AWP Unit I To V Notes

ANTENNAS AND WAVE
PROPAGATION
PREPARED BY
Y.SATHISH KUMAR
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ECE
SREYAS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES
UNIT – I
Antenna basics, basic antenna parameters patterns, beam area, radiation intensity, beam
efficiency, directivity, gain, resolution, antenna apertures, effective height, illustrative
problems. Fields from oscillating dipole, field zones, front to back ratio, antenna theorems,
and Helmholtz’s equation, retarded potential.
Thin Liner Wire Antennas:
Radiation from small electric dipole, quarter wave monopole, and half wave dipole, current
distributions, evaluation of field components radiated power radiated resistance, beam
width directivity, effective area and effective height natural current distributions far field
palters of thin linear center fed antennas of different lengths problems.
Loop Antennas:
Introduction, small loops, comparison of far fields of small loop and short dipole radiation
resistance and directivities of small and large loops (Qualitative treatment)
Definition of Antennas:
An antenna is defined as a metallic device for radiating and receiving radio waves
The IEEE standard defined the antenna or aerial as a means for radiating or receiving radio
waves.
In other words antenna is the transitional structure between free space and a guiding device
(transmission line or coaxial cable)
Since the times of hertz and Marconi antennas have becomes increasing important to our
society and at present they are indispensable. They are everywhere at our homes and work
places, on our cars and aircrafts and out ships satellites and space crafts etc. even as
pedestrians we carry then unknowingly.
Although antennas seem to have bewildering almost infinite variety all operate on same basic
principles of EM energy since the understanding of antennas includes mathematical
expressions involving various quantities and parameters their dimensions units symbols
notations need to be understand before studying them.
A Short History of Antennas:

Antennas are our electronic eyes and ears on the world. They are our link with space. They
are essential and integral part of our civilization.
Antennas have been around for a long time, millions of years as the organ of touch or feeling
of animal’s birds and insects. But in past 100 years they have acquired a new significance as
the connecting link between a radio system and outside world.
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The first radio antennas were built by heinrich hertz, a professor at the technical
institute in karlsruche, Germany. In 1886 he assembled apparatus we would now describe as
a complete radio system operating at meter wavelengths with an end – loaded dipole as the
transmitting antenna and resonant square loop antenna at receiver. He also experimented with
parabolic reflector antenna.Although hertz was the pioneer and father of radio, his invention
remained a laboratory curiosity, until a 20 year old Guglielmo Marconi Italy went on adding
tuning circuit’s big antenna and ground systems for longer wavelengths and was able to
signal over larger distances.Rarely has an invention captured the public imagination as
Marconi’s wireless did at the beginning of 20th century Marconi became the wizard of
wireless.
Later with the advent of radars during world war – ii centimeter wavelengths become
popular and the entire radio spectrum opened up to wide usage thousands of satellites
bristling with antennas now circle the earth in low medium and geostationary orbits.
Our probes with arrays of antennas have visited the planets of solar system and
beyond responding to our commands and sending back photographs and data at centimeter
wavelength.
Antennas are essential communication link for aircrafts and ships. Antennas for
cellular phones and all types of wireless devices, link us to everywhere and every one. With
the mankind activities expanding into space need for antennas go to an unprecedented
degree.The future of antenna will reach to the stars.
Functions of Antenna:
Different functions of antenna have to be performed as follows.
i. In the transmitting mode it is used to radiate electromagnetic waves.

ii. In the receiving mode it is used as a sensor of EM waves.
iii. An antenna has to act like transducer which converts electrical energy into EM energy
at the transmitter side. And it converts EM energy into electrical energy at the
receiving side.
iv. For maximum power radiated into the space, the condition for maximum power
transfer must be satisfied. The role of antenna is important here. It serves as an
impedance matching device, which matches the transmitter and free space impedance
on the transmitter side. And it matches free space and receiver impedance on receiver
side.
v. An antenna must also serves as a directional device means it should radiate more in
the desired directions and suppress in the unwanted directions.
An antenna is an advanced wireless system is usually required to optimize or accentuate

the radiation energy in some directions and suppress it in others. Thus antenna must also
serve as a directional device in addition to probing device.
The world of antennas encompasses the understanding of the meaning, purpose

parameters and types of antennas. It also spells the theoretical and practical aspects of
antennas and their selection criterion for specific application and range of operation.
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An antenna (or aerial) is considered as a region of transition between a transmission line
and space. Antennas radiate/couple/concentrate/direct electromagnetic energy in the desired
or assigned direction. An antenna may be isotropic (also called Omni directional/
nondirectional) or anisotropic (directional).
There is no hard and fast rule for selecting an antenna for a particular frequency range or
application. While choosing an antenna many electrical mechanical and structural aspects are
taken into accounts. These aspects include radiation pattern, gain, efficiency impendence,
frequency chars shape size weigh etc.
In some applications (mobile, radars) same antenna may be used for transmission and
reception, while in others (eg radio and TV) transmission of signals require separate antennas
which differ in shape, size and other characteristics
In principle, there is no difference in selection factors relating to transmitting and

receiving antennas. The cost, size and shape etc make the main difference. Still high
efficiency and high gain are the basic requirements for transmitting antennas. Whereas low
side lobes and large SNR are the key selection criteria for receiving antennas
Normalized power pattern antenna pattern parameters:
Antenna pattern parameters:
Radiation lobe:
A clear peak in the radiation intensity surrounded by regions of weaker radiation intensity
Main lobe:
Radiation lobe in the direction of maximum radiation.
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Minor lobe:
Any radiation lobe other than main lobe.
Side lobe:
A radiation lobe in any direction other than the directions of intended radiation.
Back lobe:
The radiation lobe opposite to the main lobe
HPBW: half power beam width:

The angular width of the main beam at half power points.
FNBW: first null beam width:

The angular width between the first nulls on either side of main beam
(a) Field patterns in polar coordinates b) power pattern
Antenna parameters and definitions:

Beam area, beam width half power beam width and first null beam width,
polarization, radiation intensity, beam efficiency directivity, and directive gain, radiation
efficiency, resolution, antenna aperture physical and effective apertures, effective height
transmission formula, antenna field zones, transmission loss as a function of frequency
antenna temperature and signal to noise ratio.
Antennas are basic components of any electric system and are connecting links
between the transmitter and free space or free space and receiver. Thus antennas play
important role in finding the characteristics of system in which antennas are employed.
Irrespective of type of application of an antennas or antenna system all the antennas

possessed certain basic properties like radiation pattern radiation intensity directive gain
directivity, power gain, efficiency effective aperture radiation resistance, beam width beam
area polarization, resolution, bandwidth, beam efficiency antenna temperature, signal to noise
ratio etc.
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So now we will see about isotropic radiator which is used for comparison purposes.
Isotropic radiator:
An isotropic radiator is a fictitious radiator and is defend as a radiator which radiates
uniformly in all directions. It is also called isotropic source or omnidirectional radiator or
unipolar. It is a hypothetical radiator with which all practical antennas are compared. Thus an
isotropic antenna is also called as reference antenna but sometimes a half wave dipole
antenna is also used as reference antenna.
Since all the practical antennas have at least some directional properties i.e. directivity
hence there is no such thing as isotropic radiator of EM energy.
Let us now imagine an isotropic radiator is situated at the center of a sphere of radius
‘r’. then all the energy radiated from it, must pass over the surface area of sphere (4πr 2 ). And
the “poynting vector or power density p at any point on the sphere gives” power radiated per
unit area in any direction. Since the power radiated from an isotropic source flows in radial
lines, therefore, for an isotropic radiator the magnitude of the poynting vector p equal to the
radial component of power only
i. e, Pθ = P∅ = 0
⃗ | = Pr
|P
Thus if the poynting vector is known as all points on sphere of radius r from a point
source in a lossless medium the total power (wt) radiated by the sources is integral over the
surface of sphere of radial component Pr of average poynting vector.
Then
ωt = ∬ P. ds
= ∬ Pr ds
= Pr ∬ ds
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ωt = Pr . 4πr 2
ωt
Pr = 2
watts/m2
4πr
ωt → Total power radiated
Pr → Radial component of average power density poynting vector in W/m2
ds → Infinitesimal element of area of sphere in m2 = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ
r → Radius of sphere in ‘m’
Radiation pattern:
An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical function
or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in far field regions and is
represented as a function of directional coordinates.
Practically any antenna cannot radiate energy with same strength uniformly, in all
directions.It is found that the radiation is large in one while zero or minimum in other
direction. The radiation from the antenna in any direction is measured in terms of field
strength at a point located at a particular distance from the antenna.
The field strength can be calculated by measuring voltages at two points on an electric
lines of force and then dividing by distance between two points hence the unit of radiation
pattern is volt/meter. Generally the field strength is expressed in mv/m. the radiation pattern
of an antenna is an important parameter of antenna because it indicates the distribution of
energy radiated by an antenna in the space.
In general the radiation pattern is nothing but a graph which shows the variation of
actual field strength of EM field at all points equidistant from the antenna. Hence is a three
dimensional graph. There are two basic radiation patterns. If the radiation of antenna is
represented graphically as a function of direction it is called radiation pattern. But if the
radiation pattern of antenna is expressed in terms of field strength E then the graphical
representation is called field strength pattern or field radiation pattern similarly if the
radiation of an antenna is expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle then the graphical
representation is called power radiation pattern or simply power pattern.
Field radiation Pattern:

In general the complete field radiation pattern is a z – dimensional pattern. It requires
three dimensional representation to represent the radiation for all angle of ∅ and θ . To
represent a field radiation pattern a spherical coordinate system is most suitable.
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Three dimensional representation of field rad. Pattern of antenna
In the figure it is clear that field pattern consists of main lobe in z – direction where θ
= 0 (which represents the maximum radiation in that direction) then minor lobes on the sides
and nulls between two different lobes indicating minimum or zero radiation. The pattern
consists a small lobe exactly opposite to the main lobe which is called back lobe. The field
radiation pattern can be described completely w.r.t the field intensity and polarization using
the following there important factors.
i) Eθ (θ, ∅) → the θ − component of ⃗E as a function of θ and ∅
⃗ as a function of θ and ∅.
ii) E∅ (θ, ∅) → The ∅ - component of E
iii) δθ (θ, ∅) or δ∅ (θ, ∅) → The phase angles of both the field components.
In general, the field pattern is expressed mathematically in terms of relative field

patterns which is commonly called normalized field pattern.
The normalized field pattern is defined as the ratio of field component to its maximum
value. Basically normalized field pattern is dimensionless quantity with maximum value
equal to one. These normalized field patterns for θ and ∅ components of the electric field are
given as follows.
Eθ (θ, ∅)
Eθn (θ, ∅) =
Eθ (θ, ∅)max
Similarly
E∅ (θ, ∅)
E∅n (θ, ∅) =
E∅ (θ, ∅)max
As the three dimensional pattern cannot be plotted in a plane, three dimensional

representation is avoided. Instead of this, the polar plots of relative magnitude of the field in
any desired plane are sketched. These polar plots are plotted in two planes namely one
containing the antenna the antenna and the normal to it. These planes are called principle
planes and the two plots are patterns are obtained by plotting the magnitude of normalized
field strengths. When the magnitude of normalized field strength is plotted verses θ with
constant ∅ the pattern is called E – plane patternor vertical pattern. When the normalized
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π
field strength is plotted verses ∅ for θ = 2
the pattern is called H – plane pattern or
horizontal pattern.
The radiation pattern gets changed if the length of dipole is increases. For a center fed half
wave vertical dipole the radiation pattern is shown.
Field radiation patterns for vertical dipoles.
The field radiation patterns for the 1 ½ wavelengths and 2 wavelength vertical dipoles are as
shown.
Two wavelengths Field radiation pattern for vertical dipoles
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Power Radiation Pattern:
When the radiation in a given direction is expressed in terms of power per unit solid
angle the pattern is called power radiation pattern. Again considering a spherical surface with
radius ‘r’ centered at the point source representing the antenna. At a point on the surface the
radiated power flows racially outwards.
The power density pd(θ, ∅) is defind as power flow per unit area and is a function of
the direction (θ , ∅). The power density can be expressed in terms of magnitude of electric
field intensity as
1 |E (θ, ∅)|2 1 |E (θ, ∅)|2

Pd (θ , ∅) = = ω/m2
2 η0 2 120π
2
Where |E (θ, ∅)| = √Eθ (θ, ϕ) + Eϕ (θ, ϕ)
η0 = Intrinsic impendence = 120 π Ω
The direction in which E (θ, ϕ) is maximum, the power density Pd (θ, ϕ) is also
maximum and it is denoted by Pd (θ, ϕ)max. So the power pattern is expressed in normalized
pattern as
Pd (θ, ϕ) |E (θ, ∅)|2

Pd (θ, ϕ) = =
Pd (θ, ϕ)max |E (θ, ∅)|2max
Here Pdn (θ, ϕ) is the normalized pattern of power and is independent of distance r
measured from origin to the distant point p since Pd (θ, ϕ) and Pd (θ, ϕ)max both vary
inversely with r.
For example if the radiation field pattern if given by f(θ, ϕ) = sin θ then the power
radiation pattern is given by
Pd (θ, ϕ) = f 2 (θ, ϕ) = sin2 θ
Radian:
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Representation of 1 radian plane angle
The radian is the plane angle. And one radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at
the center of circle with radius ‘r’ that is subtended by an arc whose length is also r. it is
represented by unit rad.
The total circumference of a circle is 2πr i.e. C = 2πr
Thus over a complete circle there are 2π radians
Steradian:
The measure of solid angle is steradians. One steradians is the solid angel with its vertex at
center of sphere with radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area to that of a square
with each side equal to r. the angle steradians is expressed in Sr.The area with a completed
sphere is
A = 4 πr2
Ω → solid angle subtended by area A.
Thus over a closed sphere with radius r. the solid angle subtended by it is one steradians.1
solid angle or sphere

1 steradian =
4π
2
180 2
1 sr = 1 rad = ( ) (deg)2
π
= 3282.81 sq. deg
The Infinitesimal area ds on the surface of a sphere with radius r, is given by
ds = r2 sin θ dθ d∅ m2
Hence the element of solid angle dΩ of a sphere is
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ds
dΩ = = sin θ dθ d∅ steradian
r2
∴ 4π steradian = 3282.8 × 4π
= 41231.968 sq. deg
Gain:
The gain of the antenna is the basic property which is frequency used as figure of merit. Gain
is closely associated with directivity and directivity itself dependent entirely upon the shape
of radiation pattern of an antenna. The ability of antenna or antenna system to concentrate the
radiated power in a given direction or conversely to absorb effectively the incident power
form that direction specified by various antenna terms e.g antenna gain or simply gain or
directive gain or power gain or directivity. In case of antenna, gain is a relative term in which
actual antenna is compared with a reference antenna. A reference antenna is a hypothetical
lossless isotropic radiator or antenna which radiates uniformly in all directions.
Definition:
Gain of the antenna without involving the antenna efficiency is defined as the “ratio of
maximum radiation intensity in given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from the
reference antenna produced in the same direction with the same power input.
max radiation intensity form subject antenna

Gain (G) =
i
max radiation intensity from a reference antenna with same p power
Here, effect of losses are involved in both, the subject antenna and reference antenna when
reference antenna is taken as isotropic antenna (having 100% efficiency) then gain of subject
antenna is denoted by G0. And is known as gain w.r.t isotropic antenna
Thus,
max radiation intensity from test antenna

G0 =
radiantion intensity form isotropic antenna with same power input
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∅1m
G0 =
∅0
∅1m = max radiation intensity from test antenna
∅0 = radiantion intensity form a loss less isotropic antenna
Directive Gain:
All practical antennas concentrate its radiated energy to more or less extent in certain
preferred directions. The extent to which a practical antenna concentrates its radiated energy
relative to that of some standard antenna is termed as directive gain. Thus the directive gain
(Gd) in a radiation intensity in that direction to the average radiated power the directive gain
is a function of angles (θ and ∅) which should be specified.
∅(θ , ∅) = radiation intensity in a particular direction.
∅av = average radiation intensity in that direction
Wr
=
4π
Then by definition, direction gain is given by
Radiation intensity in a part direction

=
Average radiation intensity
∅(θ, ∅)
Gd (θ , ∅) =
Wr
4π
4π ∅(θ , ∅)
Gd (θ , ∅) =
Wr
4π ∅(θ , ∅)
Gd (θ , ∅) =
∫ ∅ dΩ
Gd (db) = 10 log10 Gd (θ, ∅)
4π ∅(θ , ∅)
Gd (db) = 10 log10 { }
∫ ∅ dΩ
This directive gain is a measure of extent to which the total power radiated is concentrated in
one direction.
In other words the directive gain of antenna is defined in a particular direction “ as the ratio
of power density in that particular direction at given distance to the power density that would
be radiated at the same distance by an isotropic antenna, radiating the same total power.
Power density radiated in a part directed by sub antenna

Gd =
Power density rad in same direction by isotropic antenna
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Power Gain:
The directive gain compares the two power density of actual and isotropic antenna on the
assumption that both are radiating the same total power. Another concept of gain known as
power gain compares the radiated power density of actual antenna and that of an isotropic
antenna on the basis of same input power to both.
power density radiated in a particular dirt by the subject antenna

Gd =
power density radiated in that dirction by an isotropic antenna
Hence in definitions of directivity (or directive gain) and power gain only difference is seen
that for directivity the radiated power is considered for the directive antenna, whereas for
power gain the power fed to the antenna is taken.
In other words directive gain and power gain are identical except that power gain takes ito
account the antenna losses. It may be written as
GP = η. Gd
η = efficiency factor lies let 0 and t thus when η = 1
GP = Gd
2) Power gain in a given direction is also defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in that
direction to the average total input power
Ra. intensity in a given direction

GP =
Average total input power
ϕ(θ , ϕ) 4π ϕ (θ, ϕ)
GP = =
WT WT
4π
WT = Wr + Wl = Total input power
Wl = ohmic loss of antenna
3) In terms of power input power gain is given by
Power input supplied to subjt antenna in the dirt of max radiation

Power gain(GP ) =
power input supplied to reference antenna
Directivity D:
The maximum directive gain is called as directivity of an antenna and is denoted by D. in a
particular direction the directivity is constant.
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1) The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity to its
average radiation intensity.
Max. radiation intensity of test antenna

Directivity =
Average Radiation intensity of test antenna
ϕ(θ , ϕ)max
D= of test antenna
ϕav
2) Directivity D of an antenna may also be defined as the ratio of maximum radiation

intensity of subject antenna to the radiation intensity of isotropic antenna or reference antenna
radiating the total same power.
max. Radiatin intensity test antenna

D=
radiation intensity of isotropic antenna
ϕ(θ , ϕ)max (test antenna)

D=
ϕ0 (isotropic antenna)
3) Alternatively another way to expressing the directivity of an antenna is in terms of total

radiated power. It is the total radiated power by the subject antenna for the same radiation
intensity.
Power radiated from test antenna

Directivity =
power radiated form an isotropic antenna
W ′ ( form test antenna)

D=
W ′′ (from isotropic antenna)
And also
ϕ(θ , ϕ)max
D=
W
4π
4π ϕ(θ , ϕ)max
D=
W
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4π(maximum radiation intensity)
D=
Total radiated power
In general directivity may be represented by D(θ, ϕ) and is given by
ϕmax
D(θ ; ϕ) = D
ϕ
D. ∅
D (θ , ϕ) =
∅max
The directivity D is also expressed in decibels as

D
Directivity (db) = 10 log10
The numerical value of directivity D always lies between 1 and ∞. i.e. 1 ≤ D ≤ ∞
Differences between Directive Gain and Directivity:

1) By definition
Radiation intensity
Directive gain =
Averge radiated power
ϕ (θ , ϕ) 4π ∅ (θ , ϕ)
Gd = =
Wr Wr
4π
or The extent to which the practical antenna concentrates its radiated energy relative to that of
some standard antenna is known as directive gain whereas the maximum directive gain is
called as directivity D.
max Rad. intensity of test antenna

Directivity (D) =
Avg. Rad, intensity of test antenna

D=
ϕav (test antenna)

or D =
ϕo (isotropic antenna)
2) For a lossless isotropic antenna, directive gain and directivity is same.
In this case the efficiency factor K = 1
Go = K. D
Go = D if K = 1
3) The numerical value of directive gain may lie between o and ∞ whereas that of directivity
between 1 and ∞
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4) Directive gain depends entirely on the distribution of radiated power in space whereas the
value of directivity depends on the solid angle of far field pattern.
5) Directive gain does not depend on the power input to the antenna and antenna losses and
so it true for the directivity. In other words antenna efficiency is not involved in these two.
6) The numerical value of directivity of current element and half wave dipole are respectively
1.5 (or 1.76 db) and 1.64 (2.15 db)
Antenna efficiency :(𝛈)

The efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio of power radiated to the total power
supplied to the antenna and is denoted by η or K. thus
power radiated
Antenna efficiency =
total input power
Wr Wr
η= =
WT Wr + Wl
Wr 4π ∅ (θ , ∅)
= ×
WT 4π ∅ (θ , ∅
Wr 4π ∅ (θ , ∅)
= ×
4π ∅ (θ , ∅) WT
1
= GP
Gd
𝐺𝑃
𝜂=
𝐺𝑑
Wr = power radiated
Wl = ohmic losses
If current flowing in the antenna is I,
I2 R r
Then η = 2
I (R r + R l )
𝑅𝑟
𝜂%= × 100
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙
Where R r = Radiation resistance
R l = ohmic loss resistance of antenna conductor
R r + R l = Total effective resistance.
The loss resistance may consist of the following in general

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i. Ohmic loss in the antenna conductor
ii. Dielectric loss
iii. I2 R loss in antenna and ground system
iv. Loss in earth connections
v. Leakage loss in insulation
Thus antenna efficiency “η” represents the fraction of total energy supplied to the antenna
which is converted into EM waves.
Effective Area or Effective Aperture or Capture Area:

A transmitting antenna transmits EM waves, and receiving antenna receives a fraction of the
same. The concept of effective area or aperture is best understood by considering an antenna
to have an effective area or aperture over which it extracts EM energy from the travelling EM
waves. It may be defined as the “ratio of power received at the antenna load terminal to the
poynting vector in watt/m2 of the incident wave.
Thus, Effective area or effective aperture or capture area
Power received
=
poynting vector of incident wave.
W
Ae = =A
P
W = AP
W = power received in watts
P = poynting vector of incident plane wave
Ae = Effective aperture in m2
Let the receiving antenna be placed in the field of plane polarized travelling waves having an
effective area A and the receiving antenna is terminated at load impedance
ZL = R L + jXL
If I is the terminal current then received power,

2
W = Irms RL
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R L = Load resistance in Ω
Irms = Terminal rms current

2
W Irms RL
A= =
P P
Since the antenna extracts energy from the incident EM waves, deliver the same to the
terminated load impedance ZL and power flowing per square meter or poynting vector is P
W/m2.
This enters system can be replaced by an equivalent circuit according to Thevenin’s Theorem
VTh = Equivalent Thevenin’s voltage
ZTh = Equivalent Thevenin’s impedance
The voltage V is induced by passing EM waves which produces current Irms through terminal
load impendence. ZL
Equivalent voltage
Irms =
Equivalent impedance
V
Irms = A
ZL + ZA np
ZA = R A + jXA = complex antenna Imp
and R A = R r + R l = R r if R l = 0
Antenna Resistance= Radiation resistance + loss res.
Now putting the values of ZL and ZA
V
Irms =
(R L + j XL ) + (R A + jXA )
|V|
|Irms | =
√(R L + R A )2 + (XL + XA )2
|V|
|Irms | =
√(R L + R r + R l )2 + (XL + XA )2
XL = Load resistance in Ω
XA = Antenna reactance in Ω
Since the power received by terminal load impendence is given by

2
W = Irms RL
V2 RL
W=
(R L + R A )2 + (XL + XA )2
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This is the power delivered by antenna at the terminating load impedance ZL. Now
Power received 2
Ae = m or λ2
poynting vector
V2 RL
Ae = m2 or λ2
[(R L + R A )2 + (XL + XA )2 ]P
V2 RL
Ae = m2 or λ2
[(R L + R r + R l )2 + (XL + XA )2 ]P
This is the expression for effective area or aperture or capture area in terms of power density,
induced voltage V, antenna is oriented for maximum response and antenna and the incident
wave both have same polarization.
Maximum power will be transferred from antenna to the antenna terminating load if
XL = −XA
RL = RA = Rr + Rl
R l = R r if R l = 0
Thus maximum power received in antenna terminating load impedance ZL can be obtained
V2 RL
Wmax =
4 RL2
V2 V2
= =
4 Rr 4 Rr
𝑉2
∴ 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4 Rr
This is the maximum power received in antenna terminating load impendence ZL under the
condition of max power transfer and without antenna loss and corresponding effective
aperture is called maximum effective aperture.
max. Received power

(Ae )max =
Power density of Inci wave
𝑉2 2
(𝐴𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = λ 𝑜𝑟 m2
4𝑃R r
1) Scattering Loss Aperture:

Besides effective aperture, there are other apertures also like scattering aperture and loss
aperture (Al) corresponding to considerable losses in radiation or re – radiation resistance (Rr)
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and antenna loss resistance (Rl) respectively and accordingly they are also called as scattering
and loss apertures,
Mathematically,
2
Irms Rr
Scattering aperture = AS =
P
V2 Rr
AS =
[(R L + R A )2 + (XL + XA )2 ]P
2 Rl
And loss aperture = Al = Irms P
V2 Rl
Al =
[(R L + R A )2 + (XL + XA )2 ]P
If the condition of maximum power transfer theorem is introduced,
V2Rr
(AS )max =
(R L + R r )2 P
V2 Rr ∴ RA = Rr + Rl
=
4 R2r P = R r if R l = 0
𝑉2
(𝐴𝑆 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4 𝑅𝑟 𝑃
Thus under the condition of maximum transfer of energy max scattering aperture and
maximum effective aperture are same.
(AS )max = (Ae )max
The ratio of scattering aperture to effective aperture (max) is called as scattering ratio (β)
AS
β=
Ae
The values of β lies between 0 to ∞
2) Collecting Aperture:
Out of power collected by antenna there are losses as heat in load resistance (R L) radiation
resistance (Rr) and antenna loss resistance (Rl) and correspondingly the three apertures are
Effective, scattering and loss. By virtue of conservation of energy these apertures are
collectively known as collecting aperture.
Collecting aperture AC = Ae + AS + Al
2 2 2
Irms R L Irms R r Irms Rl
AC = + +
P P P
20 | P a g e
V2 RL V2Rr
= +
P[(R L + R A )2 + (XL + X A )2 ] P[(R L + R A )2 + (XL + XA )2 ]
V2Rl
+
P[(R L + R A )2 + (XL + XA )2 ]
V(R L + R r + R l )
AC =
P [ (R L + R r + R l )2 + (XL + X A )2 ]
Physical Aperture:
Another type of aperture is known as “physical aperture” which is related to the actual
physical size of the antenna and is denoted by AP.
Physical aperture may be defined as “the physical cross – sectional perpendicular to the
direction of incident EM wave with antenna set for maximum response.
In large cross – section antenna like horn parabolic reflector, mattress multi element, the
physical aperture is greater than effective aperture, but for antenna like short dipole, it is less
than effective aperture. For example the value of effective aperture is approximately 50% of
physical aperture for horn antenna between 50 % to 65% for parabolic reflector and about
cent percent for large mattress multi element antenna
AP = Ae when no losses.
But Directivity ‘D’ and effective aperture Ae are related by
4π
D= . Ae
λ2
4π
Dmax = A
λ2 P
So the ratio of maximum effective aperture to physical aperture is given by the name
absorption ratio and is denoted by r. thus
(Ae )max
Absorption ratio r =
Ap
The values of r lies between o and ∞
Relation between Maximum Aperture and Gain or Directivity:

The radiation pattern is same for transmitting and receiving antennas, by virtue of reciprocity
theorem and hence the idea of directivity which itself is related with the shape of the radiation
pattern and is extended for receiving antenna also. In general the directivity (D) of an antenna
is always directly proportional to the maximum effective aperture.
Let there be two antennas A and B whose directivities and maximum effective apertures are
denoted by Da , Db and (A′ea )max and (A′eb )max respectively.
∴ Da α (Aea )max
21 | P a g e
Db α (Aeb )max
𝐷𝑎 α (Aea )max
𝐷𝑏 α (Aeb )max
But from the previous, the gain and directivity w.r.t isotropic source or antenna is given by
G0 = K. D
G0 = Gain of transmitting antenna
K = Efficiency factor
D = Directivity
It now the losses of efficiency factor k and mismatch are included, then k can be replaced by
effectiveness ration α
G0 = ∝. D
Let us now assume that G0a , ∝a and Da being gain, effectiveness ratio and directivity of
antenna A and G0b , ∝b and Db are gain, effectiveness ratio and directivity for B.
G0a = ∝a Da … . . (1)
G0b = ∝b Db … . . (2)
𝐺0𝑎 ∝𝑎 𝐷𝑎
= =
𝐺0𝑏 ∝𝑏 𝐷𝑏
G0a ∝a (Aea )max
=
G0b ∝b (Aeb )max
But from definition
Aea
∝a =
(Aea )max
Aea = ∝a . (Aea )max
ly
║ Aeb = ∝b . (Aeb )max
Hence
𝐺0𝑎 Aea
=
𝐺0𝑏 Aeb
Where Aea and Aeb are the effective apertures of antenna A and B. let us now assume that
antenna A is an isotropic antenna then its directivity Da = 1
22 | P a g e
Da 1 (Aea )max
= =
Db Db (Aeb )max
(Aeb )max
(Aea )max =
𝐷𝑏
(Aeb )max
𝐷𝑏 =
(Aea )max
This states that directivity of an antenna is nothing but the ratio of its max effective aperture
to the max effective aperture of an isotropic antenna.
For ex. Let us take the case of a short dipole antenna whose max. effective aperture and
directivity if calculated will be (3/8π) λ2 and 3/2 respectively.
3λ2
(Aea )max = 8π
3
2
1 λ2
= .
4 π
Putting this in Db
(Aeb )max
Db =
λ2
4π
4π
Db = (Aeb )max
λ2
Or in general
4π
𝐷= 𝐴
λ2 𝑒
This is the relation between directivity and max effective aperture of antinna.
This terms “effective length” of an antenna represents the effectiveness of an antenna as

radiator or collector of electromagnetic wave energy. In other words, effective length
indicates how far an antenna is effective in transmitting or receiving electromagnetic wave
energy.
For receiving antenna the effective length may be defined in terms of induced voltage v and
incident field. Effective length is nothing but the ratio of induced voltage at the terminal of
receiving antenna under open circuited condition to the incident electric field intensity E, thus
open circuited voltage

Effective length =
incident field strength
23 | P a g e
V
le = m or wavelength
E
Since the induced voltage V also depends on the effective aperture, and hence effective
length and effective aperture are related to each other. Effective aperture is given by
V2 RL
Ae = … … (1)
[(R A + R L )2 + (XA + XL )2 ] P
Ae [(R A + R L )2 + (XA + XL )2 ]P E2
or, V 2 = ∴P=
RL Z
√Ae [(R A + R L )2 + (XA + XL )2 ]E 2

V=
√Z. R L
Under conditions for maximum effective aperture when
XA = −XL
RA = Rr + Rl = RL
R A = R L if R L = 0
(Ae )m (2R r )2
le = √
Z Rr
𝑙𝑒2 𝑍
∴ (Ae )max =
4 𝑅𝑟
This is the relation between max. Effective aperture and effective length.
For the transmitting antenna, the effective length is that length of an equivalent linear antenna
that has same current I© at all the point along its length and that radiates the same field
intensity E as the actual antenna.
Illustration of effective length of Tx antenna
I(c) = current at the terminals of actual antenna
24 | P a g e
I (z) = current at any point Z of antenna
Le = Effective length
L = Actual length
Hence for transmitting antenna

l
+
2
I(c)let = ∫ I(z) dz
l
−
2
l
+
1 2
let = . ∫ I(z) dz
I(c) − l
2
𝑙
2 2
𝑙𝑒𝑡 = . ∫ 𝐼(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
𝐼(𝑐) 0
Beam Area or Beam Solid Angel (ΩA) :

In polar two dimensional coordinates an incremental area dA on the surface of a sphere is the
product of the length rdθ in θ direction (latitude) and r sin θ dθ in ∅ direction (longitude)
Thus
dA = (r dθ). (r sin θ d∅)
= r 2 dΩ
25 | P a g e
Where dΩ = solid angle expressed in Sr
Thus 1 steradian = 1 Sr
solid angel of sphere

=
4π
= 1 rad2
180 2
=( ) deg 2 = 3282.8 sq deg
4
∴ 4π steradians = 41.252.96 sq deg.
The beam area or beam solid angle or ΩA of an antenna is given by integral of the normalized
power pattern over a sphere.
2π π
ΩA = ∫ ∫ pn (θ, ∅) sin θ dθ d∅
∅=0 θ=0
And
ΩA = ∬ pn (θ, ∅) dΩ Sr
Where dΩ = sin θ dθ d∅.
The beam area ΩA is the solid angel through which all of the power radiated by the antenna
would stream if p(θ, ∅) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero elsewhere.
Thus the power radiated = P (θ,∅) ΩA watts.
The beam area of an antenna can often be described approximately in terms of angles
subtended by the half power points of the main lobe in the two principal planes. Thus
Beam are = ΩA = θHP ∅HP (Sr )
Where θHP & ∅HP are the half power beam widths in two principal planes Minor lobes being
neglected
Beam Area:
Beam area is the solid angle through which all of the power radiated by antenna would stream
(flow) if p(θ,∅) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero elsewhere
2π π
ΩA = ∫ ∫ Pn (θ, ∅) sin θ dθ d∅
∅=0 θ=0
Beam area
ΩA = ∬. pn (θ, ∅) dΩ Sr
4π
26 | P a g e
Resolution:
The resolution of an antenna is defined as half of the beam width between first nulls.
FNBW
Resolution =
2
But the HP beam width is approximately equal to the half FNBW of an antenna
FNBW
i. e. , HPBW =
2
Actually in practice for an antenna HPBW is sligbly less than FNBW/2
The antenna beam area is given by the product of two half power beam widths in two
principal planes. Hence we can write.
ΩA = θHP ∅HP
FNBW FNBW
=( ) ( )
2 θ 2 ∅
If there are N number of point sources of radiations distributed uniformly then antenna
resolves those and its expression is given by
4π
N=
ΩA
But by definition, the directivity of antenna is defined as ‘

4𝜋
𝐷=
Ω𝐴
Hence we can write D = N
Thus ideally number of point sources resolved by an antenna is equal to the directivity of
antenna.
The resolution of antenna is also called Rayleigh resolution.
Antenna Beam Efficiency (BE):

Antenna Beam efficiency is a parameter that is frequently used to judge the quality of
transmitting and receiving antennas. For an antenna with its major lobe coincides with z –
axis (θ = 0) the beam efficiency is defined as
Power Tx or R x with cone angle θ1

BE =
Power Tx or R x by the antenna
Where θ1 = half of cone within which the percentage of the total power is to be found
2π 1 θ
∫0 ∫0 ∅ (θ, ∅) sin θ dθ d∅
So BE = 2π π
∫0 ∫0 ∅ (θ, ∅) sin θ dθ d∅
27 | P a g e
If θ1 is chosen as angle where first nulls or minimum occurs, the beam efficiency will
indicate the amount of power in the major lobe compared to the total power.
In terms of beam area (ΩA) the beam efficiency is defined as the ratio of main beam area
(ΩM) to the total beam area (ΩA)
ΩM main beam area

i. e, BE or EM = =
ΩA Total beam area
Where the total beam area ΩA consists of the main beam area (or solid angle) ΩM and the
minor lobe area i.e.,
ΩA = ΩM + Ωm
Total beam area = Main beam area + minor lobe area
Divide the above with ΩA
ΩM Ωm
𝟏= +
ΩA ΩA
1 = ϵM + ϵm
Where
Ωm
ϵm = = stray factor
ΩA
minor lobe ara

=
Total beam ara
Ωm
ϵm = = Beam efficiency
ΩA
Antenna Beam Width:

Antenna beam width is a measure of directivity of an antenna. Antenna beam – width is an
angular width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern (major lobe) between points
where the radiated power has fallen to half its maximum value. This is called as “beam
width” between half power point or half power beam width (HPBW) because the power at
half power points, the power is 3 db down of the maximum power value of major lobe.
Further at these half power points the field intensity (i.e. voltage) equals 1/√2 or 0.707 times
its maximum value or 3.db down from maximum value beam width of major lobe of
particular level (usually half power points) is one of the way to describe conveniently the
radiation pattern of an antenna as a function of angular width as the radiation pattern itself is
a function of direction consider the radiation pattern shown and let p1 and p2 be half power
points then the angle p1 OP2 is “beam width” of an antenna therefore antenna beam – width
can be defined as “ the angular width (in degrees ) of the major lobe between the two
directions at which the radiated or received power is one half the maximum power
28 | P a g e
In the figure (a) θ° represents the beam – width of the lobe. With the idea to high light the
structure of minor lobes the radiation pattern is shown in (c) on decibel scale.
Where o – db corresponds to main lobe maximum 3 –db to half power points sometimes
radiation pattern is also described interms of angular width between first nulls or first side
lobes. Known as beam – width between first nulls (BWFN) and is abbreviated as (BWFN) or
beam width – 10 db down form the pattern maximum
The directivity (d) is related width beam – solid angle (ΩA) or beam area (B) as
4π 4π
D= =
ΩA B
Since the radiation pattern or lobe is a 3 – dimensional and hence the major lobe are
approximately given by the product of bema – widths in horizontal and vertical planes or E –
plane and H – planes
B = (HPBW) in horizontal plane (HPBW) in vertical plane.
= HPBW in E – Plane (HPBW) in H – plane
B = θE × θH square radians
4π
D=
θE × θH
4π × (57.3)2
= square degrees
θ°E × θ°H
41.257
D=
θ°E × θ°H
This formula is very approximate and applies to antennas having almost equal and narrow
beam – width and also there is no more minor lobes. The errors increases if the beam –
widths of E and H planes increases.
29 | P a g e
The factors affecting the beam – width of an antenna are
i. The shape of radiation pattern

ii. The wave length
iii. Dimensions
Since the beam has different widths in differenct planes through the beam axis the axis is the
direction of maximum radiation. i.e., a line is drawn from the antenna to the nose of the
radiation pattern.
Practical Importance of Beam – Width:

An antenna having narrow beam if used for reception it may lead to the determination of the
direction from which the signal is reaching. In this way it provides information on the
direction of transmitter. For the antenna beam must be adjustable or steerable i.e. capable of
being pointed in different directions obviously, for a direction finding applications, a narrow
beam is desirable and accuracy of direction finding is inversely proportional to beam – width.
1
∴Dα
B
Sometimes a receiver is unable to discriminate between desired and undesired signals and in
this case pointing a narrow antenna beam in the direction of desired signal is helpful. This
results in higher gain of antenna at the same time reduced gain of antenna at the same time
reduced gain for the unwanted signals. This may provide necessary discrimination. However
if there is wide separation between wanted and unwanted signals then relatively wide beam –
width is suffice.
Since gain or directivity and beam – width of an antenna are related as

1
𝐷∝
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Hence narrower the beam – width the higher the gain or directivity So a narrow beam – width
provides a desirable property i.e. gain.
From to Back Ratio: (FBR)

It is defined as the ratio of power radiated in desired direction to the power readiated in the
opposite directions.
Power radiated in desired direction

FBR =
power radiated in opposite direction
Obviously higher the FBR the better it is.
The FBR changes if frequency of operation of antenna shifts. Its value tends to decrease if
spacing between elements of antenna increases. The FBR depends on tuning conditions or
electrical length of parasitic elements. The higher FBR is achieved by scarifying gain from
30 | P a g e
opposite direction. In practice, for receiving purposes adjustments are made to get maximum
FBR rather than maximum gain.
Radiation Resistance: (Rr)

The antenna is a radiating device in which the power (i.e. energy per unit time) is radiated
into the space in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Hence there must be power dissipation which may be expressed in usual manner as
W1 = I 2 R
If it is assumed that all the power appears as electromagnetic waves, then the power (W|) can
be divided by square of current (I2) i.e.
𝑊′
𝑅𝑟 =
𝐼2
i.e. at the point where it is fed to antenna and obtain a fictitious resistance, called as radiation
resistance. It is normally denoted by Rr or Ro. the radiation resistance represents a relation
between the total energy radiated from a transmitting antenna and the current flowing in the
antenna. The radiation resistance (Rr) is thus defined as that fictitious resistance which, when
substituted in series with the antenna, will consume the same power as is actually radiated.
As a matter of fact, the energy supplied to an antenna is dissipated
a. In the form of EM waves

b. As ohmic losses in the antenna and nearly dielectrics eg insulators ground and other
surround objects.
Though the radiation form an antenna is a desirable and useful phenomena but still as far as
antenna is concerned, it represents nothing but a loss just as energy in heating the wire of
antenna is a loss. Further the dissipated power in either case is given by T2 R.
The fictitious or assumed resistance is given the name radiation resistance (Rr). therefore the
total power loss in the antenna is sum of the two losses.
i.e., Total power loss = ohmic loss + Radiation loss.
W = W ′ + W ′′
= R r I2 + I2 R l
W = I2 R
R = Rr + Rl
λ
However, for 2 antenna the power (W ′′ ) lost as heat is very less. Only few percent of total
supplied power to the antenna because RF resistance of antenna is very less.
The value of radiation resistance depends on.

31 | P a g e
i. Configuration of antenna
ii. The point where radiation resistance is considered
iii. Location of antenna w.r.t grounds and other objects.
iv. Radio of length of diameter of conductor used.
v. Corona discharge.
A half wave dipole antenna has a radiation resistance of 73.2Ω in free space. The value of
radiation resistance for most of wire antennas is around 65Ω and that of rod antenna it is in
between 55Ω to 60Ω
Polarization:
Polarization is nothing but the physical orientation of electromagnetic wave in the free space.
The antenna polarization in a given direction refers to the polarization in a given direction
refers to the polarization of an EM wave radiated or transmitted by the antenna. When the
direction is not specified, the polarization is the conveniently considered to be the
polarization in the direction of maximum gain. The different parts of the antenna pattern may
have different polarization because the polarization varies with distance from the center of
the antenna.
Polarization of an EM wave describes the time varying direction and relative magnitude of
the electric field vector. Thus conventionally the polarization is described in terms of electric
field vectorE⃗ . The polarization of electric field ⃗E can be obtained by observing the field along
the direction of propagation.
Polarization can be defined as the figure traced as a function of time by the tip of the
instantaneous electric field vector at fixes location in free space observed along the direction
of propagation.
The antenna polarization is expressed in terms of wave transmitted or received by an antenna

in a given direction. In general, the polarization of the wave, transmitted by the antenna at a
point in the far field is represented by the polarization of the plane wave which represents the
radiated wave at a point. According to the far – field characteristics, the radiated wave at any
point in the far field of the antenna can be described as local plane wave having the electric
field strength same as that of wave and the direction of propagation in the radial direction
from the antenna. This is due to the fact that, when radial distance approaches infinity, the
radius of curvature of the phase front of the transmitted wave also approaches infinity; hence
the transmitted wave in any direction appears locally as a plane wave. Now let us define the
polarization of the receiving antenna. The polarization of the EM wave incident form
specified direction which results in the maximum power at antenna terminals is called
polarization of receiving antenna.
The polarization can be classified as linear polarization, circular polarization or elliptical

polarization. When the electric field vector at any point in the free space is the function of
time and if it is directed always along the line, then the polarization is called linear
polarization. And the field is said to be linearly polarization. And the field is said to be
horizontal plane, then the wave is said to be horizontally polarized wave. Note that the
direction of antenna and polarization are always same. That means the vertical antenna
32 | P a g e
produces vertically polarized wave, while the horizontal antenna produces the horizontally
polarized wave. When the figure traced by the instantaneous electric field vector is an
elliptically polarized field and the polarization is called elliptical polarization.
Similarly, if the instantaneous electric field vector traces a circle the polarization is called
circular polarization and the field is called the circularly polarized field.
Depending upon the direction of the orientation of the electric field vector, two cases are
possible. If the electric field vector is oriented in the clockwise direction, then the
polarization is called right hand polarization. And if the electric field vector is oriented in
anticlock wise direction then the polarization is called left hand polarization.
Antenna Temperature: TA
Every object with a physical temperature above absolute zero (0 ° k = - 273°c) radiates
energy. For a lossless antenna the antenna temperature has nothing to do with the physical
temperature of antenna but is related to the temperature of distant regions of space coupled to
the antenna via radiation resistance. Actually antenna temperature is not so much an inherent
properly of antenna and it is a parameter that depends on the temperature of the region’s the
antenna is “looking at”. In this sense, a receiving antenna may be regarded as a remote
sensing, temperature measuring device. Both the antenna temperature (TA) and radiation
Resistance (Rr) are single valued scalar quantities.
Resistance R at temperature T
The noise power per unit bandwidth available at the terminals of a resistor R and temperature
T is given by
P = KT watt/hertz
P = power per unit B.W
K = Boltz man’s constant = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K
T = Absolute temperature of resistor in °K
If the resistor R is replaced by a lossless antenna of radiation resistance R r in an anechoic

chamber, at temperature T. the noise power per unit B.W available at the terminals is
unchanged that is to say that if the resistance R is replaced by a lossless resonant antenna of
radiation resistance Rr, the impedance presented at the terminals unchanged.
33 | P a g e
Now if the antenna is removed from the anechoic (NO echo) chamber and pointed at the sky
of temperature T, the noise power.
At the terminals is same as for the two previous cases.
If the power per unit B.W P is independent of frequency, the total power is obtained by
multiplying with B.W(B) i.e.
P = KTB watts…….(1)
B = B.W in hertz.
Let the antenna shown has an effective area Ae and that its beam is directed at a source of
radiation which produces a power density per unit B.W or flux density (s) at the antenna.
The power received from sources is given by
P = SAe B watts … . . (2)
S = power density per unit B. W
Ae = Effective aperture in m2
B = B. W
Equating (1) and (2)
P = SAe B = KTB
𝐾𝑇𝐴
𝑆= °𝑘
𝐾
There is a continuous background of noise – like EM radiations in the atmosphere. These

radiations arrive from the outer space and are termed as cosmic noise. In general, conmic
noise decreases with the increases in frequency and is of considerable importance in VHF and
lower UHF bands. Its intensity is maximum towards the center of our own galaxy and
minimum when observed along the pole about which the galaxy revolves.
The brightness temperature of an extended source of radiation measured in a particular

direction is the temperature of a black body which yields brightness equal to heat of source
under consideration. The brightness B defined as the power received per unit are of aperture
34 | P a g e
per cycle of B.W per unit solid angle and at radio and radar frequencies, is related to
brightness temp TB by
2KTB
Rayleigh – jeans formula B =
λ2
The measurable temperature is the mean brightness temperature in the field of antenna
pattern and is called antenna temperature
The antenna observes the cosmic noise at one temperature and an intervening absorbing
atmosphere noise at another. The combined temperature of the cosmic noise atmospheric
noise is called the space temperature, the brightness temperature or antenna temperature of an
ideal antenna.
Signal to Noise Radio: (SNR)

Consider a network to which an electrical signal considers a network to which an electrical
signal is fed. The output of the network is generally not the same as the input and some
deviations in the characteristics of signal are likely to occur these deviations in the signal in
the form of change in its amplitude or phase characteristics are said to be the result of
addition or subtraction of an unwanted signal (referred as noise) introduced by the network.
The ratio of signal ‘s’ (fed to the network) and the noise ‘N’ is termed as signal to noise
(SNR = S/N). SNR is a very important parameter to be reckoned with any communication
network or system and is a measure of the detection capability of system.
In case the input signal is already mixed with some noise (i.e. input = Si+Ni) and the output
is further modified by the network (i.e. output = S0+N0) a new parameter called noise figure
and is denoted by F.
𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖
𝐹=
𝑆0 /𝑁0
Radiation Intensity:
Radiation intensity is a quantity which does not depend upon the distance from the radiator
and is denoted by U or ϕ. It helps in defining various antenna terms like antenna gain or
simply gain or directive gain or directivity. So radiation intensity is defined as “power per
unit solid angle. Since the unit of power and solid angel are watts and steradians. Hence the
unit of radiation intensity are W/rad2
We know form solid angle that
ds
dΩ =
r2
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟 2 𝑑Ω
ds → Elemental surface area
dΩ → differential solid angle

35 | P a g e
and we also know that power radiated per unit area in any direction is given by the
poynting vector
volt Amp watt

⃗ = E
P ⃗ × ⃗H
⃗ ( × = 2)
m m m
⃗ = Electric field intensity, V/m
E
⃗H
⃗ = magnetic field intensity, A/m
P = instantaneous poynting vector in w/m2
⃗ ×H
Here E ⃗⃗ is a vector product and mutually ⊥lar components contribute anything to the
power flow and the direction of flow is normal to the plane containing ⃗E and ⃗H
⃗ . But when
⃗ and H
E ⃗⃗ are changing with time then average vector of P is of great interest.
In complex notation poynting vector is given by
1
P= ( E × H∗)
2
Pav = real part of P (complex)
1
Pav = R { E × H ∗ } watts
2 e
It is known for radiation field that E and H are orthogal in a plane normal to radius vector
and this case
⃗E = 120π H
⃗⃗
E = η0 H
η0 → Intrinsic impedance
Thus the power flow per unit area can be now be written as
E. E
P = EH =
η0
1 𝐸2
𝑃= 𝑤/𝑚2
2 𝜂0
⃗ | = Pr
In the far field poynting vector is entirely radial, i.e., |P
∴ The relation between the average poybting vector and the electric field at a point of far
field is given by
1 𝐸 2 (𝜃, ∅)
𝑃𝑟 =
2 𝜂0
36 | P a g e
If now the magnitude of poynting vector Pr is multiplied by square r at which radiation
intensity is measured then we get the power per unit solid angel i.e., radiation intensity
Radiation intensity = ∅ (θ, ∅) = Pr r 2 = ∅
∴ ∅ = 𝑃𝑟 𝑟 2
1 𝐸 2 (𝜃, ∅) 2
𝑜𝑟 ∅= . 𝑟
2 𝜂0
The total power radiated Wr from a radiator is calculated as
Differntial power (dwr )

∅=
Differential element of solid angle (dΩ)
dwr = ∅ dΩ
Total power radiated is obtained by integrating
wr = ∫ d wr = ∫ dΩ . ∅
Or wr = 4π ∫ ∅
∴ wr = 4π . ∅av
wr
∅av = w/sr
4π
Antenna field types:

There are two types of antenna fields
i. Reactive field
ii. Radiation field
Reactive Field:
The portion of antenna field characterized by standing waves which represents stored energy
Radiation Field:
The portion of antenna field characterized by radiating waves which represent transmitted
energy.
Antenna Field Regions:

There are three different field regions, They are
i. Reactive near field region

ii. Radiative near field (Fresnel) region
iii. Radiative for field (Fraunhofer) region.
37 | P a g e
Figure: D → maximum dimension of antenna
D3 2D2
R1 = 0.62 √ R2 =
λ λ
Reactive Near Field Region:

The radian immediately surrounding the antenna where the reactive field (Stored energy
standing waves) are dominant.
Radiative near Field (Fresnel) Region:

The region between the reactive near field and for field where the radiation fields are
dominant and the field distribution is dependent on the distance from the antenna.
Radiative Far Field (Fraun Hofer Region):

The region farthest away from the antenna where the field distribution is essentially
independent of the distance from the antenna.
In general far – field ranges are a better choice for lower frequency antennas and where
simple pattern cut measurements are required, and near field ranges are a better choice for
higher frequency antennas and where completer pattern and polarization measurements are
required.
38 | P a g e
Friis Transmission Formula – Radio Communicates On Link:
The Friis transmission formula was developed by proof H.T friis of the bell telephone
laboratories in 1946 this formula is useful in obtaining the power received by the receiver.
This formula is based on the concept of effective aperture.
Consider a ratio link between the transmitter and receiver as shown. Let the antennas be
separated by a distance ‘d’ expressed in meter. Let PT be the power transmitted by the
transmitting antenna. Let PR be the power received by the receiving antenna. Let AeT and AeR
are the effective apertures of transmitting and receiving antennas respectively. Assuming that
the transmitting antennas is isotropic then the power density i.e., power received power unit
area at the receiving antenna is given by
PT
PR = … … . (1)
4π d2
Where Prad = PT and r = d
If GT is the directional gain of transmitting antenna then the power density produced at the
distance d by the transmitting antenna is given by
PT
Pd = power density at distanced = GT . 2
w/m2 … … (2)
4π d
Let AeR is the effective aperture of receiving antenna, then the power received at the receiving
antenna is given by,
PT
PR = .G .A watts … … (3)
4π d2 T eR
But the directive gain of the transmitting antenna can be expressed in terms of the effective
aperture of transmitting antenna as
4π
GT = A … . . (4)
λ2 eT
Putting (4) in (3)
39 | P a g e
We can express the effective apertures of transmitting and receiving antennas in terms of the
directive gain of these antennas as follows:
By formula the effective aperture of the transmitting antenna can be expressed in terms of
directive gain of the transmitting antenna i.e. GT
𝜆2
𝑎𝑠 𝐴𝑒𝑇 = 𝐺 … . . (6)
4𝜋 𝑇
Similarly the effective aperture of receiving antenna can be expressed in terms of directive
gain GR of the receiver as
𝜆2
𝐴𝑒𝑅 = 𝐺 … . . (7)
4𝜋 𝑅
Substituting (6) and (7) in (5) we get
λ2 λ2
(4π GT ) (
4π GT )
PR = PR .
d2 λ2
2
λ2
∴ PR = PT GT GR ( )
4πd
This is the alternation form of Friis transmission formula.
Antenna Field Zones:
In the far or Fraunhofer region, the measurable field components are transverse to the radial
direction from the antenna and all power flow is radially outward. In the far field the shape of
pattern is independence of distance.
In the near or Fresnel region, the longitudinal component of electric field may be significant
and power flow is not entirely radial. In the near field region the pattern depends on the
distance.
Reciprocity Theorem:
40 | P a g e
Statement:
If a current I1, at the terminals of antenna no 1 induced and emf E21 at the open terminals of
antenna no 2 and a current I2 at the terminals of antenna 2 induced an emf E12 at open
terminals of antenna 1 then
E12 = E21 provided I1 = I2
Proof:
Let a transmitter Tx of frequency f and zero impedance be connected to the terminals of

antenna 2, and this antenna 2 generates a current I2 which induces an emf E12 at the terminals
of antenna 1.
If the same Tx is transferred to the antenna 1 which is generating a current I1 and inducing an
emf E21 at the open terminals of antenna 2 then according to reciprocity theorem.
I1 = I2 if E12 = E12
From the equivalent T – networks shown it can be seen that
E12 E12
Z12 = , Z12 =
I2 I1
This is nothing but the mutual impedance zm between two antennas
E12 E21
∴ Zm = Z12 = Z21 = =
I2 I1
By Kirchhoff’s law in loop 2 of T network of (a)
(Z22 + Zm )I2 − Zm I1 = 0 as no voltage source
41 | P a g e
I1 Zm
I2 = … … . (1)
Z22 + Zm
From loop (1)
(Z11 + Zm )I1 − Zm I2 = E12
Zm . Zm . I1
(Z11 + Zm )I1 = = E12 … … . (1)
Z22 + Zm
E12 (Z22 + Zm )
I1 = … … (2)
Z11 Z22 + Zm (Z11 + Z22 )
From (2) and (1)
E12 Zm (Z22 + Zm )
I2 =
(Z22 + Zm )[Z11 Z22 + Zm (Z11 + Z22 )]
E12 Zm
I2 = … … (3)
Z11 Z22 + Zm (Z11 + Z22 )
Similarly I, can be written by replacing suffix 1 by 2 and vice – versa,
E21 Zm
i. e., I1 = … … (4)
Z11 Z22 + Zm (Z11 + Z22 )
Apply condition of reciprocity theorem
i. e., I1 = I2
E12 Zm E21 Zm
=
Z11 Z22 + Zm (Z11 + Z22 ) Z11 Z22 + Zm (Z11 + Z22 )
∴ 𝐸12 = 𝐸21
Hence proved.
Application of reciprocity theorem proves that directivity pattern aperture and terminal imp
of antenna are same, irrespective of its function as transmitting or receiving antenna.
Applications:
Reciprocity theorem may be used to derive the following equality properties of transmitting
and
a. Receiving antennas:
b. Directional patterns
c. Directivities
d. Effective lengths
e. Antenna impendence
42 | P a g e
Limitations of Reciprocity Theorem:
1. If the propagation of radio wave is appreciably effected by earth’s magnetic field
theorem does not work.
2. Also for long distance communication through ionosphere, the results may not correct
every time.
Based on the reciprocity theorem, others are defined as
 The directional pattern of receiving antenna is identical with the directional pattern of
transmitting antenna.
 The impedance of an isolated antenna when used for receiving is the same as when
used for transmitting.
 The effective length of antenna for receiving is equal to its effective length as
transmitting antenna.
(This is applicable exclusively for straight wire antennas)
PROBLEMS IN UNIT-I
1) An antenna has 2 loss resistance 10Ω, power gain of 20 and directivity 22. Calculate
its Rr
Gp Rr
η= =
Gd R r + R l
Gp = 20, Gd = 22, R l = 10Ω, Rr = ?
20 Rr
= ⇒ R r = 100Ω
22 R r + 10
2) An antenna has a rad. Res of 72 Ω loss resistance of 8Ω, power gain of 12 db , det its
𝛈 and D.
Solution:
Gp Rr
η= =
Gd R r + R l
Gp = 12db, R l = 8Ω, R r = 72 Ω, Gd = ?
η=?
G 12 G
(Gp ) = 10 log10p ⇒ = log10p
db 10
Gp = 15.85
43 | P a g e
72
η= = 90 % or 0.9
72 + 8
Gp Gp 15.85
η= ⇒ Gd = = = 17.61
Gd η .9
(Gp )db = 10 log17.61

10
(𝐺𝑝 )𝑑𝑏 = 12.458 𝑑𝑏

3) Find the gain beam width Ae for a par ref with 6 m dia and dipole fed frequency of 10
GHz
Solution:
f = 10 × 109 HZ
Ae = ? G = ? beam width = 1
4π
G= A
λ2 e
πD2 π × 62
Aactual = = = 28.26 m2
4 4
Ae = 0.65 Aa
= 0.65 × 28.26
Ae = 18.369 m2
4π 4π × 18.369
G= 2
Ae =
λ (0.03)2
= 256349.6
G
G db = 10 log10 = 54.08 db
140 λ 140 × 0.03

BWFN = =
D 3
= 0.7 °
Potential Functions and Electromagnetic Fields:

For obtaining the potentials for the electromagnetic field There are different approaches. The
first approach is heuristic approach is to start with Maxwell’s equations and then derive the
differential equations that the potentials satisfy.
The third approach is to obtain directly the solutions of the derived differential equations for
the potentials.
Retarded potential: (Maxwell’s equations approach)
44 | P a g e
In this approach starting from Maxwell’s equations, the differential equations are derived.
For the time varying fields, Maxwell’s equations are
⃗⃗
∂H
⃗ = −μ.
∇×E … … (1)
∂t
⃗
∂E
⃗⃗ = J + ϵ
∇ ×H … … (2)
∂t
∫V
⃗ =
∇ ×E … . . (3)
ϵ
∇ × ⃗H
⃗ = 0 … … . (4)
⃗⃗ is zero. But form the vector identify “

From equation (4) it is clear that the divergence of H
the divergence of a curl of a vector is zero”. This clearly indicates that to satisfy equation ⃗H
⃗
must be expressed as curl of some vector.
⃗ … . . (5)
⃗⃗ = ∇ × A
∴ μH
⃗⃗ in equation (1) we get

Putting the value of μ H
∂ ∇ × ⃗A
⃗ = −μ
∇ × E [ ]
∂t μ
⃗
∂A
⃗ = − [∇ ×
∇ × E ] … … (6)
dt
⃗
∂A
⃗ +∇ ×
∇ × E =0
dt
⃗
∂A
⃗ +
∇ ×[E ] = 0 … … (7)
dt
According to the vector identity “curl of a grad of a scalar is always zero”. So the equation
⃗⃗
∂A
⃗ +
(7) will be satisfied only if the term [ E ] is defined as a gradient of a scalar.
dt
Let us introduce a scalar potential V such that
⃗
∂A
⃗ +
E = − ∇V … . . (8)
dt
Then the electric field strength is given by
⃗
∂A
⃗ = − ∇V −
E … … . (9)
dt
45 | P a g e
Hence from the equations (5) and (9) it is clear that the electric field and magnetic field ⃗E and
⃗⃗ can be expressed in terms of a scalar potential V and a vector potential ⃗A.
H
⃗ and ⃗H
Substituting the values of E ⃗ from the equations (9) and (5) in (2) we get.
1 ∂ ⃗
∂A
⃗ ]=J+ ϵ
∇ ×[ ∇ × A [− ∇V − ]
μ ∂t dt
Interchanging the operations
1 ∂V ∂2 ⃗A
⃗ ] = J + ϵ [ −∇
[∇ × ∇ × A − 2]
μ dt dt
∂V ∂2 ⃗A
⃗ = μJ − μϵ ∇
∇×∇×A − ϵμ 2 … … . (10)
dt dt
From the vector identity
⃗ = ∇ (∇. A
∇×∇×A ⃗ ) − ∇2 ⃗A
2⃗
∂V ∂2 ⃗A
⃗ ) = −μJ + μϵ ∇
∴ ∇ A − ∇ (∇. A + μϵ 2 … . (11)
dt dt
⃗ from equation (9) in equation (3) we get
Substituting the value of E
⃗
∂A ∫
∇. (−∇V − )= V
dt ϵ
⃗
∂A ∫
∇2 V + ∇. = − V … . . (12)
dt ϵ
Equations 11 and 12 are differential equation in which both the unknown A ⃗ and V appear.
Hence there equations are called coupled equations. Using Helmholtz’s equations we can find
the unique solution. The Helmholtz’s theorem states that “any vector field can be defined
uniquely, if curl and divergence of field both are known at any point.
⃗ from the equation as

Now we may choose tha divergence of A
∂V
⃗ = −μϵ
∇×A … … . . (13)
dt
Using Lorenz’s gauge condition in equation (11) we get
∂V ∂V ∂2 ⃗A
⃗ − ∇ (−μϵ
∇2 A ) = − μJ + μϵ ∇ + μϵ 2
dt dt dt
∂V ∂V ⃗
∂2 A
⃗ + μϵ ∇
∇2 A = − μJ + μϵ ∇ + μϵ 2
dt dt dt
𝜕 2𝐴
46 | P a g e ∴ ∇2 𝐴 − 𝜇𝜖 = − 𝜇𝐽 … … . (14)
𝑑𝑡 2
Similarly using Lorenz’s gauge condition
∂ 2 ∫
∇2 V + [∇ ⃗A] = − V
dt ϵ
∂ ∂V ∫
∇2 V + [−μϵ ]= − V
dt dt ϵ
2
𝜕 2𝐴 ∫𝑉
∴ ∇ 𝑉 − 𝜇𝜖 = − … … . (15)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜖
Equations 14 and 15 are standard wave equations including source terms. The solutions are
R
. J (r1 , t − )
μ V dv ′
A (r, t) = ∫
4π V R
R
. ∫ (r1 , t − )
1 V V dv ′
V (r, t) = ∫
4πϵ V R
These equations represent retarded potentials as time delay is involved.
Fields from Oscillating Dipole:

A charge moving back and forth in simple harmonic motion along the conductor is subject to
acceleration and radiates.
Consider figure 1.10
47 | P a g e
a) Electric field line or wavefront with charges at ends of dipole
b) wave front moves out as charges goes in.
c) As charge pass the midpoint the field lines cut loose
d) Wave fronts moving out
Figure: fields from dipole
 The dipole has two equal charges of opposite sign oscillating up and down in
harmonic motion with instantaneous separation l.
 At time t = 0 the charge are at maximum separation and under maximum acceleration
(dv/dt) as they reverse direction.
 As the time increases, charges will move towards each other and exactly at mid
position (i.e., t = T/4) they cross each other
 As they cross each other the field lines detach and new ones of opposite signs are
dv
formed. At this time I is maximum v = 0.
dt
 As time progresses fields continue to move out as in figure 1.10 (d) v 1.10 (e)
THIN LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS
Short Electric Dipole:

Any linear antenna can be considered as a large number of short conductor combination,
connected in series. So the radiation properties of short conductors can be observed.
A short linear conductor is often called as “short dipole”. It has some finite length.
If it is infitisimally small – “infitisimal dipole structure is not practical, but will be used for
building complex structure.
What is short?
48 | P a g e
Length ! if L < < λ then it is short also it is thin if d << L. where d → diameter, L → length [
figure 2.1(a)].
For analysis it has plates at ends provides capacitive loading. The short length and perfence
of theses plates provides uniform current through entire length of conductor. The radiation
form feed line v capacitors plates can be neglected.
Equivalent if figure 2.1 (a) is 2.1 (b) now we know
dq
= I … … (2.1)
dt
Fields of a Short Dipole Eradiation From Small Electric Dipole:

Figure: 2.2 Arrangement of dipole
Let the dipole shown in figure 2.2 of L placed in a spherical coordinate system, with
coincident with z – axis and with its center at the origin as in fig 2.2 assume the medium
surrounding the dipole is air or vacuum.
While dealing with antennas, propagation time is important. The effect of current is not felf
instantaneously at point ‘p’. Only after an interval equal to the propagation over ‘r’ it can be
observed. So instead of instant current we need to take retarded current.
r
jω(t− )
I = I0 e c … … (2.2)
r
→ retardation itme
c
Now we have to use retarded quantizes (potentials) for analysis.
Consider
4Idl
A= ∫
4πR
Correlate it with fig 2.3 also use retarded quantities then
μ0 L/2 [I]
Az = ∫ dz … … (2.3)
4π –L/2 S
Where
r
[I] = I0 ejω(t−c)
Z → distance to a point on conductor
I0 = peak value of current
μ0 = permeability of free space
= 4π × 10−7 H/m
49 | P a g e
If the distance to point from dipole is large to compare i.e. (r >>L) and the wave length is
large compare to length (λ >>L) the ‘S’ can be replaced with r.
μ0 . L r
∴ Az = . I0 . ejω(t−c) … … … . . (2.4)
4πr
Now consider electric scalar potential
1 ρv dv
V= ∫ ; for dipole we need
4πϵ0 R
To consider retarded quantity

L/2 [∫ ]dv
1 v
i. e. V= ∫
4πϵ0 –L/2 S
Where, [∫v ] = retared charge density

r
jω(t− )
= ∫0 . e c
dv = infinitesimal volume
ϵ0 = permittivity of area space
= 8.854 × 10-12 F/m
Since the region of charge in case of dipole is being considered as confined to the points at he
ends, V can be written as
1 [q] [q]
V= [ − ] … … . (2.5)
4πϵ0 S1 S2
Also we know dq/dt = I
⇒ [q] = ∫[I] dt
s
= I0 ∫ ejω(t−c) dt
[I]
[q] =
jω
Substitute [q] in eq (2.5)., then

s1 s2
I0 ejω(t− c ) ejω(t− c )
V= [ − ] … … . (2.6)
4πϵ0 jω S1 S2
If r >>L, then all lines to point ‘p’ can be considered as parallel lines, as shown in figure 2.4
50 | P a g e
L
∴ S1 = r − cos θ ;
2
L
S2 = r + cos θ
2
Substituting S1 v S2 in equation 2.6, V be comes
L L
jω(r− cos θ) jω(r+ cos θ)
2 2
I0 e c e c
V= − … … . (2.7)
4πϵ0 jω L L
r + 2 cos θ r + 2 cos θ
[ ]
We know E = -∇V, by taking above retarded potential and substituting it, we get.
𝑟
𝑗𝜔(𝑡− )
𝐼0 𝐿 cos 𝜃 . 𝑒 𝑐 1 1
𝐸𝑟 = [ 2
+ ]
2πϵ0 𝐶𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝑟 3
𝑟
𝐼0 𝐿 sin 𝜃 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔(𝑡−𝑐 ) 3𝑗𝜔 1 1
𝐸𝜃 = [ 2 + 2+ ]
4πϵ0 𝐶 𝑟 𝐶𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝑟 3
General case
1
where C =
√ μ 0 ϵ0
d = −r ar + zaz = −[rar + r 2 cos θ sin θ aθ]
V
E=
d
Also we know ∇ × A = B
1
∴H= [∇ × A]
μ0
Get [A] from 2.4 and by taking cross product in spherical coordinate system, we get
𝑟
𝐼0 𝐿 sin 𝜃 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔(𝑡−𝑐 ) 𝑗𝜔 1
𝐻∅ = ( + 2)
4𝜋 𝑐𝑟 𝑟
General case
Thus, the fields from dipole have only three components. Er, Eθ v H∅ . E∅ , Hr v Hθ are zero
everywhere.
For large values of r; 1/r2, 1/r3 terms can be neglected.
The fields are now
51 | P a g e
𝑟
𝑗𝜔(𝑡− )
𝑗𝜔𝐼0 𝐿 sin 𝜃 . 𝑒 𝑐
𝐸𝜃 =
4𝜋ϵ0 rC2 → for field case.
𝑟
𝑗𝜔(𝑡− )
𝑗𝜔𝐼0 𝐿 sin 𝜃 . 𝑒 𝑐
𝐻∅ =
4𝜋Cr
It we draw near field and far fields of above expressions. We get
a) For 𝐄𝛉 and 𝐇∅ b) For Er
This pattern is called as “doughnut” or “figure of eight”
Low Frequency Case (or) Quasi Stationary Case (or) DC Case:

We know
r d[q]
[I] = I0 ejω(t−c) [I] =
dt
= jω [q] = jω [q]
Equation for Er , Eθ and H∅ can be written as
jω[q]L cos θ 1 1
Er = [ 2+ ]
2πϵ0 Cr jωr 3
[q]L cos θ jω 1
= [ 2 + 3]
2πϵ0 cr r
jω[q]L sin θ jω 1 1
Eθ = [ 2 + 2+ ]
4πϵ0 C r Cr jωr 3
[q]L sin θ −ω2 jω 1

= [ 2 + 2 + 3]
4πϵ0 C r Cr r
[I]L sin θ jω 1
H∅ = [ + 2]
4π Cr r
Now at low frequencies ω → 0
Neglect all ω terms when w is in numerator and also

r
[q] = q 0 ejω(t−c) = q 0 (∴ ω = 0)
52 | P a g e
r
[I] = I0 ejω(t−c) = I0
The equations of Er , Eθ , E∅ can be modified as
𝑞0 𝐿 cos 𝜃 1
𝐸𝑟 = . 3
2𝜋ϵ0 𝑟
𝑞0 𝐿 sin 𝜃 1
𝐸𝜃 = . 3 → Low frequency (or) Dc case
4𝜋ϵ0 𝑟
𝐼0 𝐿 Sin 𝜃 1
𝐻∅ = . 2
4𝜋 𝑟
Above expressions are qnasi – stationary because A “r” increase Er , Eθ , H∅ vamisher. And
they exist very near to the dipole only.
Radiation Resistance of short electric dipole:
 For calculation of radiation resistance, we need to consider the fields in farfield

region.
 And then calculate the average power using poynting theorem, calculate total power
from it
 Equate power calculated to I2 Rr where I is rms current on the dipole and “Rr” is
radiation resistance of dipole i.e.,
≅ I RΩ
Dipole Equivalent of dipole.
Poynting vector for average power is
1
Pavg = R e {Eθ . H∅∗ }
2
1
= |Eθ | |H∅∗ |
2
|Eθ |
We know = η ⇒ |Eθ | = η |Hϕ |
|H∅∗ |
1
∴ Pavg = |Hθ | |H∅∗ | η
2
η
= . |Hϕ |2
2
Consider equation of Hϕ from farfield
53 | P a g e
r
jω I0 L sin θ ejω(t−c)
Hϕ =
4π Cr
ω I0 L sin θ
|Hϕ | =
4π Cr
η ω I0 L sin θ 2
Now Pavg = ( )
2 4π Cr
The total power can be obtained by integrating pavg over the radiation pattern in radial
direction.
i. e., Ptot = ∫ Pavg . ds
π 2π
⇒ Ptot = ∫ ∫ Pavg . r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ
θ=0 ϕ=0
ds → differential area for sphere in radial direction.
ds = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ
π 2π
η ω2 I02 L2 sin2 θ 2
= ∫ ∫ . 2 2 2
r sin θ dθ dϕ
θ=0 ϕ=0 2 (4π) C r
η ω2 I02 L2 π 2π
= . 2. . ∫ ∫ sin3 θ dθ dϕ
2 C 16 π2 θ=0 ϕ=0
η ω2 I02 L2 8π
⇒ Ptot = . . ( )
32 C2 π2 3
η ω2 I02 L2
Ptot = . .
12 C2 π
Now equate this power to power radiated from hypothetical resistance (Rr)
i. e. , power radiated = (Irms )2 . R Ω

2
I0
=( ) . RΩ
√2
I20 1
= 2
. RΩ ∫ sin3 θ dθ = (3 Cos3 θ − cos θ)
η ω2 I02 L2 I02
⇒ . . = R
12 C2 π 2 Ω
for air η = 120 πΩ
54 | P a g e
120π f 2 I02 L2 I02
∴ . 4π2 . ( ) . = R
12 c π 2 Ω
2
L 2
⇒ 80 𝜋 . ( ) = 𝑅Ω equation of 𝑅Ω of dipole
λ
L
Let = Lλ
λ
∴ 𝑅𝑟 = 80 𝜋 2 𝐿2𝜆 ≅ 790 𝐿2𝜆 Ω
This Linear dipole:

This → d < < L
D = diameter of dipole
L = length of dipole
For this linear antenna the current distribution is given as
r 2π 1
[I] = I0 ejω(t−c) sin ( ( ± z))
λ 2
Form factor
Now from this [I] we can obtain E and U using procedure adapted in short dipole
i. e. , obtain [V]from I ; E from [V]using relation E = −∇V;
Obtain [A] from I ; H from [A] using relation B = ∇ × A
After evaluation the expressions we get are
𝐵𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐵𝐿
𝑗60𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 2 ) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 2 )
𝐸𝜃 = [ ]
𝑟 sin 𝜃
→ Equation for thin antenna
𝐵𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐵𝐿
𝑗𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( 2
) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (
2 )]
𝐻∅ = [
2𝜋𝑟 sin 𝜃
E ∅ = E r = Hr = Hθ = 0
Eθ
Note: we know = η = 120 π
H∅
55 | P a g e
λ
Case (1): thin linear 2 dipole:
λ λ
dipole = dipole of length
2 2
λ p 2π λ
i. e. , L = ⇒ = . = π
2 L λ 2
Now equations of Eθ v H∅ will be modified as
π Cos θ
j60I0 Cos ( 2 ) − 0
Eθ = [ ]
r sin θ
π Cos θ
j60I0 Cos ( )
= 2
r sin θ
π Cos θ
jI0 Cos ( 2 ) − 0
H∅ = [ ]
2πr sin θ
π
jI0 Cos (2 cos θ)
=
2πr sin θ
Radiation Resistance Of 𝝀/𝟐 Dipole:

Steps to obtain Rr
Calculate average power using poynting vector
1
i. e. Pavg = E × H∗
2
2) Obtain total power from average power using
.
Ptot = ∫ Pavg ds
S
3) Calculate total power delivered by radiation resistance

2
Ptot = Irms . Rr
4) Equate step (2) and step (3) to get Rr.
Now –
1 E
Pavg = E × H∗ = η
2 H
1
= |E|. |H| ∴E= ηH
2
56 | P a g e
π
1 I0 Cos (2 cos θ)
= η . |H||H| |H| =
2 2πr sin θ
η
= |H|2
2
π 2
η I0 Cos (2 cos θ)
= [ ]
2 2πr sin θ
2 2 π
120π I0 Cos (2 cos θ)
=
2 4π2 r 2 sin2 θ
2 π
15I0 2 Cos (2 Cos θ)
= . w/m2
π r2 sin2 θ
From above equation – total power can be obtained as
π 2π
Ptot = ∫ ∫ Pavg . ds
θ=0 ϕ=0
2 π
π
15 I0 2 Cos (2 cos θ) 2
2π
= ∫ ∫ 2
. r sin θ dθ dϕ
θ=0 ϕ=0 πr sin2 θ
π
π Cos 2 ( cos θ)
15 I0 2 2
= (2π) ∫ dθ
π θ=0 Sin θ
π
π Cos (2 cos θ)
= 30 I0 2 ∫ dθ
θ=0 Sin θ
= 1.219
∴ Ptot = 30 × 1.219 I02 = 36.6 I02 … … . (A)
Now calculate the total power generated by radiation resistance – i.e.,

2
Ptot = Irms . Rr
I0 2
= ( ) . Rr
√2
I02
= . R r … … … (B)
2
Equate (A) and (B)
57 | P a g e
I02
i. e. , 36.6 I02 = R
2 r
R r = 36.6 × 2 = 73 Ω
λ
∴ The Radiation resistance of dipole is
2
73 Ω
Directivity of short dipole:
We know – directivity (D) is defined as
P(θ, ∅)max
D=
P(θ, ∅)Avg
Now in far field Eθ is given as
ωI0 L sin θ
Eθ =
4πϵ0 C2 . r
2πf I0 L sin θ
=
4πC Cϵ0 r
1 I0 L sin θ
= .
C
( ) Cϵ0 r
f
188 I0 L sin θ
=
rλ
60π I0 L sin θ
=
rλ
60π I0 L
∴ Eθ max =
rλ
Also we know poynting vector or power per area
P
S = E × H∗ =
dA
E2
= E. H =
z0
Now dA = r 2 sin dθ d∅
For θ, ∅ less values, = 1, sin θ = 1
∴ dA = r 2
p E2 2
E2 r 2 60 π I02 sin θ
∴S= 2= ⇒p=r = ( )
r z0 z0 z0 rλ
58 | P a g e
Maximum power can be obtained as maximum intensity i.e. Emax
(Emax )2
∴ Pmax = r 2
z0
r 2 60 π I0 L 2
= ( )( )
z0 rλ
Also the average power can be calculated as
1
Pavg = ∬ p dv
4π
2π π 2
1 1 60 π I0 L
= ∫ ∫ .( sin θ)
4π 0 0 z0 rλ
r 2 sin θ dθ d∅
1 r 2 (60 π I0 L)2 π 3
i. e. , pavg = . ∫ sin θ dθ
2 z0 r 2 λ2 0
pmax π 3
= ∫ sin θ dθ
2r 2 0
pmax 4
= [ ]
2 3
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 6
∴𝐷= = = 1.5
𝑝𝐴𝑣𝑔 4
Beam Area of Short Dipole:

We know Beam area
ΩA = ∬. Pn (θ, ∅) dΩ
4π
2π π
= ∫ ∫ Pn (θ, ∅) sin θ dθ d∅
0 0
We have
60 π I0 L sin θ 2
2
p(θ, ∅) = r [ ]
rλ
Maximum value of above is
2
60 π I0 L 2
P(θ, ∅)max =r [ ]
rλ
59 | P a g e
P(θ, ∅)
∴ pn (θ, ∅) =
P(θ, ∅)max
π 2π
∴ ΩA = ∫ ∫ sin2 θ sin θ dθ d∅
0 0
8𝜋
Ω𝐴 = 𝑆
3 𝑟
Effective Length Or Effective Height (He) Of Short Dipole:

We know
he
I(z)
he = ∫ dz
0 I0
Here dipole is extended from –L/2 to L/2 along z axis

L/2
I(z)
∴ he = ∫ dz
−L/2 I0
Also I(z) = I0 . ejωt or I0 sin ωt

L/2
I0 sin ωt
i. e., he = ∫ dz
−L/2 I0
he = L. sin(ωt)
The maximum effective height of dipole is

ℎ𝑒 = 𝐿
Effective Aperture of Dipole (Ae) :

We have a relation between Ae v he as
he 2 z0
Ae =
4. RΩ
Already we derived he v R ^ as he = L;
L 2
RΩ = 80 π2 ( )
λ
L2 . z0
∴ Ae =
L 2
4.80 π2 . ( )
λ
𝐴𝑒 = 0.1193 𝜆2
60 | P a g e
Beam Widths of Dipole:
We know the normalized power for dipole is
pn (θ, ∅) = sin2 θ
At HPBW, pn (θ, ∅) = 0.5
I. e., sin2 θ = 0.5 ⇒ θ = 45°
∴ HPBW = 2θ = 90°
At FNBW pn (θ, ∅) = 0
I. e., sin2 θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0 OR 180°
But 2θ = 0 is not possible also 2θ = 360° is also not possible
∴ No null to dipole radiation pattern v hence No FNBW
Problem:
A dipole antenna has radiation resistance of 67 Ω and a loss resistance of 5Ω measured at

feed point. Calculate its efficiency
Solution: Given that
R rad = 67Ω
R Loss = 5Ω
∴ R tot = 72 Ω
R rad
Now antenna efficiency =
R tot
67
= 93 %
72
Current distributions in thin linear antenna of different lengths:

r 2π L
We know I = I0 ejω(t−c) . sin [ ( ± z)]
λ 2
For different values of L, above equation gives shape of current distribution in thin antenna.
Monopole:
What is monople?
Name itself indicating that it is comprised of signal polarity. It is also a straight wire and
usually located over the surface of earth with source connected in between monopole and
earth as shown in figure.
61 | P a g e
Figure: shows major difference between short dipole and short monopole in its arrangement
to source.
In general length of monopole is half of dipole at same frequency.

λ λ
If 2 dipole (Half wave dipole ) is considered then monopole is also described as monopolw
4
or quarterwave monopole.
Loop Antenna:
 It is a radiating coil of any cross – section with one or more terms carrying RF current
 It may be of any shape
 A loop of more than one turn is often called as frame.
 It the dimensions of loop are small w.r.t λ, it is called as small loop
Small loop Antenna:

Consider a circular loop of radius r < < λ; since r <<λ loop is considered as small loop.
To analyze small circular loop – loop with radius “r” can be equated to a square loop of side
size – d and the area formed by both circular loop and square loop must be same.
i.e.,
****
Area ∶ πr 2 = d2
Now place the square loop at the center of the coordinate system as shown in fig..
***
In order to find out the far field radiation pattern consider two dipoles AD and BC of the
loop, treat then as short dipoles.
Note: for a square loop always only two conductors contribute radiation.
62 | P a g e
 Here we are considering AD and BC as two dipoles with current distribution as shown
in figure.
 Current flow in AD is into the yz – plane and current flow in BC is outwards the yz-
plane.
 We need to obtain total electric field due to loop. That is total due to AD dipole and
BC dipole.
Let the distance between dipoles is “d” let the phase difference between two dipoles is “Ψ”
Now the total field due to AD and BC is
Etot = EAD + EBC
= − E0 ejΨ/2 + E0 e−jΨ/2
Ψ Ψ
Phase diff = -(− ) phase diff = -(+ )
2 2
Where E0 is maximum electric field of short dipole

jΨ jΨ
Etot = E0 [e− 2 − e− 2 ]
Ψ
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −2𝑗 𝐸0 sin ( )
2
Now obtain phase difference ‘Ψ’ between two dipoles
We know
2π
Phase difference = (path difference)
λ
2π
Ψ= (d cos(90 − θ)
λ
= βd Cos (90 − θ)
= βd sin θ
Equation of Etot can be written as
𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −2𝑗 𝐸0 sin ( ) … … … (𝑐)
2
In equation (C) E0 is maximum electric field strength of dipole in farfield case.

r
jω I0 L. sin θ. ejω(t−c)
i. e., E=
4πϵ0 rC2
63 | P a g e
π r
jω I0 L. sin ( ) . ejω(t−c)
E|max = E0 = 2
2
1
4πϵ0 r ( )
√μ0 ϵ0
jω L [I]
= μ ϵ (or)
4πϵ0 r 0 0
π r
jω I0 L. sin ( ) . ejω(t−c)
= 2
4πϵ0 r. C. C
j(2πf)[I]L
=
(4π)ϵ0 r. C. C
j[I]L
= c
2r. (ϵ0 c). ( )
f
j[I]L η
=
r. λ. 2
j 120π [I] L
∴ E0 =
r. λ
Substitute E0 in Etot expression
j 60π [I] L βd sin θ

i. e., Etot = −2j [ ] sin ( )
r. λ 2
βd sin θ
For small values of “d” , 2
is small
βd sin θ βd sin θ
∴ sin ( ) ≅
2 2
j 60π [I] L βd sin θ
Now Etot = −2j [ ]( )
r. λ 2
60π [I] L 2π
= . ( ) . d. sin θ
r. λ λ
120 π2 [I](L. d) sin θ

= [ length of dipole L = d]
r. λ2
120 π2 [I] (d. d) sin θ
⇒=
r. λ2
120 𝜋 2 [𝐼] 𝐴 sin 𝜃 Note: d.d = d2

𝑖. 𝑒, 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
𝑟. 𝜆2 Area of sq loop
From relation – E/H = η; we can obtain equation of H also
64 | P a g e
E E
i. e. H = =
η 120π
𝜋 [𝐼] 𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝐻=
𝑟. 𝜆2
Above equation are for only one loop it antenna contains “N” number of loops the equations
will be modified as.
120 𝜋 2 [𝐼] 𝑁 𝐴 sin 𝜃

𝐸=
𝑟. 𝜆2 → for frame of N – loops
𝜋 [𝐼] 𝐴 sin 𝜃 . 𝑁
Total 𝐻 =
Power Radiated
2
by Loop Antenna (Small):
𝑟. 𝜆
From poynting vector
1
Pavg = E × H∗
2
1
= |H|. η |H|
2
η
= |H|2
2
r 2
jω(t− )
η Nπ I0 e c . sin θ A
= | |
2 r. λ2
η N2 π2 I0 2 sin2 A2
= [ ]
2 r 2 . λ4
π 2π
Ptot = ∫ ∫ pavg ds
θ=0 ϕ=0
π
η π2 I0 2 sin2 θ A2 N2 2
2π
=∫ ∫ [ 2 . λ4
] r . sin2 θ dθ dϕ
θ=0 ϕ=0 2 r
η N2 π2 I0 2 A2 π
= (2π) ∫ sin4 θ dθ
2 λ4 θ=0
η π2 I0 2 A2 N2 3
= 2π .2. ( . π)
2 λ4 8
3 2 2
𝐴𝑁 4
∴ 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜂. 𝜋 𝐼0 [ 2 ]
4 𝜆
65 | P a g e
Radiation Resistance of Small Loop Antenna:
The total power from radiation resistance of antenna is
2
Ptot = Irms Rr
I0 2
= R
2 r
Equate this to Ptot calculated for antenna
I0 2 3 AN 4
R r = η π4 I0 2 [ 2 ]
2 4 λ
3 𝐴𝑁 4
∴ 𝑅𝑟 = 𝜂. 𝜋 4 𝐼0 2 [ 2 ]
2 𝜆
Comparison of farfield components of short dipole and small loop antenna:
Eθ Hϕ
r r
Short Dipole jω I0 L sin θ ejω(t−c) jω I0 L sin θ ejω(t−c)
4π ϵ0 r C2 4π Cr
Small loop 120 π2 [I] A sin θ π[I]A sin θ

r. λ2 r. λ2
Tutorial problems
Problem: calculate maximum effective aperture of an antenna which is operating at a
wavelength of 2 mtr and directivities of 100.
Solution:
We know
4π Ae
D=
λ2
Dλ2
∴ Ae =
4π
100 × (2)2
=
4π
66 | P a g e
= 31.84 m2
Problem (2):
Calculate approximate gain of paraboroidal reflector antenna at an operating frequency of 4

Ghz with diameter 20 mtr and aperture efficiency 55%
Solution: we know
4π Ae 4πϵap Ap
G= =
λ2 λ2
πd2 20 × 20 × π
Ap = = = 100π m2
4 4
c 3 × 108
λ= = = 0.075 mtr
f 4 × 109
4π × 0.55 × 100π
G= = 386011.1944
(0.075)2
G|dB = 55.86 dB
Problem 4:
Calculate maximum effective aperture of μω antenna which has directivity 900.
Solution:
4π Ae
D=
λ2
Dλ2 900 2
Ae = = λ
4π 4π
∴ Ae = 71.619 λ2
Problem 5: In a microwave communication link two identical antennas are operating at 10

GHz, are used with gain of 40 dB. If the transmitter power is 1w, calculate the received
power if range of link is 30 km
Solution:
Gt = Gr = 40 dB
G
10 log10 = 40 ⇒ Gt = Gr = 10000
pt = 1w; r = 30 km
c 3 × 108
λ= = = 0.03 mtr
f 10 × 109
67 | P a g e
Gt λ 2
λ 2 Aet =
∴ pr = Pt . Gt Gr ( ) | 4π |
4πr Gr λ 2
Aer =
4π
(modified equation (32))
2
0.03
= 1 × 10000 × 10000 ( )
4π × 30 × 103
pr = 0.633 μω
Problem 6: calculate directivity of isotropic antenna
Solution:
We know
4π
D=
ΩA
ΩA = ∬. Pn (θ , ∅ ) dΩ
4π
For isotropic antenna power is equally distributed in all directions.
P
⇒ Pn (θ , ∅ ) = =1
Pmax
Now
π 2π
ΩA = ∫ ∫ 1. sin θ dθ d∅
θ=0 ∅=0
π
= 2π ∫ sin θ dθ
θ=0
= 2π (− cos θ)|π0
= 4π
4π
∴D= =1
4π
Problem 7: Estimate the directivities of an antenna with θHP = 2°, ∅HP = 1° and find gain
of this antenna with efficiency k = 0.5
Solution:
4π 41, 000
We know D = = 0
ΩA θHP ∅0HP
68 | P a g e
ΩA = θHP . ∅HP = 2 × 1 = 2
41,000
∴D= = 20500
2
Problem: find the radiation resistance and power radiated of length 0.1 m , carrying current
of 10 cos (2π × 109 t)
Solution:
I = I0 Cos (ωt) = 10 cos(2π × 109 t)
∴ I0 = 10 A
ω = 2π t = 2π × 109 ⇒ f = 109 Hz
c 3 × 108
λ= = = 0.3 mtr
f 109
12
Now R r = 80 π2 [ ]
λ
0.1 2
2
= 80 π [ ]
0.3
= 81 Ω
2
I0 10
Ptot = Irms Rr Irms = =
√2 √2
100
= . 81
2
= 400 = 4 kw
UNIT – I
Antenna Basics & Thin Linear Wire Antennas
2 – Marks Questions:
1. Define an antenna.
2. What is meant by radiation pattern?
3. Define power pattern
4. What is meant by field pattern?
5. Define radiation intensity
6. Define a Hertzian dipole.
7. Define vector potential.
8. Define isotropic antenna.
69 | P a g e
9. Define beam efficiency.
10. Define directivity.
11. Define gain.
12. What is power gain?
13. Define beam width.
14. What is half power beam width (HPBW)?
15. What is meant by first Null beam width (FNBW)?
16. Define polarization.
17. What is meant by antenna band width?
18. State reciprocity theorem.
19. Define effective aperture.
20. What is meant by effective length?
21. Define radiation resistance.
22. What is the relationship between effective aperture and directivity?
23. Define current element (or) short dipole (or) Hertzian dipole (or) Oscillation dipole
(or) elementary dipole.
24. Write the radiation resistance value of free space, short dipole half wave dipole and
mono pole?
25. Define half wave dipole
26. Define quarter wave monopole
27. Define wire antennas.
28. What is meant by loop antenna?
29. Define small loop antenna?
30. Write the expression for radiation resistance of small loop?
31. What are the applications of loop antenna?
Answers for 2 – marks questions:

1. Define antenna.
Antenna is a conductor having a length of 𝜆/2 (or) antenna is a trasducer which convets
electrical to electromagnetic wave (or) antenna is an impedance matching circuit between
transmission line and free space.
2. What is meant by radiation patter?
Radiation pattern is graphical representation of radiation and it provides spatical distribution

of radiated energy of the source with respect to angle. It is classified into two types
i. Field pattern
ii. Power pattern
3. Define power pattern.
If the radiation pattern is drawn as radiation in terms of power with respect to angle than it is
called power pattern.
4. What is meant by field pattern?
70 | P a g e
If the radiation pattern is drawn as radiation in terms of voltage (field) with respect to angle
than it is called power pattern.
5. Define radiation intensity.
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity. It is
denoted by U. the unit of radiation intensity is watts/ steradians (or) watts/radian2
It is given by U = Wrad R2
Wrad – radiation density
R – distance
6. Define a Hertzian dipole.
When the antenna length (L) is very small compare to wavelength (L<<𝜆) than it is called
hertzian dipole (or) small current element (or) Osicllating dipole (or) elementary dipole.
7. Define vector potential.
The magnetic vector or simply vector potential is denoted by a vector A. it potensital due to
the charges in a small current element
8. Define Isotropic Antenna.
An isotropic antenna radiates equal radiation in all directions the radiation pattern of isotropic
antenna is like a sphere. It is also called as point source.
9. Define beaqm efficiency.
The ratio of the main beam area (ΩM) to the total beam area (ΩA) is called beam efficiency
denoted as 𝜉𝑀
Beam efficiency is given by 𝜉𝑀 = Ω𝑀 /Ω𝐴
10. Define Directivity.
The directivity D of an antenna is defind as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑚𝑎𝑥 to the average radiation intensity Uavg
𝑈(𝜃,𝜙)𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷= 𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔
11. Define Gain.
It is ratio of maximum power received form test antenna to power received from reference
antenna (isotropic antenna)
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐀. 𝐔. 𝐓

𝐆=
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐑𝐞𝐟. 𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐧𝐚 (𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐧𝐚)
12. what is power gain?
71 | P a g e
Power is defined as ratio of power density radiated in a particular direction by the antenna
under test (A.U.T) to power density radiated in that direction by an isotropic antenna
13. Define beam width.
Antenna beam width is a measure of sharpness of the main radiation (main beam) antenna
beam width is an angular width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern (major lobe)
They are two different beam width
HPBW – Half power beam width
FNBW – first Null beam width
14. What is half power beam width (HPBW)?
Half power beam width is defined as the angle measured on the radiation pattern between the
point where the radiation power has fallen to half of its maximum value in power pattern (or)
the radiated voltage (field) fallen to 0.707 times of its maximum value in field pattern.
15. What is meant by first null beam width (FNBW)?
First null bema width is defined as the angle measured on the radiation pattern between the
points where the radiation pattern between the points where the radiation power fallen to zero
(or) the radiation voltage fallen to zero
16. Define polarization.
Polarization is represents the orientation of the electric field vector “E” in space
(Electromagnetic wave)
There are three types of polarization
*Linear polarization * Circular polarization * Elliptical Polarization
17. What is meant by antenna band width?
The band width of an antenna is the range of frequencies on either side of a centre frequency
where the antenna characteristics such as input impedance, beam width, polarization, side
lobe level, gain beam direction, radiation efficiency and radiation pattern are within an
acceptable value of those at the centre frequency.
BW = W2 − W1
𝑊𝑟 𝑓𝑟
= =
𝑄 𝑄
𝑓𝑟 – Resonant frequency (Centre frequency) Q – is Quality factor
18. State Reciprocity theorem.
72 | P a g e
The reciprocity theorem for antenna is state as if a current I1 at the terminals of antenna no .1
induces an emf E21 at the open terminals of antenna no.2 and a current I2 at the terminals of
antenna no.2 induces an emf E21 at the open terminals of antenna no.1 then
E21 = E21 provide I1 = I2
With same frequency and same medium
19. Define Effective aperture.
It is defined as the ratio of power received at the antenna to the power density of the incident
wave
Pr
Ae =
S
𝑃𝑟 - Received power S – power Density
20. What is meant by effective length?
The term effective length represents the effectiveness of an antenna as radiator (or) collector
of an electromagnetic wave energy. It indicates how far an antenna if effective is effective in
transmitting (or) receiving the electromagnetic wave energy.
21. Define radiation resistance.
Radiation resistance is the part of an antenna’s feed point resistance that is caused by the
radiation of electromagnetic waves from the antenna. It can be viewed as the equivalent
resistance to a resistor in the same circuit.
22. What is the relationship between effective aperture and directivity?
4π
D= A
λ2 em
23. Define current element (or) short dipole (or) hertzian dipole (or) Oscillating dipole
(or) elementary dipole.
When the antenna length (L) is very very small compare to wave length (L <<<<<𝜆) than it is
called herzian dipole (or) small current element (or) oscillating dipole (or) elementary dipole.
24. Write the radiation resistance value of free space, short dipole half wave dipole and
mono pole?
Free space = 377Ω (or) 120𝜋Ω
Short dipole = 80𝜋 2 (L/𝜆)2 Ω
Half wave dipole = 73 Ω
Mono pole = 36.5 Ω
25. Define half wave dipole.
73 | P a g e
𝜆
Any linear antenna of 2 long is called as half wave dipole antenna or Resonant length antenna
26. Define Quarter wave monopole.

𝜆
Any linear antenna 4 long is called as Quarter wave monopole antenna
27. Define wire antenna
Wire antennas are made of thin, conducting straight or curved wire segments or hollow tubes.
They are very easy to construct. The dipole and monopole antennas are examples of straight
wire antennas. The loop antenna is an example of a curved wire antenna.
28. What is meant by loop antenna?
The loop antenna is a radiating coil of any convenient cross section of one or more turns
carrying RF currents. The different shapes of loop antennas are
* Rectangular * Triangular *Circular *Square
29. Define small loop antenna
The loop antenna is a radiating coil of any convenient cross section of one or more turns
carrying RF current if dimensions are small incomparison to wave length (a <<<<<𝜆) than it
is small loop antenna.
30. Write the expression for Radiation resistance of small loop?
R r = 31200 (NA/λ2 )2
Where N is no. of turns
A is area of the loop
31. What are the applications of loop antenna?
 Radio Receiver
 Aircraft receiver
 Direction finding
 UHF transmitters
74 | P a g e
UNIT – II
VHF, UHF AND MICROWAVE ANTENNAS – I
Arrays with parasitic elements, yogi – Uda arrays, folded dipoles and their characteristics,
helical antennas – helical geometry, helix modes, design considerations of monofilaer
helical antenna in axial mode and normal nodes,
Horns, antennas:
Types, ferment’s principle, optimum horns, design characteristics of pyramidal horns
illustrative problems.
VHF, UHF AND MICROWAVE ANTENNAS – II
Micro strip antennas introduction, features advantages and limitations, rectangular patch
antennas, geometry, and parameters, characteristics of micro strip antennas, geometry,
and parameters, characteristics of micro strip antennas, impact of different parameters on
characteristics,
Reflector antennas:
Introduction, flat sheet and corner reflectors parabolic reflectors. Geometry, pattern
characteristics, feed methods, reflector types, related features illustrative problems.
Lens antennas:-
Introduction, geometry on non – metallic dielectric lenses, zoning, tolerances. Applications
Folded dipole antenna
AB  Minimum current points
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C  maximum current point
Two wire folded dipole
A very important variation of conventional half wave dipole in which two half wave dipoles
have been folded and joined together. In that one of the half wave dipoles is continuous while
the other is split at the center.
The folded dipole which is split at the center is fed with balanced transmission line as a result
the voltages at the ends of the two dipoles are same. When the radiation fields are concerned,
the two dipoles are found to be parallel essentially note that the radiation paltern of the
conventional half wave dipole and that of folded dipole are exactly same, but the input
impedance of folded dipole is higher it differs from the conventional dipole in two respects
ie directivity and band width.
If the radii of two conductors are equal then equal currents flow in both the conductors, in the
same direction. i.e currents are equal in magnitude and phase in two dipoles, since the total
power developed in folded dipole is equal to that developed in conventional dipole. Therefore
the i/p or terminal impedance at the terminals of folded dipole is greater than the
conventional dipole. It can be proved that the i/p impedance of a folded dipole is equal to the
square of number of conductors compressing the antenna times the impedance at the
terminals of a conventional dipole
If the total current fed at terminal AA’ is I then the each dipoles will have current I /2
provided their radii are equal. Thus, with same power applied, only half the current flows in
the first dipole and hence the i/p impedance is four times the straight dipole. Because the
transmission line “sees” a higher impedance ie as it is delivering the same at only half the
current. Hence the i/p impedance (or radiation resistance) 𝑅𝑟 = 22 × 73 = 4 × 73 = 292 for
a folded dipole of equal radii
The shows that a two wire folded dipole can be fed with a conventional 300Ω open wire
transmission line without matching device. Further, if radiating current would be supplied at
i/p terminals and hence i/p imp or terminal impedance would be nine times the impedance of
conventional dipole i.e 32 × 73 = 657Ω. thus a two wire open wire transmission line of
600Ω
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In other words, a folded dipole antenna has a built in impedance transforming properties. This
makes it easy to match a transmission line that feeds the antenna.
Alternatively, instead of changing the number of dipole it is also possible to change the i/p
impedance by keeping the radii of two dipoles unequal. By doing so larger current flows in
thicker dipole and thus it becomes possible to attain any impedance that may be desired, with
the dipoles of unequal radii transformation ratio of 1.5 to 25 can be achieved and this ratio
can still be boost up increasing the no. of dipoles.
The folded dipole antenna does not accept power at even harmonies (2nd, 4th, 6th etc).
however it works with low SWR on odd harmonics on odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th etc)
𝜆 3𝜆
because current distribution of and antenna is almost similar. For example if a dipole is
2 2
working on 5MHZ. it will also work on its 3rd harmonies 15MHZ. further folded dipole can
also be designed of length other than 𝜆/2. it has been found that the i/p impedance of 2
3 3
conductors 4 𝜆 folded dipole is 450Ω and that of 4 conductors folded dipole 8 𝜆 is 225Ω.
Equation of input impedance:-
Equivalent diagram of two wire folded ½ wave dipole.
The equation for the i/p impedance or terminal impedance or radiation resistance of a folded
dipole antenna can be deduced by considering the folded dipole and drawing its equivalent
diagram.
Let v be the emf applied at the antenna terminals AA’. This is being divided equally in each
dipole. Hence, voltage in each dipole is v/2 as shown. And by modal analysis
𝑉
= 𝐼1 𝑍1 , + 𝐼2 𝑍12 … … … … … (1)
2
Where 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 are currents flowing at the terminals of dipole no 1 and 2 and 𝑍11 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑍12 are self
impedance of dipole no. 1 and mutual impedance between dipole 1 and 2 respectively. But
𝐼1 = 𝐼2
𝑉
= 𝐼1 (𝑍11 , + 𝑍12 ) … … … … … (2)
2
The two dipoles in the system are very close to each other. The spacing a between two
𝜆
dipoles is of the order of .
100
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𝑍11 = 𝑍12 … … … … … (3)
𝑉
Then
2
= 𝐼1 (2 𝑍11 )
𝑉
Z = = (4 𝑍11 = 4 × 73Ω
𝐼1
Z = 292Ω 𝑍11 = 73Ω𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
Similarly for a folded dipole of 3 wires, it can be proved that the terminal impedance
𝑉
= 𝐼1 (3𝑍11 )
3
𝑉
𝐼1
= 32 × 𝑧11 = 9 × 73Ω
Z = 657Ω
Generalizing
𝑉
= 𝐼1 (𝑛𝑍11 )
𝑛
𝑉
= 𝑛2 𝑍11
𝐼1
Z = 𝑛2 𝑍11
Since the impedance trancsformation is possible by making unequal radii of two dipoles,
hence a formula, in this case, for input impedance can be shown.
𝑟2 2 𝑟2
𝑍 = 𝑍11 [ 1 + ] = 73(1 + )2
𝑟1 𝑟1
r2 and r1 = radii of elements
Since the impedance transformation not only depends upon the relateve radii of the
conductors but also on the relateve spacing and hence a formula of uda and mushiake is given
by
log 𝑎⁄𝑟1
𝑍 = 𝑍11 [1 + ]2
log 𝑎⁄𝑟2
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Z = 𝑍11 𝑍 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
a = distance between two conductors

log𝑎⁄𝑟1 2
𝑍𝑟 = 𝐼𝑇𝑅 = [1 + ] = Impedance transformation ratio or Impedcence step up ratio
log𝑎⁄𝑟2
Different types of folded dipole antennas:-

In practece, the folded dipoles of several different types are possible. Some of the folded
dipoles consistr all dipoles of length 𝜆/2 but number of dipoles may varies while in some
other caser the folded dipoles consisits dipoles with different lengths.
The antenna shown in (a) is 3 – wire type folded dipole antenna. But this differs from the 3 –
wire folded dipole or tripole, as in this there are no closed paths. The terminal imp of such
antenna is 1200Ω which is twice to that of 3 – wire folded dipole antenna with closed loops.
An antenna shown in (b) is four wire folded dipole 𝜆/2 antenna whose terminal impedance is
1400Ω.
Characteristics of folded dipole antenna:-

1) It is basically a single antenna consisting two or more elements. The first element is fed
directly while second and third elements are coupled inductively at the ends
2) in folded dipole if the current fed is I, then the current in each arm is I/ 2 with condition is
that both arms are of same dimension
3) The radiation paltern of folded dipole is same as that of straight dipoles.
4) The spacing between the arms of folded dipole is very small and it is of the ovder of
𝜆/100.
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5) In yagi – uda antenna, the folded dipole is used extensively as active element
6) The i/p impedance of a folded dipole is 4 times that of straight dipol.
Rrad = 22 × 73 = 292Ω
7) By using different diameters of two arms of folded dipole, the impedance can be
transformed by a factor from 1.5 to 25
Advntages of folded dipole:-

I. It has high input impedance
II. It has greater band width
III. It acts as built in reactance compensation netwoek
IV. Its construciton is simple and cheaper.
V. If has betler impedance matcling character stics.
VI.
Yagi – uda antenna

Yagi – uda or simply yagi antennas is the most high gain antennas and are known after the
names of professors S – uda and H Yagi
It consists of a diriven element, a refleetor and one or more directors ie yagi – uda antenna is
an array of a driven element and one or more parasitiv elements. The driven elements is a
resonaot half – wave dipole usually of metallic rod at the freq of operation. The parasitie
elements of continuous metallic rodr are arranged parallel to the driven element and at the
same time of sight level.
Theu are arranged collinearly and close together
R  Reflector
𝐷𝑅  Driven element
D  Director
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The parasitic elements receive their exeitation from the voltages induced in them by the
current flow in the driven element. The phase and amplitude of the current flowing due to the
induced voltage depend on the spacing between the elements and upon reactance of the
elements. To vary the reactance of any element, the dimensions of the elements are
readjusted. Generally the spacing between the driven element and parasitic elements is kept
nearly 0.1𝜆 to 0.15𝜆. A yogi – uda antenna uses both the reflector and director in the same
antenna. The parasitic element in front of the driven element is known as director (D) and its
number may be more than one, whereas the element back of it is known as reflector.
The reflector is 5% more and director is 5% less than the driven element which is 𝜆/2 at
resonant frequency. In general the lengths for 3 – element array of yogi – uda antenna are
500
Reflector length = 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍) feet
475
Driven element length = feet
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
455
Director length = feet
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
The parasitic elements can be clamped on a metallic support rod because at the middle of
each parasitic element, the voltage is minimum ie there exists a voltage node. Even driven
element may also be clamped if it is shunt feed.
Further the use of parasitic elements in conjunction with driven element causes the dipole
impedance to fall well below 73Ω. It may be as low as 25Ω and it becomes necessary to use
either shunt feed or folded dipole so that i/p impedance could be raised to suitable value, to
match the feed cable.
A typical 3 element yogi uda antenna is suitable for TV reception. And further the addition of
directors can be done at intervals of 0.15𝜆, ie to increase gain even up to 12db.
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Working of yagi – uda antenna:
The spacing between the elements and lengths of parasitic elements determine the phases of
currents. Parasitic antenna in the vicinity of antenna is used either to reflect or to direct the
radiated energy so that a compact directional antenna system could be obtained.
A parasitic element of equal or greater than 𝜆/2 will be capacitive. Hence the phases of
currents in the former case will lead. The induced voltage and in latter case will lead.
Properly spaced dipoles shorter than 𝜆/2 acts as director and add the fields of driven element
in the direction and add the fields of driven element in the direction away from the driven
element. If more than one director is employed, then each director will excite the next. On the
other hand an element of length equal or greater than 𝜆/2acts as reflector and add up the
fields of driven element in the direction from reflector towards the driven element, if properly
spaced.
Addition gain is achieved by using additional directors in the beam direction. The distance
bet two elements may range from 0.1𝜆 to 0.3𝜆.
The greater the distance between the driven and director elements, the greater the capacitive
reactance needed to provide correct phasing of parasitic current. Therefore the length of rod
is tapered off to achieve the capacitive reactance instead. If the distance between driven and
parasitic element is decreased, then it will load driven element irrespective of its length. Thus
the i/p impedance at the terminals of driven element reduces.
This is why a folded dipole is invariably used as driven element so that reduction in i/p imp is
compensated
General characteristics of yagi – uda antenna:-

1) The Yagi – Uda antenna with three elements including one reflector, one driven element
and one director is commonly called beam antenna.
2) It is generally a fixed frequency operated unit this antenna is frequency sensitive, the B, W
of 3% can be easily obtained. Such B.W is sufficient for TV reception
3) The B.W of 2 – 3% can be easily achieved if the spacing between the elements is between
0.𝜆 − 0.15𝜆
4) The gain of yogi – Uda antenna is about 7 – 8db its FBR is 20db.
5) The yogi – Uda antenna is light weight low cost, and simple in feeding.
6) This gives a radiation beam which is unidirectional with moderate durativity
7) To achieve greater directivity more no. of directors are used. The no of directors may
range from 2 – 40.
8) The yagi – Uda antenna provides high gain so this is also called super directive and super
gain antennas.
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Yagi – Uda antenna calculations:-
To design Yagi – Uda antenna properly, it is important to know the wavelength of the EM
wave.
𝐶
𝜆=
𝐹
C = vel. Of light = 3× 108 m/s
F = freq of EM wave
We know that length of dipole is
𝜆
𝐿=
2
𝐶
So 𝜆 = 2𝐿 =
𝑓
𝐶
L =
2𝑓
3 × 108 150
L = = 𝑚
𝑓. 2 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
150
∴𝐿= 𝑚
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
Note that while calculating length or any element adjust the value of f in MHZ and use
directly that value without multiplying factor 106 𝐻𝑧.
143
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑅 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝐿𝐷𝑅 = 𝑚
𝑓(𝑚𝐻𝑍)
152
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝐿 𝑚
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
And
137
𝐹𝑜𝑟 1𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟: 𝐿 = 𝑚
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
The spacing bet R & 𝐷𝑅 is
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75
= 𝑚
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
‖𝑙𝑦 Spacing bet 𝐷𝑅 and 𝐷1 is
40
=
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
The spacing bet 𝐷1 & 𝐷2 is
38
= 𝑚
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍)
Advantages of Yagi – Uda antenna:-

i. It has excellent sensitivity
ii. Its front to back ratio is excellent
iii. It is useful as Tx antenna at high frequency TV reception
iv. It has almost unidirectional radiation pattern
v. Due to the use of folded dipole, the Yagi – Uda antenna is broadband.
Disadvantages of Yagi – Uda antenna:-

a) Gain is limited
b) BW is limited
c) The gain of antenna increases with reflector and director.
Horn antenna
The horn antenna is most widely used simplest form of microwave antenna. The horn antenna
server as a feed element for large radio astronomy, communication dishes and satellite
tracking throughout the world as it is widely used at microwave frequencies, it may be
considered as an aperture antenna.
The horn antenna can be considered as a waveguide with hollow pipe of different cross –
sections which are flared for tapered into large opening. When one end of waveguide is
excited while other end is kept open it radiates in open space in all directions. As compared
with the radiation through the transmission line, the radiation through waveguide is larger. In
waveguide, the small amount of power in the incident wave is radiated, while due to open
circuit at other end large amount of power is reflected back. As one end of waveguide is open
circuited, the impedance matching with free space is not perfect. At the edges of waveguide
diffraction takes place, which results in poor radiation
In order to overcome these limitations, the mouth of waveguide is flared, or opened out such
that it assumes the shape of horn. The advantage of terminating the waveguide into an
electromagnetic horn is that instead of open circuit at the one end of waveguide, properly
84 | P a g e
shaped gradual transition takes place. As the edges are flared out the diffraction at the edges
reduces and thus directivity improves
Definition:-
A horn antenna is an aperture antenna which is used to properly match the waveguide or any
guiding system to a large radiating aperture by shaping the transition gradually.
Types of horn antennas:-

A horn antenna is nothing but a flared out or opened out waveguide. The main function of
horn antenna is to produce a uniform phase front with a aperture larger than waveguide to
give higher directivity basically horn antennas are classified as
a) Rectangular horn antennas

b) Circular horn antennas.
Rectangular horns are generally fed with rectangular waveguides and circular horns are fed
with circular waveguides.
Depending on the direction of flaring the hove antennas are of two types
a) Sectoral horn
b) Pyramidal horn.
A sectoral horn is obtained if the flaring is done in one direction only. A sectoral horn is
further classified as E – plane sectoral horn and H – plane sectoral horn.
The E – plane sectoral horn is obtained if the flaring is done in the direction of electric field
vector.
The H – plane sectoral horn is obtained if the flaring is done in the magnetic field vector
When the flaring is done along both the walls of rectangular waveguide in the direction of
both electric and magnetic vectors, the horns obtained is called pyramidal horn.
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Similar to the & rectangular horns, the circular horns can be obtained by flaring the walls of
the circular waveguide. The circular horn antennas are of two types.
a) Conical horn b) Biconical horn
Many times, the transition region between the throat of waveguide and the aperture is tapered
with a gradual exponential taper. This minimizes the reflections of guided waves. Such horns
are called exponentially tapered horn antennas.
Design equations of horn antennas:-
E – Plane view
Consider E – plane sectoral horn as shown.
The electromagnetic horn produces uniform phase front with a larger aperture as compared
with waveguide because of this the directivity increases. Consider an imaginary apex of horn.
Assume that there exists a line of source which radiates cylindrical waves.
The constant or wave fronts are cylindrical as the wave propagates in the direction radially
outwards.
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At any point on the aperture the phase is different than at origin. The reason of difference in
phase is that the wave traces different distances from apex to the aperture. Let the difference
in the path of travel.
From the geometry
𝜌 ℎ
Cos𝜃 = 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 + 𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝜌+𝛿 2𝜌
Hence we can write
𝜌 ℎ
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [ ] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ] … … … … … (1)
𝜌+𝛿 2𝜌
From the right angle ∆𝑙𝑒 OBA
ℎ
(𝜌 + 𝛿) = √𝜌2 + ( )2
2
ℎ
(𝜌 + 𝛿)2 = 𝜌2 + ( )2
2
ℎ2
 𝜌2 + 𝛿 2 + 2 ʃ𝛿 = 𝜌2 +
4
→ 𝛿 is fractional, 𝛿 2 will be smaller than 𝛿 hence neglected
ℎ2
2ρ𝛿 = 4
ℎ2
𝜌 = 𝛿 < < 𝜌 … … … … … (2)
8𝛿
Equations (1) & (2) are called design equations of horn antenna.
The angle ‘𝜃′ represented in eqn (1) is known as optimum aperture angle.
The directivity of maximum value can be obtained at the largest flare for which the value 𝛿
does not exceed typical value such as 0.25𝜆 for plane horn, 0.32𝜆 for conical horn, 0.4 for H
– plane sectoral horn.
For optimum flare horn. The half power beam width can be approximated as
670 𝜆
𝜃𝐻 =
𝑎𝐻
And
560 𝜆
𝜃𝐸 =
𝑎𝐸
Assuming no loss the directivity is given in terms of effective aperture of the horn
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4𝜋
D = . 𝐴𝑒
𝜆2
4𝜋
= . 𝐸𝑎 𝐴𝑝
𝜆2
Where Ae  Effective aperture
Ap  physical aperture
𝐴𝑒
Ea = = 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑢 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦.
𝐴𝑝
For rectangular horn
Ap = 𝑎𝐸 . 𝑎𝐻
𝑎𝐸 = 𝐸 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
4𝜋𝐸𝑎 . 𝐴𝑝
𝐷=
𝜆2
𝐸𝑎 = 0.6 𝑖𝑒 60%
4𝜋 × 0.6 𝐴𝑝 7.5𝐴𝑝
𝐷= =
𝜆2 𝜆2
We can express the directivity in db as
7−5𝐴𝑝
D (in db) = 10 lo𝑔10 [ ]
𝜆2
Salient features of horn antennas:-

I. The horn antenna is used with waveguide, and it is used as radiator
II. It is generally used with paraboloidal antenna and it is used as primary antenna.
III. The flare angle of horn is related to horn becomes smaller. The radiation pattern is
directive & wave front become spherical.
IV. For pyramidal horn, the directivity increases. If the flare angle is in more than one
direction.
88 | P a g e
ʃ
V. If 𝜃 =150, when 𝜆 = 50, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 beam width = 230 and directivity is 120.
VI. Its directivity is not high as paraboloid.
VII. The gain of conical antenna is optimum for a given slant length of flare ʃ. And
3 1
d = ( )2
𝜆
d = diameter of aperture
Applications of horn antennas:-

1. Horns are used at micro wave frequencies where moderate gains are sufficient
2. They are used as feed elements
3. They are often used in laboratories for the measurement of antenna parameters
Corrugated horns:-
𝜃 Half flare angle
t  Width of groove
w  Separation between adjacent grooves
h  Aperture dimension
d  Groove depth
Sentient features of corrugated horns:-

1. Corrugated horn antennas are used as feed antennas for paraboloids, in this spill over,
efficiency and cross polarization losses are reduced, and aperture efficiency is
increased.
2. Feed systems using corrugated horns, the aperture efficiency is 75 – 80%
3. The corrugated surface reactance is given by
𝑤
X = 𝜂 tan(𝑘𝑑)
𝑤+𝑡 0
89 | P a g e
η0 = 120π Ω
2𝜋
𝐾 =
𝜆
Helical antennas
The concept of helical antenna was first introduced by john D. Kraus in 1947. It is a three
dimensional structure of which linear and loop antennas are the special cases. It is basically a
simple broadband VHF and UHF antenna which provides circular polarization. It consists of
a thick copper wire wound in the form of a screw thread forming helix.
The wire is wounded in such a way that it is wounded as if on a uniform cylinder. When it is
observed from any end, the shape observed is circular. Thus the helix of helical antenna
combines three different geometric shapes like straight line, circle and a cylinder.
Even though, a helix radiates in many modes, the modes of special interest are normal mode
and axial mode. In axial mode, the max, radiation is along the helix axis under the condition
that the circumference of helix is of the order of one wavelength. In normal mode, the
radiation is max along the broadside to helix is smaller w. r. t one wavelength. When the
dimension of circumference of helix exceeds that required for normal and axial mode, a
multiplied pattern is observed.
Such a higher order radiation mode is called conical mode.
Helical antenna structure and helical geometry:-

1) Helical antenna is basic broadband VHF and UHF antenna which provides circular
polarization.
2) It consists of a thick copper wire wound in the form of a screw thread forming helix.
3) In general helix is used with ground planes.
4) There are different forms of ground planes such as flat ground plane, cylindrical
cavity or frustum cavity.
5) In general helical antenna is fed with co – axial transmission line in which the central
conductor is connected to the helix at the feed point while the outer conductor is
attached to the ground plane.
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6) The helical antenna can operated in many modes, but two important modes are axial
and normal mode of operation.
7) In normal mode, the field radiated by the antenna is maximum in a plane normal to
the axis of helix and this mode is also called broadside mode. In axial mode, the field
radiated by the antenna is maximum in a plane along the axis
8) This axial mode is also called end fire mode
9) The dimensions of helix in axial mode are not critical, hence the end fire or axial
helical antenna is used to achieve circular polarization.
10) For space communication, the helical antennas are most suitable as they have wider
bandwidth, higher directivity and circular polarization.
11) To transmit or receive VHF signals through ionosphere generally an array of helical
antennas are used. These are used for space and satellite communication.
The helix is fed by a coaxial cable. One end of helix is connected to the center or inner
conductor of cable and outer conductor is connected to ground plane. The mode of
radiation of antenna depends on the diameter of helix ie D and the spacing between the
turns ‘s’. Then the pitch angle is given by
𝑆
𝛼 = tan−1 [ ]
𝐶
𝑆
= tan−1 [ ]
𝜋𝐷
91 | P a g e
Triangle terminology for one turn.
The no. of turns is denoted by N. then the axial length A = N. S. length of one complete turn
is L.
If we circumference c, spacing between turns’s’, turn length ‘L’ and pitch angle ∝can be
related to each other through triangle terminology.
Then we can write
L = √𝛿 2 + 𝐶 2 = √𝑆 2 + (𝜋𝐷)2
The pitch angle is defined as the angle bet a line tangential to the helix wire and plane normal
to the axis of helix. The pitch angle can be expressed as
𝑆 𝑆
tan ∝ = 𝐶 = 𝜋𝐷
𝑆
∝= tan−1 [ ]
𝜋𝐷
In general helicon antenna can radiate in many modes. But most important modes of radiation
are as follows
1) Normal or perpendicular mode of radiation

2) Axial or end fire or beam mode of radiation.
Normal or perpendicular mode of radiation:-

In this mode of helical antenna, the radiation is maximum in broad way direction, ie normal
or perpendicular to the axis of helix, hence this mode is called normal or perpendicular mode
of radiation. Here the radiation is circularly polarized wave.
This mode of radiation is obtained if the helix dimensions are made very small ie N. S << 𝜆
But in this mode of radiation, the B.W of antenna becomes narrow, and radiation efficiency
becomes very less.
92 | P a g e
The radiation pattern of helical antenna in normal mode is the combination of equivalent
radiation from a short dipole located on same helix axis and from a small loop which is
coaxial with same helix axis when the pitch angle ∝ = O;
The helix corresponds to loop, when ∝ = 900 then it corresponds to linear dipole. For a helix
with a fixed diameter with S tending to zero, the helix turns out to be a loop while helix with
S and D tending to zero turns out to be short dipole
The resultant field is depended on the ratio of field strengths or the amplitudes of two
components. Even though the radiation patterns of loop and short dipoles are same, their
polarizations are at right angles. Hence the resultant field is either circularly polarized or
elliptically polarized. As it depends on pitch angle ∝ when ∝is small, the radiation from the
loop is dominant and when ∝is large, the radiation from short dipole is dominant
Consider a helix in spherical co – ordinate system. Considering that helical antenna is made
up of number of small loops and short dipoles arranged in series such that loop diameter
equal to helix diameter D and length of short dipole equal to spacing between two turns of
helix ‘s’.
Helical antenna with spherical co – ordinates
The far field of a small loop is given by
120𝜋 2 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐴
𝐸∅ = … … … … … … (1)
𝑟 𝜆2
I = Retarded current
r = Distant at a point
𝜋𝐷 2
A = Area of loop =
4
𝜆= wavelength in m.
Similarly the far field of a short dipole is given by
60𝜋𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑆
𝐸𝜃 = 𝑗 … … … … … (2)
𝑟 𝜆
S = dL = length of dipole
93 | P a g e
From (1) & (2) it is clear that two fielder are in phase quadrature (Phase of 900) To get the
axial ratio (AR) of elliptical polarization, we should take the ratio of magnitudes of field due
to short dipole to that due to the loop hence axial ration is given by
|𝐸𝜃|
𝐴𝑅 =
|𝐸∅|
60𝜋 𝐼 sin 𝜃 𝑆
|𝑗 𝑟 . |
= 𝜆
120𝜋 2 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐴
|𝑗 𝑟 |
𝜆2
𝑆𝜆 𝜋𝐷2
𝐴𝑅 = ∴𝐴=
2𝜋𝐴 4
𝑆. 𝜆
=
𝜋𝐷2
2𝜋. 4
∝ 𝑆𝜆
𝐴𝑅 =
𝜋 2 𝐷2
Now depending on the values of AR, we get three conditions.
Condition1:-
When AR = 0, the elliptical polarization becomes linear horizontal polarization
Condition2:-
When AR = ∞, the elliptical polarization becomes linear vertical polatization.
Condition3:-
When AR = 1, the elliptical polarization circular polarization
Thus the condition for circular polarization is given by
|𝐸𝜃| 2𝑆𝜆
𝐴𝑅 = 1 = = 2 2
|𝐸∅| 𝜋 𝐷
|𝐸𝜃| = |𝐸∅|
Hence
2S𝜆 = π2 D2
𝜋 2 𝐷2 𝐶2
𝑆= =
2𝜆 2𝜆
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C = Circumference = 𝜋𝐷.
Hence the pitch angle for circular polarization is given by
𝜋 2 𝐷2
𝑆
∝= tan−1 [ ] = tan−1[ 2𝜆 ]
𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷
𝜋𝐷 𝐶
∝= tan−1 [ ] = tan−1 [ ]
2𝜆 2𝜆
Thus the resultant radiation patter for helical antenna in the normal mode can be obtained by
superimposing the field patterns of loop and dipole for circular polarization
Normal, mode radiation pattern with circular polarization
Axial or end fire mode of radiation:-

In this mode of radiation, the radiation is maximum in end fire direction, ie along the axis of
helix is called axial mode or end fire mode. With the axial mode of radiation, the polarization
of wave is either circular or nearly circular
The two parameters of helical antenna which decide the mode of radiation are spacing
between the turns and diameter of helix. When these two parameters are of the order of one
wave length to achieve axial mode of radiation note that in normal mode, the dimension N. S
< < 𝜆 the axial mode of radiation of helical antenna is more important because most of
practical antennal produce similar radiation patterns with the features like broad and
directional beam in axial direction and minor lobes at oblique angles this node is possible in
helical antenna, if the C is selected of the order of one wavelength, and spacing is selected
𝜆
approximately equal to 4.
For the axial mode, the pitch angle ∝ varies from 120n to 180. The optimum pitch angle is
140. The terminal resistance is real at resonant
95 | P a g e
Frequency and it becomes reactive at higher and lower frequencies
The terminal impedance is given by
140𝐶
𝑅=
𝜆
The half power beam width is
52 𝜆3
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = √ 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐶 𝑁. 𝑆
115 𝜆3
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = √ 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐶 𝑁. 𝑆
The maximum directive gain is
15𝑁𝑆𝐶 2
𝐺𝐷 =
𝜆3
The axial ratio is given by

1
AR = 1 + 2𝑁
Radiation pattern of helical antenna:

Salient features of helical antenna:-
1) Helical antenna is used basically where circular polarization is required
2) These antennas are operated in VHF & UHF bands
3) The axial mode of operation is widely used.
4) In axial mode of operation the BW is more
5) Its construction is simple and directivity is higher.
Applications of helical antennas:-

1) These are used in satellite communication and space probe communication.
2) A single helical antenna or an array of antennas is useful in transmitting or receiving
VHF signals through atmosphere.
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UNIT - III
MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
Introduction:
The antennas operating in the frequency range 3GHZ – 30 GHZ are called SHF antennas.
The typical antennas used in SHF range are Horn antennas. Micro strip antennas, slot
antennas, reflector antennas. Lens antennas etc.
In SHF range antennas are operated in CM wave lengths. Hence it is practical to construct
and antenna with such dimensions. Such antenna radiates power in narrow beans. These are
used in RADAR and point to point communication. In this feed is provided through
waveguide instead of coaxial cables. Coaxial cables give less attenuation compared to two
wire transmission line. Hence co-axial cable is preferred for feed for VHF and UHF antennas.
Introduction to reflector antennas:

The reflector antennas are most important in micro wave radiation applications. In reflector
antennas another antenna is required to excite it. Hence the antenna such as dipole, horn or
slot which excites the reflector antenna is called primary antenna. While the reflector antenna
is called the secondary antenna. The reflector antenna can be represented in any geometrical
configuration, but most commonly used shapes are plane reflector, corner reflector and
curved or parabolic reflector.
Using reflector the radiation pattern of the radiating antenna can be modified.
Different types of reflector antennas are:
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Large Flat Sheet Reflector:
1) This is the simplest type of reflector
2) A linear dipole antenna is placed in front of a large flat reflector such that backward
radiations are eliminated.
3) Even with very small separation between flat sheet and dipole considerable gain is
achieved
4) Whatever properties of large sheet, all those remain same ever if the size of the sheet
is reduced.
5) If the size of the sheet is reduced further we reach to the limiting condition and the
flat sheet turn out to be a thin linear reflector antenna.
6) The main difference between large sheets and thin reflectors is that the large flat sheet
reflectors are frequency insensitive and thin reflectors are frequency sensitive.
Corner Reflectors:
1. A large flat sheet reflector can be considered to be made up of two flat sheets intersecting
each other at an angle ∝ = 1800 (∝ = corner angle)
2. When the two flat sheets are arranged such that they intersect each other at an angle
(∝<1800) then we get corner reflector.
3. The radiation pattern of corner reflector is sharper than flat sheet reflector radiation pattern.
4. A corner reflector with feeder or exciting element is called active corner reflector and a
corner reflector without feed is called passive corner reflector.
5. In case of active corner reflector, between the points A and B, there is an opening known
as aperture, which is typically 1𝜆 to 2𝜆 lenghth,
6. While in passive corner reflector, its length is larger compared to the active corner reflector
7. If the angle between the sheets is always 900 in case of passive reflector and it is also
called retrorfeflector. Lector. Such passive reflector has an inherent to source.
CURVED REFLECTORS:
1. Curved reflector antennas will have the aperture lengths of several wave lengths.
2. These are highly directional

98 | P a g e
3. This converts spherical wave fronts into plane wave fronts
4. These curved reflectors are available in many forms like parabolic, hyperbolic, elliptical
and circular etc.
Plane Reflectors (Flat Sheet Reflectors):
The plane reflector is the simplest form of reflector antenna. When the plane reflector is kept
in front of feed the energy is radiated in the desired direction.
To increase the directivity of antenna, a large flat sheet can be kept as plane reflector infront
of a half wave dipole. The main advantage of plane reflector is that for the dipole backward
radiation are reduced and gain in the forward direction are reduced and gain in the forward
direction increases. To increase the directivity further, we can use array of two half wave
diploes in front of a flat plane reflector.
The analysis of flat sheet reflector can be done with the help of method of images. In this method
reflector is replaced by image of an antenna. At a distance 2s from antenna.
𝜆
For an infinite plane reflector, assuming zero reflector losses. The gain of a dipole antenna at
2
distance S is given by
𝑅11+𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Gf (𝜙 )= 2 √𝑅11+𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑅 12 | Sin(srCOS 𝜙)|
̅
2𝜆
Where Sr = S
𝜆
The gain of reflector is a function of spacing between the flat sheet and half wave dipole. When the
spacing between the half wave dipole and infinite sheet decreases, the gain increases.
99 | P a g e
Field patterns of a HWD antenna with decreasing spacing’s between flat sheet and feeding
antenna. From the figures it is clear that as spacing decreases, gain increases.
Corner Reflector:
The main disadvantage of plane reflector is that these are radiation in back and side
directions. Hence in order to overcome this limitation, the shape of plane reflector is modified
so that the radiation is in forward direction only. The modified arrangement consists of two
plane reflectors which are joined to form a corner with some angle. The reflector is thus
known as corner reflector the angle at which two plane reflectors are joined is called included
angle (∝ ) or corner angle. In most of practical applications the included angle is 900
The corner reflector is called square corner reflector. Practically corner reflectors of included
angle less than 900 are not advantageous.
The analyses of corner reflectors are carried out under the assumption that the two
intersecting planes are perfectly conducting and infinite.
With field pattern along main axis

100 | P a g e
In most of the corner reflectors, the feed element is either a dipole or array of collinear dipoles placed
parallel to the vertex at a distance S. To increase B.W, instead of thin wires as feed element, the
biconical or cylindrical dipoles are preferred.
Note: for smaller included angles, the sides of corner reflector are made larger than twice the feed to
vertex spacing.
The radiation resistance is the function of spacing between the feed and the reflector. If the spacing is
too large, unwanted multiple lober are produced, and hence directivity of antenna is lost. If the
spacing is very small, the radiation resistance decreases.
The losses in the system increases, as the decreased radiation resistance is comparable with loss
resistance that antenna is treated as inefficient antenna.
For the mathematical analysis, the dimensions of corner reflector are taken as
1. 𝜆 < DA < 2 𝜆 DA Aperture

𝜆 2𝜆
2. < s< S Spacing
3 3
3. l =2S l length of flat sheet
4. H= (1.2 to 1.5 ) × l
The analysis for the radiated field of source with corner reflectors is found to be useful with included
angle ∝ depends on integer N.
̅
𝜋
If N = 1, ∝ = 1 = 𝜋̅ OR 1800 - - - - flat sheet reflector
̅
𝜋
If N= 2 ∝ = 2 = 𝜋̅ OR 900 - - - - Square corner reflector
̅
𝜋
If N= 2 ∝ = 3 = 𝜋̅ OR 600 - - - - corner reflector with corner angle ∝ = 600
Design equations for corner reflector the important dimensions in the corner reflector are
DA= dimension of aperture
S= Distance between feed and vertex
L= side length of reflector sheet
In the design, the side length is always selected equal to the twice the distance s.
𝑙
S = 2 or l= 2s------- (1)
DA = √𝑙 2 + 𝑙 2
=√2. 𝑙 = 1.414 𝑙
L = 2S
DA= 2.828× 𝑆-------- (2)
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(1) And (2) are the design equations of corner reflector.
The spacing‘s’ effects the gain and bandwidth. For small spacing, the bandwidth is narrow but gain is
higher. While for large spacing, the bandwidth is broader, and gain is lower, thus gain is selected as a
compromise between the gain and bandwidth.
Principle Of Parabolic Reflector:

To improve the radiation characteristics of the reflector antenna, parabolic reflector is used. Basically
a parabola is a locus of a point which moves in such a way that the distance of point from fixed point
called focus plus the distance from the straight line called directive is constant.
By the geometry of optics, when the point source is place at the focus or focal point, then the
rays reflected by the parabolic reflector form parallel wave front. This principle is used in TX
antenna. similarly when a beam of rays (parallel ) is incident on a parabolic reflector, then the
rays focus at focal point as shown in case of receiving antenna.
Consider a parabolic reflector as shown. When the point source is kept at focus or focal point
of the parabola, the radiations striking the parabolic reflector are reflected parallel to the axis
of the parabola irrespective of angle at which the radiations strike the reflector. That means
the rays which are reflected by the parabolic reflector travel same distance to reach near the
mouth of reflector. The open end of parabolic reflector is called aperture. The times taken by
the reflected rays to travel a distance up to the directive of parabola are same that means all
the rays are in phase
Paraboloid Or Parabolic Reflector Or Microwave Dish:

Paraboloid reflector is a three dimensional structure which is obtained by rotating the
parabola around its axis. Obstacle
102 | P a g e
As the mouth of paraboloid is circular in shape the parallel, beam produced are of the circular
cross section. The radiation pattern consists of very sharp major lobe and small minor lobes.
Note: the paraboloid is called microwave dish
Analysis:
Consider the power gain of paraboloid. With circular mouth or aperture w.r.t HWD is given
by
4𝜋
GP = Ae ------------ (1)
𝜆2
Ae → capture area or effective aperture
Ae < Ap (physical aperture)

Ae
𝜖𝑎 = Ap ⟹ Ae = 𝜖a AP
𝜖𝑎 → Aperture efficiency
𝜖𝑎 = 65 % or 0.65 for paraboloid

4𝜋
GP = 𝜆2 . 𝜖𝑎 .AP
𝑑 ̅ 𝑑2
𝜋
AP = 𝜋( )2 =
2 4
d→ aperture or diameter of aperture
4𝜋 𝑑2
GP = 𝜆2 .(0.65). 𝜋̅ 4
𝑑
GP = 6.4 ( 2 )2
The above equation really says that power gain of paraboloid depends on the ratio or diameter‘d’ to
𝑑
wave length (𝜆) in free space. The ratio 𝜆 is called aperture ratio.
If the feed antenna is isotropic, then paraboloid produces beam of radiation. Assuming large circular
aperture, the beam width between first nulls is
140𝜆
BWFN = deg.
𝑑
d= Diameter of circular aperture
𝜆 = free space wavelength
Similarly BWFN for uniformly illuminated rectangular aperture is given by

115𝜆
BWFN = deg
𝐿
L= length of rectangular aperture.
103 | P a g e
The HPBW for large circular aperture can be expressed as
58𝜆
HPBW = deg.
𝑑
Similarly directivity of uniformly illuminated aperture is given by

̅
4𝜋
D = 𝜆2 . Ae
̅
4𝜋 𝑑2
D = 𝜆2 . 𝜋̅
4
𝑑
D = 9.87 (𝜆 )2
Thus from the above, it is clear that sharp concentrated pencil beam pattern is obtained.
𝒇
Ratio, spillover. Back lobe:
𝑫
Effect of variation of focal length f keeping ‘d’ fixed in paraboloid
In paraboloid reflector, the ratio of focal length f to the diameter of aperture is another
important design constraint. The paraboloid can be designed to obtain pencil shape radiation
beam by keeping the diameter of aperture fixed and changing the focal length f.
The Three Possible Cases Are As Follows:

I. Focal point inside the aperture of paraboloid
II.Focal point along the plane of open mouth of Paraboloid
III.Focal point beyond the open mouth of paraboloid.
When the focal length is very small, the focal point lies inside the open mouth of parabolod.
It is difficult to obtain uniform illumination over a wide angle. When the focal point lies on
the plane of open mouth of the paraboloid by the geometry, the focal length f is one fourth of
open mouth diameter ‘d’ this condition gives the maximum gain pencil beam shaped
radiation. When the focal length is too large, the focal point lies beyond the open mouth of
paraboloid here it is difficult to direct all the radiations from the source on the reflector.
104 | P a g e
Basically the mouth or aperture of paraboloid is circular. But the contour of the reflector
when projected in any plane containing o and focal point F forms a parabola. and focal point f
forms a parabola.
The path length FAB = FA1 B1.
Now practically the reflector the reflector is able to focus the parallel rays at focal point F or
the reflector can develop a parallel beam from radiations originated form focal point.
Practically it is observed that some of rays are not fully captured by reflector, such non-
captured rays form spill – over.
Types Of Paraboloid Reflector:

Depending on the use of paraboloid, it is modified in various types of structures.
A. Truncated Paraboloid Or Cut Paraboloid
This type of paraboloid is formed by cutting some portion of paraboloid ot meet the
requirement
B. Parabolic Right Cylinder:
105 | P a g e
This structure of parabola is obtained by moving the parabola in sideways. This structure has
focal line instead of focal point, and similarly vertex line instead of vertex. In practice, a
linear dipole or linear array of dipoles or slotted waveguide is used as primary antenna.
C. Pill Box Or Cheese Antenna:

The cheese antenna or pill box is a short parabolic right cylinder enclosed by parallel plates.
This antenna is useful in producing wide beam in one of the planes while a narrow in other.
Feed Systems Of Parabolodial Reflector:

A parabolic reflector antenna as a system consists two basic parts namely a source of
radiation located at focus and reflector. The source placed at the is called the primary
radiator, while the reflector is called the secondary radiator. The primary radiator i.e. Source
is commonly called feed radiator or simply feed.
In case of a parabolic reflector a feed is said to be ideal feed if it radiates entre energy
towards the reflector in such a way that entire surface of reflector is illuminated and no
energy is radiated in any unwanted direction.
The simplest type of feed that can be used is dipole antenna. But it is not a suitable antenna
for parabolic reflector. Instead of a single dipole, a feed consisting dipole with parasitic
reflectors can be used as feed system.
But the most commonly used feed system in the parasitic reflector antenna is horn antenna.
Incase if circular polarization is required, then a conical horn or helical antenna is used at the
focus.
If the feed is moved along a line perpendicular to the main axis then beam deteriorates. But if
the feed is moved along the main axis then the beam gets broadened. Hence focus is the feed
is placed to obtain maximized beam patter.
106 | P a g e
Types of feed systems:
1. Cassagrain feed system:
This system of feeding paraboloid reflector is named after a mathematician prof cassagrain.
In this is feeding system the feed is place at the apex of the parabolic reflector, instead of
placing at focus.
2. This system uses a hyperbolic reflector (sub reflector) placed such a way that its one of the
folic coincides with the focus of parabolic reflector
3. The primary radiator is generally a horn antenna.
4. When the feed radiator i.e. horn antenna radiator towards the cassagrain or sub reflector, it
reradiates all the radiation, and due to these radiations, the parabolic reflector gets illuminated
similar to the radiations from the feed placed at the focus.
Advantages Of Casagrain Feed System:

The following are the advantages of cassagrain feed system:
It reduces the spillover and thus minor lobe radiations.
The system has the ability to modify the feed at convenient place
Using this system, beam can be broadened by adjusting one of the reflector surfaces.
With this system greater focal length greater than physical focal length can be achieved.
Offset Feed System:
107 | P a g e
By suitably selecting primary antenna, correct directional pattern for any arrangement can be
obtained the parabolic reflector can be fed using 𝜆/2 dipole antenna or a horn antenna. But in
both cases wave form paraboloidal reflector causes mismatch and interaction at primary
antenna. Also it blocks
Some of the radiation obtained from parabolic reflector. Which increases the minor lobe
radiation? To overcome the aperture blocking effect. Due to the dependence of secondary
reflector dimensions on distance between feed and sub reflector, the offset system is
preferred.
Here the feed radiator is placed at the focus of larger part of parabolic reflector, but the
reflector taken is only a part of that larger parabolic reflector. With this system all the rays are
properly collimated without formation of the region of blocked rays.
Features Of Parabolic Reflector:

These are conventional and most commonly used reflectors.
The parabodioidal reflector is fed with a point source. In most of the applications. Feeding
antenna is horn.
It has three dimensional curved surfaces. It is obtained by rotating the parabola about its axis
It is commonly named as parabolic dish or microwave dish or dish antenna or dish reflector
It generates pencil beam radiation
It is used in applications like point to point communication and RADAR tracking system
where communication pencil beam pattern is needed.
Micro strip antennas (MSA) OR Patch Antenna

The micro strip antenna is also called patch. ANTENNA or printed antenna or micro strip
patch antenna. These are preferable where thickness and conformability to the surface are the
main requirements. As the MSA are directly printed on the circuit boards, in the modern era
of mobile micro strip antennas.
The features of micro strip antennas are
1. A thin, flat metallic region which is commonly called patch.

2. A dielectric substrate
3. A ground plane which is much larger than patch
4. A feed network which supplies power to the antenna elements.
History Of MSA:
This antenna was proposed by G.A Deschamps in 1953 for the first time. Because of some
practical difficulties and some inherent defects the idea was not successful. But in late 1970,s,
Robert
108 | P a g e
Micro strip Antennas:
The micro strip antennas are generally preferred where thickness and conformability to the
surface are main requirements. The micro strip antenna is also called patch antenna or printed
antenna or micro strip patch antenna. As the micro strip antennas directly printed on circuit
boards, in mobile phones we use only micro strip antennas.
These are different types of micro strip antennas but all the types show following common
features.
1. A thin, flat metallic region which is commonly called a patch.
2. A dielectric substrate.
3. A ground plane which is much larger than patch
4. A feed network which supplied power to the antenna elements
Import Ants Features Of Micro Strip Antenna:

The micro strip antenna was proposed by G.A Deschamps in 1953. Because of some
difficulties the idea was not successful. But later in 1970’s Robert E. Munson tried to
enhance its practical ability by using low loss soft substrate materials.
Basically a micro strip antenna is nothing but a metallic patch suspended over a ground plane.
These are constructed on a dielectric substrate using a process similar to lithography in which
patterns are printed on the substrate while fabricating pebs. Or integrated circuits
Theoretically the micro strip antennas are of any shape like square, rectangular, triangular, etc
109 | P a g e
Out of these shapes. Square, rectangular, triangular dipole and circular are the most
commonly used shapes for patch because of ease of fabrication besides this these shapes are
useful for low cross polarization radiation.
The square patch can generate pencil beam and the rectangular patch can generate fan beam
actually circular patch is easy to fabricate but difficult to find its current distribution.
The microstirp antenna is constructed on a very thin dielectric substrate using different
etching techniques. In general. Dual copper coated Teflon fiber glass is most commonly used
so that micros trip antenna can be easily curved to the shape of mounting surface. For the
patch mostly conducting materials such as copper or gold is used. In almost all the antennas
the feed lines are photo etched on the substrate along with patch.
ADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS:
1. The micros trip antennas are low profile antennas. They are of smaller size, light weight
which occupies less volume.
2. They are easily conformable to non- planar surface. They can be easily bolted or laminated
to the metallic surface such as aircraft, missile.
3. As the fabrication process involved in manufacturing the micro strip antenna is simple the
complete production process is easy and cheap.
4. By mounting the micro strip antenna on rigid surfaces, we get mechanically robust
antenna.
5. The micro strip antenna is the most suitable option where thickness and conformability to
the surface of a plat form are the main requirements
6. The micro strip antenna is versatile as it can be designed to produce variety of patterns and
polarization.
7. In general the MSA supports linear as well as circular polarization.
8. The main advantage of MSA is that it is possible to have dual or triple frequency
operations
9. Using adaptive elements such as PIN diode or varactor diode between the patch and the
ground and polarization.
110 | P a g e
10. Micro strip arrays have very high performance because infinite quantity with variety of
antenna elements, power dividers matching sections, phasing sections can be added to the
printed circuit board without increasing the cost of manufacturing.
Disadvantages Of Microstrip Antennas:

1. The micro strip antennas are low gain and low efficiency antennas.
2. The micro strip antennas have narrow bandwidth
3. They handle low power.

𝑓𝑟
4. As Q= The B.W is narrow as Q is higher the B.W can be increased by increasing the
𝐵.𝑊
thickness of substrate at the cost of Q factor value
5. Increasing the B.W by using any suitable method increases the complexity of design of
MSA.
6. The B.W can also be increased by increasing the thickness of the substrate but there is a
limit on the value up to which thickness can be increased. If the increase in thickness exceeds
this value the surfaces waves are created. Thus excitation of surfaces wave is the major
limitation in MSA.
7. The MSA are poor end fire radiators
8. Large ohmic losses in feed structure of arrays
9. Relatively high level of cross polarization.
10. The size of the antenna is inversely proportional to the frequency; they can be used only
for very high frequencies only. Because of low frequencies the size of antenna is large.
Rectangular Microstrip Antennas:

The most commonly used micro strip antenna is rectangular micro strip antenna.
111 | P a g e
The dimension L of a patch is always greater than dimension W of a patch. The edges with L
dimensions cause resonance at its half wavelength frequency. At the ends of L- dimension,
there are radiating edges which give single polarization. At the ends of W – dimension, there
are non- radiating edges with very less radiation which gives cross polarization.
When the path length is half of wave length i.e. (L= X/2). The electric fields produced below
the edges of L- dimension are of opposite polarity. These E field lines emerge out and
propagated in a direction normal to the substrate. Thus both the side’s lines are in the same
direction. As the fields are in same phase both get added together.
The radiation intensity goes on decreasing as the fields move away from the edges and
simultaneously two fields change phase. At two angles particularly the fields are exactly out
of phase and cancel each other. Hence the radiation intensity of MSA depends on the
direction of viewing.
Rules of effective radiation of micros trip antenna:
 The structure has to be half wavelength resonator

 The dielectric substrate should be sufficiently thicker and with low dielectric constant
 The height of the substrate should be limited to a fraction of wave length
Let us consider a rectangular micros trip antenna fed by a micros trip transmission line.
The critical or center frequency of operation for antenna is approximately given by

𝑐
fc = 2𝐿√𝜖𝑟
where C→ Velocity of light
𝑐 1
∴ fc = 2𝐿 √∈𝑜𝜖𝑟𝜇𝑜
∵ c= m/s
√𝜇𝑜𝜖𝑜
112 | P a g e
To obtain frequency of operation of a patch antenna accurately, we should consider
dimension w also so the expression for frequency of operation of patch antenna considering
Land W is given by
𝑐 𝑛 𝑚
fr1nm = [{ }2 + { } 2] 1/2
2√𝜖𝑟.𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐿+2∆𝐿 𝑤+2∆𝑤
For a dominant mode with n=1, m =0 the freq of operation is

𝑐
Fr,nm =
2[𝐿+2∆𝐿]√∈𝑟.𝑒𝑓𝑓
The width w of a patch is very important as it controls the input impendence of antenna. For a
typical square patch antenna (L= W) the input impedance is typically 300Ω. When the width
is increased, the input impedance decreases. The width also controls the radiation pattern of a
patch antenna.
Feed methods of MSA:
Feeding methods
Contacting Non - contacting
Coaxial feed micro strip aperture capacitive
Line feed coupling feeding
I) Contacting Feed :
In this method, the patch is directly fed with R.F Power using connecting element such as
micro strip line or coaxial line. The most commonly used feed methods are micro strip feed
and coaxial feed.
II) Non – Contacting Feed:
In this the patch is not directly fed with RF power but instead power is transferred to the path
from the feed line through electromagnetic coupling.
The most commonly used non – contacting feed methods are aperture coupled feed and
proximity coupled feed.
A) Micro Strip Line Feed Technique:

In this method the feed line is directly attached to the edge of the patch on the substrate the
advantage of using micro strip is that the feed line is etched directly on the substrate and
where patch is also etched. So thus we can get a planar structure. These are further
subdivided into 4 main classes.
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A) Center Feed:
The micro strip line is etched exactly at the center of the patch at the edge of patch
B) Offset feed:
The micro strip line is not at the center of the patch but in general near the corner.
C)Inset feed:
The main disadvantage of the feeding antenna at the center or at the corner end is that current
increases from edge to center and hence input impedance matching problems. To reduce the
input impedance matching problems. To reduce the input impedance the line extends inside
the patch by appropriate distance from the edge, so that proper impedance matching is done.
D) Quarter Wave Line Feed:

In this method, the transmission line impedance is matched with the antenna with the help of
quarter wave section of the line with characteristic impedance zo. It acts as a quarter wave
transformer and the input impedance at the quarter wave section
𝑍𝑂 2
Is ZS = 𝑍𝐿
 The coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for micro strip patch
antennas.
 The coaxial cable has two conductors’ inner conductor and outer conductor. In this
method, the inner conductor is extended up to radiating patch through the substrate
 While the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane. For impedance matching,
the input impedance of micro strip antenna can be adjusted by properly selecting feed
Position.
114 | P a g e
 The main advantage of this is that the coaxial feed can be placed at any location inside
the patch to achieve impedance matching
 Easy to fabricate and low spurious radiation.
C) APERTURE COUPLED FEED:
 This technique uses an electromagnetic coupling between a patch and a micro strip
line.
 The feed circuitry is isolated from the antenna by a conducting plane with aperture or
hole located below the patch at center. Because of this cross polarization is reduced.
 The amount of coupling depends on size, shape and location of aperture
 Due to the isolation of the radiating patch, and feed line, the spurious radiations are
lowered.
 In general top substrate near the patch is thick and having low dielectric constant
while the bottom substrate near micro strip line is thin and greater dielectric constant.
 The major disadvantage is that the two dielectric layers need to be properly aligned
during fabrication.
D)Proximity Coupled Feed:

 This method is also called indirect feed in which similar to the inset feed method, the
line is etched inside the patch, the gap between micro strip line and the radiating
probe provides a capacitance.
 The main advantage of this feed technique is that it eliminates spurious radiation. And
provides very high bandwidth.
 Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of feed line and width to line ratio
of patch.
 The major advantage of this feed technique is that it eliminates spurious radiation.
Applications of Micro Strip Antennas

There are various applications of the micro strip antennas given below.
115 | P a g e
1. Military applications:
The high velocity aircrafts, space crafts, missiles, rockets require low profile, light weight
antennas which can be automatically mounted to the exterior surfaces of these vehicles’.
Other areas where the MSA. Are used include applications such as missile guiding, fuzing
telemetry, satellite communication, radars, altimeters, GPS etc.
2. Space Applications:
These are used in space program such as earth Limb measurement satellite”1” international
sun earth explorer, shuttle imaging radar (SIR) A.B.C Series, solar mesospheric explorer
(SME), Cosmic background explorer, GEOSTAR, SEASAT and mars pathfinder.
3. Commercial Applications:
These are used commercially in applications such as mobile satellite communications direct
Broad cast satellite (DBS), Global positioning system (GPS), aeronautical and marine radars
and earth remote sensing.
116 | P a g e
UNIT – IV
ANTENNA ARRAYS:-
Point sources, definition, palters, arrays of 2 – isotropic sources different cases, principle
of pattern multiplication, uniform linear arrays, broadside arrays, EFA with increased
directivity, derivation of their characteristics and comparison. BSA with non – uniform
amplitude distributions general considerations and binomial arrays, illustrative problems.
Antenna measurements:-
Introduction, concepts, reciprocity, near and far fields, coordinate systems, sources of
errors, patterns to be measured, pattern measurement arrangement, reciprocity,
measurement arrangement, directivity measurement, gain measurement (by comparison,
absolute and 3. Antenna methods)
Arrays of point sources:-

Expression for electric fields from two, three and N element arrays – linear arrays: Broad –
side array, and end fire array – method of pattern multi placation, binomial array – horizontal
and vertical antennas above the ground plane, effect of ground on ungrounded antenna,
schelkunoff theorems for linear arrays, dolph – tchebysheff distribution for linear arrays.
The field radiated by a small antenna is not distributed uniformly in the direction
perpendicular to the axis of the antenna. As in the case of short dipole, the maximum
radiation takes place in the direction right angles to the axis of the dipole. But it decreases to
minimum when the polar angle decreases. So this non – uniform radiation characteristics may
be used for many broadcast services.
But such characteristics are not preferred in point to point communication. In point – to point
communication, it is desired to have most of the energy in one particular direction. That
means it is desired to have greater directivity in a desired direction particularly which is not
possible with single dipole antenna.
Hence to increase the field strength in the desired direction by using group of antennas
excited simultaneously. Such a group of antennas is called array of antennas or simply
antenna array. Thus antenna array can be defined as the system of similar antennas directed to
get the required high directivity in desired direction.
In general, antenna array is the radiating system in which several antennas are spaced
properly so as to get greater field strength at a far distance from the radiating system by
combining radiations at point from all the antennas in the system. In general, the total field
produced by the antenna array at a far distance is the vector sum of the fields produced by the
individual antennas of the array. The individual element is generally called element of an
antenna array.
117 | P a g e
An antenna array is said to be linear if the elements of an array are equally spaced along a
straight line. The linear antenna array is said to be uniform linear array if all the elements are
fed with current of equal magnitude with progressive phase shift along the line. However, the
term “phase” in an antenna arrays and ordinary circuit has same meaning ie two currents in
two elements are said to be in phase if they reach their max values, flowing in the same
direction at same instant.
Since antennas may be put in various configurations eg in straight lines, circles, triangles,
rectangles, etc and hence there are large number of possible configurations. However only
limited no of antenna arrays are of practical use.
Various forms of antenna arrays:-
1) Broadside array:-
This is one of the important antenna arrays in practice. Broadside array is one in which a
number of identical antennas are set up along a line drawn perpendicular to their respective
axes. In the broadside array, individual antennas are equally spaced along a line and each
element is fed with current of equal magnitude, and all in same phase. By doing so, this
arrangement fires in broadside directions (ie perpendicular to the line of array axis) where
there are maximum radiations and relatively a little radiations in other directions and hence
the radiation pattern broadside array is bidirectional. The broadside array is bidirectional
which radiates equally well in either direction of maximum radiations
Direction of maximum radiation
Broad side array arrangement
118 | P a g e
Front view of the array.
Top view of broadside array
Therefore, broadside array may be defined as “An arrangement in which the principal
direction radiation is perpendicular to the array axis and also to the plane containing the array
element.
It may however be noted that the bidirectional pattern of a broadside array can be converted
λ
into unidirectional by installing an identical array behind this array at distance 4 and exciting
it by current leading in phase by 900 or π/2 radian.
Further, broadside array may also be arranged in vertical in which case the radiation pattern
would be horizontal.
Radiation pattern of broadside array
End fire arrays:-

The end fire array is nothing but broadside array except that individual elements are fed in,
out of phase (usually 1800). Thus in the end fire array, a number of identical antennas are
s[aced equally along a line in such a way as to make the entre arrangement substantially
unidirectional.
In other words individual elements are excited in such a manner that a progressive phase
difference between adjacent elements between the elements.
119 | P a g e
Therefore, end fire array may be defined as
“ The arrangement in which the principal direction of radiation coincides with the direction of
array axis.
It may be noted, however, that an end five array may be bidirectional also. One such ex. Is a
two element array, fed with equal current, 1800 out of phase.
Lastly an end – fire couplet is said to form, if two equal radiators are operated in phase
quadrature at a distance of λ/4 apart
3) Collinear arrays:-
In collinear array, the antennas are arranged co – axially i.e. antennas are mounted end to end
in a single line. In other words, one antenna is stacked over another antenna
Individual elements are fed with equal in phase currents as is the case in the broad side
arrays. A collinear array is abroad side radiators, in which the direction of maximum
radiation is perpendicular to the line of antenna. This arrangement gives radiation paltern
which, when viewed through the major axis, closely resembles with the radiation pattern of a
broadside array. But the radiation pattern of a collinear array has circular symmetry with its
main lobe everywhere perpendicular to the principal axis.
Parasitic arrays:-
In order to ease the problem of fed line, it is sometime desirable to feed certain antennas of an
array parasitically. The element supplied power directly from source. Usually through the
120 | P a g e
transmission line, is called driven element. But a parasitic element is not fed directly instead
parasitic element drives power by radiation from nearby driven element.
In other words, parasitic element obtains power solely through EM coupling with a driven
element because of its proximity to that driven element.
The simplest case of parasitic array is one driven element and one parasitic element and this
may be considered as two element array. Multi element arrays having no. of parasitic
elements are carried parasitic arrays, whether the driven element is one or more. Hence in
parasitic arrays; there is one or more parasitic elements and at least one driven element to
introduce power in the array
A parasitic array with linear half wave dipole as element is normally called as yogi – uda or
simply yogi antenna
The amplitude of and phase of current induced in a parasitic element depends upon its tuning
and the spacing between parasitic element and driven element to which it is coupled
variations in distance between driven element and parasitic element changes the relative
phases and this proves to be very convenient. It helps in making the radiation pattern
unidirectional. A distance of λ/2 and phase diff of π/2 provides the unidirectional pattern
A parasitic element lengthened by 5% w. r. t driven element acts as selector and shortened by

5% acts as director. A reflector makes the radiation maximum in perpendicular direction from
parasitic element towards driven element, and the director helps in making maximum
radiation in perpendicular direction from driven element to the parasitic element.
Arrays of point sources:-

Here an antenna is regarded as point source or volume less radiator. In other words a
hypothetical antenna or isotropic antenna or Omni directional or non – directional antenna
which occupies zero volume is considered. For the array theory of point sources, first only
two isotropic point sources separated by a distance with different phasing conditions are
taken and then the idea is extended for more and finally ‘n’ isotropic but similar point
sources will also be taken which will lead to the principle of multiplication pattern.
Arrays of two point sources

This is the simplest situation in the arrays of isotropic point sources in which it is assumed
that two point sources are separated (say d) and have the same polarization. The following
cases will be dealt with arrays of two point sources.
They are
i. Arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude and phase
ii. Arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase
iii. Arrays of two point sources with un equal amplitude and opposite phase.
121 | P a g e
i) Arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude and phase:-
Two isotropic point sources symmetrically situated w. r. t the origin in the Cartesian cord
system.
We are to calculate fields at a great distant point, at distance from the origin o and the origin
is take as reference point for phase calculation. Obviously, waves from source 1 reaches the
point p at a time than the waves from source 2 because of path difference (1121) involved
between the two waves. Thus the fields due to source 1 lags while that due to source 2 leads
path difference between two waves (1121) is given by
d d
Path difference = (1121) meters = [ 2 cosθ + 2 cosθ]m
= d cosθ meters
d
= cosθ wavelengths.
λ
Then from optics, it is known as
Phase angle (Ψ) = 2π(path difference)
d
Ψ = 2π ( cosθ) radians
λ
2π
= d cosθ radians
λ
2π
Ψ = βd cosθ ∴ =β
λ
Also let E1 = far electric field at distance point p, due to source 1
E2 = far electric field at distant point p, due to source2.
E = Total electric field at distant point and Ψ = β d cosθ radians
= Phase difference between the two fields of two sources measured at angle θ along radius
vector line
122 | P a g e
Then, total far field at distant point p, in the direction of θ is given by
E = E1 e−jΨ/2 + E2 e+jΨ/2
Where E1 e−jΨ/2 = field component due to source1
E2 ejΨ/2 = field component due to source2.
But in this case it is assumed that amplitudes are same, hence
E1 = E3 = E0 (say)
1
E = E0 (e−jΨ/2 + e+jΨ/2 ). . 2
2
ejθ + e−jθ
∴ cos θ =
2
E = E0 cos Ψ/2
βd cosθ
= 2E0 cos ( )
2
(AMP) (Phase)
This is the field pattern of two isotropic point sources. Of same amplitude and phase.
Here the total amplitude is 2E0 whose max.
Value may be 1 by putting 2E0 = 1 or E0 = 1/2 the pattern is said to be normalized
(βd cosθ)
E = cos
2
2π λ cosθ λ
= cos( . ) if d = taken
λ 2 2 2
π
En = cos ( 2 cosθ)
In order to draw the field pattern, the directions of maxima, minima and half power points
must be known, which can be calculated as
a) Maxima direction:-
E is maximum when cos (π/2cosθ)is maximum.
And its maximum value is ± 1
∴ E is max when cos (π/2cosθ) = ± 1
π/2 cosθ max = ±nπ. n = 0, 1, 2 … … … … …
123 | P a g e
π/2 cos θ max = o
θ max = 900 amd 270
Minima directions:-
E is minimum when cos (π/2cosθ) is minimum and its minimum value is o.
E is minimum when cos (π/2cosθ) = O

π
cos θ min = ± (2n + 1)π/2 n = 0, 1, 2 … … …
2
π/2 cos θ min = ±π/2
cosθ min = ± 1
θ min = 00 and 1800
Half power point direction:-
At half power points power is ½ or voltage or current is1⁄ times the maximum value of
√2
voltage or current
1
Cos (π⁄2 cosθ) = ±
√2
π 1
cosθHPPD = ± 2
2
θHPPD = 600 , 1200
If now the field pattern between E verses θ is drawn for the case d = λ⁄2, the pattern is
bidirectional, figure of eight, 3600 rotation of this figure around x – axis will generate the 3 –
dimensional space pattern – a doughnut shape
2) Arrays of two point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase:-
This is exactly similar to above except that point source 1 is out of phase or opposite phase
(1800) to source 2. i.e. when there is maximum in source 1 at one particular instant, and
minimum in source 2 at the instant and vice versa.
The total field pattern at point p is given by
E = − E1 e−jΨ/2 + E2 e+jΨ/2
−Ψ +Ψ
Because phase of source 1 and source2 at distant point p is 2
and 2
, since the reference
being at between midway of two sources
124 | P a g e
But E1 = E2 = E0 (say
ejΨ/2 e2j−jΨ/2
E = E0 . 2j(
2j
= 2jE0 sin Ψ/2
βd cos θ
E = 2jE0 sin( )
2
This is exactly similar to the expression that we have got for the case (i). But it is a sine
function instead of cosine function, and operator j is involved. Presence of j simply means
that opposite phase brings a phase shift of 900 in the total field. This will be evident by
drawing the field pattern for let d = λ/2 and j2E0 = 1
Enorm = sin (π/2cosθ)
a) Maximum directions:-
Maximum value of sine function is ±1
π (2n + 1)π
Sin ( cosθ) = ± where n = 0, 1, 2, … …
2 2
cosθ = ±1 if n = 0
θ max = 00 and 1800
b) Minima directions:-
Minimum value of sine function is O
Sin(π/2 cosθ) = o
π/2cosθ = ±nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, … …
Cosθ Min = O if n = O
θmin = 900 or − 900
e) Half power point directions:-

1
Sin (π/2cosθ) = ±
√2
π/2cosθHPPD = ±(2n + 1)π/4
π
cosθ HPPD = ±π/4
2
1
cosθ HPPD = ±
2
θHPPD = 600 , ±1200
125 | P a g e
From these, it is possible to draw the field pattern.
If is seen that maximum have shifted 900 along × - axis in comparison to in phase field
pattern. The figure is horizontal figure of 8 and 3 – dimensional space pattern is obtained by
rotating it along × - axis – once the max is along the line joining the two sources it is one of
the type of end fire array.
3) Arrays of two point sources with unequal amplitude and any phase:-
Let us now consider a general condition in which the amplitudes of two point sources are not
equal and hence any phase difference say ∝.
Let us also assume that the source 1 is taken as reference for phase and amplitudes of fields
due to source 1 and2 at a distant point p is E1and E2 in whichE1 is greater thanE2 . Then the
total phase difference between the radiations of two sources at point p is given by
2π
Ψ= d cos θ +∝
λ
Where ∝ is the phase angle by which the current (I1 ) of source – 1 if ∝= o. or 1800 and
E1 = E2 = E0 then it will corresponds to above two cases (1) & (2).
126 | P a g e
Then the total field at P is given by
E = E1 ejo + E2 ejΨ
E2 jΨ
E = E1 [1 + e ] ejo = 1
E1
E2
E = E1 (1 + kejΨ ) k=
E1
E1 > E2
K<1
ie o ≤ K ≤ 1
From the above equation the magnitude and phase at point p is given by taking its modulus
E = |E1 {1 + K (cosΨ + jsinΨ)}|
= E1 . √(1 + kcosΨ)2 + (K sinΨ)2 L∅
Where φ =phase angle at p
k sinφ
φ = tan−1 [ ]
1 + k cosΨ
4) Two isotropic sources of equal amplitude and any phase difference:-
Consider the current phase difference between the sources be ∝. Then the total phase
difference is
Ψ = βd cosϕ+∝
With center of array as reference, the total field is
E = E0 ejΨ/2 + E0. e−jΨ/2
= 2E0 . cos Ψ /2
βd cosθ+∝
= 2E0 cos [ ]
2
The normalized field is obtained by using 2E0 = 1
127 | P a g e
βdcosθ+∝
En = cos ( ]
2
The normalized field is obtained by using 2E0 =1
βd cosθ+∝
En = cos ( )
2
Putting ∝ = o0
Then
βdcosθ
En = cos [ ]
2
This is the case for equal amplitude and equal phase (BSA)
And ∝= 1800 then
βd cosθ + π
En = cos ( )
2
π βd cosθ
= cos ( + )
2 2
βd cosθ
En = − sin ( )
2
This is the case for EFA
And ∝= 900 then
βd cosθ + π/2
En = cos [ ]
2
βd cosθ π
= cos [ + ]
2 4
This is the case of two isotropic point sources of same amplitude and in phase quadrature.
Case5):-
Two isotropic sources of same amplitude and in phase quadrature:-
128 | P a g e
In the above diagram the current in source2 while in source 1 lags by 450.
The total field is

Ψ Ψ
⃗⃗⃗⃗
ET = E0 . ej(π/4+ ⁄2) + E0 e−j(π/4+ ⁄2)
π
= 2E0 cos [ + Ψ⁄2] ∴ ejθ + e−jθ = 2cosθ
4
2E0 = 1 goves normalized field
π Ψ
En = cos ( + )
4 2
π βdcosθ
= cos [ + ]
4 2
λ 2π
If d = ,β =
2 λ
π π
En = cos[ + cosθ]
4 2
The radiation pattern will be
𝛌
Radiation pattern with d = 𝟐 , ∝ = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
129 | P a g e
Linear array with n isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and
spacing:-
An array is said to be linear, if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally along a
line and an array is said to be uniform if the same are fed with currents of equal amplitude
and having a uniform progressive shift along the line. Usually at high frequencies for point to
point communication we require a single narrow beam of radiation pattern. Such a radiation
pattern cannot be obtained by using two element arrays. To obtain such radiation pattern
multi element linear arrays are preferred.
We shall now calculate the pattern of a linear array of n isotropic point sources in which all
are equally spaced and are fed with currents of equal magnitude and phase.
Linear array with n isotropic point sources.
As the currents amplitudes are equal, the field magnitudes are also equal.
E1 = E2 = − − − − En = E0
The path difference between the two adjacent sources is d Cosθ, due to progressive phase
difference (∝) between the adjacent point sources, the total phase difference of fields at point
p from adiacent sources are equal
Ψ1 = Ψ2 = Ψ3 = … … … … . Ψn = Ψ
Where
Ψ = β d cos θ + ∝.
Where
Ψ = Total phase difference of fields at point p from adjacent sources.
∝ = Phase difference in adjacent point sources.
The total far field pattern at distant point p is obtained by adding vector ally the fields of
individual sources. As
Et = E0 ejoΨ + E0 ejΨ + E0 . ej2Ψ + E0 . ej3Ψ + … … … E0 . ej(n−1)Ψ
= E0 [1 + ejΨ + ej2Ψ + ej3Ψ + ej4Ψ + … … … ej(n−1)Ψ ] … … … … (1)
130 | P a g e
It is apparent that fields from sources 2, 3, 4 etc are leading in phase (assuming sources 1 as
phase center) by angles Ψ 2Ψ 3Ψ etc respectively
In order to compute the field pattern of linear array, multiply the above eqn (1) by ejΨ
Et ejΨ = E0 [ejΨ + ej2Ψ + ej3Ψ + … … … ejnΨ ] … … … … … … (2)
(1) – (2) gives ie subtracting (2) from (2)
Et(1 − ejΨ ) = E0 (1 − ejnΨ )
1 − ejnΨ
Et = E0 [ ] … … … … … (3)
1 − ejΨ
The equation (3) may be written as

jnΨ jnΨ
1−e 2 e 2
Et = E0 [ jΨ jΨ
]
1− e2e2
jnΨ −jnΨ jnΨ
(e+ 2 ) [e 2 − e+ 2 ]
= E0 . jΨ jΨ jΨ
e 2 [e− 2 − e 2 ]
nΨ
j(
n−1
)Ψ
sin 2
Et = E0 . e 2
sin Ψ/2
nΨ
sin 2 n−1
∴ Et = E0 . ej∅ { } Let ∅ = Ψ
sinΨ/2 2
nΨ
sin 2
Et = E0. { } L∅
sinΨ/2
This is the equation of total far field pattern of linear array of n – isotropic point sources in
which source 1 as reference point. In case the reference point is shifted to the center of the
n−1
array from source or origin of coordinate, then phase angle ( 2
) Ψ = φ is automatically
eliminated and the equation reduces to
nΨ
sin 2
Et = E0
Ψ
sin 2
131 | P a g e
Now Ψ = othe above equation becomes in determinant
d nΨ
Lim Lim dΨ (sin 𝟐 )
∴ E = E0.
Ψ→0 t Ψ→0 d Ψ
(sin 2 )
dΨ
𝐸0 𝐿𝑡 cos 𝑛Ψ/2.n/2
=
Ψ → 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ψ/2. 1/2
𝐸𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸0 . 𝑛 when Ψ = 0
Further, the normalized field pattern may be obtained as
sin 𝑛Ψ/2
𝐸𝑡 𝐸0 .
𝑠𝑖𝑛Ψ/2
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐸𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑛𝐸0
𝑛Ψ
1 sin 2
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟 . = (𝐴𝐹)𝑛
𝑛 sin Ψ
2
AF = Array factor
Array of n isotropic sources of equal amplitude and spacing (B roadside

case)
An array is said to be broad side array, if phase angle is such that it makes maximum
radiation perpendicular to the line of array ie 910 or 2700. In broadside array sources are in
phase ie ∝ = 0 and Ψ = 0 for maximum must be satisfied.
Ψ = β d cosθ+ ∝
= β d cos θ + o
or Ψ = βd cosθ = 0
cos θ = 0
θ = 900 or 2700
The principal maxima occur in these directions.
The other pattern maxima, pattern minima, beam width of major lobes will be calculated
a) Directions of pattern maxima
(Or)
Minor lobe – maxima:-

For an ‘n’ isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing, the other minor lobes
maxima occur between first nulls and higher order nulls.
132 | P a g e
sin nΨ/2
Et = E0 .
sin Ψ/2
Ψ
This is maximum when numerator is maximum ie sin n Ψ/2 is maximum provided sin 2
≠o
nΨ
∴ sin = ±1
2
Ψ
n = ±(2N + 1)π/2
2
N = 0, 1, 2, 3………
N = o corresponds to major lobe maxima
Ψ π
= ±(2N + 1)
2 n
π
β dcos (θmax )min or +∝ = ±(2N + 1)
n
1 π
β d cos(θ max)minor = ± [(2N + 1) −∝
βd n
1 π
cos(θmax)minor = ± [(2N + 1) −∝]
βd n
1 (2N + 1)π
(θmax)minor = cos −1 [ {± − ∝}]
βd n
(θmax)minor = minor lobe maxima
For a broad side array. ∝= o
1 (2N + 1)π
(θminor )max = cos −1 { [± ]}
βd n
(2N + 1)λ
(θminor )max = cos −1 {± }
2nd
For example
λ
Let n = 4, d = 2, ∝= 0
(2N + 1)λ
Then (θminor )max = cos −1 [± ]
λ
2×4×2
133 | P a g e
2N + 1
= cos −1 [± ]
4
If N = 1
(θmax )minor = ±41. 40 or ± 138. 6.0
b) Direction of pattern minima:-

The direction of minima of minor lobes in an array of n isotropic sources of equal amplitude
and phase given as
sin n Ψ⁄2
Et = E0 =0
sin Ψ⁄2
nΨ
Sin =o
2
nΨ
= ±Nπ
2
2Nπ
Ψ=±
n
2Nπ
βd(cosθmin )minor +∝ = ±
n
1 2Nπ
(cosθmin )minor = {± }
βd n
1 2Nπ
or(cos θmin )minor = cos−1 [ {± −∝}]
βd n
The is the general equ which gives the direction of minor lobe minima
For broadside array ∝= O
1 2Nπ
(θmin )Minor = cos −1 [ (± )]
βd n
Nλ
= cos −1 [± ]
nd
λ
For example, if n = 4, d = 2 , ∝= 0
1. λ
(θmin )minor = cos −1 [± ]
λ
4. 2
1
= cos −1[± ]
2
134 | P a g e
∴ if N = 1
(θmin )min or = ± 600 and ± 1200
Also
2. λ
(θmin )minor = cos −1 [± ]
λ
4
2
∴ if N = 1
= cos −1[±1]
(θmin )minor = ±o0 , ±1800
Thus 00 , 600 , 1200 , +1800 , −600 , −1200 are the minor lobe minima of array of 4 isotropic
sources in phase spaced by λ/2 apart
3) Beam width of major lobe:-

It is defined as the angle between first nulls or double the angle between first null and major
lobe maxima directions.
It is denoted by complementary angle r = 90−𝜃 because the beam width of major lobe is
usually small and hence complementary angle r will be better deal.
Beam width of major lobe = 2 × angle between first null and max of majorlobe
BWFN = 2×r
𝑁𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = cos −1 [± ]
𝑛𝑑
∴ 90 − 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟
𝑁𝜆
90 – 𝑟 = ± cos−1 [± ]
𝑛𝑑
𝑁𝜆
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (90 – 𝑟) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = ±
𝑛𝑑
r is very small
𝑁𝜆
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑟 = ± 𝑛𝑑
𝑁𝜆
𝑟=±
𝑛𝑑
First nuu occurs when N = 1
135 | P a g e
+𝜆
𝑟1 =
𝑛𝑑
2×𝜆
BWFN = 2 r =
𝑛𝑑
2𝜆
=
𝑛𝑑
2𝜆
2𝑟1
𝐿
L = total length of array in meters = (n-1)d ≈ nd
2𝜆 2
2𝑟1 = 𝐿
= 𝐿 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
( )
𝜆
2 × 57.3
2𝑟1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁
𝐿/𝜆
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 57.3
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = =( ) 𝑑𝑒𝑔.
2 𝐿
𝜆
Array of n sources of equal amplitude and spacing (end fire case)

For an array to be end fire, the phase angle is such that it makes maximum radiation in the
line of array. ie 𝜃= 00 or 1800. Thus for an array to be end fire Ψ = 0 and 𝜃 = 00 or 1800 this
requires.
Ψ = 𝛽 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝
𝑜 = 𝛽 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠00 +∝
2𝜋𝑑
∝= −𝛽𝑑 = −
𝜆
This indicates that the phase difference bet the sources of an end fire is retarded
progressively by same amount as the spacing between the sources in radians. For example if
𝜆
the spacing between the two sources is 𝜆/2 or . then the phase angle by which source2 lags
4
2𝜋 𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
behind source 1 is . 2 𝑜𝑟 . 4 𝑖𝑒𝜋 𝑜𝑟 𝜋/2 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.
𝜆 𝜆
Direction of pattern maxima:-

This is obtained when
𝑛Ψ Ψ
𝑆𝑖𝑛 = ±1 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≠0
2 2
136 | P a g e
𝑛Ψ 𝜋
= ±(2𝑁 + 1)
2 2
𝑛Ψ 𝜋
2
= ±(2𝑁 + 1) 2
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜋
Ψ=±
𝑛
For end five case ∝ = - 𝛽𝑑, Ψ = 0
(2N + 1)π
Ψ = βd cos(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) minor+∝ = ±
n
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜋
𝛽𝑑 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) − 𝛽𝑑 = ±
𝑛
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜋
𝛽𝑑 [cos 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼] = ±
𝑛
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜋
Cos𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼] = ±
𝛽𝑛𝑑
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜋
(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± + 1]
𝛽𝑛𝑑

2𝑁𝜋
This is obtained by putting ∝ = - 𝛽𝑑 in the equation 𝛽𝑑 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 + ∝ = ± 𝑛
2𝑁𝜋
𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝛽𝑑 = ±
𝑛
2𝑁𝜋
𝛽𝑑 [cos 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 ] = ±
𝑛
2𝑁𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 = ±
𝛽𝑛𝑑
2𝜋
∴𝛽= ,
𝜆
2𝑁𝜋 𝑁𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1 = ± =±
2𝜋 𝑛𝑑
𝑛𝑑
𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝜆
1 – 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 −1=±
2 𝑛𝑑
−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 =±
2 𝑛𝑑
137 | P a g e
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 =±
2 2𝑛𝑑
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = ±√
2 2𝑛𝑑
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛1 [±√ ]
2 2𝑛𝑑
𝑁𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛1 [±√ ]
2𝑛𝑑
Now the pattern minima is obtained by putting N = 1, 2, 3--------- etc.
c) Beam width of major lobes:-

The complementary angle r, which has used in broad side case is not required. Because the
beam width of end fire array is larger than BSA
Beam width = 2× Angle between first mulls and maximum of major lobes.
BW = 2×𝜃1
𝑁𝜆 2𝑁𝜆
θmin = ±√ = ±√
2𝑛𝑑 𝐿
Beam width between first nulls
= 2x θmin
𝑁𝜆
BEFN = 2 × (±√ )
2𝑛𝑑
𝑁𝜆
= ±2√
2𝑛𝑑
2𝑁 2×1
2𝜃1 = 2√ = 2√ 𝑖𝑓 𝑁 = 1
𝐿⁄ 𝐿⁄
𝜆 𝜆
2 2
BWFN = ±2√ = 57.3 × 2√
𝐿⁄ 𝐿⁄
𝜆 𝜆
138 | P a g e
2
𝐵𝐸𝐹𝑁 = ±114.6√
𝐿⁄
𝜆
Problems:-
1) For an array of four isotropic sources along z – axis separated by a distance of 𝜆/2 and a
progressive phase shift ∝= 0, find
i. Null directions
ii. Direction of maxima
iii. Direction of side lobe max
iv. HPBW
v. FNBW
vi. Side lobe level
vii. Rough normalized field pattern.
Solution:-
N = 4, d = 𝜆⁄2 ∝= 𝑜
The phase shift ∝= 𝑜 indicates it is broadside case
i. Null directions:-
𝑁𝜆
𝜃0 = cos−1 (± ) 𝑁 = 1, 2, 3, … … …
𝑛𝑑
𝑁𝜆
= cos −1 (± )
𝜆
4. 2
𝑁
= cos −1 (± )
2
𝑁=1
𝜃01 = cos −1 (±0.5) = 600 , 1200
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 2𝜃02 = cos −1(±1) = 00 , 1800
𝑛
𝑁 = 3 𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 > 1
2
Whose value for cos is not determined.
ii. Direction of maxima:-
Nλ
θmix = cos −1 (± ) N = 0, 1, 2 … … …
d
139 | P a g e
𝑁λ
= cos −1 (± ) = cos −1 (±2𝑁)
λ
2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 𝑜 θmix = cos−1 (0) = 900
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑁 = 1 θmix = cos−1 (±2)is not determined
iii. Side lobe maxima:-

(Or)
Min or lobe maxima

(2𝑁+1)λ
(θmix )minor = cos−1 [± 2𝑛𝑑
] 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … …
N=1
(21 + 1)λ
(θmix ) = cos −1 [± ]
λ
2.4.
2
= cos −1[0.75]
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4140 , 138. 60
iv. FNBW:-
114. 60
𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊 = 𝐿 = 𝑛𝑑
𝐿
λ
114.6
=
λ
24 × 2 λ
FNBW=57.30
𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊
v. HPBW =
2
57.3
=
2
HPBW = 28.6
vi. SLL(Side lobe level) :-
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒
𝑆𝐿𝐿 = | |
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒
= - 13.46db.
Radiation pattern:-
140 | P a g e
Null directions 00, 600, 1200, 1800
Maxima directions 900
Side lobe maxima, 4140, 138.60
End five array:-

(for n isotropic sources)
An array is called as end five array if the max radiation is along the one end of the axis of the
array. ie 𝜃 = 00or 1800 with Ψ = 0
1) Maximum along 𝜃 = 00
To have maximum radiation (Ψ = 0)towards 𝜃 = 00
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝
𝑜 = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 +∝
∝= −𝛽𝑑 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛)
Thus there is a successive phase lag between the elements by an amount of 𝛽𝑑.
For example if the spacing between elements is 𝜆/2 then phase excitation
2𝜋 𝜆
∝= −𝛽𝑑 = − .
𝜆 2
= −𝜋
If means for 𝜃 = 00 radiation, with separation between the elements as 𝜆/2, source 2 lags
source 1by 1800, source 3 lags source 2 by 1800 and so on.
2) Maximum along 𝜃 = 1800
It the maximum is along 𝜃 = 1800
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝
𝑜 = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 + ∝
= −𝛽𝑑+ ∝
∴∝= 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛)
Thus there is successive phase lead bet the elements by an amount 𝛽𝑑.
Typical radiation pattern:-
141 | P a g e
Problem:-
1) Design a four element ordinary end fire array with element spacing along the z – axis a
distance d apart and with the maximum of the array factor directed towards𝜃 = 00 . For a
spacing of d = 𝜆/2 between the elements find the
i) Progressive phase excitation bet elements
2) Null directions
3) Maxima directions
4) FNBW
5) HPBW
Solution:-
Elements are placed along z – axis, so replace angle 𝜑𝑏𝑦 𝜃. we require ordinary end fire
along 𝜃 = 00
Given
No. of elements n = 4
𝜆
Element separation d = 2
Ordinary end fire along 𝜃 = 00
i) To find progressive phase shift:-

The progressive phase shift for end fire in 𝜃 = 00 direction
2𝜋 𝜆
∝ = −𝛽𝑑 = − = −𝜋 𝑜𝑟 − 180°
𝜆 2
ii) To find null directions:-

We know that
𝑁𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [±√ ]
2𝑛𝑑
For N = 1
1𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 sin−1[±√ ]
𝜆
2.4. 2
1
= 2 sin−1 [± ]
2
142 | P a g e
= 2 × 300
𝜃01 = 60°
N= 2
2. 𝜆
𝜃02 = 2 sin−1[±√ ]
𝜆
2.4.
2
=2.45o
𝜃02 = 90°
N=3
2. 𝜆
𝜃03 = 2 sin−1[±√ ]
𝜆
2.4. 2
= 2× 60o
𝜃03 = 120°
iii) To find maxima of major lobe:-

𝑁𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = cos−1 [1 − ]
𝑑
N=o
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = cos−1 [1 − 0]
= 0°
N=1
1. 𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = cos −1 [1 − ]
𝜆
2
= cos −1[−1]
= 180°
Value of N = 2 onwards are not possible
iv) To find FNBW:-
𝜆 2
FNBW = 2 cos −1 [1 − ] 𝑜𝑟 114.6√
𝑛𝑑 𝐿
( )
𝜆
143 | P a g e
2
FNBW = 14.6√
𝜆
4.
2𝜆
FNBW= 114.6
V) To Find HPBW:-
𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊 114.6°
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = =
2 2
= 57. 3o
Field and pattern of some of non isotropic sources:-

𝝀
1) Type of dipole is infinitesimal (l≤ 𝟓𝟎)
2) Half wave dipole:-
𝟑𝝀
𝟑)𝒍 = 𝟐
144 | P a g e
Radiation patterns:-
𝝀 𝝅
𝟏)𝐝 = , ∝= 𝟎, 𝑬 = (𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽))
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐) 𝒅 = 𝝀, ∝= 𝟎, 𝑬 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
𝟑) 𝒅 = 𝟐𝝀, ∝= 𝟎, 𝑬 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)
𝝀 𝝅 𝝅
𝟒)𝒅 = , ∝= 𝟗𝟎° 𝑬 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
145 | P a g e
𝝀
𝟓)𝒅 = , ∝= 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
𝟐
𝜋
E = sin ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
2
𝝀
𝟔) 𝒅 = , ∝= +𝟗𝟎°
𝟒
𝜋 𝜋
𝐸 = cos( + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
4 4
𝝀
𝟕)𝒅 = , ∝= −𝟗𝟎°
𝟒
𝜋 𝜋
𝐸 = cos( 4 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
4
146 | P a g e
Pattern multiplication:-
Consider an array of n isotropic sources and the problem is to find the radiation pattern of it
this analysis involves lot of calculations for finding mull directions, directions of maxima,
direction of side lobes (minor lobes) etc. After finding these directions one can plot the
radiation pattern.
Sometimes instead of exact radiation pattern with accurate directions, the rough patterns are
also sufficient. This can be done by using the pattern multiplication, technique
With the help of this method it is possible to sketch rapidly, almost by inspection, the patterns
of complicated arrays. This method not only applicable for isotropic sources, but also for non
– isotropic sources
Non – isotropic but similar point source:-
So far we have seen about isotropic point sources, but this idea can be extended to the non –
isotropic sources also. The field pattern of non – isotropic sources are similar to the isotropic
point sources. In other words the field patterns of non – isotropic sources must have same
shape and orientation. However it is not necessary that amplitude of the individual non –
isotropic source is equal. In case the amplitudes are equal for the individual sources then the
sources would be non – isotropic but identical.
Let us now consider two short dipoles which are superimposed over the isotropic point
sources and are separated by a distance
Let the field pattern of each isotropic source is given by
𝐸0 = 𝐸1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … … … … (1)
And also that the field pattern of two identical isotropic source is given by
𝐸 = 2𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ψ/2 … … … … … (2)
Ψ = βd cosθ+∝
Combining (1) & (2), we have
147 | P a g e
𝐸 = 2𝐸1 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ψ/2 … … … … … … (3)
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 = (sinθ) × (cos Ψ/2)
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦

{ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 } × { 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 }
𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
This lead to the principle of multiplication pattern as multiplication of individual point source
and pattern of array of isotropic point source giver the field pattern of non – isotropic point
source gives the field pattern of non - isotropic but similar point sources.
Multiplication of pattern:-
Multiplication of pattern or simply pattern multiplication is stated as
“The total field pattern of an array of non – isotropic sources but similar point sources is the
multiplication of individual source patterns and the pattern of array of isotropic point sources
each located at the phase center of individual source and having relative amplitude and phase,
whereas the phase of pattern is the addition of individual sources and that of an array of
isotropic pint sources. The principle of multiplication pattern is applicable for two and three
dimensional patterns.
Let E = Total field
𝐸𝑖 (𝜃, 𝜑) = field pattern of individual source
𝐸𝑎 (𝜃, 𝜑) = field pattern of array of point sources
𝐸𝑃𝑖 (𝜃, 𝜑) = phase pattern of individual source
𝐸𝑝𝑎 (𝜃, 𝜑) = phase pattern of array of isotropic point sources
Then the total field pattern of an array of non – isotropic but similar source is
E = {𝐸𝑖 (𝜃, 𝜑) × 𝐸𝑎 (𝜃, 𝜑)} × {𝐸𝑃𝑖 (𝜃, 𝜑) × 𝐸𝑝𝑎 (𝜃, 𝜑)}
Multiplication of field pattern addition of phase pattern
The 𝜃, & 𝜑 represents polar and azimutal angles
Let us now use the principle to some typical cases:-
1) Radiation pattern of 4 – isotropic elements fed in phase, spaced 𝜆⁄2 apart.
148 | P a g e
Consider an array of 4 isotropic sources with spacing ‘d’ equal to 𝜆⁄2 and phase (∝) equal to
‘o’ one of the method is to get the radiation pattern of the array is to add the point p
vectovially but instead, an alternate method, using the principle of multiplication pattern, will
also give the same.
i) Consider antenna 1 and 2 as one unit of two isotropic antennas separated by 𝜆⁄2 and in
phase (d = 𝜆⁄2 , ∝= 0). The radiation pattern of this unit is known as “figure of 8” shape
ii) Also antennas 3 and 4 may be considered as another similar unit with the same pattern
iii) Suppose we have one antenna whose radiation pattern is “ figure of 8” shaped. This single
antenna (A) can be used to replace antennas 1 and 2 by locating it midway between them.
iv) Similarly antennas 3 and 4 are also replaced by a simgle antenna (B) having “figure of8”
pattern.
v) Now the system look line below. As the anathemas A and B are placed midway of
antennas 1 – 2 & 3 – 4 respectively
149 | P a g e
The radiation pattern of two isotropic sources (A & B) spaced by 𝜆 and in phase is shown
below.
Thus 4 elements spaced 𝜆⁄2 has been replaced by two units spaced by 𝜆, and by doing so, the
problem of determining the radiation of 4 elements has reduced to find out the radiation has
reduced to find out the radiation pattern of the two antennas spaced by 𝜆 apart. Then
according multiplication of pattern, the resultant pattern of 4 elements is obtained by
multiplying the radiation pattern of individual element and array of two units spaced by 𝜆.
In place of isotropic (non - directional) if the array is replaced by an non – isotropic

(directional) antennas, the rad. Pattern must be modified accordingly.
The property of total pattern is that the no. of nulls in the total pattern is the sum of the nulls
in the unit pattern and group pattern.
150 | P a g e
2) Radiation pattern of 8 isotropic elements spaced𝜆⁄2 distance apart. Out of eight elements,
let us consider four are one unit and other four are another unit. Then to find the radiation
pattern of two such units spaced a distance 2𝜆 apart
The radiation pattern of two isotropic antennas spaced 2𝜆 apart fed in phase can be calculated
from the eqn shown below.
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗Ψ + 𝐸0 . 𝑒 𝑗2Ψ + … … … … … 𝑒 𝑗(𝑛−1)Ψ
𝑁
= 𝐸0 ∑ 𝑒 𝑗(𝑛−1)Ψ
𝑛=1
Where
2𝜋
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝛽= , 𝑑 = 2𝜆
𝜆
Ψ = 4𝜋 cos 𝜃
The radiation pattern of the two isotropic sources separated by 2𝜆 distance is given as
Group radiation pattern
151 | P a g e
Thus the radiation pattern of 8 isotropic elements is obtained by multiplying the unit pattern
of 4 individual elements (as seen in case I) and group pattern of two isotropic radiators
spaced 2𝜆 as shown
Table:-
S. no Type of array Direction of minor lobe maxima
1. General case (2𝑁 + 1)𝜋 1

(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos−1 [± −∝]
𝑛 𝛽𝑑
2. Broad side (∝= 0) (2𝑁 + 1)𝜆

(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± ]
2𝑛𝑑
3. Ordinary end fire (2𝑁 + 1)𝜆

∝= ±𝛽𝑑 (𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos−1 [± + 1]
2𝑛𝑑
S. no Type of array Null directions

1 2𝑁𝜋
(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [ [± −∝]]
1. General case 𝛽𝑑 𝑛
𝑁𝜆
2. Broadside (∝= 𝑜) (𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± ]
𝑛𝑑
𝑁𝜆
3. Ordinary end five (𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos−1 [±√ ]
2𝑛𝑑
S. no Type of array BWFN
1. Broadside 2𝜆 114.6
BWFN =
𝑛𝑑 𝐿⁄
𝜆
2. End fire
2Nλ 2λ
BWFN = 2√ = 114.6√
nd L
152 | P a g e
S. no Type of array HPBW
1. Broadside 57.3°
𝐿⁄
𝜆
2
2. End fire 57.3√
𝐿⁄
𝜆
3. End fire 52°

(increased
directivity) √𝐿⁄𝜆
S. no Type of array Directivity
1. Broad side 𝑑 𝐿
D = 2n ( ) = 2.
𝜆 𝜆
2. End fire 𝑑 𝐿
𝐷 = 4𝑛 ( ) = 4 ( )
𝜆 𝜆
3. End 𝑑
fire(increased 𝐷 = 1.789 [4𝑛 ( )]
𝜆
directivity)
Binomial arrays:-
Till now we have limited to the linear array of n isotropic sources of equal amplitude
but array of non - uniform amplitude are also possible. And binomial array is one among
them. In this the amplitudes of radiating sources are arranged according to the coefficients of
the successive terms of the following binomial series and hence the name
𝑛 − 1 𝑛−2 (𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 𝑛−3 2

(a + b) 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎 𝑏+ 𝑎 𝑏 + …………
1! 2!
N = no. of radiating sources of the array
This was proposed by john stone in 1929, that if secondary or side lobes in the linear
broad side arrays are to be eliminated totally. It is found that in uniform linear array, as the
secondary or minor lobes also appear, but in some applications it is highly desirable that
secondary lobes should be eliminated completely or to reduce it to minimum desired level in
comparison to the principal or main lobe.
This work can be accomplished by arranging the arrays in such a way that radiating
sources in the center of broadside array radiated more strongly than radiating sources at the
edges. The secondary lobes can be eliminated entirely, if the following two conditions are
satisfied
153 | P a g e
i) Spacing between the two consecutive radiating sources does not exceed 𝜆⁄2, and
ii) The current amplitudes in the radiating sources are proportional to the coefficients of the
successive terms of the binomial series.
The two conditions must be satisfied and coefficients, which correspond to the amplitudes of
the sources, are obtained by putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 …….. in above binomial equation.
No. of sources Relative amplitudes
N= 1 1
N= 2 1, 1
N= 3 1, 2, 1
N= 4 1, 3, 3, 1
N= 5 1, 4, 6, 4, 1
N= 6 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1
N= 7 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1
N= 8 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1
These coefficients for any number of radiating sources can be obtained from what is known
as pascal triangle.
It may be noted that elimination of secondary lobes takes place at the cost of
directivity HPBW of binomial array is more than that of the uniform linear array for the same
length. For ex for radiating source n = 5, spaced 𝜆⁄2 apart HPBW of bionomial array and
uniform array are 23o and 31o respectively. Thus in uniform array secondary lobes appear but
principle lobe is sharp and narrow where as in stone’s binomial array width of main lobe
widens without side lobes.
154 | P a g e
In the derivation of binomial array the principle of multiplicity of pattern is utilized.
Consider the far field pattern of two point sources of same amplitudes and phase which is
given in the following eqn.
𝜆
𝐸 = 2𝐸0 cos Ψ/2 ∴𝑑= , 𝐸 = 1/2
2 0
𝜋
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos ( 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) … … … … … … (1)
If another identical array of two point sources is superimposed on above array, then the far
field pattern by multiplicity of pattern is
𝜋
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) … … … … … (2)
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
This superimposition of two sources at the center increases its current amplitude to
just double in comparison to sources at the edges. Therefore the array now has three effective
sources with amplitude ration 1:2:1. If this three source array is superimposed on another
identical array, then an array of effective four sources of current amplitude ratio 1: 3: 3: 1, in
which there are no minor lobes.
The far field pattern, again by principle of multiple city is given by

𝜋
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) … … … … … (3)
2
In this way, it is possible to have a pattern of any desired directivity without any min
or lobes provided the current amplitude sources corresponds to coefficients of the bionomial
series and the far field pattern of n sources is given by
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 (𝜋/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … … … … … (4)
155 | P a g e
Disadvantages of binomial array:-
i) HPBW increases and hence directivity decreases
ii) For the design of a large array, larger amplitude ratio of sources is required.
Design of binomial array:-

To design a binomial array with desired half power beam width or directivity, the expressions
are
𝜆 1.06 1.06 0.75

𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 (𝑑 = ) = = =
2 √𝑛 − 1
√ 2𝐿 √𝐿
𝜆 𝜆
D = 1.77√𝑛
𝐿
= 1.77√1 + 2 ( )
𝜆
N= no. of elements in an array
L = Length of array in terms of 𝜆 = (𝑛 − 1)𝜆/2
Effect of uniform and non – uniform amplitude distribution:-

In the synthesis of antenna, it is often required to have narrowest main lobe for a
given level of side lobes. In other words, we can say that while designing antenna array it is
often required to determine the current ratio’s resulting the smallest side lobe level for a
specified beam width of principal lobe but these two characteristics of antenna are related to
each other, so any improvement in other detteric rates other proof C.L dolph suggested that
for a linear in phase broadside arrays, for a specified side lobe level, it is possible to minimize
the beam width of main lobe and vice – versa. The improvement in the above antenna
characteristics proposed by proof C.L Dolph was based on tchebyscheff polynomials.
Thus according to him, if the beam width between first nulls is specified, then the side
lobe level can be minimized. The current distribution that produces such a pattern is called
dolph – tchebyscheff distribution or simply tchebyscheff distribution.
This is simply called Chebyshev arrays.
According to proof C.L bolph, the current distribution is optimum provided that
𝜆
distance between two successive array elements d is less than or equal to 2. According to
reduce side lobe level without scarifying the antenna performance in some other respect such
as beam width, gin and directivity, with the help of tchebysheff distribution, it is possible to
practically design an array with high gain and narrow beam width for a side lobe levels up to
20 – 3odb in UHF & VHF bands.
Fundamentals of tchebyscheff polynomials:-

156 | P a g e
The tchebyscheff polynomial with variable x is denoted by 𝑇𝑚 (x). The tchebyscheff
polynomial is defined by the equation is given by
𝑇𝑚 (𝑥) = cos( 𝑚 cos −1 𝑥) − 1 < 𝑥 < 1 … … … … (1)
𝑇𝑚 (𝑥) = cosh( 𝑚 cosh−1 𝑥) − |𝑥| > 1 … … … … (2)
Here m is an integer with range o to ∞.
Let us now obtain tchebyscheff polynomials for different values of m.
Let m = o, then the equation 1, we can writs
𝑇𝑜 (𝑥) = cos(𝑚 cos −1 𝑥)
𝛿 = cos−1 𝑥
𝑇𝑜 (𝑥) = cos(𝑚 𝛿)
𝑇𝑜 (𝑥) = cos o
𝑇𝑜 (𝑥) = 1
Let m = 1 then eqn (1) becomes
𝑇1 (𝑥) = cos(1. cos −1 x)
= cos(cos −1 𝑥)
𝑇1 (𝑥) = x
Let m = 2 then
𝑇2 (𝑥) = cos(2. cos −1 x)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 − 1
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝛿 = cos−1 𝑥
∴ cos 𝛿 = 𝑥
𝑇2 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 1
Let m = 3, then
𝑇3 (𝑥) = cos(3. cos −1 𝑥)
= cos 3 𝛿
cos 3 𝛿 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝛿 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝑇3 (𝑥) = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝛿 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝑇3 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥
157 | P a g e
Let m =4 then
𝑇4 (𝑥) = cos(4𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥)
= cos(4𝛿)
= 2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝛿 − 1
= 2[2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 − 1]2 − 1
= 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝛿 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 + 1
𝑇4 (𝑥) = 8𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 + 1
Let m = 5
Now the polynomials with higher values of m can be obtained by using recursive formula.
𝑇𝑚+1 (𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑇𝑚 (𝑥) − 𝑇𝑚−1 (𝑥)
𝑇4+1 (𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑇4 (𝑥) − 𝑇4−1 (𝑥)
= 2𝑥𝑇4 (𝑥) − 𝑇3 (𝑥)
= 2𝑥[8𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 + 1] − [4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥]
𝑇5 (𝑥) = 16𝑥 5 − 20𝑥 3 + 5𝑥
To obtain 𝑇6 (𝑥), 𝑚 = 5
𝑇5+1 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝑇5 (𝑥) − 𝑇4 (𝑥)
= 2𝑥[16𝑥 5 − 2023 + 5𝑥] − [8𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 + 1]
𝑇6 (𝑥) = 32𝑥 6 − 48𝑥 4 + 18𝑥 2 − 1
The degree of tchebyscheff polynomial is same as the value of m. the value of m can be even
or odd.
158 | P a g e
Array of m isotropic sources of equal aptitude and spacing end – fire array with
increased directivity
In the end fire array the maximum radiation can be directed along the axis of uniform
array by allowing the progressive phase shift ∝ between elements equal to ±𝛽𝑑. (𝑖𝑒 ∝=
−𝛽𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝜃 = 𝑜𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝= +𝛽𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 180°). This produces a maximum field in the
direction 𝜃 = o but does not give maxi mum directivity.
In order to enhance the directivity of end fire array without destroying any other
characteristics, Hansen and wood yard proposed that the required phase shift between loosely
spaced elements of a very long array long array should be
𝜋 2.94
∝= − (𝛽𝑑 + ) = − (𝛽𝑑 + ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 max 𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0°
𝑛 𝑛
𝜋 2.94
∝= + (𝛽𝑑 + ) = + (𝛽𝑑 + ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 max 𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0°
𝑛 𝑛
These conditions are referred to as “Hansen wood yard for increased directivity”. This
led to the larger directivity than obtained from an ordinary end – fire array.
We know that
𝑛Ψ
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝐸𝑛 =
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ψ
2
And also for large uniform array, the Hansen – wood yard condition can only yield an
improved directivity provided the spacing between the elements is approximately 𝜆/4.
The array factor for n element array,

𝑛
1 sin [2 {𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝}]
𝐸𝑛 = (𝐴𝐹)𝑛 = | |
𝑛 sin{𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝}
Where 𝛽 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝= Ψ
Ψ Ψ
This is approximated for small value of Ψ as sin =
2 2
𝑛
(2 (𝛽 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝))
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 … … … … … (1)
(𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝)
2
If progressive phase shift ∝= −𝑝𝑑 between the elements, then
𝑛
sin [2 (𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝𝑑)]
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛
2 (𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝𝑑)
159 | P a g e
𝑛𝑑
sin [ (𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝)]
= 2
𝑛𝑑
2 { 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝}
𝑛𝑑
And assume 2
=𝑞
Let Z = q (𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
∴ 𝐸𝑛 = [ ]
𝑧
The radiation intensity can now be written as
∅(𝜃) = |(𝐴𝐹)𝑛 |2 = |𝐸𝑛 |2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍 2
∅(𝜃) = | | … … … … … … (2)
𝑍
This reduces to the following at 𝜃 = 0°
sin[𝑞(𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝)] 2
ie [∅(𝜃)]𝜃=0° = |{ } |𝜃=0°
𝑞(𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝)
sin(𝑞(𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝)) 2
[∅(𝜃)]𝜃=0° = { } … … … … … (3)
𝑞(𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑝)
Dividing (2) – (3)

2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
[∅(𝜃)]𝑛 = { 𝑧 }
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑞(𝛽 − 𝑝)
𝑞(𝛽 − 𝑝)
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 𝑧1
={ } ∴ 𝑧1 = 𝑞(𝛽 − 𝑝)
𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧1
The directivity of array factor is determined by
4𝜋 ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐷 = = =
𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∅𝑜
( 4𝜋 )
Where ∅𝑜 is average radiation intensity and is given by
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
∅𝑜 =
4𝜋
2𝜋 𝜋
1
= ∫ ∫ ∅(𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
4𝜋
0 0
160 | P a g e
𝜋 2
2𝜋 𝑧1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
= ∫ [( 1
)( )] sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 𝑧
0
2 𝜋
1 𝑍1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2
∅𝑜 = [( ) ] ∫ ( ) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 sin 𝑍1 𝑧
0
1 𝑉 2 𝜋 cos(2𝑣) − 1
∅𝑜 = [ ] [ + + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑣]
𝛽𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑉 2 2𝑣
1
∅𝑜 = 𝑔(𝑣) 𝑣 = 𝑞(𝛽 − 𝑝)
2𝛽𝑞
𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑧) = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
0
𝑣 2 𝜋 cos(2𝑣) − 1
𝑔 (𝑣) = [ ] [ + + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑣]
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑣 2 2𝑣
If the fun ctron g(v) is plotted its minimum value occurs when
𝑛𝑑
V = q(𝛽 − 𝑝) = (𝛽 − 𝑝)
2
V = - 1.47
2.94
∝= −𝑝𝑑 = − (𝛽𝑑 + )
𝑛
𝑛𝑑
− 1.47 = (𝛽 − 𝑝)
2
− 2.94 = 𝑛𝑑𝛽 − 𝑛𝑑𝑝
−2.94
= 𝛽𝑑 − 𝑝𝑑
𝑛
−2.94
= 𝛽𝑑−∝ ∴∝= −𝑝𝑑
𝑛
2.94
∝= − (𝛽𝑑 + )
𝑛
This is the condition for end – fire radiation with improved directivity along 𝜃 = 0°
161 | P a g e
N – Element linear array and directivity:-
1) Broad – side array:-
In many applications it is desired to have the maximum radiation of an array directed
normal to the axis of the array (𝜃 = 90°). the requirement that allow the array factor to
“radiate” efficiently broad side is as follows.
The maximum of the array factor occurs when
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝= 𝑜
And 𝜃 = 90°
𝑂 = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠90°+∝
∴∝= 𝑜 = Ψ.
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Hence to have the maximum of array factor of a uniform linear array directed broad
side to the axis of array, it is necessary that all the elements have same phase excitation in
addition to the same amplitude excitation. In order to ensure that there is no maxima in other
directions, the separation between the elements should not be multiples of a wavelength.
Ψ = ±2𝑁𝜋
Now as a result of criteria for broadside radiation the array factor for this form of array
reduces to
𝑛Ψ
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝐸𝑛 =
2
162 | P a g e
𝑛𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 sin ( 2
)
= [ ]
𝑛 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
sin ( )
2
Since d<Lx then
Ψ Ψ
Sin =
2 2
𝑛
sin( 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 2
2 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
The radiation intensity is given by
𝜙 = 𝑟 2 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜙 = Radiation intensity w/unit solid angle
Prad = Radiation density w/𝑚2

.
Prad = ∫ ∫ 𝜙 𝑑Ω
Ω
2𝜋 𝜋
= ∫ ∫ 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
0 0
𝑑Ω = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

.
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜑 ∫ ∫ 𝑑Ω
Ω
= 𝜙0 4𝜋
𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑
∴ ∅0 =
4𝜋
Now radiation intensity can also be written as follows
𝑛
sin (2 𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝜑(𝜃) = |𝐸𝑛 |2 = [ 𝑛 ]2
2 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2
𝜑(𝜃) = [ ]
𝑧
𝑛
𝑍= 𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑧
Directivity of array factor is given as
163 | P a g e
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷= =
𝜑0 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑
( )
4𝜋
2𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝜑0 = 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫ ∫ 𝜑(𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
4𝜋 4𝜋
0 0
2𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 2
1 sin ( 𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
= ∫ 𝑑𝜑 ∫ [ 𝑛 2 ] 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
0 0 2
𝑛
𝑍= 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2
𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑑𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = −
𝑛𝛽𝑑
( )
2
Lower limit upper limit
𝑛 𝑛𝛽𝑑 𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝜃 = 𝑜, 𝑧 = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = , 𝜃 = 𝜋, 𝑧 = −
2 2 2
−𝑛𝛽𝑑
2
4𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2 −𝑑𝑧
𝜑0 = ∫ [ ]
2𝜋 𝑧 𝑛𝛽𝑑
+𝑛𝛽𝑑 2
2
−𝑛𝛽𝑑
2
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2
=− ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑧
𝑛𝛽𝑑 𝑧
+𝑛𝛽𝑑
2
𝑛𝛽𝑑
Now for a large array limit 2
∞
∞ 2
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
𝜑0 = − ∫[ ] 𝑑𝑧
𝑛𝛽𝑑 𝑧
+∞
∞ 2
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
= ∫[ ] 𝑑𝑧
𝑛𝛽𝑑 𝑧
−∞
∞ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋
𝑧
−∞
164 | P a g e
𝜋
𝜑0 =
𝑛𝛽𝑑
Therefore directivity is
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 1
𝐷= = ∴ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 90°
𝜑0 𝜑0
1
𝜋 𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝐷 = =
𝑛𝛽𝑑 𝜋
𝑛2𝜋𝑑
𝐷 =
𝜆𝜋
𝑛𝑑
= 2( )
𝜆
𝐿
𝐷 =2 ∴ 𝐿 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ≈ 𝑛𝑑
𝜆
L = length of the array.
𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝑧= ((𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
2
𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2
𝑛𝛽𝑑 𝜃 = 180°
𝜃 = 0𝑜 , 𝑧 = (1 − 1) = 0, 𝑛𝛽𝑑 = −𝑛𝛽𝑑
2 𝑧 = −2
2
−∞ 2
−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝜑0 = ∫ [ ]
2 𝑧 𝑛𝛽𝑑
0
∞
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2
𝜑0 = ∫[ ] 𝑑𝑧
𝛽𝑛𝑑 𝑧
0
∞
𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2 𝜋
𝜑0 = ∴∫[ ] 𝑑𝑧 =
2𝛽𝑛𝑑 𝑧 2
0
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 1
𝐷 = = ∴ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1
𝜑0 𝜑0
2𝛽𝑛𝑑 2 × 2𝜋 × 𝑛𝑑
𝐷 = =
𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
𝑛𝑑
= 4. ( )
𝜆
165 | P a g e
𝐿
𝐷 =4 𝐿 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝜆
L = nd
It is clear that directivity of the end fire array is twice to that of broad side array.
Directivity of increased end – fire array or Hansen – wood yard End fire
array:-
The radiation intensity in case of increased or improved end fire array can also be
proved to be equal to
1 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 0.878
𝜑0 = ( ) [ + − 1.8515] =
𝑛𝛽𝑑 2 2 𝜋 𝑛𝛽𝑑
0.878 2 1.756 𝜋
𝜑0 = × = ×
𝑛𝛽𝑑 2 2𝑛𝛽𝑑 𝜋
1.756 𝜋
𝜑0 = ( )×
𝜋 2𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝜋
= 0.5592 ×
2𝑛𝛽𝑑
This is the average value of the radiation intensity. On comparing from the original
expression, it is apparent that radiation intensity in case of ordinary end fire array.
Hence directivity is given by
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 2𝑛𝛽𝑑 1
𝐷= = = ×
𝜑𝑜 𝜑0 𝜋 0.5592
𝑛𝑑 1
=4 ×
𝜆 0.5592
𝑛𝑑
= 1.789 [4 𝜆
]
𝐷 = 1.789 × 4 𝐿⁄𝜆
Ordinary end – fire array (Directivity):-

In end fire array the maximum radiation is along the axis of the array. It is rather
necessary that the array radiates in only one direction ie either 𝜃 = 0°𝑜𝑟 180°
In order to radiate maximum toward 𝜃 = 0°
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+∝
𝑜 = 𝛽𝑑 cos 0 °+ ∝
166 | P a g e
∴ ∝= −𝛽𝑑 ∴ 𝜃 = 0°
𝐼𝑡 𝜃 = 180°
𝑜𝛽𝑑 cos 180°+ ∝
∝= +𝛽𝑑 𝜃 = 180°
Hence end fire radiation is accomplished when
𝛽𝑑 = − ∝ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 0°
𝛽𝑑 = + ∝ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 180°
Now for end – fire radiation
𝜃 = 𝑜, ∝ = −𝛽𝑑
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+ ∝
= 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝛽𝑑
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
Ψ 𝛽𝑑(𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 − 1
=
2 2
Then the array factor is given by
nΨ
1 sin 2
𝐸𝑛𝑜𝑟 =
2
𝑛𝛽𝑑
sin [ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −)]
=
𝛽𝑑
𝑛 sin [ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)]
𝑖𝑓 𝑑 < <
𝛽𝑑 𝛽𝑑
sin (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1) ≈ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
2 2
𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
𝐸𝑛 =
𝑛𝛽𝑓
2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
The radiation intensity, there force is given by
2
𝑛𝛽𝑑
sin ( 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1))
𝜑(𝜃) = |𝐸𝑛 |2 = || |
|
𝑛𝛽𝑑
2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1
167 | P a g e
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 2
𝜑(𝜃) = | |
𝑧
𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝑍 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
2
The maximum value of 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 0° The avg value of radiation intensity 𝜑0 is given
by
𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜑0 =
4𝜋
1
𝜑0 =
4𝜋
2𝜋 𝜋
1
𝜑0 = ∫ ∫ 𝜑(𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
4𝜋
0 0
𝜋 2
1(2𝜋) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
= ∫[ ] 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋 𝑧
0
Comparison of BSA and EFA:-

1. General case:-
1 (2𝑁 + 1)𝜋
(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± [ −∝]]
𝛽𝑑 𝑛
2. Broad side (∝= 𝒐):-
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± ]
2𝑛𝑑
3. Ordinary end fire:-
∝= ±𝛽𝑑
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± + 1]
2𝑛𝑑
Null directions (any length):-

1. General case:-
1 2𝑁𝜋
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [ {± −∝}]
𝛽𝑑 𝑛
2. Broad side (∝= 𝟎):-

168 | P a g e
𝑁𝜆
𝑛𝑑
3. Ordinary end – fire:-
𝑁𝜆
(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = 2 sin−1 [±√ ]
2𝑛𝑑
Beam width between first nulls:-

1) Broadside:-
1
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 114.6 ×
𝐿/𝜆
2) End fire:-
2
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 114.6
𝐿/𝜆
HPBW
1) Broad side:-
57.3
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 =
𝐿
𝜆
2) End – fire:-
2
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 57.3√
𝐿
( )
𝜆
Directivity:-
1) Pored side:-
𝑑 𝐿
𝐷 = 2𝑛 ( ) = 2. ( )
𝜆 𝜆
2) End – fire:-
𝑑 𝐿
𝐷 = 4𝑛 ( ) = 4. ( )
𝜆 𝜆
3) End – fire (Increased directivity):-
𝐿
𝐷 = 1.789 × 4
𝜆
169 | P a g e
Problems:-
1) An end – fire array composed of 𝜆/2 radiators with axes at right angles to the line of array
required to have a power gain of 20. Determine the array length and width of major lobe
between the first nulls.
Sol:-
For the end fire array
𝐿
D= 4×4
𝜆
𝐿
20 = 4 ×
𝜆
𝐿 = 5𝜆
2 2
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 114.6√ = 114.6√
𝐿 5𝜆
𝜆 𝜆
BWFN = 72.5o
2) Obtain the expression for the array of 3 – element linear array. if all the elements are
excited equally and in phase, in which direction would the major lobe point?
𝐸1 = 𝐸0 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗Ψ + 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗2Ψ
𝐸2 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗Ψ
𝐸3 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗2Ψ = 𝐸0 [1 + 𝑒 𝑗Ψ + 𝑒 𝑗2Ψ ]
3) Derive an expression for the radiation pattern of broadside, uniform linear array of 4 -
𝜆
equally spaced (element spacing = 2) isotropic antennas calculate the width of its major lobe
between first nulls.
170 | P a g e
𝜆
d =
2
For an n – point array of broad side, the expression for BWFN is
1
BWFN or FNBW = 114.6
𝐿
𝜆
𝜆 3𝜆 1
L = (4 − 1) = = 114.6
2 2 3𝜆
2𝜆
2
= 114.6
3
𝜆
4) For a linear array of 4 - isotropic elements spaced 2 apart and with equal currents fed in
phase plot the radiation pattern in polar coordinater?
Sol:-
𝜆
N = 4, d =
4
Broad side array
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ∝ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑆𝐴 ∝ = 0
Ψ = βd cosθ
𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑜 ∴ Ψ = 0 for BSA
𝜃 = 90° 𝑜𝑟 270°
i) Direction of pattern maxima
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜆
2𝑛𝑑
𝜆
𝑛 = 4, 𝑑 = , 𝑁=1
2
171 | P a g e
3𝜆
𝜆
2×4×
2
3
= cos −1 [+ ]
4
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ±41.4° 𝑜𝑟 ± 138.6°
5
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 2 cos−1 [± ] 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.
4
𝑁𝜆
𝑛𝑑
𝑁=1
1𝜆 1
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± ] = cos −1 [± ]
𝜆 2
4. 2
= ±60°, ±120°
If N = 2
2. 𝜆
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± ] = cos −1 [±1]
𝜆
4×2
= 0° & ± 180°
Thus 0°, 60°, 120° + 180°, −60°𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 120°𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑥 minor lobe minima or null directions
3) BWFN:-
1 𝜆
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 114.6 × 𝐿 = (𝑛 − 1)
𝐿 2
𝜆
1
= 114.6 ×
3𝜆
2𝜆
2
= 114.6° × 3
BWFN = 76.40
HPBW = 38.20
172 | P a g e
BSA for 4 isotropic sources of equal amplitude and phase field pattern.
5) Using the principle of multiplication pattern sketch the horizontal pattern of four vertical
antennas
a) Spaced one half wave length apart and fed with currents of 180 phasing between adjacent
elements.
b) Spaced one quarter wave length apart and having progressive phase shift of 900 between
adjacent elements?
c) What would be the phases of element excitations to make the major lobe point along 450 of
the line of array?
d) Show how the direction of maximum radiation can be altered by changing the inter
element phase shift?
e) A linear BSA consists of four equal isotropic in phase point sources with spacing equal to
𝜆
3
. cal the directivity and beam width if the total length of the array is 𝜆.
Sol:
For a BSA the directivity is given by
𝐿
𝐷 = 2. ( ) 𝐿 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝜆
𝜆
=2×
𝜆
D=2
2 2
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = = = 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐿 𝜆
𝜆 𝜆
BWFN in (deg ) = 2× 573o = 114.6o
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = = 573°
2
9) Calculate the directivity in db for the BSA as well as end fire array consisting 8
𝝀
isotropic elements separated by 𝟒 distance.
Sol:
𝜆
N = 8, d =
4
1) For BSA 2) EFA:-
𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑑
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2. 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4.
𝜆 𝜆
173 | P a g e
𝜆
8× 8×𝜆
= 2× 4 =4×
𝜆 4×𝜆
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4
4 4
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑𝑏) = 1010𝑔10 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑𝑏) = 1010𝑔10
= 6.021𝑑𝑏 = 9.031
10) Find the length and BWFN for BSA and EFA if the directive gain is 15.
D = 15
i) For BSA
𝐿 𝐿
D = 2. ⇒ 15 = 2 ×
𝜆 𝜆
L = 7.5 𝜆 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
ii) BWFN
114.6° 114.6°
BWFN = = = 15.28°
𝐿 7.5𝜆
𝜆 𝜆
For EFA:-
𝐿 𝐿
D = 4. ⇒ 15 = 4 ×
𝜆 𝜆
L = 3.75𝜆 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
2 2
BWFN = 114.6√ = 114.6°√
𝐿 3.75𝜆
( )
𝜆 𝜆
(BWFN) 𝐸𝐹𝐴 = 83.690
11) Calculate the directivity of given linear end fire array with improved directivity
𝝀
Hansen wood yard uniform array of 10 elements with a separation of 𝟒 between the
elements?
Sol:-
For Hansen – wood yard end fire array the directivity is given by
𝑛𝑑
D = 1.789 × 4 ×
𝜆
174 | P a g e
10 × 𝜆
D = 1.789 × 4 ×
4×𝜆
= 17.89
17.89
D (db) = 10 10𝑔10 = 12.526 𝑑𝑏
12) Calculate i) HPBW ii) Solid angle if a linear array of 10 isotropic point sources with
𝝀
𝟒
Spacing and phase difference of 𝜹 = 𝟗𝟎°
Sol:-
As the phase difference 𝛿 = 90° is mentioned the linear array of 10 isotropic point source is
end fire array.
𝜆
N = 10, d =
2
𝜆 9𝜆
Total length of the array L = (n – 1) d = (10 – 1 =
2 2
2 2
𝑖) 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 57.3√ = 57.3√ = 38.2°
𝐿 9𝜆
𝜆 2𝜆
HPBW = 38.2o
ii) Beam solid angle or beam area:-Ω𝐴
4𝜋 𝐿
Ω𝐴 = , 𝐷 =4×
𝐷 𝜆
9𝜆
=4
2𝜆
= 18
4𝜋 4𝜋
Beam solid angle Ω𝐴 = = = 0.6981𝑠𝑟.
𝐷 18
13) A uniform linear array consists of 16 isotropic sources with spacing of 𝝀/𝟒. if the
phase diff 𝜹 = 𝟗𝟎° then calculate
i) HPBW ii) Directivity in (db) iii) Beam solid angle iv) Effective aperture
Sol:-
175 | P a g e
𝜆 𝜆 15𝜆
N = 16, d = , 𝐿 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 = (16 − 1) =
4 4 4
2 2
𝑖) 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 573√ = 57.3√ = 41.84°
𝐿/𝜆 15𝜆
4𝜆
𝐿 15𝜆
ii) D = 4 × =4× = 15
𝜆 4𝜆
15
D(db) = 1010𝑔10 = 11.76𝑑𝑏
4𝜋 4𝜋
iii) Beam solid angle, Ω𝐴 = = = 0.837𝑠𝑟
𝐷 15
iv) Effective aperture:-

𝐷 2 15𝜆2
𝐴𝑒 = 𝜆 = = 1.193 𝜆2 𝑚2
4𝜋 4𝜋
14) A Broadside array of identical antennas consists 8 isotropic radiators separated by
𝝀
distance𝟐. Find radiation field in a plane containing the line of array showing the
directions of maxima and null.
Sol:-
Antenna arrays:-
Problems:-
1) Calculate i) HPBW ii) Solid angle if a linear array having 10 isotropic point source
with 𝝀/𝟐 spacing and phase difference 𝜹 = 90
Sol:-
As the phase difference 𝛿 = 90° is unmentioned the linear array of 10 isotropic point sources
is end fire type array.
N = number of elements in array = 10

𝜆
d = Spacing between adjacent elements = 2
Then total length of the array is given by
L = (n – 1) d
176 | P a g e
𝜆 9𝜆
= (10 – 1) =
2 2
i) For end fire array, the half power beam width is given by
2
HPBW = 57.3√ 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐿
( )
𝜆
9𝜆
L =
2
2
HPBW = 57.3
9𝜆
2𝜆
HPBW = 38.2°
ii) The beam solid angle is given by
4𝜋
Ω𝐴 =
𝐷
D = Directivity of an array.
Hence directivity of an end fire array is given by
9
𝐿 𝜆
D = 4 ( ) = 4 (2 ) = 18
𝜆 𝜆
Hence beam solid angle is given by
4𝜋 4𝜋
Ω𝐴 = = = 0.6981𝑠𝑟.
𝐷 18
𝝀
2) A uniform linear array consists 16 isotropic point sources with a spacing of 𝟒. If the
phase difference is 900 calculate
i) HPBW
ii) Directivity
iii) Beam solid angle
iv) Effective aperture
Solution:-
A uniform linear array of 16 isotropic sources are having a phase shift of 900 means that array
is of end fire array.
N = number of total elements = 16
177 | P a g e
𝜆
d = Spacing between adjacent elements = 4
L = Total length of an array
= (n – 1) d
𝜆 𝜆
= (16 − 1 ) = 15
4 4
i) HPBW for end fire case is
2
HPBW = 57.3 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐿
( )
𝜆
2
= 57.3
15𝜆 1
4 . 𝜆
HPBW = 41.840
ii) The directivity for end five array is given by
𝜆
𝐿 15 4
d = 4( ) = 4 × = 15
𝜆 𝜆
D = 15
15
D in db = 1010𝑔10 = 11.76𝑑𝑏.
iii) Beam solid angle is given by
4𝜋 4𝜋
Ω𝐴 = = = 0.8377𝑠𝑟
𝐷 15
iv) The effective aperture is given by
𝐷𝜆2
A𝑒 =
4𝜋
15𝜆2
A𝑒 = = 1.1936 𝜆2 𝑚2
4𝜋
3) Find the phasing required to steer a beam zenith to – 400 for a 5 element array with
0.4𝝀 inter element spacing.
Solution:-
N = number of elements = 5
d = spacing between adjacent elements = 0.4𝜆
2𝜑 = Beam width = - 400
178 | P a g e
𝜑 = −200
The phasing or phase difference required between radiations of two adjacent points sources is
given by
2𝜋
Ψ= 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑+ ∝.
𝜆
Let us assume ∝ = 0°
2𝜋
Ψ= × 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
𝜆
2𝜋
= 𝑜. 4𝜆 . cos(−20°)
𝜆
Ψ = 2.3617 𝑟𝑎𝑑
4) Find the minimum spacing between the elements in a broadside array of 10 isotropic
radiators to have directivity of 7 db
Solution:-
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 7𝑑𝑏
N = number of elements =10
By definition
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10 10𝑔10 𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐺
7 = 10 10𝑔10𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5.0118
By formula, the directivity for the broadside array is given by
𝐿 𝑛𝑑
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 = 2.
𝜆 𝜆
10𝑑
5.0𝜑18 = 2 ×
𝜆
d =0.25 𝝀
5) A BSA of identical antennas consists 8 isotropic radiators separated by a distance𝝀/

𝟐.Find the radiation field in a plane containing the line of array showing directions of
maxima and null.
Solution:-
𝜆
N = 8, d =
2
179 | P a g e
i) Maxima of major lobe:-
For the broad side array, the direction of maxima of major lobe is along the direction normal
to the axis of the array. hence the direction is given by
𝜃 = 90° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 270°
(Or)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑆𝐴 Ψ = o & ∝= 𝑜
𝑜 = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 0
𝜃 − cos −1(𝑜) ⇒ 𝜃 = 90° & 270°
ii) Maxima of minor lobes (side lobes):-
(Or)
(Subsidiary maxima)
The max direction of side lobes is given by
(2𝑁 + 1)𝜆
2𝑛𝑑
N = 1, 2, 3 ………..
For N = 1
3. 𝜆
(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 1 = cos −1 [± ]
𝜆
2×8×2
= 67. 97 and 1120
𝜆. 5 5
For N = 2(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟2 = cos −1 [± ] = cos −1 [± ]
𝜆 8
2×8×2
= 51.310 and 128.680
𝜆. (7) 7
For N = 3 (𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟3 = cos −1 [± ] = cos −1 [± ]
𝜆 8
2×8×2
= 28.950 & 151.
180 | P a g e
iii) Minima of minor lobes:- (𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓𝟐: −(Nulls)
𝑁𝜆
(𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = cos −1 [± ]
𝑛𝑑
Where N = 1, 2, 3 ………
2. 𝜆 1
For N = 2 (𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟2 = cos −1 [± ] = cos −1 [± ]
𝜆 2
8×
2
= 600 & 1200
3. 𝜆 3
For N = 3 (𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟3 = cos−1 [± ] = cos −1 [± ]
𝜆 4
8. 2
= 41.40 & 138.6
4. 𝜆
For N = 4 (𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟4 = cos−1 [± ] = cos −1 [±1]
𝜆
82
= O & 1800
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
00 , 41.4°, 60°, 75.52°, 104.47°, 120°, 138.6, &180°
The Radiation pattern is
6) calculate the directivity of given linear end fire array with improved directivity
𝝀
Hansen – wood yard uniform array of 10 elements with a separation of 𝟒 between the
elements.
Solution:-
181 | P a g e
For Hansen – wood yard end fire array, the directivity is given by
𝐿 𝑛′ 𝑑 ′
D = 1.789 [4 ] = 1.789 [4 × ]
𝜆 𝜆
𝜆
10×
= 1.789 {4 × 𝜆
4
}
D = 17.89
Hence the directivity can be expressed in db as

17.89
D (in db) = 10 10𝑔10
D = 12.526 db
7) Calumniate the directivity in dB for the broadside as well as end fire array consisting
𝝀
8 isotropic elements separated by 𝟒 distance.
Solution:-
N = Number of elements = 8
𝜆
D = Distance of separation = 4 𝑚
i) For broadside array:-

The directivity is given by
𝜆
𝑛𝑑 8×4
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2( ) = 2 × =4
𝜆 𝜆
𝐺
Hence𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 101010𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
4
= 101010
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6.021𝑑𝑏
2) For end fire array:-

The directivity is given by
𝜆
𝑛𝑑 8×4
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4( ) = 4 × =8
𝜆 𝜆
Hence
𝐺
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10 10𝑔10𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
8
= 1010𝑔10 = 9.031𝑑𝑏.
182 | P a g e
8) Find the length and BWFN for broad side and end fire array if the directive gain as
15-
Solution:-
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 15
i) For broad side array:-

𝐿
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 ( )
𝜆
𝐿
15 = 2 ( )
𝜆
L = 7.5 𝜆 meter
ii) By definition BWFN is given by
114.6
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 =
𝐿
( )
𝜆
114.6
= = 15.28°
7.5𝜆
𝜆
iii) For end fire array:-
𝐿
𝐺𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 ( )
𝜆
𝐿
15 = 4 ( )
𝜆
L = 3.75 𝜆 meter
By definition BWFN is given by,
2
𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑁 = 114.6 √ 𝑑𝑒𝑔
(𝐿/𝜆)
2
= 114.6√
3.75𝜆
𝜆
BWFN = 83.690
183 | P a g e
Antenna measurement:
Introduction:
Accurate measurements are necessary to establish the actual performance of antenna.
→ Antenna at a point – to – point radio line have to fulfill contain gain, side – lobe level,
cross – polarization
Basic concept of antenna measurement:
Important measurement parameters of the antenna are gain, directivity, radiation pattern etc.
→ AUT is considered to be located at origin of co – ordinate system.
→ Source antenna is placed at different location with respect to AUT
Source antenna may be transmitting or receiving
→ At different location number of samnes of pattern or obtained to active different.
Location AUT is rotated.
To achieve sharp sample of pattern, it is necessary that there exists single direct signal path
between AUT and source antenna.
Reciprocal Relationship between Transmitting and Receiving Propertaties

of Antenna:
Antenna can act as either transmitter or receiver there exixts a reciprocal relationship between
tr & Ry properties.
* The transmitting & receiving patterns of antenna are same.
* The power flow is the same in transmitting and receiving mode.
→ The emfs at the terminals of Tx or Rx antenna should be of same frequency.
→ Power flow should be equal to that due to matched impedance.
184 | P a g e
→ The media should be linear, isotropic and can conveniently use antenna in some outses as
radiator or as receiver is some other cases.
Near field & far fields:

There are three main regains at the radiated field of the antenna.
The region very code to antenna is called reactive near field region.
→ the region next to reactive near field regain which is called Fresnel region.
→ the region located for away from the antenna is called far field region (Translator region)
Figure: Radiation patterns in near – field and far – field regions.
Advantages of far field:

→ the measured field pattern is varied for any distance.
→ if power patter is required only power measurement is needed.
→ the result is not very sensitive to change in location of phase center of antenna they
rotation of AUT does not cause significant measurement cross.
→ Coupling & multiple reflections between the antenna are not significant.
Co- ordinate system:
185 | P a g e
The AUT is at the origin
The elevation angle 𝜃 is measured from the z – axis (zenith)
The azimuthal angle ∅ is measured from the projection of the radius vector to the xy
(horizontal) plane with ∅ = 0 at the axis increases counter clock wise.
→ with linear polarized antenna the cuts are selected to coincide with assumed direction of
the E & H fields in the main lobe and then they are called E & H plane cuts.
→ at the z – axis separated destination for the reference direction is required for instance
along the positive y – axis
Sources of Errors:
→ In sufficient distance between the antenna causes phase curvature and amplitude taper,
reflections from surrounding cause amplitude and phase ripple.
→ Phase curvature and amplitude taper can have a significant impact on the main beam,
where ripple may spoil the accuracy of side – lobe measurement.
→ coupling to the reactive near field alignment cross, interfering signals, effects of the
atmosphere, leaking and reradiating cables, instrumentation errors.
Phase error and amplitude taper across the aperture of an AUT.
Pattern measurement:
The directional pattern power or amplitude pattern is usually measured by rotating the AUT
on a positioned
→ The field radiated by AUT can be divided in to two orthogonal components
→ The total power is divided between two patterns co = polar pattern and cross polar pattern
→ Co – polar pattern represents the wanted radiation whereas the cross polar pattern
represents leakage radiation.
186 | P a g e
Patterns are measured only in the principle planes E & H plane of linearly polarized antenna.
→ The source antenna polarization should match the co – polar & cross – polar field in
corresponding patterns measurements.
For measurement of linearly polarized AUT, the polarization vectors of antenna should be
parallel in co – polar measurement where a vector should be in angle of 90° in cross – polar,
→ Beam width, pattern shape, side levels & direction and null directions are parameters
which are obtained classily form measurement.
Directivity of an antenna can be computed from the normalized power pattern pn (𝜃 , ∅) as
4𝜋
𝐷=
∬ 𝑝𝑛 (𝜃 , ∅) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑∅
Gain: gain can be measured by absolute method & comparison method
𝜆 2
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐺𝑇 𝐺𝑅 ( ) 𝑤
4𝜋𝑅
𝑃𝑅 - received power
𝑃𝑇 - power accepted by tr antenna
𝐺𝑇 − gain of tr antenna
𝐺𝑅 - gain of receiving antenna
𝜆 - wave length , R – separation between antenna
Comparison method:
Gain transistor method
The power received with the AUT and with a known reference antenna are compared.
This measurement can be performed on either free space or an ground reflection range.
→ The polarizations of the linearly polarized source and reference antennas are set
horizontally and the gain GH is measured.
187 | P a g e
Then the measurement is repeated for vertically polarized source and reference antennas and
the gain GV is obtained.
The total gain GAUT is the sum of two partial gains
𝑃𝐴𝑈𝑇
𝐺𝐴𝑈𝑇 = 𝐺𝐻 + 𝐺𝑉 𝐺𝐴𝑈𝑇 = 𝐺
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑡
𝐺𝐻 - gain of AUT at horizontal polarization
𝐺𝑉 - gain of AUT at vertical polarization
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑡 − gain of reference antenna.
188 | P a g e
UNIT – V
Wave propagation – I
Introduction, categorizations, and general classifications, different modes of wave
propagation, ray / mode concepts, ground wave propagation, introduction plane earth
reflections, space and surface waves, wave tilt, curved earth reflections, space wave
propagation. Introduction, field strength variation with distance and height, effecter of
earth’s curvature, absorption, super refraction, m – curves, and duct propagation,
scattering phenomena troposphere propagation
Wave propagation –II

SKY wave propagation – Introduction, structure of ionosphere, reflection and refraction of
SKY waves by ionosphere, ray path, critical frequency, MUF, LUF, of, Virtual height, Skip
distance, relation between MUF And Skip distance, multi hop propagation
Wave propagation
This wave propagation is a phenomenon that occurs in the media between a transmitter and a
receiver when a radio wave is radiated from the transmitting antenna, it spreads in all
directions decreasing in amplitude, with increasing distance.
The power radiated from a transmitter is ordinarily spread over a relatively large area and
hence power available at most of the antennas is only a small fraction of radiated power. The
portion of received signal at a distant receiving point may travel over any of the possible
mode of propagations. The prominent modes of propagations are
a) Ground wove or surface wave propagation.

b) Sky wave or ionosphere propagation.
c) Space wave propagation.
It may be noted that these modes of propagation largely depend upon frequency in use.
Besides recently developed means of propagation beyond the horizon are troposphere scatter
and stationary satellite communications.
Propagation of radio waves are not only used in radio communication for transmission of
intelligence over short and long distance, but also in radar, radio detection finding, control of
a machine from a distance etc.
Modes of distance etc:-

The radio waves from the transmitting antenna may reach to the receiving antenna any of the
following modes of propagation.
a) Ground wave or surface wave propagation:-

(Up to 2MHZ)
189 | P a g e
The ground wave or surface wave (sometimes also called nor ton’s surface wave) is of
practical importance at broad cast and lower and very long waver surface wave permits the
propagation around the curvature of earth. This mode of propagation exist when the
transmitting and receiving antennas are close to the surface of earth, and is supported by its
lower edge by the presence of ground. The ground wave as being produced usually, by
vertical antennas is vertically polarized. ie electric field vectors are vertically polarized. any
horizontal component of electric field vector in contact with earth is short circuited by the
earth. The ground wave propagation along the surface of wave, induce charges in earth,
which travel with wave and hence constitute current while carrying the induce current, the
earth behaves just as a leaky capacitor and therefore, the earth can be represented at a
resistance in shunt with a capacitor.
When a surface waves glides over the surface of earth energy is abstracted from the surface
wave to supply the losses in the earth. Thus while passing over the surface of earth, the
surface wave loses some of its energy by absorption. Energy lost so, is replenished to a
certain extent, by the energy diffracted downward from the upper portion of wave front
present somewhat above the immediate surface of the earth. The ground wave, therefore,
suffers varying amount of attenuation while propagating along the curvature of the earth,
depending upon frequency, surface irregularities, permittivity and conductivity. Earth’s
attenuation increases as frequency increases and hence the mode of propagation is suitable
for low and medium frequency up to 2MHZ only. At higher frequency, wave attenuation is
much more than at low frequency over the same ground. It is also called as medium wave
propagation and is used invariably in local broadcasting all the broadcast signals received
dung day time is due to ground wave propagation.
190 | P a g e
𝑇𝑥  Transmitting antenna
𝑅𝑥  Receiving antenna
Path A  Ground wave propagation
Path B  Sky or ionosphere propagation
Path C  Space wave propagation.
Besides ground attenuation there is still another way in which wave is attenuated ie due to
diffraction and tilt in the wave front. As the wave progress over the curvature of the earth, the
wave fronts start gradually tilting more and more. This increase in tilt of wave causes more
short circuit of electric field component and hence the field strength goes on reducing.
Ultimately, at some appreciable distance from transmitting antenna in wavelength, the
surface wave dies because of losses.
It may be noted that maximum range of surface wave propagation depends not only on the
frequency but power as well. Hence range of transmission can be increased by increasing the
power of transmitter in the VLF band but this method is not effective at MF band where
tilting due to diffraction is more.
The field strength at a distance from the transmitting antenna due to ground wave has been
calculated from max well’s equation as
120𝜋 ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 𝐼𝑠
𝐸= 𝑉/𝑚
𝜆. 𝑑
ℎ𝑡 , ℎ𝑟 = Effective heights of transmitting and receiving antennas
𝐼𝑠 = Antenna currents
𝜆 = Wavelength
d = distance between transmitting and receiving points
if however, the distance ‘d’ is fairly large, the reduction in field strength due to ground
attenuation and atmospheric absorption increases and thus the actual voltage received at
receiving point decreases.
According to Somerfield, the field strength for ground wave propagation for a flat earth is
given by
𝐸𝑜 . 𝐴
𝐸𝑔 =
𝑑
𝐸𝑜  Ground wave field strength at surface of earth
𝐸𝑔 = Ground wave field strength
A = attenuation factor
191 | P a g e
d = Distance from transmitting antenna expressed in the same
Unit distance field strength 𝐸𝑜 depends on
i) Power radiation of transmitting antenna
ii) Directivity in vertical and horizontal planes.
It the antenna is non – directional in the horizontal plane, producing a radiated field which is
proportional to the cosine of angle of elevation, then the field at unit distance for a radiated
power is given by
300√𝑃
𝐸𝑜 = 𝑉/𝑚
𝑑
P = radiated power in watts
d = distance in meters
It‘d’ expressed in miles, then

300√𝑃
𝐸𝑜 = 𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
1.609
P being effective power radiated in kilowatt and d the distance in km. The reduction factor A,
according for earth losses too, depends on,
i) Frequency ii) dielectric constant iii) conductivity of earth.
A is a complicated function of above factors expressed in terms of two auxiliary variables

the numerical distance p and phase constant b.
i) For vertically polarized wave:-

The reduction factor A, is expressed in terms of two auxiliary parameters p and b.
The parameters p and b are related as
𝜋 𝑑
𝑃 = . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏
𝑥 𝜆
𝐸𝑟 + 1
𝑏 = tan−1 [ ] = 2𝑏2 − 𝑏1
𝑥
1.8 × 1012 𝜎
𝑋 = 𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑠/𝑐𝑚
𝑓(𝐻𝑍)
ii) For horizontally polarized wave:-

𝜋𝑑 𝑥
𝑃 = .
𝜆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏
b =1800 - 𝑏1
192 | P a g e
𝐸𝑟 − 1
𝑏1 = tan−1 [ ]
𝑥
𝐸𝑟
𝑏2 = tan−1 [ ]
𝑥
𝑏2 =Power factor angle of imp offered by earth.
b) Sky wave or ionosphereic wave propagation:-

(Between 2 – 30MHz)
The sky waves are of practical importance at medium and high frequencies for very long
distance radio communications. In this modes of propagation enweaves reach the receiving
point after reflection from the ionized region in the upper atmosphere called ionosphere
situated between 50km to 400km. above the earth surface under favorable conditions. The
ionosphere acts like a reflecting surface and is able to reflect back the EM waves of
frequencies between 2 – 30MHz. EM waves of frequencies more than 30MHz are not
reflected back. Form ionosphere rather they penetrate it. Mostly sky wave propagation is
suitable for frequencies between 2 to 30 MHz, so this mode of propagation is also called as”
short wave propagation”
Shows multiple reflections of radio waves from ionosphere
Further, since sky wave propagation takes place after reflection from the ionosphere, so it is
also called as ionosphere propagation. Since long distance point – to point communication is
possible with sky wave propagation; it is also called point – point propagation or
communication.
The signals received due to sky wave propagation are however subjected to fading in which
signal strength varies with time. It is because at the 𝑅𝑥 point a large number of waves follow
a different number of paths. Hence provision has to be made to overcome the fading.
193 | P a g e
3) Space wave propagation: - (above 30MHz)
The space wave propagation of practical importance at VHF bands (between 30MHz
to 300Hz), UHF and microwaves and communications like TV, radar, FM etc. in this mode
of propagation, EM waves from transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna either
directly or after reflections from ground in the troposphere region.
Troposphere is a portion of atmosphere which extends up to 16km from the earth

surface. Space wave consists, of at least two components eg. Direct and indirect ie ground
reflected components. It means, wave reaches directly from transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna and also the wave reaches the receiving antenna after reflection from
ground, where the phase change of 1800 is obtained due to refection from ground.
Space wave propagation is mainly in VHF and higher frequencies because at such
frequencies sky wave and ground wave propagations both fail therefore just after few
hundreds of feet ground waves too die due to attenuation and wave tilt space wave
propagation is also called “line of sight” propagation.
Although in actual practice space waves propagate even slightly beyond the line of
sight distance due to refraction in the atmosphere of the earth. In the los distance 𝑇𝑥 antenna
and receiving antenna and receiving antenna can usually “sec” each other
Structure of atmosphere:-
Since the medium between the transmitting antenna and receiving antennas plays an
important role, therefore it is necessary to know the medium above the earth. So we divide it
into three parts
a) Structure of troposphere
b) Structure of ionosphere
c) Outer atmosphere.
194 | P a g e
Medium above earth surface
a) Troposphere  up to 15km
b) Ionosphere  50 – 400 km
c) Outer atmosphere  above 400km.
Structure of ionosphere:-
The upper part of the atmosphere where ionization is appreciable is known as ionosphere.
The upper part of earth’s atmosphere absorbs large quantities of radiant energy from the sun.
This not only heats the atmosphere but also produce ionizations. ie formation of positive and
negative ions occur. The ionized region consists of free electron, positive ions, and negative
ions. The most important ionizing agents are UV rays, ∝, 𝛽rayr. Cosmic rays and meteors. At
high atmosphere, the conditions are very much favorable for ionization as pressure is low and
sun is constantly radiating ultra – violet rays. When uv and cosmic rays reach the upper
atmosphere, they cause a large proportion of air particles to become ionized.
Besides the uv – rays from the sun are greatly absorbed by the upper parts of atmosphere and
there is relatively little ionization in lower parts of earth’s atmosphere and very little
ionization below about 50km. on the other hand, above the height of 400km the air particles
present are so few that the density of ionization is again very low.
Thus due to different ionizing agents and different physical properties of the atmosphere at
different heights, the ionization in the ionization region is stratified and the levels at which
the electron density reaches a maximum are called layers. The number of layers, their heights
and the amount of sky wave that can be bent by them, will vary from day to day, month to
month, and year to year. But each such layer there is a critical frequency, above which if a
radio wave is sent vertically upward. Will not return back to earth but will penetrate it. There
are three principal layers during day time and are called E, 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 layers combine and form
one layer called f layer and D region vanishes.
Thus in the night only two principal layers exist ie E and F layers. E layer is generally found
at the 110km but may vary between 90km to 140km similarly 𝐹2 layer is more variable or
seasonal variations. 𝐹2 layer is more variable having typical height range of 250 – 400km.
𝐹2 layer is also called “Appleton layer” and E layer is also called “Kennelly Heaviside layer’
195 | P a g e
Characteristics of different ionized regions:-
1) D – region:-
1) D is the lower most region of ionosphere and is located in the height range of 50 –
90km.
2) This layer is present only during light hours and disappears at night because of
recombination rate is highest.
3) The ionization density is maximum at noon and its electron density is ranging
from1014 𝑡𝑜1016 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑚3 .
4) D region is believed to be ionized is produced by 𝐿∝ (Lyman alpha) radiation from the
sun.
5) Its critical frequency is about 100 KHz but it cannot be observed by customary
methods due to very high selective absorption.
6) D region also called absorbing layer for short wave signals.
7) The absorption ie ionization also increases with solar activity.
8) Sometimes a peak in electron density has been observed in lower ‘D’ region which
suggests “C region” for range 50km to 70km.
2) Normal E – region:-
1) E – Region (normal) a narrow layer of ionization lies just above the D – region in the
height of range 90km – 140km, having maximum at 110km from earth surface.
2) Two scientists A.E. Kennelly and Oliver Heaviside independently predicted that there
must be a dense ionized layer which acts as a mirror for turning Em waves back to
earth by reflection or refraction.
3) This is why – the E – region is also called as “Kennelly Heaviside” layer.
4) This layer occurs during day light hours and has its maximum density at the average
height 110km which has appreciable effect on the direction of propagation of radio
waves.
5) During night hours E – region becomes weekly ionized and day light hours its heights
remains practically constant.
196 | P a g e
6) The electron density of E – region ranges from 105 to 4.5×105 during day and from
5×103 to 104 at night
7) Critical frequency of E- region lies in the range of 3 MHz to 5 MHz. at noon.
8) E – region is formed by ionization of all gases by soft × ray radiations.
9) This is useful for long distance radio propagation.
3) Sporadic E – region: - (𝑬𝒔 )

1) Besides more stable regions like D, E and F in the ionosphere there exists an
anomalous ionization termed as “sporadic E – region or layer and is denoted by𝐸𝑠 .
2) It usually occurs in the form of clouds, varying in size from about one km to several
hundred km across.
3) Its presence is also purely regional and its occurrence and intensity of ionization has
no connection with sun radiation.
4) The occurrence of sporadic – E – layer is so unpredictable and it may be observed in
both day and night houses, and in any season of year
5) 𝐸𝑠 layer is a thin layer of high ionization density (electron density may be 10 times to
that of normal E) and it may appear anywhere in the height of 90km – 130km with
normal E – region.
6) In the polar regions the sporadic E – layer occurs mainly at night and shows no
pronounced seasonal variations. On the other hand in equatorial zone it appears
predominantly in day hours.
7) The cause of sporadic – E region is due to meteoric ionization, then at other times due
to vertical transport of ion clouds, thunder storm and geometric disturbances
8) This sporadic sometimes gives “M” type of reflection.
4) 𝑭𝟏 , 𝑭𝟐 And F regions or Appleton regions:-

1) The region of ionosphere lying between 140km to 400km from earth surface is called
F – region or layer.
2) Its average height is around 270km.
3) It is the uppermost region and is the only region which always remains ionized
irrespective of hours of day or seasons of years.
4) F – layer is also called Appleton layer.
5) The ionization persists throughout the dark hours of night and so the f – region is most
noticeable. Therefore f – region facilitates long distance sky wave propagation of
radio signals during night hours
6) The existence of f – layer in night hours is due to i) being topmost layer, it is highly
ionized and hence some ionizations remain after sun set ii) although ionization density
is high, the actual air density is not much and hence most of molecules of this layer
are ionized.
7) During day, the f – region is found to split into two layers called 𝐹1 and𝐹2 .
8) 𝐹1 layer is uppermost region situated height range of 140km – 250km with average
height of 220km. its behavior is like normal E – region,
9) Its critical frequency at noon is of the order of 5MHz to 7MHz and electron density
ranges from 2×105 to 4.5×105.
197 | P a g e
10) 𝐹2 layer is the uppermost region situated at a height of about 250km to 400km in day
having electron density is highest than all others layers.
11) The e – density is ranging from 3×105 to 2×106.
12) 𝐹2 layer is formed due to ionization of UV, x – rays and probably corpuscular
radiations.
13) Its critical frequency is about 10MHz. or still more at low altitude stations. It ranges
from 5MHz to 15MHz.
14) The ionization of 𝐹2 - layer is largely effected by earth’s magnetic field, atmospheric,
ionosphere storms, and other geometric disturbances.
15) Its ionization density varies with solar activity
16) 𝐹2 - Layer does not follow Chapman’s law.
17) 𝐹2 Layer is the most important reflecting medium for light frequency radio waves.
18) Splitting up of 𝐹1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 𝑖𝑠 produced by tidal effects and increasing temperature with
increasing height.
5) Outer atmosphere or G - region:-

The upper limit of ionosphere is not known a s G – region. The outer region of ionosphere is
occupied by the radiation belts girdling the earth and consisting of charged particles trapped
by the terrestrial magnetic field, having the shape of magnetic lines of force
Sky wave propagation

The propagation of space and ground waves are limited b the curvature of earth and hence
these modes of propagation fail for communication over large distances. Therefore
propagation over long distance of thousand kilometers or more are almost exclusively
performed by sky waves are ionosphere waves. The sky waves are reflected from some of
ionized layers of ionosphere and return back to earth either in single hop or multiple hops of
reflections.
The various terminologies like virtual height, critical frequency, MUF, skip distance, fading
also various ionosphere variation terms are related to the sky wave propagation are important
study propagation of radio waves through the ionosphere or Expression for the refractive
index of ionosphere:-
In an ionized medium having free e-s, and ions when the radio waves passes through, it set
these charged particles in motion. Since mass of the ions are much heavier than the e – s, so
their motion are negligibly small and neglected for all practical purposes. The radio waves
passing through ionosphere is influenced by e – s only and the electric field of radio waves is
set electrons of ionosphere in motion.
These electrons then vibrate simultaneously along paths parallel to the electric field of radio
waves and vibrating electrons represent an a. c current proportional to the velocity of
vibration. Here the effect of earth’s magnetic field on the vibrations of ionosphere electrons
lags behind the electric field of the waves, thus resulting electron current is inductive. Thus
free e –s in space decreases the current and the dielectric constant of space is also reduced
198 | P a g e
below the value that would be in the absence of electron. This reduction in dielectric constant
due to the presence of e – s in the atmosphere causes the path of radio waves to bent towards
earth.
Le the electric field be
E = Em sinwt V/m--------------- (1)
W  Angular velocity
Em  max amplitude
Force exerted by electric field on each e – s is
F = - e E Newton -------------- (2)
e  Charge of electron
Let us assume that there is no collision then the e – will have and instantaneous velocity u
m/s in the direction opposite to the field
Force = mass × acceleration
𝑑𝑣
F = m. … … … … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡
From (2) & (3)
𝑑𝑣
−e E = m.
𝑑𝑡
𝑒𝐸
dv = − . 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
Integrating on both sides
𝑒𝐸
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫ . 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝑒. 𝐸𝑚. sin 𝑤𝑡
V = −∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝑒. 𝐸𝑚. cos 𝑤𝑡
V = ∫
𝑚. 𝑤
e
V =( ) Em cos wt … … … … … … (4)
mw
Constants of integration are set to zero.
If N be the no. of e – s per cubic meter, then the instantaneous electric current constituted by
this N e – s moving with instantaneous velocity v is
ie = - N e v amp /𝑚2
199 | P a g e
𝑒
= − N. e. . 𝐸 cos 𝑤𝑡
𝑚𝑤 𝑚
𝑁 𝑒2
𝑖𝑒 = − [ ] 𝐸 cos 𝑤𝑡 … … … … (5)
𝑚𝑤 𝑚
Which shows ie lags behind electric Field by 900 besides this inductive current there is usual
capacitive current ie. The capacitance of unit volume is
𝜀𝑜 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚
Hence
𝑑𝐷 𝑑
𝑖𝑐 = = (𝜀𝑜 𝐸)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= 𝜀𝑜 . 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑐 = 𝜀0 . 𝐸𝑚 . 𝑤. cos 𝑤𝑡 … … … … … (6)
Thus total current through the ionized medium is
i = ic + ie
𝑁𝑒 2
= 𝜀0 . 𝐸𝑀 . 𝑤 cos 𝑤𝑡 − . 𝐸𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡
𝑚𝑤
𝑁𝑒 2
i = 𝐸𝑚 . cos 𝑤𝑡. 𝑤 [𝜀0 − ] … … … … … … (7)
𝑚𝑤
Comparing (6) & (7)
𝑁𝑒 2 𝑁𝑒 2
𝐸 = 𝜀0 − = 𝜀0 [1 − ]
𝑚𝑤 𝑚𝑤𝐸0
𝐸 𝑁𝑒 2
𝐸𝑟 = = 1 −
𝜀0 𝑚𝑤𝜀0
Then refractive index 𝜇 of ionosphere w. r t vacoom is
𝐸 𝑁𝑒 2
𝜇 = √𝐸𝑟 = √ = √1 −
𝐸0 𝑚𝑤𝜀0
M = 9.108 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
e = 1.602 × 10−18 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠

1
𝜀0 = 8.85 4 × 1012 = 36𝜋×109 𝑓/𝑚, 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓
200 | P a g e
81𝑁
𝜇 = 𝜋√1 −
𝑓2
Mechanism of radio wave bending by ionosphere:-

The bending of radio waves at the ionosphere can readily be understood with the help of
refractive index of ionized medium
81𝑁
𝜇 = √𝜀𝑟 = √1 − … … … … … (1)
𝑓2
N = ionic density in𝑚−3 , 𝑓 = frequency, Hz.
The above equation (1) shows that real values of 𝜇 of ionosphere is always less than cenity
If the ionic density is higher and frequency is lower, then 𝑓 2 < 81𝑁, meas the 𝜇 becomes an
imaginary value which means under such conditions the radio waves are attenuated at this
frequency and ionosphere is not able to transmit or bend the radio waves.
The bending of radio waves by ionosphere is governed by ordinary optical laws. By Snell’s
law the angle of incidence (i) and angle of refraction (r) at any point is given by
sin 𝑖
𝜇=
sin 𝑟
Refraction of radio waves in atmosphere since 𝜇 < 1 for ionosphere, so sin i < sin r ie angle
of refraction will go on deviating from the normal as the wave will encounter rarer medium.
It the successive layers of ionosphere are of higher e – density ie 𝑁6 > 𝑁5 > 𝑁4 > 𝑁3 >
𝑁2 > 𝑁1 it meaus 𝜇 will go on decreasing ie 𝜇1 > 𝜇2 > 𝜇2 > 𝜇3 > 𝜇4 > 𝜇5 > 𝜇6 . Thus the
wave at say point p will be deviating more and more and a point will reach where it travels
parallel to earth (at 𝑃𝑚 ). Here the angle of refraction is 900 and the point 𝑃𝑚 is highest point in
201 | P a g e
the atmosphere reached by the radio wave. If 𝜇𝑚 be refractive index and 𝑁𝑚 be max electron
density at point 𝑃𝑚 then the above equ becomes
𝜇𝑚 = sin 𝑖𝑚 𝑖𝑒 sin 𝑟 = sin 90° = 1
The point 𝑃𝑚 , is usually called as point of reflection although it is usually a point of refraction
At this point total internal reflection takes place and wave gets bent earth wards and
ultimately returns to earth. Hence the radio waves once enter at point p, leave the ionosphere
at point ∅. After a slight penetration into the ionosphere.
Critical frequency:-
The critical frequency of an ionized layer of ionosphere is defined as the highest frequency at
which wave can be effected by a particular layer at vertical incidence. This highest frequency
is called critical frequency for that particular layer. And it is different for different layers. It is
usually denoted by to or fc. Critical frequency for the particular layer is proportional to the
square root of maximum electron density in the layer then we can write
sin 𝑖 81𝑁
𝜇= = √1 − 2
sin 𝑟 𝑓
By definition∅ at vertical incidence,
Angle of incidence Li = 0, N = N max, f = fc
As the angle of incidence goon decreasing and reaches to zero (vertical incidence) the
electron density go on increasing and reaches to maximum (𝑁𝑚 ).
Then the highest frequency that can be reflected back by the ionosphere is one for which
refractive index 𝜇 becomes zero.
sin 𝑖 81𝑁
𝜇= = √1 − 2
sin 𝑟 𝑓
Li = 00 then
81𝑁𝑚
O = √1 −
𝑓𝑐2
81𝑁𝑚
1= ⇒ 𝑓𝑐 = √81𝑁𝑚
𝑓𝑐2
fc = 9√𝑁𝑚
Where fc is expressed in MHz and 𝑁𝑚 in per cubic meter
Thus critical frequency gives an idea that radio waves of frequency equal or less than the
critical frequency will certainly be reflected back by the ionosphere layer irrespective of
202 | P a g e
angle of incidence. Radio waves of angle of incidence. Radio waves of frequency greater than
critical frequency will also be returned to earth only when the angle of incidence (i) is
sufficiently glancing or it will penetrate the concerned layer. Thus for a wave of frequency
greater than critical frequency to be reflected, condition is
Sin i > 𝜇𝑚
81𝑁𝑚
> √1 −
𝑓2
𝑓𝑐2
> √−1
𝑓2
Virtual height:-
Virtual and actual heights of ionized layer
In the above shown figure, the radio wave is refracted from the layer, it is bent down
gradually rather sharply. The actual path of wave in the ionized layer is a curve and is due to
the refraction of the wave. Since it is more convenient to think of wave being reflected rather
than refracted therefore the path can be assumed to be straight lines TD and RD as shown.
This assumption is made in the measurements of height of a layer. The height OD is called
the virtual height of ionized layer as it is not the true height. The virtual height is always
greater than the actual height if the virtual height of layer is known, then it is easy to calculate
the angle of incidence required for wave to return to earth at a desired point
Virtual height of an ionosphere layer may be defined as the height to which a short pulse of
energy sent vertically upward and travelling with speed of light would reach taking the same
two ways travel time as does the actual pulse reflected from the layer.
203 | P a g e
The commonest method of virtual height measurement is that in which the transmitted signal
consists of pulses of RF energy of short duration. The receiver which is located close to the
transmitter picks up both the direct and reflected signals. The spacing between these signals
on time axis of CRO gives a measurement of height of layer.
The virtual height has the greatest advantage of being easily measured, and it is very useful in
transmission path – calculations. For flat earth assumption and assuming that the ionosphere
conditions are symmetrical for the incident and reflected waves,
Then from the figure
𝐷𝑜 ℎ
tan 𝛽 = =
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑅/2
𝑇𝑅 ℎ 𝑇𝑅
Or = ∴ 𝑇𝑜 =
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 2
2ℎ
𝑇𝑅 = =𝐷
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
When curvature earth is accounted for, then the transmission path distance may be calculated
from the geometry. From ∆ ToD
sin 𝑖 sin(𝜋−∝)
= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
𝑅 𝑅+ℎ
LOTD = 𝜋 − 𝐿𝑖 + 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝜋−∝ = 𝜋 − (𝑖 + 𝜃)
𝑖 =∝ −𝜃
Hence putting this in above equation, we get
sin(∝ −𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝

=
𝑅 𝑅+ℎ
𝑅. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
Or sin(∝ −𝜃) =
𝑅+ℎ
204 | P a g e
𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
∝ −𝜃 = cos −1 [ ]
𝑅+ℎ
𝑅. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
𝜃 =∝ −𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [
𝑅+ℎ
From the figure
900 = ∝ +𝛽
∝ = 900 − 𝛽
Hence
𝑅 sin ∝
𝜃 = (90 − 𝛽) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑅+ℎ
𝑅. sin(90 − 𝛽)
= (90 − 𝛽) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑅+ℎ
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝜃 = 90 − 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝑅+ℎ
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑇𝑐 𝐷/2 𝐷
Angle = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = = =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅
𝑅 cos 𝛽
D = 2R. 𝜃 = 2𝑅 [(90 − 𝛽) − sin−1[ ]]
𝑅+ℎ
Measurement of virtual height is normally carried out by an instrument known as an
IONOSONDE.
The virtual height is then given by
𝑐𝑇
h = = 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
𝑐 = 𝑣𝑒; 𝑝𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
Maximum usable frequency:- (MUF)

Critical frequency is the maximum frequency of the radio wave which is returned from a
ionized layer at vertical incidence. However when the frequency of radio wave exceeds the
critical frequency, then the influence of the ionosphere layer on the path of propagation
depends on the angle of incidence at the ionosphere. Thus the maximum usable frequency
(MUF) is also a limiting frequency which can be reflected back to earth but this time for
some specific angle of incidence rather than the vertical. The maximum possible value of
frequency for which reflection takes place for a given distance of propagation, is called as
maximum usable frequency (MUF) for that distance, and for the given ionosphere layer. If
the wave frequency is higher than this then the wave penetrates the ionized layer and does not
reflect back to the earth.
205 | P a g e
Stating in another way MUF can also be defined as the frequency which makes a given
receiving point corresponds to distance from the transmitter equal to skip distance. Still
another way of saying MUF is the highest frequency which can be used for sky wave
communication between two given points on earth. Normal value of MUF vary from 8MHz.
however after us usual solar activity it may be as high as 50MHz. at the same time the highest
working frequency between two particular points on earth is obviously a bit less than MUF
For a Sky wave to relearn to earth, angle of refraction ie θr = 900, which implies N = Nmax
and f = fmuf ie the maximum frequency
sin 𝑖 81𝑁𝑚
𝜇= 0
= √1 − 2
sin 90 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹
81𝑁𝑚
𝜇 = sin 𝑖 = √1 − 2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹
81𝑁𝑚
sin 𝑖 = √1 − 2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹
𝑓𝑐2
sin2 𝑖 1 − 2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹
𝑓𝑐2
2 = 1 − sin2 𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹
2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑖 𝑓𝑐2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 = sec 𝑖. 𝑓𝑐
This is known as secant law and gives the maximum frequency which can be used for sky
wave communication for a given angle of incidence.
i) Between two points on earth. The angle (i) corresponding to this limiting distance is about
740 for f – layer hence maximum usable frequency for this case is given by
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 = 3.6𝑓𝑐
Calculation of MUF:-
Case I): -
Thin layer (or Flat earth)
206 | P a g e
Reflection from a thin layer on flat earth.
The ionized layer may be assumed to be thin layer with sharp ionization density gradient,
which gives mirror like reflection of radio waves as shown. For the shorter distance of
communication (say up to 500km) the earth can be assumed to be flat
From the fig.
𝐵𝑂 ℎ 2ℎ
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝐼 = = =
𝐴𝐵 2 √4ℎ2 + 𝐷2
√ℎ2 + 𝐷
4
h = height of layer
D = propagation distance AC
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) for which the wave is to be reflected from the layer
returning to earth, f = 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 , sin r = sin 900, & N = 𝑁𝑚 . Hence
81𝑁
𝜇 = sin 𝑖 = √1 − 2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹
2
𝑓𝑒2
=> 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 1 − 2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹
2
𝑓𝑐2 4ℎ2
cos 𝑖 = 2 = 2
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 4ℎ + 𝐷2
2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 4ℎ2 + 𝐷2
=
𝑓𝑐2 4ℎ2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 𝐷2
= √1 + 2
𝑓𝑐 4ℎ
𝐷 2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 . √1 + ( )
2ℎ
207 | P a g e
Case II:-
Thin layer (curved earth):-
If the curvature of earth is taken into account the reflecting region is considered to be
concentric with earth, where transmitted wave leaves the transmitter tangentially to the earth,
het 2𝜃 be the angle subtended by the transmission distance ‘D’ at the center of earth o.
𝐴𝑟𝑐
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐷
∴ 2𝜃 =
𝑅
D = 2R 𝜃
Now AT = R sin𝜃
𝑂𝑇 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
BT = OE + EB – OT = h + R – R cos𝜃
𝐴𝐵 = √𝐴𝑇 2 + 𝐵𝑇 2
= √(𝑅 sin 𝜃)2 + (ℎ + 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos 𝜃)2
𝐵𝑇
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖 =
𝐴𝐵
ℎ + 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos 𝜃
=
√(𝑅 sin 𝜃)2 + (ℎ + 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
𝐹𝑐2 (ℎ + 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 = 2 =
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 (𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + (ℎ + 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
The curvature of earth limits both the MUF and skip distance D and the limit is obtained
when waves leave the transmitter at grazing angle. (Lo AB = 900)
208 | P a g e
The when D is maximum, 𝜃 is maximum, then
𝑂𝐴 𝑅 ℎ
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = = (1 + )−1
𝑂𝐵 𝑅 [1 + ℎ ] 𝑅
𝑅
ℎ
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 − + ……………
𝑅
𝜃2 ℎ
1− =1−
2! 𝑅
2ℎ
𝜃2 =
𝑅
Hence
2ℎ
𝐷2 = 4𝑅 2 𝜃 2 = 4𝑅 2 = 8ℎ𝑅
𝑅
𝐷2
ℎ=
8𝑅
ℎ 𝐷2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 − = 1 − 2 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑅 8𝑅
𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 =
2𝑅
2
𝐷2
𝐹𝑐2 {ℎ + 𝑅 − 𝑅 (1 − )}
8𝑅 2
= 2
(𝐹𝑚𝑢𝑓 )2 𝐷2 𝐷2
{𝑅 2 . + [ℎ + 𝑅 − 𝑅 [1 − ]]}
4𝑅 2 8𝑅 2
𝐷2
(ℎ + 8𝑅 )2
= 2
𝐷2 𝐷2
+ {ℎ +
4 8𝑅 }
𝐷2 𝐷2 2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 √ 4 + (ℎ + 8𝑅 )
=
𝑓𝑐 2
√(ℎ + 𝐷 )2
8𝑅
2 2
√𝐷 + (ℎ + 𝐷 )2
4 8𝑅
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐.
2
√(ℎ + 𝐷 )2
8𝑅
(𝐷𝑆𝑖𝑝)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √8ℎ𝑅
209 | P a g e
As D is nothing but skip distance
𝐷2 𝐹𝑚𝑢𝑓 2
𝐷 = 2 (ℎ + ) √( ) −1
8𝑅 𝑓𝑐
Lowest usable frequency or (LUF):
The absorption of a high frequency (HF) radio wave in the D – region of the ionosphere is
proportional to the inverse square of the frequency. For the ionosphere transmission, the
optimum working frequency is selected as value about 15% less than MUF.
Because attenuation varies inversely with square of frequency of optimum working

frequency, selected But for the high frequencies, the reflection takes place from F – layer and
the waves suffer absorption. The waves undergo abnormal retardation and considerable
absorption takes place. Hence the strength of signal received on earth becomes very less.
Hence there is a limit on the highest frequency used as optimum working frequency and it is
denoted as lowest usable high frequency
The LUHF is defined as the lowest frequency in the frequency band. For satisfactory
reception for given transmission distance and power thus for useful ionosphere propagation
the frequency should be selected between MUF and LUHF. This depends on
i) The effective radiated power
ii) The radio noise of receiver and type of receiver
Optimum working frequency: - (OWF)

For the ionosphere propagation, it is desirable to use as high frequency as possible. This
clearly points out that the frequency used for ionosphere transmission should be the
maximum usable frequency ie MUF. But MUF depends upon the distance between the
transmitter and receiver and also upon state of ionosphere. If is observed that due to daily
continuous changes and irregularities in the ionosphere, the MUF varies about 15% of its
maximum value. Hence practically the frequency used should be 15% less than the value of
MUF. Thus frequency normally used for the ionosphere propagation is known as optimum
working frequency. The OWF is defined as the frequency lying between 50 – 85% of
predicted MUF between transmission and reception
It is observed that the maximum usable frequency (MUF) at a particular location varies
considerably with time of day, from season to season and from months to months. As OWF is
selected as fraction of MUF, the OWF varies in a similar way the MUF varies.
210 | P a g e
Skip distance (D Skip):-
Radio wave radiated horizontally from a transmitter near the earth’s surface is quickly
absorbed due to large ground losses and hence short distance communication is carried out by
these horizontal radiations of ground or surface wave. Radio wave radiated at high angle may
not be bent sufficiently at the ionosphere layers to return to earth at all and hence escapes
rather penetrates the layer. Thus radio wave radiated at shallow angle just great enough to
escape absorption by the earth, will enter the lower layer, suffer attenuation, be bent at the
upper layer and return to earth.
In other words between, the distance at which surface wave becomes negligible, and the
distance at which the first wave returns to earth from the ionosphere layer, there is a zone
which is not covered by any wave, *neither ground nor sky). This is called skip zone or area
and the distance across it is called ‘slip distance’.
Hence skip distance may be defined as
i) The minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave of given frequency is
returned to earth by the ionosphere. If is represented by D skip
ii) The minimum distance from the transmitter to a point where sky wave of given frequency
is first received
iii) The minimum distance within which a sky wave of a given frequency is first received
iv) The minimum distance for which sky wave propagation just takes place and no sky wave
propagation is possible for points nearer than this distance.
The higher the frequency, higher the skip distance and for a frequency less than critical
frequency of a layer skip distance is zero
As the angle of impudence at the ionosphere decreases, the distance from the transmitter, at
which the ray returns to ground first decreases. This behavior continues until eventually an
211 | P a g e
angle of incidence is reached at which the distance becomes minimums this minimum
distance is called skip distance with further decrease of angle of incidence, the wave
penetrates the layer (as wave no’s 3 and 4)and does not return to earth. Intact, skip distance is
the distance skipped over by the sky wave.
This happens because
81𝑁
𝜇 = sin 𝑖 = √1 −
𝑓2
As the angle of incidence is very large (as in wave no1) then equation is satisfied with small
electron density. This means𝜇, is slightly less than unity and hence wave returns after slight
penetration into the layer.
As the angle of incidence is further decreased (as in wave no 2) sin I decrease still more and
so also the 𝜇, as N becomes comparatively more. Hence the wave penetrates still more before
it reaches to earth.
Lastly when angle of incidence is small enough so that 𝜇 = sin i cannot be satisfied even by
the maximum electron density of layer, then wave penetrates (as the wave no s 3 and 4)
The frequency which makes a given distance corresponds to skip distance is the max usable
frequency for those two points
For a given frequency of propagation f = fmuf the skip distance is calculated as
𝐹𝑚𝑢𝑓 𝐷 2 𝐹𝑚𝑢𝑓 2
√
= 1 + ( ) 𝑜𝑟 ( )
𝑓𝑐 2ℎ 𝑓𝑐
𝐹𝑚𝑢𝑓 2
𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 = 2ℎ√( ) −1
𝑓𝑐
212 | P a g e
Duct propagation (Super refraction)
Super – refraction in atmospheric duct.
At VHF, UHF and microwaves, the waves neither reflected by ionosphere nor propagated
along earth’s surface, but the transmission does occur much beyond the los distance due to
the refraction of such high frequency waves in the troposphere.
Troposphere is the region 16km above the earth and in this temperature falls at a rate of 6.50
per km. region next to troposphere is strata pause where the temperature almost remains
content to – 500C. Inside the troposphere the atmosphere has dielectric constant slightly
greater than unity.
A normal or standard atmosphere is one where the dielectric constant is assumed to decrease
uniformly with height to a value of unity where air density is essentially zero. However in
actuality the condition of so called standard atmosphere hardly exists. These conditions
giving the phenomena of scattering, refraction and reflection give a new phenomenon called
“super refraction” or duct propagation. In this two boundary surfaces between layers of air
form a duct or a sort of “leaky wave guide which guide the Em wave between its walls, when
the frequency is sufficiently high, the region where variation of dielectric constant or
refractive index is usually high, actually traps the energy causes it to travel along the earth’s
surface as hap pen’s in waveguide.
The higher frequencies are thus continuously refracted in the duct and reflected by the ground
so that they propagate around the curvature for beyond los, even up to a distance of 1000km.
this special refraction of Em waves is called super refraction. And this process is called duct
propagation.
The main requirement for duct propagation is the temperature inversion. The ducts also do
not allow, the signals of wavelengths above certain max value of 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.084𝑑3/2 𝑐𝑚
213 | P a g e
214 | P a g e

AWP Unit I To V Notes

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AWP Unit I To V Notes

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ANTENNAS AND WAVE

Thin Liner Wire Antennas:

A Short History of Antennas:

i. In the transmitting mode it is used to radiate electromagnetic waves.

An antenna is an advanced wireless system is usually required to optimize or accentuate

The world of antennas encompasses the understanding of the meaning, purpose

In principle, there is no difference in selection factors relating to transmitting and

Normalized power pattern antenna pattern parameters:

Antenna pattern parameters:

HPBW: half power beam width:

FNBW: first null beam width:

(a) Field patterns in polar coordinates b) power pattern

Antenna parameters and definitions:

Irrespective of type of application of an antennas or antenna system all the antennas

Pr → Radial component of average power density poynting vector in W/m2

ds → Infinitesimal element of area of sphere in m2 = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ

r → Radius of sphere in ‘m’

Field radiation Pattern:

i) Eθ (θ, ∅) → the θ − component of ⃗E as a function of θ and ∅

In general, the field pattern is expressed mathematically in terms of relative field

As the three dimensional pattern cannot be plotted in a plane, three dimensional

Field radiation patterns for vertical dipoles.

Two wavelengths Field radiation pattern for vertical dipoles

1 |E (θ, ∅)|2 1 |E (θ, ∅)|2

η0 = Intrinsic impendence = 120 π Ω

Pd (θ, ϕ) |E (θ, ∅)|2

Pd (θ, ϕ) = f 2 (θ, ϕ) = sin2 θ

The total circumference of a circle is 2πr i.e. C = 2πr

Thus over a complete circle there are 2π radians

Ω → solid angle subtended by area A.

solid angle or sphere

= 3282.81 sq. deg

The Infinitesimal area ds on the surface of a sphere with radius r, is given by

Hence the element of solid angle dΩ of a sphere is

= 41231.968 sq. deg

max radiation intensity form subject antenna

max radiation intensity from test antenna

∅1m = max radiation intensity from test antenna

∅0 = radiantion intensity form a loss less isotropic antenna

∅(θ , ∅) = radiation intensity in a particular direction.

∅av = average radiation intensity in that direction

Radiation intensity in a part direction

Gd (db) = 10 log10 Gd (θ, ∅)

Power density radiated in a part directed by sub antenna

power density radiated in a particular dirt by the subject antenna

η = efficiency factor lies let 0 and t thus when η = 1

Ra. intensity in a given direction

Wl = ohmic loss of antenna

3) In terms of power input power gain is given by

Power input supplied to subjt antenna in the dirt of max radiation

Max. radiation intensity of test antenna

2) Directivity D of an antenna may also be defined as the ratio of maximum radiation

max. Radiatin intensity test antenna

ϕ(θ , ϕ)max (test antenna)

3) Alternatively another way to expressing the directivity of an antenna is in terms of total

Power radiated from test antenna

W ′ ( form test antenna)

In general directivity may be represented by D(θ, ϕ) and is given by

The directivity D is also expressed in decibels as

The numerical value of directivity D always lies between 1 and ∞. i.e. 1 ≤ D ≤ ∞

Differences between Directive Gain and Directivity:

max Rad. intensity of test antenna

ϕ(θ , ϕ)max (test antenna)