair Module

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Repair of Corral Reef in Florida Keys

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Setting a Precast Module

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Roller Compacted Concrete

Early Developments
The first successful application of RCC technology

was demonstrated in 1974. The repair of the
collapsed intake tunnel of Tarbela Dam proved
that the material had more than adequate
strength and durability. The maximum placement
of 18,000 m3 of RCC in one day, which is still the
world’s record, was a clear evidence of the
potential of this new construction method.
Early Developments
ß The first successful application of RCC technology

was demonstrated in 1974. The repair of the
collapsed intake tunnel of Tarbela Dam proved
that the material had more than adequate
strength and durability. The maximum placement
of 18,000 m3 of RCC in one day, which is still the
world’s record, was a clear evidence of the
potential of this new construction method.
Definition
ß ACI 207.5R-89 defines roller compacted

concrete (RCC) as concrete compacted by roller
compaction. The concrete mixture in its
unhardened state must support a roller while
being compacted.
ß Thus RCC differs from conventional concrete
principally in its consistency requirement. For
effective consolidation, the concrete mixture must
be dry enough to prevent sinking of the vibratory
roller equipment but wet enough to permit
adequate distribution of the binder mortar in
concrete during the mixing and vibratory
compaction operations
Advantages
ß By 1997, 150 projects using RCC, including 46

new dams, were completed in the United States.
ß The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers list the
following advantages of using RCC:
ß Costs: Depending on the complexity of the
structure, RCC costs 25 to 50% less than
conventional concrete.
Advantages
ß Rapid Construction: For large projects, RCC

dams can be finished 1 to 2 years earlier
compared to regular mass concrete dams.
ß Spillways: Compared to embankment dams
which normally require that spillways be
constructed in an abutment, RCC dams offer the
attractive and cost-effective alternative of
constructing the spillway in the main structure
of the dam.
Japanese Experience
ß Cement consumption is lower because much

leaner concrete mixtures can be used.
ß Formwork costs are lower because of the layer
placement method.
ß Pipe cooling is unnecessary because of the low
temperature rise.
ß Cost of transporting, placement, and
compaction of concrete is lower, because
concrete can be hauled by end dump trucks;
spread by bulldozers and compacted by
vibratory rollers.
Sequence of placement
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Compaction
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Materials -- Cement
ß The consolidation by a roller does not require

special cements; however, when RCC is to be
used in mass concrete, the recommendation of
selecting cements with lower heat generation
should be followed.
Mineral Admixtures
ß Mineral admixtures are used extensively in RCC

mixtures. The use of large amounts of mineral
admixtures reduces both the adiabatic
temperature rise of concrete and costs, and
improves durability. In the United States, Class F
fly ash is the most common mineral admixture
used in dams, however, in other parts of the
world Class C fly ash , slag , and natural pozzolan
have also been used.
Chemical Admixtures
ß Air-entraining and water-reducing admixtures are

used in RCC compositions that contains higher
volume of paste.
ß Set-retarding admixtures can extend the time up
to which the concrete lift should remain
unhardened, reducing the risk of cold joints with
the subsequence lift. In RCC mixtures of dry
consistency, however, chemical admixtures show
rather a limited effectiveness.
Aggregates
ß Aggregates greater than 76 mm in diameter (3 in.)

are seldom used in RCC because they can cause
problems in spreading and compacting the layer.
ß The size of coarse aggregate has a significant
influence on the degree of compaction in small
layers. This influence is less marked in relatively
thicker layers specially when large vibratory
rollers are employed.
ß The use of material finer than 75 mm (No. 200
mesh sieve) produces a more cohesive mixture by
reducing the volume of voids.
Concrete Mixture Proportioning
ß Method I
ß Uses the principles of soil compaction to produce
a lean RCC, where the optimum water content of
the concrete is the one that produces the
maximum dry density of the mixture.
ß This method does not utilizes the conventional
concept of minimizing the water-to-cement ratio
to maximize the concrete strength; the best
compaction gives the best strength, and the best
compaction occurs at the most wet mix that will
support the operating vibrating roller.
ß The overriding criteria for these mixtures are the
compressive and shear strength since the dam
using this type of concrete typically will have an
impermeable upstream face made either by
traditional mass concrete or precast panels.
Concrete Mixture Proportioning
ß Method II
ß Uses traditional concrete technology methods to
produce high-paste RCC mixtures. Upper
Stillwater and Elk Creek Dams are examples of
dams that were built using this approach. The
overriding criteria for these mixtures are the shear
strength between the lifts and low permeability of
concrete since no protective, impermeable face is
used upstream .
Laboratory Testing
ß RCC is a zero-slump concrete whose properties

are strongly dependent on the mixture
proportions and on the quality of compaction.
Concrete is consolidated in the field using
vibrating rollers.
ß Despite extensive research on this subject, there
is as yet no unanimously accepted methodology
to simulate the field condition in preparing
laboratory samples.
Strength
ß For RCC mixtures made according to the concrete

technology approach, where the volume of the
paste exceeds the volume of the voids between
the aggregate, the compressive strength follows
the dependence on the water-to-cement ratio as
predicted by Abram’s rule.
ß For RCC mixtures made according to the soil
mechanics approach, where the cement paste
may not fill the voids between the aggregate,
Abram’s rule does not apply, and strength is often
plotted as a function of the moisture content.
Elastic Modulus and Poisson’s ratio
ß The thermal stresses generated by heat of

hydration are proportional to the elastic modulus
of concrete. Therefore, lean RCC mixtures, which
produce concrete with low elastic modulus, are
attractive to designers.
ß As with regular concrete, the elastic modulus of
RCC depends on the degree of hydration, volume
and type of aggregate, and water-to-cement ratio.
ß Poisson’s ratio for CCR typically ranges from 0.15
to 0.20.
Creep
ß The long-term deformation of RCC depends on

the amount and the type of aggregate, the water-
to-cement ratio, the age of loading, and the
duration of loading.
ß RCC with lower compressive strength and lower
elastic modulus will normally show high creep
which is a critical factor in determining the stress
relaxation when thermal strain is restrained.
ß Lean concrete with large amounts of fines also
shows high creep.
Thermal properties
ß The adiabatic temperature rise of RCC is similar to

conventional mass concrete mixtures and
depends on the amount and type of cementitious
material used in the mixture.
ß The specific heat, conductivity, and coefficient of
thermal expansion are a function of the type and
amount of aggregate used in the mixture.
Durability
The coefficient of permeability of RCC is a critical

parameter for long-term performance of dams,
particularly if no impermeable membrane has
been used at the upstream face of the dam.
The construction process of RCC generates
porous zones between the lifts where water can
percolate. Depending on the mixture proportions
and construction process, the coefficient of
permeability can very over 8 orders of magnitude.
For instance, the lean concrete at Willow Creek
dam had a coefficient of permeability of 2 x 10-4
m/s, while the coefficient of permeability at Upper
Stillwater Dam was 4 x 10-12 m/s. Willow Creek
Dam, however, has an impermeable membrane at
its upstream face.
Durability
ß If the moisture content in concrete goes beyond

the critical saturation point, the performance of
non-air entrained RCC to cycles of freezing and
thawing will be poor; however, if the structure
does not become saturated, the frost resistance
of RCC is satisfactory.
ß Air-entrainment of very lean RCC mixtures has not
been very successful.
Construction Practice
ß The overall planning of a RCC dam is conceptually

different from a gravity dam. To minimize
thermal stresses, traditional mass concrete is built
in separate, monolith blocks.
ß This process is slow but allows great flexibility; if
a problem develops in one of the blocks, the
construction front moves to another block. RCC
dams do not have such luxury.
ß The operation is continuous, building one
horizontal lift at a time.
ß There are no special requirements for batching

and mixing of RCC which can be produced using
the same equipment as for conventional mass
concrete.
ß Ready-mixed concrete trucks cannot be used to
transport RCC because the zero-slump concrete is
too dry and cannot be discharged.
ß To obtain significant economical benefits, special
care must be taken in the selection of equipment
and construction methods for fast placement and
consolidation of RCC.
ß Conveyor systems can be an efficient method of
transporting RCC.
ß The success of a RCC dam is often contingent on
the correct selection of lift thickness, which
depends on the mixture proportions and on the
equipment available.
ß If the lift is too thin, the placement rates will be
small, thereby reducing the advantages of using
RCC.
ß If the lift is too thick, the compaction will not be
adequate, creating horizontal layers of higher
porosity, thereby compromising the strength and
durability of the structure.
ß Normally, the thickness of the lifts ranges from
0.15 to 0.90 m; in the U.S. a lift thickness of 0.3
m is often used.
ß Compaction of the lift is achieved by using a

vibrating steel-wheel roller.
ß Compaction of the lift should be performed as
soon as possible, typically within 10 minutes after
spreading and no more than 40 minutes after
mixing.
ß Once adequate compaction is achieved, good
curing conditions for the finished surface are
essential; the surface should be kept in a
moistened condition until the next lift is placed.
The dry consistency of RCC results in difficulty in

bonding fresh concrete to hardened concrete.
This bond can be improved between the lifts by
reducing the time of casting the lifts or by increasing
the paste content in the mixture.
Typically, bedding mixtures contain 360 to 460 kg/m3
of cement, 170 to 220 kg/m3 of fly ash, and 4.75-mm
maximum size aggregate.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Thermal Stresses
Thermal Stresses in Concrete
ß Introduction
ß Importance
ß Technological Aspects
ß Case Study – LA Cathedral
History
ß Original work of Roy W. Carlson, R.E. Davis, M.

Polivka, etc. (read file Early History of Concrete
Dams in bonus material, Chapter 13)
ß How to measure stresses and strain in dams?

(read file Instruments for Measuring Stress and
Strain in Concrete in bonus material, Chapter 13)
Thermal stresses
E
st = K r a DT
1+ j
where:
st: tensile stress
Kr: degree of restraint
E: elastic modulus
a: coefficient of thermal expansion
DT: temperature change
j: creep coefficient
Degree of Restraint ( Kr )
ß A concrete element, if free to move, would have no

stress.
ß In practice, the concrete mass will be restrained either

externally by the rock foundation or internally by
differential deformations.
ß For example, there will be full restraint at the concrete-

rock interface ( Kr = 1.0), however, as the distance from
the interface increases, the restraint will decrease .
ß The same reasoning can be applied to determine the

restraint between different concrete lifts.
Degree of Restraint
ß When dealing with a non-rigid foundation, ACI-207.2R

recommends the following multipliers for Kr
1
multiplier =
Ag E
1+
Af E f
where:
Ag: gross area of concrete cross section
Af: area of foundation or other restraining element. (For
mass concrete on rock, Af can be assumed as 2.5 Ag.)
Ef: modulus of elasticity of foundation or restraining element.
E: modulus of elasticity of concrete.
Restraint
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
and P.J.M.
Materials
Temperature Evolution
DT =placement temperature of fresh concrete + adiabatic

temperature rise - ambient or service temperature - heat
losses.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Temperature of fresh concrete
ß Precooling of fresh concrete is a good method of controlling

the subsequent temperature drop.
ß Chilled aggregates and/or ice shavings are specified for
making mass concrete mixtures in which the temperature of
fresh concrete is limited to 10 oC or less.
ß During the mixing operation the latent heat needed for fusion
of ice is withdrawn from other components of the concrete
mixture, providing a very effective way to lower the
temperature.
ß Use of liquid nitrogen.
ß Cast at night or early in the morning
Adiabatic temperature rise
ß The rate and magnitude of the adiabatic temperature rise

is a function of the amount, composition and fineness of
cement, and its temperature during hydration.
ß Finely ground portland cements, or cements with

relatively high C3A and C3S contents show higher heats
of hydration than coarser cements or cements with low
C3A and C3S.
ß Use of pozzolanic materials to replace cement.
Adiabatic temperature rise in mass concrete
containing 223 kg/m3 cement of different types
Effect of placing temperature on temperature rise of mass
concrete containing 223 kg/m3 on Type I cement.
Temperature rise of concrete members containing
223 kg/m3 of cement
Effect on cement and pozzolan contents on
temperature rise in concrete
Heat Losses
ß Heat losses depend on the thermal properties of

concrete, and the construction technology adopted. A
concrete structure can lose heat through its surface, and
the magnitude of heat loss is a function of the type of
material in immediate contact with the concrete surface.
ß Numerical methods can be use to compute the

temperature distribution in mass of concrete
Introduction of heat equation
Heat flux in the x-direction
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Thermal Balance
Addition of the flux variation in the three-directions determines the amount of

heat introduced in the interior of the element per unit time:
Ï∂ ÊÁ ∂T ˆ ∂ Ê ∂T ˆ ∂ ÊÁ ∂T ˆ ¸
Ì k + Ák ˜+ k ˝ dx dy dz
Ë ∂x ¯ ∂y Ë ∂y ¯ ∂z Ë ∂z ¯
Ó ∂x ˛
If the material is homogeneous
Ê ∂2 T ∂ 2 T ∂2 T ˆ
kÁ + + ˜ dx dy dz
2 2 2
Ë ∂x ∂y ∂z ¯
For a material with mass density r and specific heat c, the increase of internal
energy in the element is given by:
∂T
r c dx dy dz
∂t
Thermal Balance
Ê ∂2 T ∂ 2 T ∂2 T ˆ ∂T
kÁ 2 + 2 + 2 ˜ = r c
Ë ∂x ∂y ∂z ¯ ∂t
Now consider the case when there is heat generation inside

the material. The equation when added to the quantity of
heat generated in the interior of the element per unit of time -
wdxdydz - can be equated with the increase of internal energy
in the element.
Ê ∂2 T ∂ 2 T ∂2 T ˆ ∂T
kÁ 2 + 2 + 2 ˜ + w = r c
Ë ∂x ∂y ∂z ¯ ∂t
Example for dams: Itaipu Dam
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
General Information
Ambient Conditions
Yearly average temperature 21o C
Maximum Temperature 40o C
Minimum Temperature -4o C
Volume of materials

Rock excavation 32.0 million m3
General Information
River Basin
Area 820,000 km2
Reservoir
Area 1,350 km2
Volume 29 billion m3
Length 170 km
Dam
Total length 7,760
Generating Units
Quantity 18
Capacity 700 MW
Paraná River
Diversion of the Paraná

river was achieved by the
construction of a channel 2
km long, 150 m wide, and
90 m deep on the left river
bank.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Arch Dams
Two arch dams were

built to protect the
channel structures
from floods.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
AND THEN…
the two arch dams

built to protect the
structures from
flood were
simultaneously
exploded in just 3
seconds
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Complex
site
In November of 1979, a monthly production of 340,000 m3 was
achieved. In 1980, the yearly production was 3 million cubic
meter.
Seven aerial cables with
an span of 1300 m were
used for transporting
concrete in 8 m3
buckets.
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
To reduce the amount of

concrete in the dam, the
center of the block is
hollow
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
The spillway, with a length of 483 m, was designed for a
maximum discharge capacity of 62,220 m3/s.
Characteristics for the concrete for the thermal study
Compressive MPa
strength
3 days 17.2
7 days 20.4
28 days 29.8
60 days 35.8
Specific heat of 0.22 kcal/kg C

the concrete
Thermal 1.71 kcal/m.h C
conductivity
Density of the 2537 kg/m3
concrete
Concrete Mixture Proportions
Kg/m3
Cement 290
Water 154
Natural sand 556
Artificial sand 373
19-mm CA 742
38-mm CA 419
Superplasticizer 2.9
Thermal stresses in Itaipu dam
ß Finite element mesh

(before processing) for
the spiral box inside the
dam.
Courtesy from Selmo Kuperman, Itaipu Binacional, Themag Engenharia e Gerenciamento
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Thermal stresses in Itaipu dam
ß Finite element mesh

after processing
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Isotherms after 300 hours
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Isotherms after 500 hours
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Detail of the locations where the maximum
temperature developed
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Case Study: Thermal Stresses
Case Study : LA Cathedral
ß Unusual case of architectural mass concrete
General Information
A 5.6-acre site (metric) in the heart of downtown Los Angeles was

purchased by the Archdiocese from the County of Los Angeles.
Spanish architect and Harvard professor Jose Rafael Moneo was

chosen to design the new $163,000,000 Cathedral
Cathedral itself will accommodate 2800 people and

the plaza a capacity of 6000 people
Overall View
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Interior
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
The problem
ß Large cracks in the mock-up.
Block
Objetives:
ÿ Control the color and texture
ÿ Measurement of the temperature
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Cracks
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Temperature Rise
250 120
110
Water boiling temperature
100
200
Tem perature (F)
Temperature (C)
90
80
70
150 Face TOW
Middle TO W 60
Face BO W
Middle BO W 50
40
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (hours)
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Materials
Mix (kg/m3)
cement 395
Type III
metakaolin 34
sand 735
3/8” agg. 210
1” agg. 807
water 193
Davis 3.86
adwa 2.68
Classical recommendations
ß Reduce the cement content (Difficult because of the durability

criterium)
ß Cement with low C3A often have C4AF and tend to be darker
ß Use of pozolan
ß Fly-ash tend to make a good distribution of the pigments
ß Use of ice - Ice did not allow a good distribution of the pigments
Required Criteria
ß 1) Use of wood formwork
ß With 880 corners metallic forms are not an option.
Corners
Formwork
Required Criteria
ß 2) color consistency
Required Criteria
3) durability for 300 years
‡ w/c < 0.45
Use of pozzolan
Required Criteria
ß 4) good curing for the architectural concrete.
Objectives
Find a technical solution within 7 weeks
Criteria: maximum temperature ‡ 70 C
Maximum gradient ‡ 25 C
Research Program
n Study 1: Optimization of the mix
nStudy 2: Minimizationof the Temperature of the Fresh Concrete
nStudy 3: Determination of the Thermal Stresses and Removal of the

Formwork
Experimental Work
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Study 1: Optimization of the mix
Reduction of the amount of cement
Elimination of the metakaolin
Use of white cement
Use of fly-ash
Strength at 90 dias
Results
Mock-up Main Variables Tfresh Observations

Number Tmax
1 White cement + 33 C Significant
15% fly ash 73 C at 19 h reduction of Tmax
2 White cement + 29 C High Tmax.

metakaolin 82 C at 25 h Expensive
3 Type III cement + 34 C Original mix

5% metakaolin 86 C at 17 h
Study 2: Minimization of the temperature of fresh concrete
Use of ice
Use of cold water
Results (1.2x1.2x2.4 m)
Number Tmax
4 White cement + 24 C Good balance of

15% fly ash (Mix 65 C at 23 h color and thermal
1); chilled water
5 White cement + 25 C Truck problem

15% fly ash (Mix 67 C at 22 h
1); and ice
6 White cement + 21 C Durability
15% fly ash, 0.5 59 C at 28 h concern
w/c chilled water
7 Type III cement + 24 C Good color and
5% metakaolin); 82 C at 26 h texture.
chilled with water Excessive
temperature rise
13 White cement + 19 C Bad Colour

15% fly ash 63 C at 27 h
ice
Study 3: Determination of the thermal stresses and
removal of the formwork
Idade = 24 horas
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Bloco 4x12x12 ft
Tc=24C'
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
FEM Results
Rapid removal of the form
Late removal of the forms
Use of vents
Results (1.2x3.7x3.7 m)
Number Tmax
12 White cement + 22 C Texture was not

15% fly ash, (mix 61 C at 24 h adequate and the
1) early removal
chilled water, produced some
removal of the chipping at the
forms after 8 corners.
hours
Vents (good idea, but expensive)
Idade = 24 horas
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Bloco 6x12x12 ft com um furo no centro

Tc=24C'
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Solution
ß 1. Early morning pours, beginning at 3:00 or 4:00 AM and finishing

no later than 9:00 AM.
ß 2. Ready mix made with low C3A content white cement.
ß 3. Fly ash 15% substitution – strict color consistency control

procedures implemented.
ß 4. Concrete formulated with chilled water and ice supplements as

required to remain below 75oF.
Solution
ß 5. Trucks cooled prior to loading with chilled water.
ß 6. Forms left in place a minimum of 2-1/2 days after placing, and

longer as required to be within 45oF of ambient. Temperatures
measured using thermocouples.
ß Aggregates cooled using chilled water misters
It worked!
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
No cracks
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Viscoelasticity of Concrete
ß Introduction
ß Importance
ß Materials
ß Models
ß Codes
Introduction
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Reason
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Importance
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
ß Water-to-cement ratio
ß Aggregate Type
ß Aggregate Content
ß Time and Humidity
ß Geometry
ß Temperature
ß Magnitude of the applied stress
Effect of aggregate content
Effect of type of aggregate
Effect of type of cement
Effect of cement content
Effect of time on shrinkage
Effect of time on creep
Influence of RH on drying shrinkage
Influence of RH on creep
Influence of specimen size and relative humidity
on the creep coefficient
Influence of exposure time and specimen size on
the drying shrinkage coefficient
Effect of concrete temperature on creep
Effect of magnitude of sustained stress on creep
Basic rheological models
ß Spring
s(t)= E e(t)
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Dashpot
σ n = ηεn (t )
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Maxwell Model
equilibrium equation σ E (t) = σ η(t) = σ(t)

compatibility equation
ε(t) = ε E(t)+ ε η (t)
constitutive relationship (spring) σ E (t) = Eε E (t)
dashpot
σ n = ηεn (t )
σ σ
εn (t ) = +
E η
Maxwell Model
σ σ
εn (t ) = +
E η
Note that for a rigid spring (E = ∞) the model

reduces to a Newtonian fluid; likewise, if the
dashpot becomes rigid (η = ∞) the model
reduces to a Hookean spring.
Maxwell model
Creep test
s0 s 0
e(t) = + t
E h
Relaxation test
- Et / h
s(t)= Ee o e
Maxwell model
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Relaxation time
ß The ratio T = h/E is called the relaxation time, and it helps

to characterize the viscoelastic response of the material. A
small relaxation time indicates that the relaxation process
will be fast. In the extreme case of a purely viscous fluid, E
= ∞ , the equation would indicate an infinetely fast stress
relaxation, T=0; while for a elastic spring, h = ∞ , the
stress would not relax at all, since T= ∞.
Kelvin Model
equilibrium equation σ(t)= σE(t)+ση(t)

compatibility equation ε(t) = ε E(t)= ε η (t)
constitutive relationship (spring) σ E (t) = Eε E (t)
dashpot σ n = ηεn (t )
σ = Eε (t ) + ηε (t )
Kelvin Model
σ = Eε (t ) + ηε (t )
Note that the model reduces to a Hookean

spring if η = 0, and to a Newtonian fluid if E=0.
Kelvin Model
ß Creep test
Et
so Ê - ˆ
e (t ) = Á 1- e ˜
h
EË ¯
Relaxation test
CAN’T BE DONE!!
Kelvin Model
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
ß Standard Solid Model
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Generalized Rheological Models
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Concrete Creep
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Concrete Relaxation
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Principle of Superposition
ß McHenry principle:
ß The strains produced in concrete at any time t by

a stress increment at any time to are independent
of the effects of any stress applied either earlier
or later than to. The stresses which approach the
ultimate strength are excluded.
Time increments
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Mathematical Formulation
Breaking the stress history up into small intervals
n
s (t ) @ Â Ds (ti ) , tn = t
i =0
The strain is given by
e(t) = s o F (t,t )
or
n
e(t) @ Â Ds (t i )F (t,t )
i= 0
In the limit
t
e(t) = Ú F (t,t ) ds (t )
to
Does it work for creep + shrinkage?
Let’s think…
Summary
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
It has been observed that when concrete is under load

and simultaneously exposed to low relative humidity
environments, the total strain is higher than the sum of
elastic strain, free shrinkage strain (drying shrinkage
strain of unloaded concrete), and basic creep strain
(without drying). The additional creep that occurs when
the specimen under load is also drying is called drying
creep.
Summary
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Summary
P.K.
P.K.Mehta
Mehtaand
andP.J.M.
Materials
Mathematical Expressions for Creep
I) For a given age of loading t , the creep function

is a monotonic increasing function of time t.
∂ F (t, t )
≥0
∂t
ß II) however, the rate of creep increment is
always negative
ß 2
∂ F (t,t )
£0
∂t 2
Mathematical Expressions for Creep
ß Creep has an asymptotic value
lim
tÆ •
F (t,t ) £ M
In many structural models, the function F(t,t) is separated into

instantaneous and delayed components.
1
F (t,t ) = + C (t,t )
E (t )
and to take aging of the concrete into account, the specific creep function
C(t,t) is further separated into:
C (t, t ) = F(t ) f (t - t )
Expressions for f(t-t)
a) logarithmic expression
The U.S Bureau of Reclamation proposed the
logarithmic expression for its projects dealing
with mass concrete. When the stress/strength
ratios do not exceed 0.40 the following equation
is used.
f (t - t ) = a + b log[1+ (t - t )]
ß power expression
m
f (t - t ) = a (t - t )
ß hyperbolic expression
(t - t )
f (t - t ) =
a + b (t - t )
ß exponential expression
f (t - t ) = a (1- e )
- b ( t -t )
Expressions for F (t)
-c
ß power law: F (t ) = a + b t
- ct
ß exponential: F (t ) = a + b e
CEB 1990
ß This method estimates creep and shrinkage for

structural concretes in the range of 12 MPa to 80
MPa in the linear domain, that is, for compressive
stresses sc (to) not exceeding 0.4 fcm (to) at the
the age of loading to. In this case, the total
strain at time t, ec (t) may be subdivided into:
e (t ) = e ci(t ) + e cc (t ) + e cs(t ) + ecT (t ) = e cs (t ) + e cn(t )
Concrete and The Environment
There is increasing concern now that the choice of construction

materials must also be governed by ecological considerations
Population Growth
ß At the beginning of the 20 th Century, the world population

was 1.5 billion; by the end of the 20 th Century it had risen
to 6 billion. Considering that it took 10,000 years after of
the last ice age for the population to rise to the 1.5 billion
mark, the rate of growth from 1.5 to 6 billion people is
remarkable
Urbanization
ß At the beginning of the 20 th Century, approximately ten

percent of the people lived in cities; in the year 2001 nearly
three of the six billion inhabitants live in and around the cities.
Technology Choices
ß Unfortunately, our technology choices have turned out to be

wasteful because decisions are based on short term and narrow
goals of the enterprise rather than a holistic view of the full
range of consequences from the use of a technology.
Waste
ß Only 6% of the total global flow of materials, some 500 billion

tons a year, actually ends up in consumer products whereas
much of the virgin materials are being returned to the
environment in the form of harmful solid, liquid, and gaseous
wastes
Environmental Impact of Technology Choices
ß The greatest environmental challenge today is that of the

human-made climate change due to global warming caused by
steadily rising concentration of green-house gases in the earth's
atmosphere during the past 100 years
A new vision
ß In a nature-centered capitalism, the environment will no longer

be treated as a minor factor of production but rather an
envelope containing, provisioning, and sustaining the entire
economy.
Future Demand for Concrete
ß Ordinary concrete, typically, contains about 12 percent cement,

8 percent mixing water, and 80 percent aggregate by mass.
ß This means that, in addition to 1.5 billion tonnes of cement, the

concrete industry is consuming annually 9 billion tonnes of sand
and rock together with one billion tonne of mixing water.
ß The 11.5 billion tonnes-a-year concrete industry is thus the

largest user of natural resources in the world.
ß The demand for concrete is expected to grow to approximately

18 billion tons (16 billion tonnes) a year by 2050.
ß The mining, processing, and transport of huge quantities of

aggregate, in addition to billions of tons of raw materials
needed for the cement manufacture, consume considerable
energy and adversely affects the ecology of virgin lands
ß Both in developed and developing countries, gigantic

construction projects are underway in the metropolitan areas
not only for new construction but also for rehabilitation or
replacement of existing structures.
Reducing the Environmental Impact of Concrete
Portland cement is a product of an industry that is not only

energy-intensive but also responsible for large emissions of CO2
-- a major green-house gas.
The manufacture of one ton of portland-cement clinker

releases a ton of CO2 into the atmosphere.
The world's yearly cement output of 1.5 billion tonnes of mostly

portland cement, accounts for nearly 7 percent of the global
CO2 emissions.
Industrial ecology
ß The waste product of one industry is recycled as a substitute

for virgin raw material of another industry, thereby reducing
the environmental impact of both.
Oportunities
ß Over a billion tons of construction and demolition wastes are

being disposed of in road-bases and landfills every year, in
spite the fact that cost-effective technologies are available to
recycle most of it as a partial replacement for coarse aggregate
in concrete mixtures.
Opportunities
ß Most waste-waters and undrinkable natural waters can be

substituted for municipal water for mixing concrete unless
proven harmful by testing.
Opportunities
ß Blended portland cements containing fly ash from coal-fired

power plants and granulated slag from the blast-furnace iron
industry provide excellent examples of industrial ecology
because they offer a holistic solution to reduce the
environmental impact of several industries.
Technology for Sustainable Development
Consilience
ß Consilience is defined as unification of knowledge by liking

together facts and insights across disciplines to create a
common ground for action
Consilience
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
TSD
P.K. Mehta
P.J.M. Monteiro,
Technology for Green Concrete
ß The high-volume fly ash provides a promising of how we can

build concrete structures in the future that would be far more
durable and resource-efficient than those made of conventional
portland-cement concrete.
ß Whether as a component of blended cements or as a mineral

admixture added to concrete during mixing, the fly ash content
of HVFA concrete mixtures is typically between 50 to 60
percent by mass of the total cementitious material.
A Better Concrete in the Future
ß Although as a structural material concrete generally has a

history of satisfactory performance, it is expected that even a
better product will be available in the future owing to overall
improvements in elastic modulus, flexural strength, tensile
strength, impact strength, and permeability.
Better concrete
ß A reduction of the water content in a concrete mixture

decreases the porosity of both the matrix and the interfacial
transition zone and thus has a strengthening effect.
ß Again, the presence of a pozzolan in a hydrating cement paste

can lead to the processes of pore-size and grain-size
refinement
Improved concrete (1)
ß A better control of the bleeding tendency in concrete mixtures

will be sought through proper aggregate grading, and the use
of water-reducing and mineral admixtures (e.g., fly ash or
finely ground natural pozzolans or slags).
ß Fiber reinforcement of concrete that is subject to cyclic or

impact loads will be commonly practiced. For developing
countries, the use of natural organic fibers (such as sisal fiber
and rice straw) presents interesting possibilities.
ß The use of centralized and high-speed concrete mixers instead

of truck mixing will help in the production of more
homogeneous concrete than is generally available today.
Video Index A
Forty-seven short videos illustrate many topics presented in the textbook. We wish to express our gratitude to many individuals and organizations for their
generosity in allowing us to use their material. Quicktime is required to play the videos and you may download it at: www.apple.com/quicktime/download/.
Adobe Reader 6 (or higher) is also required and can be downloaded at: www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html.
Cement Testing
• Computer animation of cement hydration based on Scrivener’s model (courtesy • Slump test (courtesy of Prof. D. Trejo)
of Dr. Harold Hirth, Multiplus Computer and Structures
• Unit Weight (courtesy of Prof. D. Trejo)
• Microstructure evolution of cement paste (from “Hydration of Cement," courtesy
• Air Content (courtesy of Prof. D. Trejo)
of Prof. D. Lange)
• Compression test (from “Fracture of Concrete,” courtesy of Prof. D. Lange)
• Hydration of portland cement (from “Hydration of Cement," courtesy of Prof. D.
Lang) • Bending test (from “Mining the Sky,” courtesy of Dr. V. M. Malhotra, CANMET)
• Soft X-ray microscopy of early cement hydration (research by V. Lamour and • Acoustic emission (from “Fracture of Concrete,” courtesy of Prof. D. Lange)
P. J .M. Monteiro
• Fracture mechanics (from “Fracture of Concrete,” courtesy of Prof. D. Lange)
• Early hydration of C3S + 2% CaCl2 (see Juenger et al., Cement and Concrete
• Probabilistic finite element analysis of the fracture of a beam (courtesy of
Research, Vol. 35, 2005)
Profs. Fairbairn and Toledo; reference: Silva, E. C. C. M., Probabilistic cracking
of concrete, M. Sc. thesis, (COPPE/The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Interfacial Transition Zone Rio de Janeiro, 2000))
• Computer Simulations (courtesy Dr. D. Bentz, NIST)
• Abrasion test (from “Mining the Sky,” courtesy of Dr. V. M. Malhotra,
CANMET)
Fly-ash
• Production (from “Mining the Sky,” courtesy of Dr. V. M. Malhotra, CANMET) • Interferometry from “Fracture of Concrete,” courtesy of Prof. D. Lange)
• Microstructure (from “Mining the Sky,” courtesy of Dr. V. M. Malhotra, CANMET) • Impact test on fiber reinforced concrete beam (courtesy of Prof. N. P. Banthia)
• Tomography (courtesy of Prof. E. N. Landis)
Roman Concrete
• General information (from“The concrete of Norba’s roman road," courtesy of Dr. Nondestructive Methods:
Tognon, Italcementi Group) • Schmidt Rebound Hammer (from “Concrete: Nondestructive Testing,"
• Did the Romans perform naval battles in the Colosseum? (from "Unsolved courtesy of Dr. V. M. Malhotra, CANMET)
History: Roman Colosseum," courtesy of the Discovery Channel) • Windsor probe (from “Concrete: Nondestructive Testing,”courtesy of Dr. V. M.
• Roman construction at Norba road (from“The concrete of Norba’s roman road," Malhotra, CANMET)
courtesy of Dr. Tognon, Italcementi Group) • Pull-out (from “Concrete: Nondestructive Testing" courtesy of Dr. V. M.
Malhotra, CANMET)
• Ultrasonic pulse velocity method (from “Concrete: Nondestructive Testing"
courtesy of Dr. V. M. Malhotra, CANMET)
• Covermeter
go to Video Index B • Resistivity

• Half cell
Computer animation of cement hydration based on Scrivener’s model
Microstructure Evolution of Cement Paste
Hydration of Portland Cement
Soft X-ray Microscopy of Early Cement Hydration
Early hydration of C3S + 2% CaCl2
Computer Simulations
Without Silica Fume With Silica Fume

Production
Microstructure
General Information
Did the Romans perform naval battles in the Colosseum?
Roman construction at Norba Road
Slump Test
Unit Weight
Air Content
Compression Test
Bending Test
Acoustic Emission
Fracture Mechanics
Probabilistic Finite Element Analysis of the Fracture of a Beam
Abrasion Test
Interferometry
Impact Test on Fiber Reinforced Concrete Beam
Tomography
Schmidt Rebound Hammer
Windsor Probe
Pull-Out
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
Covermeter
Resistivity
Half Cell
Video Index B
Durability Of Concrete Large Concrete Dams
• Carbonation (from “Concrete Durability,” courtesy of Dr. Mario Collepardi) • Thermo-chemo-mechanical finite element analysis of the temperature
evolution in a dam constructed in layers (courtesy of Profs. Fairbairn and
• Penetration of Chlorides (from “Concrete Durability," courtesy of Dr. Mario
Toledo; see Fairbairn, E.M.R. et al., Computers & Structures, 82 (2004), 281-299)
Collepardi)
• Thermo-chemo-mechanical finite element analysis of the principal stresses
• Sulfate Attack (from “Concrete Durability,” courtesy of Dr. Mario Collepardi)
evolution in a dam constructed in layers (courtesy of Profs. Fairbairn and
• Ice Formation (from “Concrete Durability,” courtesy of Dr. Mario Collepardi) Toledo)
• Microscopy of Ice Propagation in Concrete (courtesy of Prof. Kejin Wang) • Probabilistic analysis of the reduced model of a gravity dam (courtesy of
Profs. Fairbairn and Toledosee Fairbairn, E. M. R.; et al., Application of
• Microscopy of Ice Propagation in Aggregate (courtesy of Prof. Kejin Wang)
probabilistic approach to the analysis of gravity dam centrifuge tests. In: 8th
• Water running over the spillway, Tucurui Dam (courtesy of Gerencia das ASCE Specialty Conference on Probabilistic Mechanics and Structural
Obras de Expansao da UHE Tucurui, Engs. Jose Biagioni de Menezes and Reliability, Notre Dame, ASCE, 2000)
Oscar M. Bandeira)
• Roller Compacted Concrete (courtesy of Prof. Jose Marques Filho, Companhia
Paranaense de Energia (Copel) produced and owns the copyright of the video)
High Volume Fly Ash Concrete
• L-Box (courtesy of Prof. M. Ashraf) Self-Levelling Concrete
• U-Box (courtesy of Prof. M. Ashraf) • L-Box (courtesy of Profs. Formagini, S., Toledo-Filho,R. D., and Fairbairn, E. M. R)
• Discharge (courtesy of Prof. M. Ashraf) • Inverted cone (courtesy of Profs. Formagini, S., Toledo-Filho,R. D., and
Fairbairn, E. M. R)
Shotcrete
• Shotcrete (courtesy of Prof. N. P. Banthia)
Carbonation
Penetration of Chlorides
Sulfate Attack
Ice Formation
Microscopy of Ice Propagation in Concrete
Microscopy of Ice Propagation in Aggregate
Water running over the spillway, Tucurui Dam
L-Box
U-Box
Discharge
Thermo-chemo-mechanical Finite Element Analysis
of the Temperature Evolution in a Dam Constructed in Layers
Thermo-chemo-mechanical Finite Element Analysis of the
Principal Stresses Evolution in a Dam Constructed in Layers
Probabilistic Analysis of the Reduced Model of a Gravity Dam
L-Box
Inverted Cone
Shotcrete
Bonus Material Index
Chapter 1:
• Itaipu Dam: Images of the construction process of the dam
Chapter 2:
• Computer simulations of the interfacial transition zone
Chapter 5:
• Micrographs of concrete affected by alkali silica reaction
• Micrographs of mortar affected by Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)
Chapter 6:
• Micrographs: Scanning electron micrographs of hydrated cement products
Chapter 8:
• Roman Concrete: Description of the concrete by Vitruvius, a famous Roman engineer.
• Origin of the name Pozzuoli, the old Roman city, that gave the name to the modern mineral admixtures
Chapter 11:
• More information on acoustic emission
• Array configurations to measure resistivity
• Derivation of the Nyquist equation
• X-ray equations: Derivation of the fundamental equations of X-ray tomography
• Microwave equations: Derivation of the fundamental equations of microwave tomography
• Tomography of cracked concrete: Examples of tomography to detect cracking in concrete samples
• Tomography of large reinforced concrete structure: Comparison of tomography and radiography of reinforced concrete column.
Chapter 13:
• Finite element methods for fracture mechanics
• Instruments for measuring strain and stress in concrete
• Early history of mass concrete
ITAIPU DAM
General Information
Ambient Conditions
Yearly average temperature 21 C
Maximum Temperature 40 C
Mimimum Temperature -4 C
Volume of materials
Rock excavation 32.0 m3
River Basin
Area 820,000 km2
Reservoir
Area at the maximum normal level 1,350 km2
Volume at the maximum normal level 29 billion m3
Length 170 km
Dam
Total length 7,760 m
Penstocks
Length 142 m
Penstock internal diameter 10.50 m
Nominal discharge 690 m3/s
Power house
Length 968 m
Width 99 m
Maximum height 100m
Generating Units
Quantity 18
Capacity 700 MW
3
Intake 645 m /s
Diversion of the Paraná river was achieved by the construction of a
channel 2 km long, 150 m wide, and 90 m deep on the left river bank. A
diversion structure aligned with the main dam was built in the channel
before the diversion of the river. Two arch dams were built to protect the
channel structures from floods. The diversion structure used mass
concrete and had 12 temporary diversion openings that were designed to
pass a maximum flood of 30,000 m3/s without overtopping the upstream
and downstream cofferdams. Later, the diversion structure was converted
into intake structure for the power house. (Photograph courtesy of Itaipu
Binacional)
Once the structures of in the diversion channel were finished, the two arch
dams built to protect the structures from flood were simultaneously
exploded in just 3 seconds. This was an important stage for the diversion
of the river (Photograph courtesy of Itaipu Binacional)
The foundation of the dam consisted of Mesozoic igneous rock consisting
of basalt and basaltic breccia. Geologically eight flows were identified as
important for design. A concern was the discontinuities of the layers
between these flows because of their low friction angle.
The main dam was instrumented to analyse its performance during
construction and operation. The instrumentation included foundation
piezometers, extensometers, stress meters, clinometer, direct and inverted
pendulums, thermometers, and joint meters. (Photograph courtesy of
Itaipu Binacional)
Seven aerial cables with an span of 1300 m were used for transporting
concrete in 8 m3 buckets. In November of 1979, a monthly production of
340,000 m3 was achieved. In 1980, the yearly production was 3 million
cubic meter.
Three major classes for mass concrete were used in the main dam. In the
zones of high compressive stress of 6 MPa, concrete with compressive
strength of 28 MPa at year was specified. In less stressed zones, concrete
with compressive strength of 21 and 14 MPa at year were used.
(Photograph courtesy of Itaipu Binacional)
The concrete blocks were built monoliths separated by inclined
contraction joint. The joints were afterwards keyed and grouted. Concrete
was placed in 2.5-m thick lifts. (Photograph courtesy of Itaipu Binacional)
The blocks of the intake dam were built with upstream and downstream
slopes of 0.58 H:1.00 V and 0.46 H:1.00V, repectively. Fourteen blocks,
34 m wide, each with two butresses of varying width were built in the
intake dam. (Photograph courtesy of Itaipu Binacional)
To reduce the amount of concrete in the dam, the center of the block is hollow.
(Photograph courtesy of Itaipu Binacional)
The spillway, with a length of 483 m, was designed for a maximum

discharge capacity of 62,220 m3/s. Fourteen gates 21m high and 20 m
wide were used. (Photograph courtesy of Itaipu Binacional)
COMPUTER SIMULATION OF THE INTERFACIAL TRANSITION ZONE MICROSTRUCTURE
Using computer models, the researchers at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) have been conducting interesting simulations of the cement and concrete
microstructure. The references at the end of this hyperlink provide a good starting point for those
interested in obtaining further information in this growing research area. Computer simulations can
be used to study the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone and how to modify it by using
very small particles of mineral admixtures such as silica fume.
Figure 1 shows a simplified geometry where the aggregate is modeled by a small flat plate.
This geometry also demonstrates the so-called “wall effect” caused by large aggregates in concrete.
The Portland cement is segmented by color into the six phases: tricalcium silicate (red), dicalcium
silicate (aqua), tricalcium aluminate (green), tetracalcium aluminoferrite (yellow), gypsum (gray),
and water-filled porosity (black). Chapter 6 describes in detail the hydration reaction of the cement
compounds. The computer simulation specifies a set of cellular automata rules that control the
events that occur with each pixel during the hydration reaction. Hydration products, calcium
hydroxide (blue) and calcium silicate hydrate (orange), start to form as the unhydrated materials are
exposed to water. Figure 3 shows the porosity distribution as a function of distance from the
aggregate surface. As discussed in the main text, the gradient in porosity existing in the interfacial
transition zone will impact the strength and durability of mortar or concrete.
Figure 2 shows a similar type of computer modeling of the interfacial transition zone when
fine particles of silica fume (pale blue) are used in the cement paste. This mineral admixture
effectively reduces the porosity near the aggregate surface, as indicated in Figure 3. Silica fume
particles are less than 1/100th of the size of the anhydrous cement grain; therefore, their
introduction affects significantly the physical arrangement of the system, particularly near the
aggregate surface where a higher porosity exists. Because it is a pozzolanic material, silica fume
further densifies the system as it reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate hydrate
(designated pink, to differentiate it from the calcium silicate hydrate formed by the cement
hydration).
Figure 1. Initial 2-D slice from a 3-D microstructure of a cement paste with a 0.45 water to cement
ratio and no silica fume. Run the file paulom~1.gif for the animation (courtesy D. Bentz, NIST).
Figure 2. Initial 2-D slice from a 3-D microstructure of a cement paste with a 0.45 water to cement
ratio and 10% silica fume. Run the file paulom~2.gif for the animation (courtesy D. Bentz, NIST).
Figure 3. Porosity distribution as a function of distance from the aggregate after 3650 cycles of
hydration at roughly 180 days.
References:
Virtual Cement and Concrete Testing Laboratory, http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/vcctl/.
Bentz, D.P.; Schlangen, E.; Garboczi, E.J., Computer Simulation of Interfacial Zone Microstructure
and Its Effect on the Properties of Cement-Based Composites. American Ceramic Society.
Materials Science of Concrete. Volume 6. 1995, Westerville, OH, Skalny, J. P.; Mindess, S.,
Editors, pp. 155-199, 1995. http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build95/art013.html
Bentz, D.P.; Garboczi, E.J., Computer Modelling of the Interfacial Transition Zone Microstructure
and Properties. In Engineering and Transport Properties of the Interfacial Transition Zone in
Cementitious Composites, RILEM ETC Report, pp. 349-385, 1999.
http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/monograph/rilemreport/report.html.
Bentz, D.P. , Guide to Using CEMHYD3D: A Three-Dimensional Cement Hydration and
Microstructure Development Modeling Package. NISTIR 5977; 146 p. February 1997.
http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/monograph/monograph/appendix2.html
Bentz, D.P.; Hwang, J.T.G.; Hagwood, C.; Garboczi, E. J.; Snyder, K.A.; Buenfeld, N.; Scrivener,
K.L, Interfacial Zone Percolation in Concrete: Effects of Interfacial Zone Thickness and Aggregate
Shape. Materials Research Society. Microstructure of Cement-Based Systems/Bonding and
Interfaces in Cemetitious Materials. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, Volume
370. November 28-December 1, 1994, Boston, MA, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, PA.
Diamond, S.; Mindess, S.; Glasser, F.P.; Roberts, L.W., Editors, pp. 437-442, 1995.
http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/monograph/paper72/paper72.html
IMAGES OF MORTAR AND CONCRETE AFFECTED BY ASR
Optical Microscopy
Dark rim around the aggregate (G). Stereomicroscope with reflected light, 6X
magnification. (Courtesy Silvia Vieira)
G
Amorphous, vitreous and transparent gel (G) in a pore of concrete.

Stereomicroscope with reflected light, 12X magnification. (Courtesy Silvia
Vieira).
G
Gel (G), in the pore of the concrete. Optical microscope with transmitted light, 50X
magnification. (Courtesy Silvia Vieira).
F
G
G
Gel (G) amorphous, bluish and crack (F) caused by ASR. Stereomicroscope with
reflected light, 18X. (Courtesy Silvia Vieira, ABCP).
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Secondary Mode
ASR gel formed in a void Crystallized products having rosette

morphology
Backscattered Mode
Cracked gel around the aggregate

╬
╬
╬
╬
4% RHA 8% RHA
╬
╬
╬
╬
╬
12% RHA 15% RHA
Backscattered electron micrograph of the specimens containing RHA and quartzite

aggregate (30-days). Cracking in the aggregate decreases with increasing
amounts of the reactive pozzolan.
[from Nicole P. Hasparyk, P.J.M. Monteiro and Helena Carasek, Effect of Silica
Fume and Rice Husk Ash on the Alkali-Silica Reaction ACI materials journal, 2000,
V97(N4):486-492.]
X-ray Transmission Microscopy
(a) X-ray image of dry, ground ASR gel from FURNAS dam, Brazil. (b) X-ray image of
ASR gel in saturated Ca(OH)2 solution after 30 minutes. (c) X-ray image of ASR gel in
saturated Ca(OH)2 solution after 30 minutes. (d) X-ray image of ASR gel in saturated
Ca(OH)2 solution after 2 hours. (e) X-ray image of ASR gel in saturated Ca(OH)2 + 0.01M
NaOH solution. (f) X-ray image of ASR gel in 0.05M NaOH solution after 1 hour.
[from Imaging of ASR Gel by Soft X-ray Microscopy with K.E. Kurtis, P.J.M. Monteiro J.
Brown, and W. Meyer-Ilse), CCR journal V28 N3:411-421, (1998).]
Microscopy of Delayed Ettringite Formation
High magnification image of Fig. *. Internally cracked fully hydrated cement grain
exhibiting the two-tone C-S-H rims. The microcracks have started from the darker
C-S-H core and spread further in the lighter rim (micrograph courtesy of C. Famy).
Ettringite forms in gaps and in air-voids. Some unreacted ferrite phases can be observed
(very bright). Sample stored for 4 hours at 20°C, heated at 90°C for 12 hours and
subsequently stored in water for 600 days (micrograph courtesy of C. Famy).
Sample stored for 4 hours at 20°C, heated at 90°C for 12 hours, subsequently stored in
water for 600 days and then reheated at 90°C for 12 hours and stored in water for 30
days. Upon subsequent exposure to water for 30 days, all the calcium
monosulfoaluminate has transformed to ettringite which is observed mainly surrounding
the aggregates. Unreacted ferrite and partly hydrated belite grains are still present
(micrograph courtesy of C. Famy).
Microscopy of Hydration Products
Calcium Hydroxide
Scanning electron micrograph of calcium hydroxide. The Ca2+ atoms are octahedrally
coordinated to (OH)-, giving the mineral a P 3 m 1 symmetry. (courtesy Nicole Pagan
Hasparyk, Furnas Centrais Eléctricas)
Large calcium hydroxide crystals precipitated in an entrained air void.
Ettringite
Scanning electron micrograph of ettringite. The mineral has a trigonal symmetry (P31c),
with a = 11.26 Å and c= 21.48 Å. (courtesy Nicole Pagan Hasparyk, Furnas Centrais
Eléctricas)
Ettringite
Ettringite crystals need space to grow so they are often found in large air voids.(courtesy
Nicole Pagan Hasparyk, Furnas Centrais Eléctricas)
Ettringite crystals (courtesy Silvia Vieira)
The Roman Concrete, opus caementicium
The Romans were excellent engineers. Their structures are characterized by remarkable
quality of construction, management, and materials. Although the Greeks left great
records of their achievements in philosophy and fine arts, they showed little interest in
leaving similar records of their engineering technology and construction methods.
Archimedes, one of the greatest Greek engineers, refused to write a textbook on
engineering because “the work of an engineer and, indeed, everything that would in any
way make life easier, was ignoble and vulgar”1. Fortunately, the Romans had no such
qualms and left sufficient documentation of their engineering practices. Thanks to
Vitruvius2, a great Roman engineer, we have a detailed account of the construction
practices used in building Roman structures.
Although the Romans were not the first to use reactive pozzolans to make concrete,
they deserve credit for developing systematic application techniques. This is evident
from the Roman aqueducts, temples, and roads that exist even today and attest to the
strength and durability of the Roman concrete. Malinowski3 credits the construction
methods as well as the high quality of well-compacted, nonshrinking concrete for
excellent durability of the crack-free aqueduct linings. Roman cements consisted of a
mixture of lime and a reactive volcanic ash found in Pozzuoli near Naples. According to
Vitruvius2:
THERE is also a kind of powder which from natural causes produces

astonishing results. It is found in the neighborhood of Baiae and in the
country belonging to the towns round about Mt. Vesuvius. This substance,
when mixed with lime and rubble, not only lends strength to buildings of other
kinds, but even when piers of it are constructed in the sea, they set hard under
water.
It is interesting to note that the Romans use of pozzolans was based on the
1
H. Hodges, Technology in the Ancient World, pp. 218-219, Barnes & Noble Books, 1992.
2
Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, Translated by M.H. Morgan, Dover Edition, 1960.
traditional concept of matter being composed by four elements: air, water, earth, and fire.
According to this model, air in a body makes it soft, water renders the body tough, the
presence of earth in the body turns it hard, and fire causes the body to become more
brittle. Vitruvius proposed the following explanation for the reactivity of the pozzolan:
The reason for this seems to be that the soil on the slopes of the mountains
in these neighborhoods is hot and full of hot springs. This would not be so
unless the mountains had beneath them huge fires of burning sulphur or
alum or asphalt. So the fire and the heat of the flames, coming up hot from
far within through the fissures, make the soil light, and the tufa found there
is spongy and free from moisture. Hence, when the three substances, all
formed on a similar principle by the force of fire, are mixed together, the
water suddenly taken in makes them cohere, and the moisture quickly
hardens them so that they set into a mass which neither the waves nor the
force of the water can dissolve.
The modern understanding of how pozzolanic materials work would have to wait until
the early 20th century. As it is discussed later, the source of the pozzolan is a critical
factor in how the material reacts, a point well understood by Roman engineers. Again
Vitruvius addresses this point:
There will still be the question why Tuscany, although it abounds in hot
springs, does not furnish a powder out of which, on the same principle, a wall
can be made which will set fast under water… The same kinds of soil are not
found in all places and countries alike, nor is stone found everywhere. Some
soils are earthy; others gravelly, and again pebbly; in other places the
material is sandy; in a word, the properties of the soil are as different and
unlike as are the various countries.
3
R. Malinowski, “Concrete and Mortar in Ancient Aqueducts”, Concrete International, V. 1, No.1, pp. 66-
76, 1979.
Roman Concrete Roads
The Roman Empire covered a large territory. To remain effective and keep control over
the new conquered territories, an efficient network of roads was critical . Not only was
the army mobilized to participate in the construction of public projects, there was also an
enormous, ever-growing slave population from the conquered territories. It was
remarkable that a few engineers and architects were capable of orchestrating such
efficient construction methods using unskilled labor. By the end of the Empire, over
80,000 km of roads were built.
Suggestions for further reading:

K.A. Harries, Concrete Construction in Early Rome, Concrete International, pp.58-62,
January, 1995.
S.L. Marusin, Ancient Concrete Structures, Concrete International, pp.56-58, January,
1996.
E.G. Garrison, A history of engineering and technology: artful methods. CRC Press,
Origin of the name “Pozzuoli”
The old Roman city of Pozzuoli gave the name to the modern mineral admixtures. The
origin of the name Pozzuoli is interesting: it comes from the Latin Puteoli, which in turn
derives from the Latin word Puteus (pozzo in Italian and well in English). Therefore,
Puteoli means "PICCOLI POZZI" ("small wells"), probably due to the great number of
the hot water wells widely occurring in the area. The translation to "bad smell" has also
been proposed, but the majority of scholars is inclined to believe that "piccoli pozzi" is
the real etymology.
R. Annecchino (1960) Storia di Pozzuoli e della zona flegrea. Pozzuoli. Antonio

Parascandola (1983) I fenomeni bradisismici del Serapeo di Pozzuoli. Guida Editori,
Napoli. G. Race (1984) Pozzuoli, storia, tradizioni e immagini. Napoli. Comune di
Pozzuoli, Assessorato ai beni culturali (1986) Guida di Pozzuoli e del suo Territorio.
Pozzuoli.
M. Sirpettino (2002) I Campi "Abbruciati". Mario Guida Editore, Napoli.
More information on acoustic emission
Acoustic emission signals are usually amplified first by a preamplifier and then by
a main amplifier. They are filtered using a band-pass filter. A typical sensor (or
transducer) transforms elastic vibrations of 10-9 mm amplitude into electrical signals of
10-6 V amplitude using piezoelectric element, such as lead zirconate titanate. The sensors
must have a high signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio and a flat frequency response over a broad
range. In concrete, acoustic emission events can be detected using an amplifier with 60
to 100dB of gain. The optimal frequency range in concrete is known to be from several
kHz to a few hundred kHz.
In the 1950s, a German researcher, J. Kaiser, observed that metals, stressed up to
a specified value and then unloaded, will only start to generate acoustic emissions once
the stresses become greater than the original specified stress. This phenomenon, called
the Kaiser effect, is a powerful tool to establish the maximum stress that a metal or a
structure has been exposed to. Unfortunately, it seems that concrete does not show a
Kaiser effect similar to metals.
An acoustic emission event in concrete is analogous to an earthquake. A
seismologist wants to determine the magnitude and the location of the earthquake, so a
set of sensors is placed on the surface of the earth to record the time when the wave hit
the sensor. With this set of data it is possible, by triangulation for example, to determine
the location of the earthquake. Similarly, the arrival time of the acoustic emission
waveform at a sensor depends on the distance between the source and the sensor.
Therefore, differences in arrival times at various sensors lead to a system of algebraic
equations giving the source location. The process of the equations for homogeneous
media is well-established, but it becomes complex when the material is heterogeneous at
various levels.
Frequency domain analysis (spectral analysis) and time domain analysis
(moment tensor analysis) are the two fundamental approaches used to infer the location,
geometry, and propagation of the crack that originated the acoustic emission event. In
spectral analysis, Fast Fourier Transform analyzes the frequency components of acoustic
emission waves. This method takes into account the frequency response of the receiver
transducer and the variation of wave attenuation as a function of frequency. The main
disadvantage for in-situ applications is the presence of noise, which may alias the signal.
In moment tensor analysis, a model of the crack motion is created by assuming
that a crack at point y is nucleated. Vector n normal to the crack surface and the
displacement discontinuity vector b(y,t) between the two faces of the crack define the
crack kinematics, which can be elegantly represented by a moment tensor mpq defined as
mpq=Cpqklbknl , where Cpqkl are elastic constants. A mode I tensile crack* develops when
the vectors b and n are parallel. Mode II or mode III shear cracks* develop when the
vectors b and n are orthogonal. Physically, the moment tensor represent the angular
dependence of P-wave and S-wave emitted by the source. As a result, AE waveform
u(x,t) at observation point x due to crack vector b(y,t) on crack surface F is given by:
ui (x,t) = ∫ Gip,q (x,y,t)mpq ∗ S(t)dS (1)
F
* See the three modes of crack propagation in figure 12-25 (Chapter 12).
where Gip,q is the spatial derivative of Green’s function (transfer function of the
displacement at point x and time t due to an impulse force applied at y), S(t) is the
source-time function, and * indicates the convolution integral.
It is possible to recover the source function S(t) by deconvolution analysis [solving the
integral Eq. (1)]. Thus, the effect of crack kinetics is readily recovered if the moment
tensor components are known. Another advantage of using moment tensor analysis is that
it can be used to determine the percentage of tensile, shear, and mixed mode cracks that
occurs in an acoustic emission event. Ohtsu 1 developed a moment tensor inversion
procedure that uses only the P-wave amplitude with full-space Green’s function of
homogeneous and isotropic material. With only two parameters per AE events (P-wave
arrival time and amplitude), his code gave good results compared to experimental results
concerning the location, kinetics and kinematics of crack propagation in a pull-out test of
an anchor bolt. His measurements confirmed that the tensile cracks propagated radially
from the anchorage to the reaction support, while shear cracks were only observed near
the anchorage. Crack orientations of AE events due to tensile motion are approximately
vertical to the final failure surface.
1 M. OHTSU, AE observation in the pull-out test process of shallow hook anchors. Proc. of JSCE 11, 177-86,
1989.
Array configurations to measure resistivity
Across an inhomogeneous substructure, the pattern of current distribution in the ground is

distorted and it is possible to create zonal maps of different resistivities. These maps can
be constructed using arrays of electrodes arranged in various configurations, as shown in
Fig. 1. The resistivity is computed using the relationship ρ = K ∆V i , where K is a
geometric factor1.
Figure 1 Common arrangements of electrode arrays and their geometric factors. K is the
geometric factor; C the current electrode; P the potential electrode; a the electrode
distance; and n an integer.
1 S. H., Ward, “Resistivity and Induced Polarization methods,” Geotechnical and Environmental
Geophysics, Eds. Ward, S. H. Vol. 1, SEG, 1990, pp. 147-190.
The in-phase real ( Z r ) component and the out-of-phase imaginary ( Zi ) are given by (see
main text):
Rp
Zr = R c + (1)
1 + ω2 R 2p C dl2
and
ω R 2p C dl
Zi = − (2)
1 + ω2 R 2p C dl2
From Equation 1:
Rp
1 + ω2 R 2p C dl2 = (3)
Zr − R c
or
Rp
ω R p C dl = −1 (4)
Zr − R c
Substituting Equations (3) and (4) into Equation (2)
Rp
Rp −1
Zr − R c
Zi = − (5)
Rp
Zr − R c
or,
Rp
Zi = − − 1 (Z r − R c ) (6)
Zr − R c
Squaring both sides of Equation (6)
 Rp 
Zi2 =  − 1 (Z r − R c )
2
(7)
 Zr − R c 
 
or,
Zi2 = R p (Z r − R c ) − (Z r − R c ) (8)
2
which can be rearranged as:

2 2
 Rp   Rp 
Zi +  Z r − R c −
2
−   = 0 (9)
 2   2 
Therefore,
2 2
  R p  R 
 Z r −  R c +  + Z i2 =  p  (10)
  2   2 
as given in the main text.
Derivation of the equations for the X-ray transform
The γ-radiation is attenuated exponentially along its passage through the material,
because of scattering and absorption interactions with the atoms in the material:
t
− ∫ f (t )dt
I = I oe 0
(1)
Here t indicates the thickness of the attenuating material that has been penetrated and Io is the
incident radiation intensity. The attenuation properties of the material are described by the
product f(t) = µ(t) ρ(t), where µ(t) is the mass-attenuation coefficient (m2/kg) and ρ(t) is the
density (kg/m3).
The fan beam projections g(σ,β) of an object f(x,y) are line integrals obtained by
the X-ray transform:
g(σ,β ) = ∫∫ f (x, y)δ [Dsinσ − xcos(σ + β) − ysin(σ + β )]dxdy (2)
t max (σ ,β)
= ∫ f[−Dsin β + t sin(σ + β) ,D cosβ − t cos(σ + β )]dt (3)
t min (σ,β )
where the notation is illustrated in Fig. 1. Each line integral, g(σ,β), is defined by the
view angle of the projection, β ∈ [0, 2π], which expresses the location of the x-ray
source, and the fan angle, σ∈ (− π2 , π2 ) , which selects a particular ray in the projection.
The radius of motion of the x-ray source is D.
y
β
t min
σ t max x
D t σ
FIG. 1
The geometry of the X-ray transform.
In the backprojection-of-filtered-projections reconstruction algorithm, the

image f(x,y) is obtained from the integral:
1 2π g˜ (σ,β )σ = σ ′(x,y,β)
f (x,y) = ∫ dβ (4)
2 0 L2 (x,y,β)
The integral over β is known as the backprojection and g̃(σ,β ) are the filtered
projections given by:
π
2
g˜ (σ' ,β ) = ∫ g(σ,β ) h(sin(σ' −σ )) D cosσ dσ
π
−
2
π
2
g˜ (σ' ,β ) = ∫ g(σ,β ) h(sin(σ' −σ )) D cosσ dσ
π
−
2
where:
∞
h (sin(σ' −σ )) = ∫ ω e
−iω sin( σ ' − σ)
dω
−∞
2 2
 σ' −σ  ∞  σ' −σ 
 h(σ' −σ)
−ω ( σ′ − σ)
=  ∫ ωσ e σ dω σ = 
 sin (σ' −σ )  −∞  sin(σ' −σ ) 
and σ'(x,y,β) and L(x,y,β) describe the fan angle of the ray traversing through the point
(x,y), and the distance from the x-ray source to the point (x,y) in the image is:
 x cosβ + ysinβ  (5)

σ' (x,y,β) = arctan  
 D + xsinβ − y cosβ 
L (x,y,β ) = (x cosβ + ysinβ)2 + (D + xsinβ − ycosβ)2 (6)
Suggested reading:
S.R. Deans, The Radon Transform and Some of Its Applications, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. (1983).
W. Swindell and S. Webb, “X-Ray Transmission Computed Tomography”, The
Physics of Medical Imaging, edited by S. Webb, IOP Publishing Ltd (1988).
H. J. Dobbs and S. Webb, “Clinical Applications of X-ray Computed Tomography in
Radiotherapy Planning”, The Physics of Medical Imaging, edited by S. Webb, IOP
Publishing Ltd (1988).
P.J.M. Monteiro, C.Y.Pichot and K. Belkebir, Computer Tomography of Reinforced
Concrete, Chapter 12, Materials Science of Concrete, American Ceramics Society
(1998).
Algorithms for Microwave Imaging1
Consider a perfectly conducting cylindrical object embedded in a dissipative
medium, D, (permittivity ε and conductivity σ) and illuminated by a harmonic incident
field, {Ei, Hi}, with angle of incidence, θ, with respect to y-axis (Fig. 1). The time-
factor is given by e-jωt . The incident electric field is linearly polarized along the z-axis.
The scattered field, Es, has only a z component and is generated by an electric surface
current, Js, on the object .
θ
i
E
sensor probing line

array
o y
perfectly conducting
D ( ε , σ) object
x
Figure 1 - 2D geometry of the problem.
The scattered field satisfies the Helmholtz equation
s s
∆E +k2E = -iωµ0Js (1)
with k2= ω2εµ0
and is given through an integral representation
Es ( r) = iωµ
0
∫ s
Js ( r' ) G ( r,r' ) dr' (2)
with r=(x,y) r'=(x',y')

and with the Green's function
(1)
G ( r,r' ) = i/4 H0 (kr- r') (3)
1
This summary is based on P.J.M. Monteiro, C.Y.Pichot and K. Belkebir, Computer Tomography of
Reinforced Concrete (with ), Chapter 12, Materials Science of Concrete, American Ceramics Society
(1998).
(0)
where H1 is the Hankel function of the first kind of order zero
Diffraction Tomography formulation

The normalized surface current , K(x,y), is given by
J (x,y)
s
K(x,y) =
i
E (x,y) (4)
with
i
E (x, y) = e ik (y cos θ + x sin θ )
(5)
The Fourier transform of the Green's function is given by

+ ∞
G(x, y; x', y') = i e i γ y - y ' e 2iπν (x - x ') d ν

2γ -∞ (6)
2
γ 2 = k2 - 4π 2 ∨ ; Im(γ) ≥ 0 (7)
Combining eqs. (2) and (7), it is possible to establish the relationship between the 1D-
Fourier transform of the backscattered field and 2D-Fourier transform of the normalized
surface current.
2γ i γ y s( y
K(α, β ) = - e 0 E ∨ , 0)
ωµ 0
(8)
with
k' sin θ
α(∨, θ) = ∨ - ∈R
2π
'
β(∨, θ) = - 1 (γ + k cos θ ) ∈ R (∨ ≤ k )
2π 2π (9)
To obtain a usual Fourier transform for K(x,y) , α and β are restricted to their real
parts with k'= Re(k), making eq (8) an approximate solution for an embedding
dissipative medium.
The 1D-Fourier transform of the backscattered field, Es (x,y0), at location y0 , is
defined as
+∞
s
E s (∨, y0) = E (x , y0) e -2iπ ∨ x dx
-∞ (10)
and with the 2D-Fourier transform of the normalized surface current K(x,y)
+∞
K(α, β) = K(x, y) e -2iπ (αx + βy) dx dy

-∞ (11)
The equation (8) is an application of the Fourier Diffraction theorem, which is a

generalization of the Radon Projection-slice theorem used in X-ray tomography. This
theorem provides information on the 2D-Fourier transform of K in the Fourier space at
temporal frequency, ω, on a given semicircle, C(ω), of radius k(ω), whose center is
located at -k(ω), as shown in Fig. 2 for normal incidence.
β
-k(ω) /2π o k (ω) /2 π

α
-k(ω)
C( ω)
Figure 2 - support of the 2D-Fourier transform of K for normal incidence (θ=0°)
The quality of image reconstruction is improved by processing data obtained at different

temporal frequencies in the range [ωmin , ωmax] (Fig.3).
β
o
α
C( ω max )
C( ω min )
Figure 3 - Variation of the support of the 2D-Fourier transform of K in the frequency

range [ωmin , ωmax]
Suggestions for further reading:

J.Ch.Bolomey and Ch.Pichot, “Microwave tomography: from theory to practical imaging
systems”, Int. J. Imaging Syst.Tech., vol.2, pp. 144-156 (1990).
Bolomey J.Ch. and Pichot Ch. "Some applications of Diffraction Tomogaphy to
Electromagnetics- The particular case of Microwaves" in Inverse Problems in Scattering
and Imaging, edited by M. Bertero and E. R. Pike, Malvern Physics series, Adam Hilger,
Bristol, pp. 319-344 (1992).
Bolomey J.Ch., Pichot Ch. and G. Gaboriaud, "Planar microwave imaging for biomedical
applications: Critical and prospective analysis of reconstruction algorithms", Radio
Science, 26 (11), pp. 541-549 (1991).
SCAN OF LOADED FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE CYLINDERS
Fiber reinforced concrete cylinders measuring 7.5 cm diameter by 15-cm high
were cast to determine the shape and size of cracks caused by mechanical loading and to
determine if these cracks could be measured using CT-scanning techniques. One of the
cylinders was mechanically loaded under a strain-controlled rate to strain of 6000x 10-6.
Digitized radiographic images of the cylinders were also performed. In the
radiographic images, however, it is difficult to distinguish the extent and any other data
about these cracks because this technique compresses a 3-D object into a 2-D image. The
CT images clearly revealed much more data (such as positions, shapes and dimensions)
about the interior of the specimen (e.g., voids and cracks) within both concrete cylinders
(see Figs. 1 and 2).
Figure 1
Radiographic (left) and CT image (right) images of the unloaded fiber-reinforced concrete cylinder
Figure 2
Radiographic (left) and CT image (right) images of the loaded fiber-reinforced concrete cylinder
Figure 3
1-D profile through the fiber reinforced concrete specimen
Figure 4
Multiple CT scans of the loaded fiber-reinforced concrete cylinder
Figure 3 shows the line-outs or 1-D profiles for lines through the loaded cylinders
respectively. These 1-D profiles reveal small variations in the attenuation coefficient.
Figure 4 presents the contiguous multiple-CT scans of the loaded-concrete specimen. In
the 90-mm scan, the apparent voids (left of center) are actually cracks that extend to the
surface as one goes from scan 90 to 88 mm. The possibility of obtaining close scans and
attaining a three-dimensional image of the complex crack pattern will significantly
advance the understanding of fracture mechanics of concrete.
From: Martz, H. E., Schneberk, D.J., Roberson, G. P., Monteiro, P.J.M., (1991),
“Computed Tomography Assessment of Reinforced Concrete”, 5th International
Symposium on Nondestructive Characterization of Materials, Japan.
Tomography of Reinforced Concrete
Finite Elements for Crack Problems
The concept of finite elements was introduced in the last section for determining
temperature distribution in mass concrete. Next we will discuss how finite elements
can be used to determine stress intensity factors KI and KII for complex geometries.
As mentioned previously, the finite element method is a powerful tool for the
numerical treatment of partial differential equations. For elasticity problems with
complex geometric boundaries it is usually impossible to find an exact solution for the
displacements and stresses. In order to construct an approximate solution, the domain
under consideration is divided into subdomains called finite elements. For every finite
element, linearly independent basis functions similar to those used for the heat transfer
problems can be used in order to approximate the displacement field. Restricting our
attention to plane problems, the nodal jth values of a finite element are usually chosen to
be the displacement components uj and vj (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1 Coordinate system at the tip of the crack (From R. Piltner, Spezielle finite element
emit Lochen, Ecken und Russen, unter analystischen Teillosungen, VDI-Verlag, Dusseldorf,
n. 96, 1982)
The basis functions for standard displacement finite elements consist of shape
functions multiplied by the unknown nodal values. By coupling the finite elements, we
“glue” the pieces of our solution together. The unknowns in the finite element solution
are the nodal values. For the unknown nodal values we require that the potential
energy of the system is minimized, thereby setting up the system of equations for the
unknowns.
The stresses in standard displacement elements are finite. Therefore, standard
displacement elements are not appropriate to approximate the stress singularities at the
crack tip. For crack problems, special finite elements are needed that include crack tip
singularities in the trial functions. In addition, we would like to couple crack elements
with standard displacement elements for which polynomials are used as approximation
functions.
In order to couple crack elements with standard displacement elements, it is
critical that the displacements along the edges of adjacent elements are compatible. The
procedure of coupling a crack element with a standard displacement element is
illustrated in Fig. 2.
Figure 2 Quadrilateral 4-node element
The crack element requires displacement trial functions with the following
properties:
The linearly independent trial functions satisfy the equilibrium equations;
The trial functions satisfy the stress free boundary conditions on the crack surface;
and
The trial functions for the displacements contain terms are proportional to r so that
the associated stresses are proportional to 1 r .
These conditions ensure that the correct form of the singular stress function
terms will be used in the finite element approach. From the finite element analysis we
get the coefficients of the singular stress functions for the crack tip . Apart from a factor ,
the coefficients of the singular stress functions are the stress intensity factors.
Two questions remain: (i) How do we systematically construct linearly
independent trial functions for the displacements and stresses with the properties listed
above; (ii) How can we compute a stiffness matrix for a crack element when the stresses
are singular at one point.
For the construction of linearly independent trial functions, a representation of
the displacements and stresses in terms of arbitrary functions is helpful. Using two
complex functions, φ(z) and Ψ(z), the displacements and stresses can be written in the
form1 :
[
2 µ u = Re κ φ (z ) − z φ' (z ) − Ψ (z ) ]
[
2 µ v = Im κ φ (z ) − z φ' (z ) − Ψ (z ) ]
σ x = Re [2 φ' (z ) − z φ'' (z ) − Ψ' (z )] (1)
σ y = Re [2 φ' (z ) + z φ'' (z ) + Ψ' (z )]
τ xy = Im [ z φ'' (z ) + Ψ' (z )]
where z=x + iy , φ’ denotes differentiation with respect to z, 2 µ = E/ (1 + ν) and κ = (3 -

4 ν) for plane strain and κ = (3 - ν)/(1 + ν) for plane stress. The advantage of using Eq.
(1) is that for any choice of functions φ and Ψ, the equilibrium equations are
automatically satisfied. For our crack element we need functions φ and Ψ, which
ensures the satisfaction of the stress-free boundary conditions on the crack surfaces.
These functions may be represented in the form of a power series as:
N
φ (z ) = ∑ a j ς j
j =0
(2)
and,
N
 j 
Ψ (z ) = − ∑  a j (−1) + a j ς j
j
j=0  2  (3)
where a j = α j + i β j and ς = z .
1N.I. Muskhelishvili, Some Basic Problems of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Noordhoff, Groningen,
Holland, 1953.
Substituting Eqs. (2, 3) into (1) gives us the linearly independent, real trial
functions for our crack element. Note that the terms with the index j=1 give the singular
stress terms for Mode I and Mode II. For example, for σx we obtain the singular terms in
the form:
1 ϕ ϕ 3 ϕ 1 ϕ ϕ 3 ϕ
σx = cos  1 − sin sin  α1 + sin  2 + cos cos β1
r 2  2 2  r 2  2 2  (4)
Stress intensity factors KI and KII can be calculated from
K I = 2 π α1 (5)
K II = − 2 π β 1 (6)
Collecting unknown coefficients αj and βj into a vector c, the displacements for our
crack element can be written in matrix notation as
u = U c + u p = u h + up (7)
where up is a particular solution involving no unknown coefficients.

If we want to take nonhomogeneous stress boundary conditions on a crack
surface into account (for example, constant pressure on the crack), a particular solution
can be used. Only the homogeneous solution uh involves unknown coefficients. Since
the unknowns in vector c are not associated with finite element nodal values, it is
necessary to relate in some manner vector c to the vector of nodal displacements q;
vector q contains the nodal values uj, vj of the chosen element nodes. In Fig. 2, a linear
variation of the boundary displacements, [ũ ṽ] = ũ , is assumed between nodes i and j.
T
If we want to couple the crack element with linear standard displacement elements, ũ, ṽ
are chosen linear between two nodes. If the crack element is to be coupled with
quadratic standard elements, a quadratic variation of the boundary displacement ũ of
the crack element is chosen.
The first step for evaluating a crack element stiffness matrix, vector c of the
displacement field u for the domain Vi of the crack elements is calculated such that an
optimal agreement between u and ũ is achieved along the boundary of the crack
element. This gives us the following relationship:
c =G q+ g (8)
so that the unknowns c can be eliminated, and only the nodal displacements q will
remain as unknowns of the crack element.
To evaluate the crack element stiffness matrix, the following displacement
functional is used:
Π H = Π + ∫ T (ũ − u ) dS
i i T i
siu (9)
where
Π = ∫[1 2 (u D ) E (D u) − u f] dV − ∫
i T T T i T i
u T dS
Vi siu (10)
and Vi denotes the domain of the finite element, Si is the boundary of the element, and
T are the tractions along the element boundary. Using the decomposition of the
displacements and tractions in the form u = uh + up and T = Th + Tp, we can simplify
the variational formulation. Since the displacement field for the crack element is
constructed such that the governing partial differential equations (Navier-equation in
matrix notation):
DT E D u = − f in V (11)
are satisfied a priori, Eq. (10), can be simplified to an expression with boundary
integrals:
Π = ∫ 1 2 u h T h dS + ∫ u h T p dS − ∫ u h T dS + terms without u h and T h
i T i T i T i
s iu s iu s iu
(12)
Using the stiffness matrix of a crack element can be obtained by evaluations of
the boundary integrals along the element boundary2, 3 .It is important that the boundary
conditions on the crack surface are satisfied a priori so that all integrals along the crack
surface vanish. Therefore, we do not need to evaluate stresses at the crack tip during the
calculations of the stiffness matrix, and although the stress singularities are included in
the model, the evaluation of the stiffness coefficients will not be “polluted” from the
presence of the singularities.
2 R. Piltner, Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng., 21, 1471, 1985

3 R. Piltner, in "Local Effects in the Analysis of Structures," Elsevier, Amsterdam, 299, 1985.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING STRAIN AND STRESS IN CONCRETE
Dr. Roy W. Carlson was a legend in the field of concrete technology. His seminal work on mass
concrete for large dams had a lasting impact in the field. He gave his lecture at the University of
California, Berkeley on January 29, 1982.
My talk will be about the development of some types of instruments for measuring strain
and stress, particularly those for embedment in concrete. I will confine my talk to meters which I
have developed. After my talk, there will be time for questions and I will try to answer questions
about my meters and about other instruments as well.
All of my instruments use unbonded elastic wires as the sensing elements. Although I
received a rather basic patent for this kind of instrument, my interest was mainly in such devices
as could be embedded in concrete. Other companies used my patent for other applications and
did far more business than I did. My patent applied to all devices using the unbonded wires, so it
was quite broad. It was prepared by my cousin Chester Carlson who invented Xerox and became
rich. Chester had been graduated from Caltech in Physics; he had trained in patent law for 4
years in the Bell Laboratories and he attended law college for 4 years after that. So you can see
that I had competent help with my few patents. Unfortunately the strain meter patent expired in
1953, some 29 years ago.
My interest in measurement of strain and stress began in 1926 when we were testing the
Stevenson Creek Experimental Dam. This dam was built in the narrow and steep Stevenson
Creek Canyon a few miles downstream from Shaver Dam and about 60 miles east of Fresno. The
site was ideal for such a purpose because if the dam should fail, there would be almost no
downstream damage. In fact, the 60-foot high dam had a reservoir less than 100 yards long. The
dam was far thinner than would be allowed for a service dam, being only two feet thick at the
crest and 7.5 feet thick at the base. The up-stream face was cylindrical and vertical, with a radius
of 100 feet.
Every kind of applicable known at this time was to be made at the dam. Internal strains
were to be measure for the first time in history. The strain method for embedment was conceived
at the U.S. Bureau of Standards. The sensing element was a stack of carbon discs which would
change in electrical resistance when compressed more or less. The assembled meter had a
cylindrical steel body with end flanges 6 inches apart. One flange was connected to a rod which
pressed against the carbon pile. The calibration was non-linear and fairly reproducible if the
interior were kept dry. Lack of long-time stability and the need for low humidity were serious
disadvantages.
When the test dam was loaded by filling the reservoir cracks appeared which were not
expected if only water loading was acting. We decided that there must have been stresses due to
other causes, mainly temperature change and these might be more important than the stresses due
to water load. It as then that I decided to attempt the development of a device for measuring
stress directly. It had become clear that a strain meter could measure only deformations, and
these could be due a combination of causes of which stress might be a minor one.
Also, I thought that a better strain meter could be developed, one which could have long
time stability and constant calibration. So I embarked on two lines of endeavor, first to design a
better strain meter if possible and second, to design a device which would see only stress and be
immune to any deformation which was not directly related to stress. I began at once to search for
something which was stress sensitive. I knew that all soft metals exhibit large changes in
electrical resistance under stress but their elastic limits are far too low to serve my purpose.
In 1927 some data in the Smithsonian Physical Tables caught my attention. The data reveal
that when carbon steel wire is drawn down to very fine size, its tensile strength approaches the
outstanding value of nearly a million psi! This means that it would stretch so much that even the
mere change in length would cause a substantial change in electrical resistance. But I had learned
that there is also an effect of stress in resistance, so I could hardly wait to discover how much the
stress effect could be. What I found was that when the fine carbon steel wire was stretched by
one per cent, the resistance increased by 3.6 per cent. This was not sensational, but it was good.
The development of the strain meter using unbonded carbon steel wire went trough large
number of so-called improvements which I will not enumerate here. Good sensitivity was
obtained because of three magnifying effects. First, the length of the elastic wire coil was made
only about one-fifth of the gage length thus making a larger length change in the wires than in
the gage as a whole. Second, the resistance change in the wire was 3.6 times the length change.
Finally, by mounting two coils of the elastic wire such that one would increase in length while
the other decreased, a double effect could be obtained.
A number of persons suggested using a wire composition which has no temperature
coefficient of resistance. They seemed surprised when I said that I wanted a temperature
coefficient so that my strain meter could serve both as a strain meter and as a thermometer. That
was one fault with the meters used at Stevenson Creek; temperature had to be measured
separately. In the present strain meter, the TOTAL resistance of the two coils is independent of
deformation and can therefore be used to indicate temperature. The RATIO of the resistance of
the two coils is independent of temperature and can therefore be used to indicate strain or
deformation.
The strain meter which finally evolved for embedment in concrete was shaped like a one-
inch diameter cylinder with a flange at either and for bonding to the concrete. The cover had a
hollow section for flexibility and inside the cover were two steel rods connected to either end.
The elastic wire coils were mounted on these rods such that when the end flanges were pulled
apart, one coil increased in length while the other decreased. The space around the elastic wires
was filled with oil to prevent corrosion. Some of the strain meters have been under observation at
U.C. Berkeley for about 25 years without appreciable drift of the resistance ratios.
Besides the fact that nearly all engineers believed that stress could not be measured, the
development of the stress meter met with all manner of obstacles. An early set back came in
1928 when the stress meter was merely an idea of something which might be made. I had
mentioned the concept of the stress meter to the Pacific Coast Editor of the Engineering News
Record (ENR) who was a good friend. He begged me to prepare an article about it for
publication. The article was written and submitted, but it was also submitted to a famous
consulting engineer ( Fred Noetzli) for a review. The reviewer condemned the article saying “
Don’t ever publish that because the subject matter is unsound”. The article was never published.
This was before a single stress meter had been made and before there was even a design for one.
The engineer who condemned the article happened to be a consultant on several dams for
which I was the test engineer. This gave me the opportunity to discuss my ideas with him from
time to time. For two years he stubbornly refused to accept the idea of the stress meter and kept
repeating that only strain could be measured. Then one day in his office in downtown Los
Angeles, he suddenly realized how the meter functioned and he became so excited that he
missed his lunch. He then sent a letter of apology to ENR saying that Carlson’s stress meter was
based on sound principles.
At last I realized how much at fault I had been in not explaining the auction of the stress
meter so an engineer could understand it. It seemed to me that engineers and physicists must
think differently, because I had encountered no difficulty with physicists. At any rate, I decided
to explain the stress meter in a different way as follows: Let’s consider the difference between
the measurement of strain (deformation) and that of stress (force). An instrument to measure
deformation should be in a shape of a rod. If one imagines a thin rod embedded in a material
like concrete, the rod will deform lengthwise very nearly the same as the surrounding material.
Now if the rod is made thinner and thinner until its diameter approaches zero, it will have to
change in length exactly like the surrounding material. The only requirements is that the rod have
a finite modulus of elasticity. The strain meter therefore is shaped like a rod and while not
infinitely thin, it is thin enough to make the error due to lack of thinness only a few per cent.
An instrument for measuring stress, on the other hand, should be in the shape of a thin
plate. Consider such a plate with a finite modulus of elasticity and embedded in a continuous
material. If this plate were to be reduced in thickness until it approaches infinite thinness, the
stress through the plate would approach exactly the same stress as that in the surrounding
material. Therefore, to make a stress meter, one should make a device in the shape of a thin plate
and provide some means of measuring the stress in the plate. Many schemes were considered and
tried for doing this.
The most practicable scheme seemed to comprise a diaphragm made up of two steel plates
with a fluid film between them. For the measurement there would be a small strain meter which
could measure the deflection of a smaller, internal diaphragm actuated by pressure in the fluid
film. The deflection of the internal diaphragm would be proportional to the stress. This was
essentially the stress meter which finally evolved.
He fluid for filling the space between the two plates which comprised the main diaphragm
was a problem. Neither oil nor water were acceptable, both their thermal expansions and their
compressibilities were far too great. The best liquid seemed to be mercury, although it leaves
much to be desired. Its compressibility is favorably low but its thermal expansion is a problem.
Since the mercury is confined laterally between the two plates, its thermal expansion in the
critical direction becomes almost three times the linear expansion when unconfined. What this
means is that the tendency of the mercury to expand in the direction tending to spread the plates
apart becomes 13 times that of steel. The only solution here seemed to be to make the mercury
film as thin as practicable, and this turned out to be about 0.007 inch.
The compressibility of the stress meter diaphragm was a problem. It was obvious from the
start that if the meter were much more compressible than the surrounding concrete, it could not
possible be subjected to the same compressive stress. Therefore, in 1935 I made a finite element
analysis without benefit of computer to see how much difference in
compressibility could be tolerated. With the shape of the diaphragm I had adopted, I found
that if the meter were twice as compressible as the surrounding concrete, it would be subjected to
7 per cent less stress than the concrete. On the other hand, if the meter had zero compressibility,
it would register 7 per cent more than the concrete stress. Thus, it was concluded that the
compressibility must be no more than double that of the concrete and preferably less. This was
accomplished by (1) polishing the interior surface of the diaphragm so there was no roughness
for the mercury to squeeze into, (2) developing a vacuum filling technique for the mercury to
eliminate all air, and (3) keeping the internal diaphragm so that its deflection would not
contribute seriously to compressibility.
Another problem was the sensing element. There seemed to be no easy way to make the
strain meter unit small enough to hidden inside the diaphragm. Therefore, it was allowed to
extend out from the middle of the main diaphragm, but isolated from the concrete by means of
porous, fabric cover. This worked well in most cases but if the meter happened to be oriented at
an angle with the principle stress, the eccentric pressure of the concrete might tilt ever so slightly
and cause an error. The least reading of the strain-meter unit was approximately 0.00002 inch so
even a slight tilt would extend the meter more than this and thus indicate tension. This problem
was corrected in 1978 by having a protective tube around each strain unit so that the concrete
could not touch even the fabric cover.
I spoke earlier of setbacks. One of the worst was when the Bureau of Reclamation in
Denver decided to test the stress meter. They cast a larger cylinder, 3 feet in diameter by 6 feet
high and embedded three stress meters in the concrete as it was cast. When the cylinder was half
full they placed the meters, without waiting for bleeding to stop. As the aggregate particles
tended to settle, water rose toward the surface and collected under each stress meter. The
resulting void under each meter prevented the intimate contact between meter and concrete
which is essential for proper functioning. The net result was that when the cylinder was loaded,
the stress meters showed far less than the applied stress and the meters got a black mark.
Another setback was in India where stress meters were used in the Koyna Dam. The
installation was faulty again and the meters gave erroneous indications. The main trouble here
was with meters to measure stress in directions other than principle ones. The concrete pressed
against one side of the strain-meter nit, tilting it slightly so that it was extended and thus showed
tension. Although some of the meters gave reasonable results with others showing tension, there
could be no confidence in any of the results. A change in the meter design was made then to
prevent this kind of behavior happening again. There is now a protective steel tube around the
strain meter unit so that the concrete can not touch it.
Although there were more setbacks, there were also some very useful results obtained with
strain meters. A good example is the Dworshak Dam in Idaho. This dam is the largest ever built
by the Army Engineers and is over 700 feet tall. Nearly 100 stress meters were embedded in 3-
meter clusters in one of the highest monoliths of the dam. Hundreds of strain meters also were
installed. The stress meters gave the principal stresses in a plane perpendicular to the axis with
almost no analysis required. Although the dam was completed in 1972, the strain meter data have
not yet been studied enough for obtaining the stress meters demonstrated their superiority. The
stress meters now provide a quick way of checking for any possible change in stress distribution,
which would be more difficult with the strain meters.
EARLY HISTORY OF MASS CONCRETE
Dr. Roy W. Carlson was a giant in the field of mass concrete for large concrete dams.
His pioneering work on stress meters, low-heat cements, and mathematical models for
concrete had a tremendous influence in the field. Here he recollects his first works in the
field.
Not much was known about internal heating of concrete before 1925. In that year
the Stevenson Creek Experimental Dam was built and internal temperatures were
observed. This dam was constructed in a steep canyon such that the reservoir of a dam 60
feet high was only about 100 yards long. If the dam were to fail, there would be no
damage from the water rushing out of the reservoir. The dam was 7.5-feet thick at the
base and two feet at the crest. When the reservoir was filled, cracks appeared which could
not have occurred unless there was tensile stress already in the concrete before the filling.
About a year later, an Ambuersen Dam was being constructed in Mexico. The
buttresses of this dam were about five feet thick at the base and more than 100 feet long.
After only a few lifts had been cast, vertical cracks appeared, first at the mill length then
at the quarter points and even some others. It was believed at that time that the chemistry
of cements caused shrinkage of concrete, more or less depending upon the composition of
the cement. In this case, Riverside cement was used and it was blamed for the cracking.
The chief Chemist of Riverside had read the report on Stevenson Creek so he knew that I
had measured the internal temperatures in that dam. When he came to see me at my
laboratory in Los Angeles, the first thing he said was “Could the cracks in the Rodrigues
Dam have been caused by temperature changes”. I suggested that the way to find out was
to measure the internal temperatures of Rodrigues and analyze them. I made some simple
thermometers by winding enameled copper wire on bakelite spools and insulating the
coils by dipping in hot tar. The thermometers were shipped to Engineer Frederico Barona
of the Government of Mexico and he had then embedded in the concrete of the dam. The
temperature rose to well over 100 degrees F and then decreased after a few days. By
making rather rash assumptions, the tensile stress was computed and found to be over
300 psi. We assumed that the stress was zero when the temperature was a maximum and
the foundation restraint was 100 per cent. Our results convinced the authorities that the
cracks were due to internal heating and the Riverside Cement Company was absolved of
blame.
In 1931, research was begun at U.C. Berkeley on cement for the Hoover Dam. This
dam was to be almost double the height of any dam up to that time and it was to be so
thick that unless artificially cooled, the interior would stay warm for hundred of years.
For the first time, internal heating of concrete dam was tackled as a major problem. At
first, it was thought that the solution would be to develop a cement with low enough heat
liberation so that the temperature rise would be tolerable. A low-heat cement was indeed
developed and used in the dam. But even with the low heat cement, the internal
temperatures reached 150 degrees F in Hoover Dam.
Therefore, in addition to the use of low heat cement, two other measures were
adopted to solve the internal heating problem. One was to cast the concrete in blocks
small enough so that they would not crack. The second was to embed cooling pipes in the
concrete for the circulation of cold water to remove the heat from the interior. The pipe
cooling was effective in reducing the temperature and opening the joints so that they
could be effectively grouted. Some of the joints opened as much as one-fourth inch due to
the cooling.
The cement content in Hoover Dam was exactly four bags per cubic yard, or 376
pounds. The cement was much coarser than present-day cement and more water was used
in the concrete than would be used today. Both of these conditions made it necessary to
use more cement to obtain the desired strength. Remember that Hoover was constructed
before the age of internal vibrators and air entrainment. With today’s cements and
modern methods, a dam like Hoover could be built with much less cement.
Figure 1: Stevenson Creek Dam (1926)

Middle of top row: Marchand, Lyse, DeYoe
Center Standing: Rose and Carlson
Bottom: Slater, Fendwick, Barry

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P. Kumar Mehta & Paulo J.M. Monteiro

Visible Bleed Water

Entrapped air void

Large Moon Mars

1m 10 m 100 m 1000 m 104 m 105 m 106 m 107 m

CASE A: 100 cm3 of cement, constant W/C=0.63,

CASE B: 100 cm3 of cement, 100% hydration,

100 + 314 x 0.6 = 288 cm3

100 + 314 x 0.5 = 257 cm3

100 + 314 x 0.4 = 225 cm3

100 total volume=

Permeability Coeff. (cm/sec x 10 -12)

100% 75% 50% 25%

Aggregate Interfacial Bulk

200 0. 8 120 Mortar

Iron 100 Mix B

Cube Strength, MPa

50 Non-air entrained concrete

Compressive Strength, MPa

Cost per cubic meter of Unit Strength, $/MPa

Note: All concretes have constant 0.60 water/cement ratio

MIX 1 MIX 2 MIX 3

Compressive Strength, MPa

60 In air entire time

20 Note: Specimens were cast, sealed

20 Note: Specimens were cast, sealed and

Note: Specimens were cast at 21 C and maintained

Height of cylinder = 2 x diameter

200 Average from tests by G.W. Hutchinson

and others, reported in Bulletin 16,

SPECIMEN PARAMETERS STRENGTH OF THE LOADING PARAMETERS

MATRIX POROSITY AGGREGATE TRANSITION ZONE POROSITY

MINERAL ADMIXTURES BLEEDING CHARACTERISTICS

Lateral Strain Proportionality Limit

Ratio of concrete stress to cylinder strength

0.4 Creep limit

0.2 t= Time under load

Plane of tensile d=L/3 Specimen Load-applying and

L/3 L/3 L/3 Bed of Testing Machine

D/6 Actual stress

D/2 Natural axis

Mohr rupture envelope

Simple uniaxial tension

σ2 / f 'c f 'c = 32 MPa

σ1 / f 'c f 'c = 30 MPa

0.10 ε3 ε2=ε3 ε2 ε1=ε2 ε1 ε1

-0.05 f 'c (MPa)

(b) Actual tensile stress

(2) 50% of ultimate stress (4) Failure stress

(1) 30% of ultimate stress 2 (3) 75% of ultimate stress

MECHANISM DIAGRAM STRAIN VERSUS TIME STRESS VERSUS TIME NOTES

THE MEMBER IS FREE

Initial configuration STRAIN STRESS

DRYING Initial configuration STRAIN STRESS

T 0.68 water-cement ratio

Calculated Values of Secant E (Based on Curve No. 3)

FACTORS AFFECTING MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE

MOISTURE STATE OF ELASTIC MODULUS POROSITY AND ELASTIC MODULUS VOLUME

TESTING CEMENT PASTE INTERFACIAL AGGREGATE

600 Reversible Total

(b) 600 Creep Creep

1 0.50 w/c ratio