MAT 051-Limits PDF

CALCULUS I
RENE E. LEONIDA, Ph.D.
Department of Mathematics
College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Mindanao State University
General Santos City
August 2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE 1
1 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 1

1.1 Intuitive Idea of Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Definition of Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Limit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.7 Continuity of a Function at a Real Number . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.8 Continuity of a Function at an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.9 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF TRANCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 75

2.1 Limits and Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions . . . . . 75
2.2 Limits and Continuity of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 85
2.3 Limits and Continuity of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . 91
3 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 101

3.1 Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.2 Theorems on Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4 Derivative of the Natural Lorarithmic Function . . . . . . . . 115
3.5 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function . . . . . . . . 119
3.6 Derivatives of Other Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . 121
3.7 Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . 123
3.8 Derivatives of the Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.9 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.10 Derivatives of Higher Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.11 The Indeterminate Form 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
±∞
3.12 The Indeterminate Form ±∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.13 Other Indeterminate Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
CHAPTER 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
1.1 Intuitive Idea of Limit
Let f be a function defined at each x on some open interval I containing

the number a, except possibly at a itself. If we say that ”the real number L is
the limit of f (x), as x approaches a” (written f (x) → L as x → a), then we
roughly say that f (x) gets closer and closer to L as x gets closer and closer to
a. Let us consider some examples.
Example 1.1.1 Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = x + 1 and a = 1. Then f

is defined for all x ∈ R. Hence, f is defined for all x on every open interval
I containing a = 1. Note that f is defined at a = 1. Let us investigate the
function values f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 1 but not equal to 1.
Consider the tables below.
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999

f (x) 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999
As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the left, the value of f (x) gets
closer and closer to 2.
x 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1

f (x) 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1
As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the right, the value of f (x) gets
Hence, f (x) approaches 2 as x approaches 1. In symbols, we write

lim f (x) = 2.
x→1
x2 − 4
Example 1.1.2 Let f : R\{2} → R defined by f (x) = and a = 2.
x−2
Then f is defined for all x ∈ R\{2}. Hence, f is defined for all x on every open
interval I containing a = 2 except at a = 2. Let us investigate the function
2
values f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 2 but not equal to 2. Consider
the tables below.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999

f (x) 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999
As x gets closer and closer to 2 from the left, the value of f (x) gets
x 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 4.00001 4.0001 4.001 4.01 4.1
As x gets closer and closer to 2 from the right, the value of f (x) gets
Hence, f (x) approaches 4 as x approaches 2. In symbols, we write

lim f (x) = 4.
x→2
|x|
Example 1.1.3 Let f : R\{0} → R defined by f (x) = and a = 0. Then f
x
is defined for all x ∈ R\{0}. Hence, f is defined for all x on every open interval
I containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Let us investigate the function values f (x)
when x gets closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0. Consider the tables below.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value of f (x) is always
−1.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 1 1 1 1 1
AS x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value of f (x) is
always 1.
Hence, f (x) does not approaches to a single value as x approaches 0.

In symbols, we write
3
lim f (x) does not exist.

x→0
1
x2
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) 100 104 106 108 1010
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value of f (x) increases
without bound.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 1010 108 106 104 100
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value of f (x) increases
without bound.
Hence, f (x) does not approach to a real number as x approaches 0. In

symbols, we write

x→0
Exercises: Evalute the following limits applying the ”Intuitive Idea of Limit”.
x2 + 2x
1. lim (3x − 2) 2. lim
x→0 x→−2 x + 2
x−3
3. lim (x2 + 2x − 3) 3. lim 2
x→1 x→3 x − 9
4
1.2 Definition of Limit of a Function
Definition 1.2.1 Let f be a function which is defined for all x on an open

interval I containing the number a, except possibly at itself. The limit of
f (x) as x approaches to a is L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if for every > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .
Example 1.2.2 Show that lim (2x + 1) = 3.

x→1
Solution: We show that for every > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
|(2x + 1) − 3| < whenever 0 < |x − 5| < δ.
We have
|(2x + 1) − 3| = |2x − 2| = |2(x − 1)| = 2|x − 1|.
Thus, we must show that
2|x − 1| < whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ,
or equivalently,

|x − 1| < 2
whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ.
Now, choose δ = 2 . Hence, we have

|x − 1| < 2
whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ,
or equivalently,
|2x + 1) − 3| < whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ,
Therfore,
lim (2x + 1) = 3.
x→1
5
1.3 Limit Theorems
We need some powerful rules to evaluate the limits of functions ina

straightforward manner. Hence, we enumerate some limit theorems.
Theorem 1.3.1 (Uniqueness of a Limit) Let f and g be functions such

that lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 , then L1 = l2 .
x→a x→a
Theorem 1.3.2 (Limit of a Constant Function) If c is a constant, then

for any real number a,
lim c = c.
x→a
Example 1.3.3 Evaluate lim 4.

x→0
Solution: By Theorem 1.3.2, lim 4 = 4.

x→0
√
2
Example 1.3.4 Evaluate lim .
x→−2 5
√ √
2 2
Solution: By Theorem 1.3.2, lim = .
x→−2 5 5
Theorem 1.3.5 (Limit of the Identity Function) For any real number a,
lim x = a.
x→a
√ x.
Example 1.3.6 Evaluate lim
x→ 3
√
Solution: By Theorem 1.3.5, lim
√ x = 3.
x→ 3
Example 1.3.7 Evaluate lim x.

x→− 25
6
2
Solution: By Theorem 1.3.5, lim2 x = − .
x→− 5 5
Theorem 1.3.8 (Limit of a Polynomial Function) If c0 , c1 , ..., cn−1 , cn are

constants, then for any real number a,
lim (cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + ... + c1 x + c0 ) = cn an + cn−1 an−1 + ... + c1 a + c0 .
x→a
Example 1.3.9 Evaluate lim (4x − 7).

x→3
Solution: By Theorem 1.3.8, lim (4x − 7) = 4(3) − 7 = 5.

x→3
Example 1.3.10 Evaluate lim (2x2 − 6x + 1).

x→−2
Solution:
By Theorem 1.3.8, lim (2x2 − 6x + 1) = 2(−2)2 − 6(−2) + 1 = 21.
x→−2
Theorem 1.3.11 (Limit of a Sum) Let f and g be functions such that

lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist. Then
x→a x→a
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a
The next result is an extension of Theorem 1.3.11.

Corollary 1.3.12 Let f1 , f2 ,...fn be functions such that lim f1 (x), lim f2 (x),...,lim fn (x)
x→a x→a x→a
all exist. Then
lim [f1 + f2 (x) + ... + fn (x)] = lim f1 (x) + lim f2 (x) + ... + lim fn (x).
x→a x→a x→a x→a
Example 1.3.13 Evaluate lim [(2x + 1) + (3x4 − x2 )].

x→−1
Solution: By Theorem 1.3.8,

lim (2x + 1) = 2(−1) + 1 = −1 and lim (3x4 − x2 ) = 3(−1)4 − (−1)2 = 2.
x→−1 x→−1
7
Therefore, by Theorem 1.3.11,
lim [(2x + 1) + (3x4 − x2 )] = lim (2x + 1) + lim (3x4 − x2 )

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= −1 + 2
= 1.
Example 1.3.14 Evaluate lim [(2x3 + 1) + (x2 − 5x) − (3x4 − 6)].

x→2
lim (2x3 + 1) = 2(2)3 + 1 = 17,

x→2
lim (x2 − 5x) = (2)2 − 5(2) = −6, and

x→2
lim (3x4 − 6) = 3(2)4 − 6 = 42.

x→2
Therefore, by Corollary 1.3.12,
lim [(2x3 + 1) + (x2 − 5x) − (3x4 − 6)] = lim (2x3 + 1) + lim (x2 − 5x) + lim (3x4 − 6)
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 17 − 6 − 42
= −31.
Theorem 1.3.15 (Limit of a Product) Let f and g be functions such that

lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist. Then
x→a x→a
lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a
By induction, we obtain the following extension of Theorem 1.3.15.
Corollary 1.3.16 Let f1 , f2 ,...fn be functions such that lim f1 (x), lim f2 (x),...,lim fn (x)
x→a x→a x→a
all exist. Then
lim [f1 · f2 (x) · · · fn (x)] = lim f1 (x) · lim f2 (x) · · · lim fn (x).
x→a x→a x→a x→a
8
Example 1.3.17 Evaluate lim [(2x + 1)(3x3 − x2 )].

x→2
lim (2x + 1) = 2(2) + 1 = 5 and lim (3x3 − x2 ) = 3(2)3 − (2)2 = 20.

x→2 x→2
lim [(2x + 1) · (3x3 − x2 )] = lim (2x + 1) · lim (3x3 − x2 )

x→2 x→2 x→2
= 5 · 20
= 100.
Example 1.3.18 Evaluate lim [2x3 (x2 − 5x)(3x4 − 6)].

x→1
lim (2x3 ) = 2(1)3 = 2,

x→1
lim (x2 − 5x) = (1)2 − 5(1) = −4, and

x→1
lim (3x4 − 6) = 3(1)4 − 6 = −3.

x→1
lim [2x3 (x2 − 5x)(3x4 − 6)] = lim (2x3 + 1) · lim (x2 − 5x) · lim (3x4 − 6)
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 2 · (−4) · (−3)
= 24.
Corollary 1.3.19 Let f be a function such that lim f (x) exist and k is a
x→a
constant. Then
lim kf (x) = k lim f (x).

x→a x→a
Example 1.3.20 Evaluate lim [25(3x3 − x2 )].

x→−2
9
lim (3x3 − x2 ) = 3(−2)3 − (−2)2 = −28.

x→−2
lim [25(3x3 − x2 )] = 25 · lim (3x3 − x2 )

x→−2 x→−2
= 25 · (−28)
= −700.
Theorem 1.3.21 Let f be a function such that lim f (x) exist and n a positive
x→a
integer. Then
h in
lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) .
x→a x→a
Example 1.3.22 Evaluate lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)4 .

x→3
lim (3x3 − x2 + 4) = 3(3)3 − 7(3)2 − 15 = 3.

x→3

h i4
lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)4 = lim (3x3 − 7x2 − 15)
x→3 x→3
4
= (3)
= 81.
Example 1.3.23 Evaluate lim [(7x2 − 5x + 2)(x4 + 4x2 − 1)]5 .

x→0
lim (7x2 − 5x + 2) = 2, and lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1) = −1.

x→0 x→0
10
By Theorem 1.3.15,
lim [(7x2 − 5x + 2)(x4 + 4x2 − 1)] = lim (7x2 − 5x + 2) · lim (x4 + 4x2 − 1)
x→0 x→0 x→0
= 2 · (−1)
= −2.

h i4
2 4 2 5 2 4 2
lim [(7x − 5x + 2)(x + 4x − 1)] = lim (7x − 5x + 2)(x + 4x − 1)
x→0 x→0
= (−2)5
= −32.
Example 1.3.24 Evaluate lim [(5x + 2)3 (4x2 − 5)4 ].

x→1

lim (5x + 2) = 5(1) + 2 = 7, and lim (4x2 − 5) = 4(1)2 − 5 = −1.
x→1 x→1
By Theorem 1.3.21,
h i3
3
lim (5x + 2) = lim (5x + 2) = 73 = 343, and
x→1 x→1
h i4
lim (4x2 − 5)4 = lim (4x2 − 5) = (−1)4 = 1.
x→1 x→1
lim [(5x + 2)3 (4x2 − 5)4 ] = lim (5x + 2)3 · lim (4x2 − 5)4
x→1 x→1 x→1
= 343 · 1
= 343.
Theorem 1.3.25 Let f be a function such that lim f (x) exist and n a positive
q x→a
integer. If n lim f (x) is a real number, then
x→a
p q
n
lim f (x) = n lim f (x).
x→a x→a
11
√
3
Example 1.3.26 Evaluate lim 4x2 − 5x + 1.
x→−2

lim (4x2 − 5x + 1) = 4(−2)2 − 5(−2) + 1 = 27.
x→−2
Then,
q √
3
3 lim (4x2 − 5x + 1) = 27 = 3 ∈ R.
x→−2

√3
q
lim 4x2 − 5x + 1 = 3 lim (4x2 − 5x + 1)
x→−2 x→−2
= 3.
p
5
Example 1.3.27 Evaluate lim (2x3 − 5x + 1)3 .
x→−1

lim (2x3 − 5x + 1) = 2(−1)3 − 5(−1) + 1 = 4.
x→−1
By Theorem 1.3.21,
3
3 3 3
lim (2x − 5x + 1) = lim (2x − 5x + 1) = 43 = 26 .
x→−1 x→−1
Then
q √
5
5 lim (2x3 − 5x + 1)3 = 26 ∈ R.
x→−1

p q
lim 5 (2x3 − 5x + 1)3 = 5 lim (2x3 − 5x + 1)3
x→−1 x→−1
√5
= 26
√5
= 2 2.
Theorem 1.3.28 (Limit of a Quotient) Let f and g be functions such that

lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist. If lim g(x) 6= 0, then
x→a x→a x→a
12
f (x) lim f (x)

lim = x→a .
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a
x3 + 3
x→3 3x2 − 4x

lim (x3 + 3) = (3)3 + 3 = 30 and lim (3x2 − 4x) = 3(3)2 − 4(3) = 15 6= 0.
x→3 x→3
x3 + 3 lim (x3 + 3)
x→3
lim =
x→3 3x2 − 4x lim (3x2 − 4x)
x→3
30
=
15
= 2.
(2x + 8)4
Example 1.3.30 Evaluate lim √ .
x→−3 4x2 − 11
lim (2x + 8) = 2(−3) + 8 = 2
x→−3
and by Theorem 1.3.21,

4
4
lim (2x + 8) = lim (2x + 8) = 24 = 16.
x→−3 x→−3
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (4x2 − 11) = 4(−3)2 − 11 = 25.
x→−3
Thus,
q √
lim (4x2 − 11) = 25 = 5 ∈ R.
x→−3
By Theorem 1.3.25,
13
√ q
lim 4x2 − 11 = lim (4x2 − 11) = 5 6= 0.
x→−3 x→−3
Therefore, Theorem 1.3.28,
(2x + 8)4 lim (2x + 8)4

x→−3
lim √ = √
x→−3 4x2 − 11 lim 4x2 − 11
x→−3
16
= .
5
x2 − 4
x→2 x + 2

lim (x2 − 4) = (2)2 − 4 = 0 and lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4 6= 0.
x→2 x→2
Therefore, Theorem 1.3.28,
x2 − 4 lim (x2 − 4)
x→2
lim =
x→2 x + 2 lim (x + 2)
x→2
0
=
4
= 0.
x2 − 4
x→2 x − 2

lim (x2 − 4) = (2)2 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2 x→2
Since lim (x − 2) = 0, Theorem 1.3.28 does not apply.

x→2
x2 + 4
x→2 x − 2

14
lim (x2 + 4) = (2)2 + 4 = 8 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2
Since lim (x − 2) = 0, Theorem 1.3.28 does not apply.

x→2
Theorem 1.3.34 Let F and G be functions such that F (x) = G(x) for all
x 6= a. If lim G(x) exists, then lim F (x) exists. Moreover,
x→a x→a
lim F (x) = lim G(x).

x→a x→a
x2 − 4
x→2 x − 2
lim (x2 − 4) = 4 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2
Since the limits of the numerator and denominator are both zero, we apply
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= 2, then x − 2 6= 0. Hence,
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2
x−1
x→1 x−1
lim (x − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→1
15
Then
q √
lim (x − 1) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim x−1= lim (x − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= 1, then x − 1 6= 0. Rationalizing the denominator, we get

√
x−1 x−1 x−1
√ =√ ·√
x−1 x−1 x−1
√
(x − 1) x − 1
=
√ x−1
= x − 1.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→1
Thus,
q √
lim (x − 1) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim x−1= lim (x − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1

x−1 √
lim √ = lim x − 1 = 0.
x→1 x − 1 x→1
√
x+5−2
x→−1 x+1
lim (x + 5) = −1 + 5 = 4.
x→−1
16
Then
q √
lim (x + 5) = 4 = 2 ∈ R.
x→−1
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim x+5= lim (x + 5) = 2.
x→−1 x→−1
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 2 = 2.
x→−1
Hence, by Theorem 1.3.11,

√ √
lim [ x + 5 − 2] = lim x + 5 − lim 2 = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 1) = −1 + 1 = 0.
x→−1
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= −1, then x + 1 6= 0. Rationalizing the numerator, we get

√ √ √
x+5−2 x+5−2 x+5+2
= ·√
x+1 x+1 x+5+2
x+1
= √
(x + 1)( x + 5 + 2)
1
=√ .
x+5+2
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1 and lim 2 = 2,
x→−1 x→−1
by Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 5) = −1 + 5 = 4,
x→−1
Thus,
q √
lim (x + 5) = 4 = 2 ∈ R.
x→−1
17
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim x+5= lim (x + 5) = 2
x→−1 x→−1

√ √
lim ( x + 5 + 2) = lim x + 5 + lim 2 = 2 + 2 = 4 6= 0.
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
By Theorem 1.3.28,
1 lim 1 1
x→−1
lim √ = √ = .
x→−1 x+5+2 lim ( x + 5 + 2) 4
x→−1

√
x+5−2 1 1
lim = lim √ = .
x→−1 x+1 x→−1 x+5+2 4
s
y3 + 8
y→−2 y+2
y3 + 8
Solution: First, let us evaluate lim .
y→−2 y + 2
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (y 3 + 8) = (−2)3 + 8 = 0 and lim (y + 2) = −2 + 2 = 0

y→−2 y→−2
Since the limit of the numerator and denominator are both zero, we apply
Theorem 1.3.34.
If y 6= −2, then y + 2 6= 0. Factoring the numerator, we get
y3 + 8 (y + 2)(y 2 − 2y + 4)
=
y+2 y+2
2
= y − 2y + 4.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (y 2 − 2y + 4) = (−2)2 − 2(−2) + 4 = 12.

y→−2
18
Thus, by Theorem 1.3.34,

y3 + 8
lim = lim (y 2 − 2y + 4) = 12.
y→−2 y + 2 y→−2
Hence,
s
y3 + 8 √ √
lim = 12 = 2 3 ∈ R.
y→−2 y + 2

s s
y3 + 8 y3 + 8 √
lim = lim = 2 3.
y→−2 y+2 y→−2 y + 2
Exercises:
I. Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate, indicate the limit theorems
being applied: r
2x + 1 8y + 1
1. lim 2 2. lim
x→−1 x − 3x + 4 y→1 y+3
r
2 2
3 t − 3t + 4 4x − 9
3. lim 4. lim
t→4 2t2 − t − 1 x→ 32 2x + 3
r r
8t3 − 27 3
3 x − 27
5. lim3 6. lim
t→ 2 4t2 − 9 x→3 x−3
√ √ √
3 y − 1
h+2− 2
7. lim 8. lim
y→1 y − 1 h→0 h
x3 − 8 x3 − x2 − x + 10
9. lim 2 10. lim
x→2 x − 4 x→−2 x2 + 3x + 2
II. If (
2x − 1, if x 6= 2
f (x) =
1, if x = 2.
find lim f (x) and show that lim f (x) 6= f (2). Sketch the graph of f .
x→2 x→2
III. If (
x2 − 9, if x 6= −3
f (x) =
4, if x = −3.
19
find lim f (x) and show that lim f (x) 6= f (−3). Sketch the graph of f .
x→−3 x→−3
1.4 One-Sided Limits

In our discussion of the limit of a function as the variable x approaches
a real numnber a, we are concerned with the values of x in an open interval
I containing a but not at a itself. Both values of x from the right and from
the left of a, which are close to a, are considered. The ordinary limit that
we defined is also called the two-sided limit. But, there are functions that are
not defined in any open interval containing a. Thus, we consider only either
those values of x greater then a or those values of x less than a. For example,
consider the function
√
f (x) = x − 2
Then f (x) is not defined if x < 2, which implies that f is not defined on any
open interval I containing 2. Thus,
lim f (x) has no meaning.

x→2
√
However, if we restrict values of x greater than 2, the value of x − 2 can be
made closer and closer to 0 as x gets closer and closer to 2 but greater than
2. in this case, as x approaches 2 from the right, the right-hand limit of f (x)
is 0. In symbols, we write
lim f (x) = L.
x→2+
Definition 1.4.1 (Right-Hand Limit) Let f be a function defined for all

x in some open interval (a, c). Then the limit of f (x) as x approaches a
from the right is L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
if for every > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < x − a < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .

20
Definition 1.4.2 (Left-Hand Limit) Let f be a function defined for all x

in some open interval (b, a). Then the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from
the left is L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if for every > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < a − x < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .
Remark 1.4.3 The limit theorems discussed earlier hold if ”x → a” is replaced

by ”x → a+ ” or ”x → a− ”.
6 − 2x
Example 1.4.4 Evaluate lim− .
x→3 x2 − 2x − 3
lim (6 − 2x) = 6 − 2(3) = 0 and lim− (x2 − 2x − 3) = (3)2 − 2(3) − 3 = 0.

x→3− x→3
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= 3, then x − 3 6= 0. Thus,
6 − 2x −2(x − 3) −2
= =
x2 − 2x − 3 (x − 3)(x + 1) x+1
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim (−2) = −2,

x→3−
lim (x + 1) = 3 + 1 = 4 6= 0.
x→3−
By Theorem 1.3.28,
−2 lim (−2) −2 −1
x→3−
lim− = = = .
x→3 x + 1 lim− (x + 1) 4 2
x→3
21

6 − 2x −2 −1
lim− = lim− = .
x→3 x2 − 2x − 3 x→3 x + 1 2
x−1
Example 1.4.5 Evaluate lim+ √ .
x→1 x2 − 1
lim (x − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0 and lim+ (x2 − 1) = (1)2 − 1 = 0.
x→1+ x→1
Then
q √
lim+ (x2 − 1) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim+ x2 − 1 = lim+ (x2 − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= 1, then x − 1 6= 0. Thus,
√
x−1 x−1 x2 − 1
√ =√ ·√
x2 − 1 x2 − 1 x2 − 1
√
(x − 1) x2 − 1
=
x2 √
−1
(x − 1) x2 − 1
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)
√
x2 − 1
= .
(x + 1)
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim+ (x2 − 1) = (1)2 − 1 = 0 and lim+ (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.
x→1 x→1
Hence,
q √
lim+ (x2 − 1) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1
22
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim+ x2 − 1 = lim+ (x2 − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1
Since lim+ (x + 1) 6= 0, by Theorem 1.3.28,

x→1
√
√ lim+ x2 − 1
x2−1 x→1 0
lim+ = = = 0.
x→1 x+1 lim (x + 1) 2
x→1+

√
x−1 lim+ x2 − 1
x→1
lim+ √ = = 0.
x→1 x2 − 1 lim+ (x + 1)
x→1
Theorem 1.4.6 lim f (x) exists if and only if lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) both
x→a x→a x→a
exist and are equal. Moreover,
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x).

x→a x→a x→a
Example 1.4.7 Let (

2x2 , if x < 1
f (x) =
3 − x, if 1 ≤ x.
Find lim f (x) if it exists.
x→1
Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f (x) at a = 1.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim f (x) = lim− (2x2 ) = 2(1)2 = 2.

x→1− x→1
and
lim f (x) = lim+ (3 − x) = 3 − 1 = 2.

x→1+ x→1
Thus,
23
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x).

x→1− x→1
By Theorem 1.4.6,
lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 2.

x→1 x→1
Example 1.4.8 Let


x + 4, if x < −3
√

f (x) = 2
9 − x , if −3 ≤ x ≤ 3

3 − x, if 3 < x.

Find lim f (x) and lim f (x) if they exist.

x→−3 x→3
Solution: (i) We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f (x) at a = −3.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim f (x) = lim − (x + 4) = −3 + 4 = 1.

x→−3− x→−3
and
lim (9 − x2 ) = 9 − (−3)2 = 0.
x→−3+
Thus,
q √
lim + (9 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→−3
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim + f (x) = lim + 9 − x2 = lim + (9 − x2 ) = 0.
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3
Since
lim f (x) 6= lim + f (x),

x→−3− x→−3
by Theorem 1.4.6,

x→1
24
(ii) We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f (x) at a = 3.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (9 − x2 ) = 9 − (−3)2 = 0.
x→3−
Thus,
q √
lim− (9 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→3
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim− f (x) = lim− 9 − x2 = lim (9 − x2 ) = 0.
x→3 x→3 x→3−
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim f (x) = lim+ (3 − x) = 3 − 3 = 0.

x→3+ x→3
Since
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x),

x→3− x→3
by Theorem 1.4.6,
lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 0.

x→1 x→1
Example 1.4.9 Evaluate

|x − 2|
lim .
x→2 x−2
Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of the function at
a = 2.
By the definition of the absolute value of a real number,
|x − 2| = −(x − 2) if x < 2 and |x − 2| = x − 2 if x > 2.
Thus,
|x − 2| −(x − 2) |x − 2| x−2
= = −1 if x < 2 and = = 1 if x > 2.
x−2 x−2 x−2 x−2
25
By Theorem 1.3.2,
|x − 2|
lim− = lim− (−1) = −1.
x→2 x−2 x→2
and
|x − 2|
lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1.
x→2 x−2 x→2
Since
|x − 2| |x − 2|
lim− 6= lim+ ,
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
by Theorem 1.4.6,
|x − 2|
lim does not exist.
x→2 x − 2
Exercises:
being applied: √ √
1. lim+ (x + x2 − 1) 2. lim− (x + x2 − 1)
x→1 x→1
√
x−2 x2 − 3x + 2
3. lim− 4. lim+ √
x→4 x−4 x→1 x2 − 1
√
p3
x2 (2 − x)
5. lim− p 6. lim− (x − 16 − x2 )
x→0 x(3 − x) x→4
√
r
4 − x2
7. lim− 8. lim (x − 16 − x2 )
x→2 6 − 5x + x2 x→4+
|x + 4|
9. lim− 10. lim− (|x − 1| + |x|)
x→4 3x + 12 x→1
26
II. Find the limit of the function if it exists. If the limit does not exist, state
the reason. Sketch the graph of the function.
(
x + 4, if x ≤ −4
1. f (x) =
4 − x, if −4 < x
(a) lim − f (x); (b) lim + f (x); (c) lim f (x)
x→−4 x→−4 x→−4

2
3 + t , if t < −2

2. f (t) = 0, if t = −2
 2
11 − t , if −2 < t

(a) lim− f (t); (b) lim+ f (t); (c) lim f (t)
t→−2 t→−2 t→−2

x + 1, if x < −1

3. f (x) = x2 , if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

2 − x, if 1 < x

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
(d) lim− f (x); (e) lim+ f (x); (f) lim f (x)
x→1 x→1 x→1

2, if x < −2
√

4. f (x) = 4 − x2 , if −2 ≤ x ≤ 2

−2, if 2 < x

x→−2 x→−2 x→−2
(d) lim− f (x); (e) lim+ f (x); (f) lim f (x)
x→2 x→2 x→2
(√
3
−x, if x ≤ 0
5. f (x) = √ 3
x, if 0 < x
(a) lim− f (x); (b) lim+ f (x); (c) lim f (x)
x→0 x→0 x→0
1.5 Infinite Limits

1
Let f : R\{0} → R defined by f (x) = and a = 0. Then f is defined
x2
for all x ∈ R\{0}. Hence, f is defined for all x on every open interval I
containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Let us investigate the function values f (x)
27
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) 100 104 106 108 1010
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value of f (x) increases
without bound.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 1010 108 106 104 100
without bound.
Hence, f (x) increases without bound as x approaches 0. In this case,

we write
lim f (x) = +∞.
x→0
Definition 1.5.1 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval
I containing the real number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f (x)
increases without bound as x approaches a, written
lim f (x) = +∞
x→a
if for every real number K > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) > K.
Remark 1.5.2 lim f (x) = +∞ can also be read as ”the limit of f (x), as x
x→a
approaches a, is positive infinity”. The one sided limits lim+ f (x) = +∞ and
x→a
lim− f (x) = +∞, can be defined accordingly.
x→a
Definition 1.5.3 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval
I containing the real number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f (x)
decreases without bound as x approaches a, written
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a
28
if for every real number K < 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f (x) < K.
Remark 1.5.4 lim f (x) = −∞ can also be read as ”the limit of f (x), as x
x→a
approaches a, is negative infinity”. The one sided limits lim+ f (x) = −∞ and
x→a
lim− f (x) = −∞, can be defined accordingly.
x→a
1
x
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

f (x) −100 −104 −106 −108 −1010
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value of f (x) decreases
without bound. Hence, f (x) decreases without bound as x approaches 0. In
this case, we write
lim f (x) = −∞.

x→0−
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

f (x) 1010 108 106 104 100
without bound. Hence, f (x) increases without bound as x approaches 0. In
this case, we write
lim f (x) = +∞.

x→0+
29
Theorem 1.5.6 If r is any positive integer, then

1
(i) lim+ r = +∞;
x→0 x (
1 −∞, if r is odd 1
(ii) lim− r = (iii) lim r = +∞, if r is
x→0 x +∞, if r is even x→0 x
even.
Example 1.5.7 Evaluate the following limits.

1 1
(1) lim+ 3 (2) lim+ 4
x→0 x x→0 x
1 1
(3) lim− 5 (4) lim− 6
x→0 x x→0 x
Solution: By Theorem 1.5.6(i),

1 1
(1) lim+ 3 = +∞, (2) lim+ = +∞
x→0 x x→0 x4
By Theorem 1.5.6(ii),
1 1
(3) lim− 5 = −∞, (4) lim− = +∞
x→0 x x→0 x6
Theorem 1.5.8 If a is a real number, and if lim g(x) = 0 and lim f (x) = c,
x→a x→a
where c is a constant not equal to zero, then
(i) if lim f (x) = c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then
x→a
f (x)
lim = +∞;
x→a g(x)
(ii) if lim f (x) = c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then
x→a
f (x)
lim = −∞;
x→a g(x)
(iii) if lim f (x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then
x→a
f (x)
lim = −∞;
x→a g(x)
(iv) if lim f (x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then
x→a
30
f (x)
lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)
Remark 1.5.9 Theorem 1.5.8 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ” or

”x → a− ”.
x2 + 4
Example 1.5.10 Evaluate lim+ .
x→2 x−2
lim (x2 + 4) = 8 and lim+ (x − 2) = 0.
x→2+ x→2
We wish to determine if the limit is +∞ or −∞.
Consider a real number x > 2 but closer to 2. Let x = 2.1. Then

2.1 − 2 = 0.1 > 0.
Hence,
lim+ (x2 + 4) > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through positive values.
x→2
Therefore, by Theorem 1.5.8(i),

x2 + 4
lim+ = +∞.
x→2 x−2
x−2
x→1 x2 + 2x − 3
lim+ (x − 2) = −1 and lim+ (x2 + 2x − 3) = 0.
x→1 x→1

(1.1)2 + 2(1.1) − 3) = 0.41 > 0.
31
Hence,
lim (x − 2) < 0 and (x2 + 2x − 3) → 0 through positive values.

x→1+
Therefore, by Theorem 1.5.8(iii),

x−2
lim+ = −∞.
x→1 x2 + 2x − 3
x−2
x→1 x2 + 2x − 3
lim− (x − 2) = −1 and lim− (x2 + 2x − 3) = 0.

x→1 x→1
Cosider a real number x < 1 but closer to 1. Let x = 0.9. Then
(0.9)2 + 2(0.9) − 3 = −0.39 < 0.
Hence,
lim (x − 2) < 0 and (x2 + 2x − 3) → 0 through negative values.

x→1−
Therefore, by Theorem 1.5.8(iv),

x−2
lim− = +∞.
x→1 x2 + 2x − 3
√
9 − x2
x→3 x−3
lim− (9 − x2 ) = 0 and lim− (x − 3) = 0.

x→3 x→3
Then
q √
lim− (9 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→3
32
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim− 9 − x2 = lim− (9 − x2 ) = 0.
x→3 x→3
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x < 3, then x − 3 < 0. Thus,

p √ √
x − 3 = − (3 − x)2 = − 3 − x 3 − x.
Hence,
√ √ √
9 − x2 3+x 3−x
= √ √
x−3 − 3−x 3−x
√
3+x
= √ .
− 3−x
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (3 + x) = 6 and lim− (3 − x) = 0,

x→3− x→3
Then
q √ q √
lim− (3 + x) = 6 ∈ R and lim− (3 − x) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→3 x→3
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q √
lim− 3+x= lim− (3 + x) = 6
x→3 x→3
and
√ q
lim− [− 3 − x] = − lim− (3 − x) = 0.
x→3 x→3
Consider a real number x < 3 but closer to 3. Let x = 2.9. Then

√ √
− 3 − 2.9 = − 0.1 < 0.
Hence,
√ √
lim− 3 + x > 0 and (− 3 − x) → 0 through negative values.
x→3
33
√
3+x
lim− √ = −∞.
x→3 − 3 − x

√ √
9 − x2 3+x
lim− = lim− √ = −∞.
x→3 x−3 x→3 − 3 − x
√
x2 − 9
x→3 x−3
lim (x2 − 9) = 0 and lim+ (x − 3) = 0.

x→3+ x→3
Then
q √
lim+ (x2 − 9) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→3
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim+ x2 − 9 = lim− (x2 − 9) = 0.
x→3 x→3
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x > 3, then x − 3 > 0. Thus,

p √ √
x − 3 = (x − 3)2 = x − 3 x − 3.
Hence,
√ √ √
x2 − 9 x+3 x−3
=√ √
x−3 x−3 x−3
√
x+3
= √ .
− x−3
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 3) = 6 and lim+ (x − 3) = 0,

x→3+ x→3
34
Then
q √ q √
lim+ (x + 3) = 6 ∈ R and lim+ (x − 3) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→3 x→3
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q √
lim+ x+3= lim+ (x + 3) = 6
x→3 x→3
and
√ q
lim+ [ x − 3] = lim+ (x − 3) = 0.
x→3 x→3

√ √
3.1 − 3 = 0.1 > 0.
Hence,
√ √
lim+ x + 3 > 0 and ( x − 3) → 0 through positive values.
x→3
√
x+3
lim+ √ = +∞.
x→3 x−3
√ √
x2 − 9 x+3
lim+ = lim+ √ = +∞.
x→3 x−3 x→3 x−3
Theorem 1.5.15 (i) If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real
x→a x→a
number, then
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = +∞.
x→a
(ii) If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real number, then
x→a x→a
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = −∞.

x→a
35
Remark 1.5.16 Theorem 1.5.15 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+ ”

or ”x → a− ”.

1 1
Example 1.5.17 Evaluate lim+ + .
x→1 x−1 x+1
1
Solution: First, we evaluate lim+ .
x→1 x−1
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1,
x→1+

lim (x − 1) = 0.
x→1+
Consider a real numbner x > 1 but closer to 1. Let x = 1.1. Then

1.1 − 1 = 0.1 > 0.
Hence,
lim 1 > 0 and (x − 1) → 0 through positive values.
x→1+
By Theorem 1.5.8(i),
1
lim+ = +∞.
x→1 x−1
1
Next, we evaluate lim+ .
x→1 x+1
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1,
x→1+

lim (x + 1) = 2 6= 0.
x→1+

36
1 lim 1 1
x→1+
lim+ = = .
x→1 x+1 lim+ (x + 1) 2
x→1

1 1
lim + = +∞.
x→1+ x − 1 x+1

−3x x+4
Example 1.5.18 Evaluate lim− − .
x→2 2−x x+1
−3x
Solution: First, we evaluate lim− .
x→2 2−x
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (−3x) = −6 and lim− (2 − x) = 0.

x→2− x→2
Consider a real number x < 2 but closer to 2. Let x = 1.9. Then
2 − 1.9 = 0.1 > 0.
Hence,
lim (−3x) < 0 and (2 − x) → 0 through positive values.

x→2−
By Theorem 1.5.8(iii),
−3x
lim− = −∞.
x→2 2−x
x+4
Next, we evaluate lim− .
x→2 x+1
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 4) = 6 and lim− (x + 1) = 2 6= 0.

x→2− x→2

37
x+4 lim− (x + 4) 6
lim− = x→2 = = 3.
x→2 x+1 lim− (x + 1) 2
x→2

−3x x+4
lim − = −∞.
x→2− 2 − x x+1
Theorem 1.5.19 If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero

x→a x→a
real number, then
(i) if lim g(x) = c > 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a
(ii) if lim g(x) = c < 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a

or ”x → a− ”.

2x + 1 3x + 4
Example 1.5.21 Evaluate lim+ · .
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1 x + 5
2x + 1
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (2x + 1) = 3 and lim+ (x2 − 2x + 1) = 0.

x→1+ x→1
(1.1)2 − 2(1.1) + 1 = 0.01 > 0.
Hence,
lim (2x + 1) > 0 and (x2 − 2x + 1) → 0 through positive values.

x→1+
38
2x + 1
lim+ = +∞.
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1
3x + 4
x→1 x+5
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (3x + 4) = 7 and lim+ (x + 5) = 6 6= 0.

x→1+ x→1
3x + 4 lim+ (3x + 4) 7
lim+ = x→1 = > 0.
x→1 x+5 lim+ (x + 5) 6
x→1

2x + 1 3x + 4
lim · = +∞.
x→1+ x2 − 2x + 1 x+5

3x x−4
Example 1.5.22 Evaluate lim+ · .
x→2 2x − 4 x + 1
3x
x→2 2x − 4
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (3x) = 6 and lim+ (2x − 4) = 0.

x→2+ x→2
2(2.1) − 4 = 0.2 > 0.
Hence,
lim (3x) > 0 and (2x − 4) → 0 through positive values.

x→2+
39
3x
lim+ = +∞.
x→2 2x − 4
x−4
x→2 x+1
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x − 4) = −2 and lim+ (x + 1) = 2 6= 0.

x→2+ x→2
x−4 lim (x − 4) −2
x→2+
lim+ = = = −1 < 0.
x→2 x + 1 lim+ (x + 1) 2
x→2

3x x−4
lim · = −∞.
x→2+ 2x − 4 x + 1
Theorem 1.5.23 If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero

x→a x→a
real number, then
(i) if lim g(x) = c > 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a
(ii) if lim g(x) = c < 0, then lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a

or ”x → a− ”.

1 − 2x 3x + 4
Example 1.5.25 Evaluate lim − · .
x→−1 1 − x2 x + 5
1 − 2x
Solution: First, we evaluate lim − .
x→−1 1 − x2
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim − (1 − 2x) = 3 and lim − (1 − x2 ) = 0.

x→−1 x→−1
40
Consider a real number x < −1 but closer to −1. Let x = −1.1. Then
1 − (−1.1)2 = −0.21 < 0.
Hence,
lim (1 − 2x) > 0 and (1 − x2 ) → 0 through negative values.

x→−1−
1 − 2x
lim − = −∞.
x→−1 1 − x2
3x + 4
Next, we evaluate lim − .
x→−1 x+5
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (3x + 4) = 1 and lim − (x + 5) = 4 6= 0.

x→−1− x→−1

lim (3x + 4)
3x + 4 x→−1− 1
lim − = = > 0.
x→−1 x+5 lim (x + 5) 4
x→−1−

1 − 2x 3x + 4
lim · = −∞.
x→−1− 1 − x2 x+5

−3x x − 4
Example 1.5.26 Evaluate lim − · .
x→−2 x3 + 8 x + 3
−3x
Solution: First, we evaluate lim − .
x→−2 x3 + 8
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (−3x) = 6 and lim − (x3 + 8) = 0.

x→−2− x→−2
41
Consider a real number x < −2 but closer to −2. Let x = −2.1. Then
(−2.1)3 + 8 = −1.261 < 0.
Hence,
lim (−3x) > 0 and (x3 + 8) → 0 through negative values.

x→−2−
−3x
lim − = −∞.
x→−2 x3 + 8
x−4
Next, we evaluate lim − .
x→−2 x+3
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x − 4) = −6 and lim − (x + 3) = 1 6= 0.

x→−2− x→−2

lim (x − 4)
x−4 x→−2− −6
lim − = = = −6 < 0.
x→−2 x + 3 lim − (x + 3) 1
x→−2

−3x x − 4
lim · = +∞.
x→−2− x3 + 8 x + 3
Exercises:
being applied: √ √
3 + x2 x2 − 25
1. lim− 2. lim
x→0 x3 x→5+ x−5
√
25 − x 2 1 1
3. lim− 4. lim+ −
x→5 x−5 x→0 x x2
42

2x 2 5x
5. lim− 6. lim− −
x→3 |x − 3| x→4 x−4 x+4

2x + 5 6x x+1 x
7. lim + + 8. lim+ ·
x→−3 x−3 5x + 4 x→ 32 2x − 3 2x + 3

3 x+1 2 3
9. lim+ · 10. lim − 2 −
x→0 x 2x2 − 1 x→−4 x + 3x − 4 x + 4
1.6 Limits at Infinity
In this section, we consider limits of functions when the independent

variable either increases or decreases without bound. Let f be a function
defined by
x2
f (x) = x2 +1
We investigate the function values as x increases without bound. Consider the

table below.
x 10 102 103 104 105

f (x) .99 .9999 .999999 .99999999 .999999999
As x increases without bound, f (x) gets closer and closer to 1. In this

case, we write
x2
lim f (x) = lim 2 = 1.
x→+∞ x→+∞ x + 1
Definition 1.6.1 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some

open interval (a, +∞). The limit of f (x) as x increases without bound ,
is L, written
lim f (x) = L.
x→+∞
if for every >, there exists a real number N > 0 such that
if x > N , then |f (x) − L| < .

43
Definition 1.6.2 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some

open interval (−∞, a). The limit of f (x) as x decreases without bound
, is L, written
lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞
if for every >, there exists a real number N < 0 such that
if x < N , then |f (x) − L| < .
Theorem 1.6.3 If r is a positive integer and c is any real number, then

c c
(i) lim r = 0 and (ii) lim r = 0.
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x
Remark 1.6.4 Theorem 1.5.8 is still valid if x → a is replaced by x → +∞

or x → −∞.
x2 + 2
Example 1.6.5 Evaluate lim 2 .
x→+∞ x + 1
Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 (x2 is the highest power
of x occuring in either the numerator or the denominator).
x2 + 2 2
x 2 1+
= x2 = x2 .
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 1
1+
x2 x2
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1,
x→+∞
by Theorem 1.6.3(i),
2 1
lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x2 x→+∞ x2

44

2 2
lim 1 + 2 = lim 1 + lim 2 = 1 + 0 = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x→+∞ x
and

1 1
lim 1 + 2 = lim 1 + lim 2 = 1 + 0 = 1 6= 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x→+∞ x

2 2
1+ 2 lim 1 +
x x→+∞ x2 1
lim = = = 1.
1

x→+∞ 1 1
1+ 2 lim 1 +
x x→+∞ x 2

2
x2 + 2 1+ 2
lim = lim x = 1.
x→+∞ x2 + 1 x→+∞ 1
1+ 2
x
3x2 + 5
x→−∞ x3 − 4x
Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x3 .

3x2 + 5 3 5
2
3x + 5 3
+ 3
= 3x = x x .
3
x − 4x x − 4x 4
1− 2
x3 x
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1,
x→−∞
by Theorem 1.6.3(ii),
3 5 4
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x3 x→−∞ x2

3 5 3 5
lim + 3 = lim + lim 3 = 0 + 0 = 0.
x→−∞ x x x→−∞ x x→−∞ x
45
and

4 4
lim 1 − 2 = lim 1 − lim 2 = 1 − 0 = 1 6= 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x→−∞ x

3 5 3 5
+ 3 lim +
x x x→−∞ x x3 0
lim = = = 0.
4

x→−∞ 4 1
1− 2 lim 1 − 2
x x→−∞ x
3 5
3x2 + 5 + 3
lim = lim x x = 0.
x→−∞ x3 − 4x x→−∞ 4
1− 2
x
2x + 3
x→−∞ 2x2 − 7
√
Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 = |x|.
2x + 3 2x 3
+
2x + 3 |x| |x| |x|
√ = √ =r .
2x2 − 7 2x2 − 7 7
√ 2− 2
x2 x
Since x → −∞, it follows that x < 0. Thus, |x| = −x. Hence,
2x 3 3
2x + 3 + −2 −
√ = −x
r −x = r x .
2x2 − 7 7 7
2− 2 2− 2
x x
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 2 = 2 and lim (−2) = −2,
x→−∞ x→−∞
3 7
lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x2
46

3 3
lim −2 − = lim (−2) − lim = −2 + 0 = −2.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x→−∞ x
and

7 7
lim 2 − 2 = lim 2 − lim 2 = 2 − 0 = 2 ∈ R.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x→−∞ x

s
√
r
7 7
lim 2− 2 = lim 2 − 2 = 2 6= 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x

3 3
−2 − lim −2 − √
x x→−∞ x −2
lim r = r ! = √ = − 2.
x→−∞ 7 7 2
2− 2 lim 2− 2
x x→−∞ x

3
−2 −
lim √
2x + 3
= lim r x = −√2.
x→−∞ 2x2 − 7 x→−∞ 7
2− 2
x
2x + 3
x→+∞ 2x2 − 7
√
Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 = |x|.
2x + 3 2x 3
+
2x + 3 |x| |x| |x|
√ = √ =r .
2
2x − 7 2
2x − 7 7
√ 2− 2
x2 x
Since x → +∞, it follows that x > 0. Thus, |x| = x. Hence,
47
2x 3 3
2x + 3 + 2+
√ = rx x =r x .
2x2 − 7 7 7
2− 2 2− 2
x x
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 2 = 2,
x→+∞
3 7
lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x2

3 3
lim 2 + = lim 2 + lim = 2 + 0 = 2.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x→+∞ x
and

7 7
lim 2 − 2 = lim 2 − lim 2 = 2 − 0 = 2 ∈ R.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x→+∞. x

s
√
r
7 7
lim 2− 2 = lim 2 − 2 = 2 6= 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

3 3
2+ lim 2 + √
x x→+∞ x 2
lim r = r ! = √ = 2.
x→+∞ 7 7 2
2− 2 lim 2− 2
x x→+∞ x

3
2+
lim √
2x + 3
= lim r x = √2.
x→+∞ 2x2 − 7 x→+∞ 7
2− 2
x
48
2x − 3x2
x→+∞ 4x + 5

2x − 3x2 2
2x − 3x 2
2
−3
= x = x .
4x + 5 4x + 5 4 5
+
x2 x x2
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 3 = 3,
x→+∞
2 3 5
lim = 0, lim= 0, and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x2

2 2
lim − 3 = lim − lim 3 = 0 − 3 = −3.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞
and

4 5 4 5
lim + 2 = lim + lim 2 = 0 + 0 = 0.
x→+∞ x x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
Consider a very large positivevreal number x. Let x = 103 . Then

3 5
+ > 0.
103 (103 )2
Hence,

2 3 5
lim − 3 < 0 and + → 0 through positive values.
x→+∞ x x x2
Therefore, by Theorem 1.5.8(iii),
2x − 3x2
lim = −∞.
x→+∞ 4x + 5
49
2x − 3x2
x→−∞ 4x + 5

2x − 3x2 2
2x − 3x 2
2
−3
= x = x .
4x + 5 4x + 5 4 5
+
x2 x x2
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 3 = 3,
x→−∞
2 3 5
lim = 0, lim = 0, and lim = 0.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x x→−∞ x2

2 2
lim − 3 = lim − lim 3 = 0 − 3 = −3.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x x→−∞
and

4 5 4 5
lim + 2 = lim + lim 2 = 0 + 0 = 0.
x→−∞ x x x→−∞ x x→−∞ x
Consider a very small negative real number x. Let x = −104 . Then

3 5 3 5
4
+ 4 2
= − 4 + 6 < 0.
−10 (−10 ) 10 10
Hence,

2 3 5
lim − 3 < 0 and + → 0 through negative values.
x→−∞ x x x2
Therefore, by Theorem 1.5.8(iv),
2x − 3x2
lim = +∞.
x→−∞ 4x + 5
50
Exercises:
being applied:
6x − 4 x2 + 5
1. lim 2. lim
x→−∞ 3x + 1 x→+∞ x3
2x2 − 3x 5x3 + 7
3. lim 4. lim
x→+∞ x + 5 x→−∞ 4x2 + 1
√
5x3 + 7 x2 + 2
5. lim 6. lim
x→−∞ 4x2 − 1 x→+∞ x2 + 2
√ √
x2 + 2 x4 + 1
7. lim 8. lim
x→−∞ x2 + 2 x→−∞ 2x2 − 5

2 1−x
9. lim − 5x 10. lim √
x→+∞ x2 x→−∞ x − x2 − 1
1.7 Continuity of a Function at a Real Number

In our discussion of the limit of a function, we pointed out that if
lim f (x) exists, its value is not necessarily equal to f (a), the value of the
x→a
function at the real number a. In fact, f (a) may be undefined. If both f (a)
and lim f (x) exists and are equal, then f is continuous at a. We state the
x→a
following definition.
Definition 1.7.1 The function f is said to be continuous at the real

number a if the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exists;
(ii) lim f (x) exists;
x→a
(iii) lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
If one or more of these three conditions fails to hold at a, then the

functiion is said to be discotinuous at a. Geometrically, a function f is
discontinuous at a real number a if there a break or cut in the graph of y = f (x)
at x = a.
If f is discontinuous at a real number a but lim f (x) exists, then

x→a
either f (a) does not exist or lim f (x) 6= f (a). This is called a removable
x→a
discontinuity. Otherwise, it is called an essential discontinuuity.
51
Example 1.7.2 Determine if the function f (x) = x+2 is continuous at x = 2.
Solution: (i) f (2) = 2 + 2 = 4.

(ii) By Theorem 1.3.8, lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2
(iii) Hence, lim (x + 2) = f (2).
x→2
Therefore, by Definition 1.7.1, f is continuous at x = 2.
1
Example 1.7.3 Determine if the function f (x) = is continuous at x =
x−2
2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is removable
or essential.
1 1
Solution: (i) f (2) = = . Hence, f (2) is not defined.
2−2 0
Therefore, by Definition 1.7.1, f is discontinuous at x = 2.
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1,
x→2

lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2
1
Hence, lim does not exist.
x→2 x − 2
Therefore, the discontinuity of f at x = 2 is essential.
x2 − 4
Example 1.7.4 Determine if the function f (x) = is continuous at
x−2
x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is
removable or essential.
22 − 4 0
Solution: (i) f (2) = = . Hence, f (2) is not defined.
2−2 0
Therefore, by Definition 1.7.1, f is discontinuous at x = 2.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x2 − 4) = 22 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2 x→2
52
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= 2, then x − 2 6= 0. Thus,
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2
Therefore, the discontinuity of f at x = 2 is removable.
Example 1.7.5 Determine if the function

 2
x − 4
, if x 6= 2
f (x) = x − 2
0, if x = 2

is continuous at x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the

discontinuity is removable or essential.
Solution: (i) By the definition of f , f (2) = 0.
(ii) By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x2 − 4) = 22 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= 2, then x − 2 6= 0. Thus,
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
By Theorem 1.3.8,
53
lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2
x2 − 4
(iii) lim 6= f (2).
x→2 x − 2
Therefore, by Definition 1.7.1, f is discontinuous at x = 2. Moreover,

the discontinuity of f at x = 2 is removable.

 2
x − 4
, if x 6= 2
f (x) = x − 2
4, if x = 2

is continuous at x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the

Solution: (i) By the definition of f , f (2) = 4.
lim (x2 − 4) = 22 − 4 = 0 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.

x→2 x→2
Theorem 1.3.34.
If x 6= 2, then x − 2 6= 0. Thus,
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x−2 x−2
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2
54
x2 − 4
(iii) lim = 4 = f (2).
x→2 x − 2


5 + x, if x ≤ −2

f (x) = 2 − x, if −2 < x ≤ 2

4 − x2 , if x = 2

is continuous at x = −2 and at x = 2. If it is discontinuous, determine if the

Solution: (1) at a = −2.
(i) By the definition of f , f (−2) = 5 − 2 = 3.
lim f (x) = lim − (5 + x) = 3 and lim f (x) = lim + (2 − x) = 4.

x→−2− x→−2 x→−2+ x→−2
Since lim − f (x) 6= lim + f (x), by Theorem 1.4.6, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2
Therefore, by Definition 1.7.1, f is discontinuous at x = −2. Moreover,

the discontinuity of f at x = −2 is essential.
(1) at a = 2.
(i) By the definition of f , f (2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
lim− f (x) = lim− (2 − x) = 0 and lim+ f (x) = lim+ (4 − x2 ) = 0.

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
By Theorem 1.4.6, lim f (x) = 0.

x→2
(iii) lim f (x) = 0 = f (2).

x→2

55
Theorem 1.7.8 If f and g are functions where are continuous at x = a, then

f
f + g, f − g and f g are continuous at a. If g(a) 6= 0, then is also continuous
g
at a.
Exercises:
I. Determine if the given function is continuous at an indicated number a. If

it is discontinuous, determine if the discontinuity is removable or essential.
Sketch the graph of the function.
 5 , if x 6= 4
1. f (x) = x − 4 ; at x = 4.
2, if x = 4

x − 1, if x < 1

2. f (x) = 1, if x = 1 ; at x = 1.

1 − x, if 1 < x

 2
x + x − 6
, if x 6= −3
3. f (x) = x+3 ; at x = −3.
1, if x = −3


5√+ x,
 if x < −3
4. f (x) = 2
9 − x , if −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 ; at x = −3 and at x = 3.

5 − x, if 3 < x


1

 , if x ≤ 1
5. f (x) = x + 1
1 ; at x = 1.

 , if 1 < x
3−x
(
x + 2, if x ≤ 0
6. f (x) = ; at x = 0.
x2 + 2, if 0 < x
√
 x + 1 , if x 6= 0

7. f (x) = x ; at x = 0.
1,

if x = 0
2
56
 3
x + 1 if x 6= −1
8. f (x) = , ; at x = −1.
−1, if x = −1

9. f (x) = |x + 1| − x ; at x = −1.
4 − x2
10. f (x) = √ ; at x = 2.
3 − x2 + 5
1.8 Continuity of a Function at an Interval
Theorem 1.8.1 A polynomial function is continuous at every real number.
Example 1.8.2 Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1. Determine the real numbers at

which the function is continuous.
Solution: The function f (x) = x3 −3x2 +1 is a polynomial function. Therefore,

by Theorem 1.8.1, f (x) is continuous at every real number.
Theorem 1.8.3 A rational function is continuous at every real number in its

domain.
x3 + 4
Example 1.8.4 Let f (x) = . Determine the real numbers at which
x−3
the function is continuous.
Solution: We find the domain of f .

D(f ) = {x ∈ R : y = f (x)}
x3 + 4

= x∈R:y=
x−3
= {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}.
Since f is a rational function, by Theorem 1.8.3, f is continuous at all real

numbers except at 3.
57
x+1
Example 1.8.5 Let f (x) = . Determine the real numbers at which
x2 − 16
the function is continuous.
Solution: We find the domain of f .
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : y = f (x)}

x+1
= x∈R:y= 2
x − 16
2
= {x ∈ R : x − 16 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −4 and x 6= 4}.
Since f is a rational function, by Theorem 1.8.3, f is continuous at all real

numbers except at −4 and 4.
√
Theorem 1.8.6 If n is a positive integer and f (x) = n x, then
(i) if n is odd, then f is continuous at every real number.
(ii) if n is even, then f is continuous at every positive real number.
√
Example 1.8.7 (1) If f (x) = 3 x, then by Theorem 1.8.6(i), f is continuous
at every real number.
√
(2) If f (x) = x, then by Theorem 1.8.6(ii), f is continuous at every positive
real number real number.
Definition 1.8.8 A function is said to be continuous on an open interval if

it is continuous at every real number in the open interval.
Example 1.8.9 Determine the real numbers for which the function is continuous:
√
f (x) = 1 − x2 .
Solution: Let g(x) = 1 − x2 . Then g is a polynomial function. By Theorem

1.8.1, g is continuous at every real number. By Theorem 1.8.6(ii), f is
continuous at every positive real number. Thus, f is continuous at all x such
that
58
1 − x2 > 0, which is equivalent to x2 − 1 < 0.
Solving for x, we get
−1 < x < 1.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.8, f is continuous at every real number in the

open interval (−1, 1).
Example 1.8.10 Find the domain of the function and determine whether the
function is continuous at the indicated interval:
2
f (x) = ; (0, 4), (4, +∞), (0, +∞)
x−4
Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : y = f (x)}
2
= {x ∈ R : y = }
x−4
= {x ∈ R : x − 4 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 4}.
Since f is a rational function, by Theorem 1.8.3, f is continuous at every real

number except at 4. Hence,
(i) f is continuous at every real number in (0, 4). Therefore, by Definition

1.8.8, f is continuous on (0, 4).
(ii) f is continuous at every real number in (4, +∞). Therefore, by

Definition 1.8.8, f is continuous on (4, +∞).
(iii) f is discontinuous at the real number 4 ∈ (0, +∞). Therefore, by

Definition 1.8.8, f is discontinuous on (0, +∞).
Definition 1.8.11 The function f is said to be continuous from the right

at the real number a if the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exists;
(ii) lim+ f (x) exists;
x→a
(iii) lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x→a
59
Example 1.8.12 Determine whether the function is continuous from the right
at 1:
√
f (x) = x − 1
√
Solution: We have D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1}. Thus, f (x) = x − 1 is defined
on some open interval (1, c).
√
(i) f (1) = 1 − 1 = 0. Hence, f (1) exists.
lim (x − 1) = 0.
x→1+
Thus,
q √
lim+ (x − 1) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→1
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim+ x−1= lim (x − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1+
√
(iii) lim+ x − 1 = 0 = f (1).
x→1
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.11, f is continuous from the right at 1.
Definition 1.8.13 The function f is said to be continuous from the left

at the real number a if the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exists;
(ii) lim− f (x) exists;
x→a
(iii) lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a
Example 1.8.14 Determine whether the function is continuous from the left
at 2:
√
f (x) = 4 − x2
60
√
Solution: We have D(f ) = [−2, 2]. Thus, f (x) = 4 − x2 is defined on some
open interval (c, 2).
p
(i) f (2) = 4 − (2)2 = 0. Hence, f (2) exists.
lim (4 − x2 ) = 0.
x→2−
Thus,
q √
lim− (4 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→2
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim− 4 − x2 = lim− (4 − x2 ) = 0.
x→2 x→2
√
(iii) lim− 4 − x2 = 0 = f (1).
x→2
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.13, f is continuous from the left at 2.
Example 1.8.15 Determine whether the function is continuous from the right
at −2:
√
f (x) = 4 − x2
√
Solution: We have D(f ) = [−2, 2]. Thus, f (x) = 4 − x2 is defined on some
open interval (−2, c).
p
(i) f (−2) = 4 − (−2)2 = 0. Hence, f (−2) exists.
lim (4 − x2 ) = 0.
x→−2+
Thus,
q √
lim + (4 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→−2
By Theorem 1.3.25,
61
√ q
lim + 4 − x2 = lim + (4 − x2 ) = 0.
x→−2 x→−2
√
(iii) lim + 4 − x2 = 0 = f (1).
x→−2
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.11, f is continuous from the right at −2.
Definition 1.8.16 A function f whose domain includes the closed interval

[a, b] is said to be continuous on [a, b] if it is continuous on the open interval(a, b),
continuous from the right at a, and continuous from the left at b.
Example 1.8.17 Determine whether the function is continuous on the interval

[−2, 2]:
√
f (x) = 4 − x2
Solution: Let g(x) = 4 − x2 . Then g is a polynomial function. By Theorem

1.8.1, g is continuous at every real number. By Theorem 1.8.6(ii), f is
continuous at every positive real number. Thus, f is continuous at all x such
that
−2 < x < 2.
open interval (−2, 2).
By Example 1.8.14, f is continuous from the left at 2, and by Example

1.8.15, f is continuous from the right at −2.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.16, f is continuous on the closed interval

[−2, 2].

2x,
 if x < 1
Example 1.8.18 Determine whether the function f (x) = 2, if x = 1

2x − 1, if 1 < x

is continuous on the given interval: (−∞, 1]; [1, +∞).
62
Solution: (i) On the closed interval (−∞, 1].
First, we determine if f is continuous on the open interval (−∞, 1).
If x < 1, then f (x) = 2x. Then f is a polynomial function. By Theorem

1.8.1, f is continuous at every real number. Thus, f is continuous on the open
interval (−∞, 1) because (−∞, 1) ⊆ R.
Next, we determine if f is continuous from the left at 1.
If x < 1, then f (x) = 2x is defined on some open interval (c, 1).
(i) By the definition of f , we have f (1) = 2. Hence, f (1) exists.
lim f (x) = lim− (2x) = 2.

x→1− x→1
(iii) lim− f (x) = 2 = f (1).

x→1
By Definition 1.8.11, f is continuous from the left at 1.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.16, f is continuous on the closed interval

(−∞, 1].
(ii) On the closed interval [1, +∞).
First, we determine if f is continuous on the open interval (1, +∞).
If x > 1, then f (x) = 2x − 1. Then f is a polynomial function. By

Theorem 1.8.1, f is continuous at every real number. Thus, f is continuous
on the open interval (1, +∞) because (1, +∞) ⊆ R.
Next, we determine if f is continuous from the right at 1.
If x > 1, then f (x) = 2x − 1 is defined on some open interval (1, c).
(i) By the definition of f , we have f (1) = 2. Hence, f (1) exists.

63
lim f (x) = lim+ (2x − 1) = 1.

x→1+ x→1
(iii) lim+ f (x) 6= f (1).

x→1
By Definition 1.8.11, f is discontinuous from the right at 1.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.16, f is discontinuous on the closed interval

[1, +∞).
Definition 1.8.19 (i) A function f whose domain includes the interval half-open
on the right [a, b) is said to be continuous on [a, b) if it is continuous on the
open interval(a, b) and continuous from the right at a.
(ii) A function f whose domain includes the interval half-open on the left (a, b]
is said to be continuous on (a, b] if it is continuous on the open interval(a, b)
and continuous from the left at b.

2
1 − x , if x < −1

Example 1.8.20 Determine whether the function f (x) = x + 1, if −1 ≤ x < 1

2 − x, if 1 ≤ x

is continuous on the given interval: [−1, 1), (−1, 1].
Solution: (i) On the interval half-open on the right [−1, 1).
First, we determine whether f is continuous on the open interval (−1, 1).
If −1 < x < 1, then f (x) = x + 1. Then f is a polynomial function. By

on the open interval (−1, 1) because (−1, 1) ⊆ R.
Next, we determine whether f is continuous from the right at −1.
If −1 < x < 1, then f (x) = x + 1 is defined on some open interval

(−1, c).
(i) By the definition of f , we have f (−1) = 0. Hence, f (1) exists.

64
lim f (x) = lim + (x + 1) = 0.

x→−1+ x→−1
(iii) lim + f (x) = 0 = f (1).

x→−1
By Definition 1.8.11, f is continuous from the right at −1.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.16, f is continuous on the interval half-open

on the right [−1, 1).
(ii) On the interval half-open on the left (−1, 1].
First, we determine whether f is continuous on the open interval (−1, 1).
If −1 < x < 1, then f (x) = x + 1. Then f is a polynomial function. By

on the open interval (−1, 1) because (−1, 1) ⊆ R.
Next, we determine whether f is continuous from the left at 1.
If −1 < x < 1, then f (x) = x+1 is defined on some open interval (c, 1).
(i) By the definition of f , we have f (1) = 2 − 1 = 1. Hence, f (1) exists.
lim f (x) = lim− (x + 1) = 2.

x→1− x→1
(iii) lim− f (x) 6= f (1).

x→1
By Definition 1.8.11, f is discontinuous from the left at 1.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.16, f is discontinuous on the interval half-open

on the left (−1, 1].
Example 1.8.21 Find the domain of the function and determine the interval
on which the function is continuous:
√
4 − x2
f (x) =
x−1
65
Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : y = f (x)}
√
4 − x2
= {x ∈ R : y = }
x−1
= {x ∈ R : 4 − x2 ≥ 0 and x − 1 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 4 ≤ 0 and x 6= 1}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 2)(x − 2) ≤ 0 and x 6= 1}
= {x ∈ R : −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and x 6= 1}
= {x ∈ R : −2 ≤ x < 1 or 1 < x ≤ 2}
= [−2, 1) ∪ (1, 2].
√
Let g(x) = 4 − x2 . By Theorem 1.8.6(ii), f is continuous at every positive
real number. Thus, f is continuous at all x such that
Hence,
√
4 − x2
f (x) =
x−1
is continuous for all x such that
x2 − 4 < 0 and x − 1 6= 0.
−2 < x < 2 and x 6= 1.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.8, f is continuous at every real number in the set

(−2, 1) ∪ (1, 2). Consequently, f is continuous at every real number in the
open intervals (−2, 1) and (1, 2).
We verify whether f is continuous from the right at −2.

√
4−(−2)2
(i) f (−2) = −2−1 = 0. Hence, f (−2) exists.
lim (4 − x2 ) = 0 and limx→−2+ (x − 1) = −3 6= 0.

x→−2+
66
Thus,
q √
lim + (4 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→−2
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim + 4 − x2 = lim + (4 − x2 ) = 0,
x→−2 x→−2

√
√ lim + 4 − x2
4 − x2 x→−2 0
lim + = = = 0.
x→−2 x−1 lim (x − 1) −3
x→−2+
√
4 − x2
(iii) lim + = 0 = f (−2).
x→−2 x−1
Hence, f is continuous from the right at −2. Consequently, f is continuous on
the interval [−2, 1).
We verify whether f is continuous from the left at 2.

p
4 − (2)2
(i) f (2) = = 0. Hence, f (2) exists.
2−1
lim− (4 − x2 ) = 0 and limx→2− (x − 1) = 1 6= 0.

x→2
Thus,
q √
lim− (4 − x2 ) = 0 = 0 ∈ R.
x→2
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim− 4 − x2 = lim− (4 − x2 ) = 0,
x→2 x→2

√
√ lim− 4 − x2
4− x2 x→2 0
lim− = = = 0.
x→2 x−1 lim (x − 1) 1
x→2−
67
√
4 − x2
(iii) lim− = 0 = f (2).
x→2 x−1
Hence,, f is continuous from the left at 2. Consequently, f is continuous on
the interval (1, 2].
Therefore, f is continuous on the interval [−2, 1) ∪ (1, 2].
Theorem 1.8.22 (The Intermediate-Value Theorem) If the function f

is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], and if f (a) 6= f (b), then for any
number k betweeen f (a) and f (b) there exists a number c betweeen a and b
such that f (c) = k.
Example 1.8.23 Determine if the Intermediate Value Theorem holds for the
the function f , the closed interval [a, b], and the given value of k.
2 + x − x2 ; [0, 3]; k = 1
1. f (x) = √
2. f (x) = 25 − x2 ; [−4.5, 3]; k = 3
4
3. f (x) = ; [−3, 1]; k = 0.5
x+2
(
1 + x, if −4 ≤ x ≤ −2
4. f (x) = ; [−4, 1]; k = 0.5
2 − x, if −2 < x ≤ 1
Solution: 1. f (x) = 2 + x − x2 ; [0, 3]; k = 1
First, we determine whether f is continuous on the open interval (0, 3).
f (x) = 2 + x − x2 is a polynomial function. By Theorem 1.8.1, f

is continuous at every real number. Since (0, 3) ⊆ R, it follows that f is
continuous on the open interval (0, 3).
Next, we determine whether f is continuous from the right at 0.
If x > 0, then f is defined on some open interval (0, c).
(i) f (0) = 2. Hence, f (0) exists.

lim (2 + x − x2 ) = 2.
x→0+
68
(iii) lim+ (2 + x − x2 ) = 2 = f (0).

x→0
By Definition 1.8.11, f is continuous from the right at 0.
Next, we determine whether f is continuous from the left at 3.
If x < 3, then f (x) = 2 + x − x2 is defined on some open interval (c, 3).
(i) f (3) = 2 + 3 − (3)2 = −4. Hence, f (3) exists.

lim− (2 + x − x2 ) = −4.
x→3
2
(iii) lim− (2 + x − x ) = f (3).
x→3
By Definition 1.8.11, f is continuous from the left at 3.
Therefore, by Definition 1.8.16, f is continuous on the closed interval [0, 3].
Now. f (0) = 2 and f (3) = −4. Then f (0) 6= f (3). Thus, given k = 1, by the
Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists a real number c with 0 < c < 3 such
that f (c) = 1. Hence,
2 + c − c2 = 1.
Solving for c, we get
√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
c= or c = .
2 2
Since 0 < c < 3, we have
√ √ !
1+ 5 1+ 5
c= such that f = 1.
2 2
√
2. f (x) = 25 − x2 ; [−4.5, 3]; k = 3
We verify whether f is continuous on the open interval (−4.5, 3).
By Theorem 1.8.6(ii), f is continuous at every positive real number.

Thus, f is continuous at all x such that
69
25 − x2 > 0, that is, x2 − 25 < 0.

−5 < x < 5.
open interval (−5, 5). Since (−4.5, 3) ⊆ (−5, 5), it follows that f is continuous
at every real number in the open interval (−4.5, 3).
We verify whether f is continuous from the right at −4.5.

p √
19
(i) f (−4.5) = 25 − (−4.5)2 = 2
. Hence, f (−4.5) exists.

19
lim + (25 − x2 ) = .
x→−4.5 4
Thus,
r √
q 19 19
lim + (25 − x2 ) = = ∈ R.
x→−4.5 4 2
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√
√ q 19
lim 25 − x2 = lim + (25 − x2 ) = .
x→−4.5+ x→−4.5 2
√
√ 19
(iii) lim 25 − x2 = = f (−4.5).
x→−4.5 + 2
Hence, f is continuous from the right at −2.
We verify whether f is continuous from the left at 3.

p
(i) f (3) = 25 − (3)2 = 4. Hence, f (3) exists.

lim (25 − x2 ) = 25 − (3)2 = 4.
x→3−
Thus,
q √
lim− (25 − x2 ) = 4 = 2 ∈ R.
x→3
70
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q
lim− 25 − x2 = lim− (25 − x2 ) = 2.
x→3 x→3
√
(iii) lim− 25 − x2 = 2 = f (3).
x→3
Hence,, f is continuous from the left at 3.
Therefore, f is continuous
√ on the closed interval [−4.5, 3].
19
Now, f (−4.5) = and f (3) = 2. Then f (−4.5) 6= f (3). Thus, given
2
k = 3, by The Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists a real number c with
4.5 < c < 3 such that f (c) = 3. Hence,
√
25 − c2 = 3.
Solving for c, we get
c = −4 or c = 4.
Since −4.5 < c < 3, we have
c = −4 such that f (−4) = 3.
Theorem 1.8.24 (Limit of a Composite Function) Let f and g be functions

such that
lim g(x) = b
x→a
and
f is continuous at b or lim f (x) = f (b).

x→b
Then
lim (f ◦ g)(x) = f (b)

x→a
or, equivalently,
lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)).

x→a x→a
71
√
3
Example 1.8.25 Evaluate lim 4 + x − x2 using Theorem 1.8.24.
x→4
Solution: Let
√
f (x) = 3
x and g(x) = 4 + x − x2 .
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (4 + x − x2 ) = −8.
x→4
√
f (x) = 3
x is continuous at −8.

√
3
q √
lim 4 + x − x2 = 3 lim (4 + x − x2 ) = 3 −8 = −2.
x→4 x→4
4
x − x2

Example 1.8.26 Evaluate lim using Theorem 1.8.24.
x→−3 x−3
Solution: Let
f (x) = x4 and g(x) = x − x2 .
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x − x2 ) = −12 and lim (x − 3) = −6 6= 0.

x→−3 x→−3
By Theorem 1.3.28,
x − x2 lim (x − x2 ) −12
x→−3
lim = = = 2.
x→−3 x − 3 lim (x − 3) −6
x→−3
By Theorem 1.8.1,
f (x) = x4 is continuous at 2.

4 4
x − x2 x − x2

lim = lim = 24 = 16.
x→−3 x−3 x→−3 x − 3
72
Theorem 1.8.27 Let f and g be functions such that g is continuous at a real

number a and f is continuous at g(a). Then the composite function f ◦ g is
continuous at a.
Exercises:
I. Find the domain of the function. Determine if the given function is continuous
at an indicated interval.
2
1. f (x) = ; (3, 7), [−6, 4], (−∞, 0), (−5, +∞)
x+5
x
2. f (x) = 2 ; (0, 1), (−1, 1), (−∞, −1), (1, +∞)
x −1
√
3. f (x) = 9 − x2 ; (−3, 3), [−3, 3], (−∞, −3), (3, +∞)

2x − 3, if x < −2

4. f (x) = x − 5, if −2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; (−2, 1), [−2, 1], (−∞, −2), (2, +∞).

3 − x, if 1 < x

II. An open meteal pan is to be made by cutting out squares of the same size
from the corners of a rectangular piece of metal 14 in. by 18 in. and turning
up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the pan as a
function of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(b) What is the domain of your function in part (a).
(c) Prove that the function is conrinuous on its domain.
III. A sign containing 50m2 of printed materials is required to have margins
of 4 m at the top and bottom and 2 m on each side.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total area of the sign
as a function of the horizontal dimension of the region covered by the printed
material.
(b) What is the domain of your function in part (a).
(c) Prove that the function is continuous on its domain.
1.9 The Squeeze Theorem
Theorem 1.9.1 (The Squeeze Theorem) Let f , g, and h be functions

defined on some open interval I containing a, except possibly at a itself. Suppose
that
73
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x ∈ I for which x 6= a.

If
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x),
x→a x→a
then
lim g(x) = L.
x→a
Example 1.9.2 Use the Squeeze Theorem to find

(x − 1)(x2 − 2x + 4)
lim .
x→1 x−1
Solution: Let
(x − 1)(x2 − 2x + 4)
g(x) = .
x−1
Then
(x − 1)[(x − 1)2 + 3]
g(x) = .
x−1
Consider the two functions
f (x) = −2(x − 1)2 + 3 and h(x) = 2(x − 1)2 + 3.
Thus, for all real number x,
[−2(x − 1)2 + 3] ≤ [(x − 1)2 + 3] ≤ [2(x − 1)2 + 3],
Hence, for x 6= 1, we have
2 (x − 1)[(x − 1)2 + 3]
[−2(x − 1) + 3] ≤ ≤ [2(x − 1)2 + 3],
x−1
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim [−2(x − 1)2 + 3] = 3 and lim [2(x − 1)2 + 3] = 3.
x→1 x→1
Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem,

(x − 1)[(x − 1)2 + 3]
lim = 3.
x→1 x−1
74
Example 1.9.3 Use the Squeeze Theorem to prove that

1
lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
Solution: For all real number t, we have
−1 ≤ sin t ≤ 1.
Thus, for all x 6= 0,

1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1.
x
Hence, for all x 6= 0,
1
−x ≤ x sin ≤ x.
x
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (−x) = 0 and lim x = 0.

x→0 x→0
Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem,

1
lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
Exercises
I. Use the Squeeze Theorem to find the limit.

1
1. lim x cos .
x→0 x
1
2. lim x2 sin √ .
x→0 3
x
−π π
II. Given: 1 − cos2 x ≤ f (x) ≤ x2 for all x ∈ ( , ). Find limx→0 f (x).
2 2
III. Given: − sin x ≤ f (x) ≤ 2 + sin x for all x ∈ (−π, 0). Find limx→ π2 f (x).
CHAPTER 2
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF TRANCENDENTAL

FUNCTIONS
2.1 Limits and Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions
sin x
Theorem 2.1.1 lim = 1.
x→0 x
1 − cos x
Theorem 2.1.2 lim = 0.
x→0 x
Example 2.1.3 lim sin x = 0.

x→0
Solution: For all x 6= 0,

sin x
sin x = x · .
x
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim x = 0,
x→0

sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

sin x sin x
lim x · = lim x lim = 0 · 1 = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

sin x
lim sin x = lim x · = 0.
x→0 x→0 x
76
Example 2.1.4 lim cos x = 1.

x→0
−π π
Solution: For all x such that <x< ,
2 2
p
cos x = 1 − sin2 x.
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1,
x→0
by Example 2.1.3,
lim sin x = 0,
x→0
by Theorem 1.3.21,
2
2
lim sin x = lim sin x = 02 = 0,
x→0 x→0
lim (1 − sin2 x) = lim 1 − lim sin x2 x = 1 − 0 = 1.

x→0 x→0 x→0
Thus,
q √
lim (1 − sin2 x) = 1 = 1 ∈ R.
x→0

p q
lim 1 − sin2 x = lim (1 − sin2 x) = 1.
x→0 x→0

p
lim cos x = lim 1 − sin2 x = 1.
x→0 x→0
Theorem 2.1.5 Let a be any real number. Then

(i) lim sin x = sin a.
x→a
(ii) lim cos x = cos a.
x→a
77
Theorem 2.1.6 Let f (x) = tan x. Then

(i) lim tan x = tan a, if a 6= π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(ii) lim+ tan x = −∞, if a = 2
+ πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iii) lim− tan x = +∞, if a = π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iv) lim tan x does not exist, if a = π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
Corollary 2.1.7 Let f (x) = tan x. Then

(i) lim tan x = lim tan x = lim tan x = 0.
x→0 x→π x→−π
(ii) lim
π+
tan x = limπ + tan x = −∞.
x→ 2 x→− 2
(iii) lim
π−
tan x = limπ − tan x = +∞.
x→ 2 x→− 2
(iv) limπ tan x and limπ tan x do not exist.
x→ 2 x→− 2
Theorem 2.1.8 Let f (x) = cot x. Then

(i) lim cot x = cot a, if a 6= πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(ii) lim+ cot x = +∞, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iii) lim− cot x = −∞, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iv) lim cot x does not exist, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
Corollary 2.1.9 Let f (x) = cot x. Then

(i) limπ cot x = limπ cot x = 0.
x→ 2 x→− 2
(ii) lim+ cot x = lim + cot x = lim+ cot x = +∞.
x→0 x→−π x→π
(iii) lim− cot x = lim − cot x = lim− cot x = −∞.
(iv) lim cot x, lim cot x, and lim cot x do not exist.
Theorem 2.1.10 Let f (x) = sec x. Then

(i) lim sec x = sec a, if a 6= π2 + πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(ii) lim+ sec x = −∞, if a = 2
+ 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
78
(iii) lim+ sec x = +∞, if a = − π2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.

x→a
π
(iv) lim− sec x = +∞, if a = 2
+ 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(v) lim− sec x = −∞, if a = − π2 + 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
π
(vi) lim sec x does not exist, if a = 2
+ πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
Corollary 2.1.11 Let f (x) = sec x. Then

(i) lim sec x = lim sec x = lim sec x = 1.
x→0 x→2π x→−2π
(ii) lim sec x = lim sec x = −1.
x→π x→−π
(iii) lim
π+
sec x = −∞.
x→ 2
(iv) lim
π−
sec x = +∞.
x→ 2
(iii) lim sec x = +∞.
x→− π2 +
(iii) lim sec x = −∞.
x→− π2 −
(iv) limπ sec x, and limπ sec x do not exist.
x→ 2 x→− 2
Theorem 2.1.12 Let f (x) = csc x. Then

(i) lim csc x = csc a, if a 6= πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(ii) lim+ csc x = +∞, if a = 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iii) lim− csc x = −∞, if a = 2πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(iv) lim+ csc x = −∞, if a = π(2k + 1), for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(v) lim− csc x = +∞, if a = π(2k + 1), for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
(vi) lim csc x does not exist, if a = πk, for all k ∈ Z.
x→a
Corollary 2.1.13 Let f (x) = csc x. Then

(i) limπ csc x = lim5π csc x = 1.
x→ 2 x→ 2
(ii) limπ csc x = lim3π csc x = −1.
x→− 2 x→ 2
(iii) lim+ csc x = lim+ csc x = +∞.
x→0 x→2π
(iv) lim− csc x = lim− csc x = −∞.
x→0 x→2π
79
(v) lim+ csc x = lim + csc x = −∞.

x→π x→−π
(v) lim− csc x = lim − csc x = +∞.
x→π x→−π
(iv) lim csc x, lim csc x, and lim csc x do not exist.
x→0 x→π x→−π
sin 5x
x→0 sin 2x

sin 5x sin 5x 
sin 5x

5
sin 5x 5x 5
= x = =  5x .

sin 2x sin 2x sin 2x 2 sin 2x
2
x 2x 2x
By Theorem 1.3.2,
5 5
lim = .
x→0 2 2
If x → 0, then 5x → 0 and 2x → 0. Thus, by Theorem 2.1.1,
sin 5x sin 5x sin 2x sin 2x
lim = lim = 1 and lim = lim = 1.
x→0 5x 5x→0 5x x→0 2x 2x→0 2x

sin 5x sin 5x
    

5  5   5 5
lim   5x  = lim lim 5x  = · 1 = .

x→0 2 sin 2x x→0 2

x→0 sin 2x 2 2
2x 2x
sin 5x
  
sin 5x 5   5
lim = lim   5x  = .
x→0 sin 2x x→0 2 sin 2x 2
2x
1 − cos2 x
x→0 2x
Solution: We have,
80
1 − cos2 x (1 − cos x)(1 + cos x) 1 − cos x 1 + cos x

= = · .
2x 2x x 2
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1 and lim 2 = 2,

x→0 x→0
by Example 2.1.4,
lim cos x = 1,
x→0
by Theorem 1.3.11,
lim (1 + cos x) = lim 1 + lim cos x = 1 + 1 = 2,

x→0 x→0 x→0
1 + cos x lim (1 + cos x) 2

lim = x→0 = = 1.
x→0 2 lim 2 2
x→0
By Theorem 2.1.2,
1 − cos x
lim = 0.
x→0 x
1 − cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
lim · = lim · lim = 0 · 1 = 0.
x→0 x 2 x→0 x x→0 2
1 − cos2 x
lim = 0.
x→0 2x
tan2 x
x→0 x2
Solution: We have,
tan2 x sin2 x

sin x sin x
= = (sec x).
x2 x2 cos2 x x x
By Theorem 2.1.1,
81
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
and by Corollary 2.1.11(i),

lim sec x = 1.
x→0

sin x sin x sin x sin x
lim (sec x) = lim lim lim sec x
x→0 x x x→0 x x→0 x x→0
=1·1·1
= 1.
tan2 x

sin x sin x
lim = lim (sec x) = 1.
x→0 x2 x→0 x x
Example 2.1.17 Show that the function f (x) = sin x is continuous at x = 0.
Solution: (i) f (0) = sin(0) = 0. Thus, f (0) is defined.
(ii) By Example 2.1.3, lim sin x = 0.

x→0
(iii) lim sin x = 0 = f (0).

x→0
Therefore, by Definition 1.7.1, f (x) = sin x is continuous at x = 0.
Example 2.1.18 Show that the function f (x) = cos x is continuous at x = 0.
Solution: (i) f (0) = cos(0) = 1. Thus, f (0) is defined.
(ii) By Example 2.1.4, lim cos x = 1.

x→0
(iii) lim cos x = 1 = f (0).

x→0
Therefore, by Definition 1.7.1, f (x) = cos x is continuous at x = 0.
From the facts that the functions sine and cosine are continuous at
zero, it can be shown that these functions are continuous at all real numbers.
82
Theorem 2.1.19 The sine and cosine functions are continuous at every real
numbers.
Theorem 2.1.20 The tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are
continuous on their domains.
Recall:
Theorem 1.8.24 (Limit of a Composite Function) Let f and g be
functions such that
lim g(x) = b
x→a
and
f is continuous at b, that is, lim f (x) = f (b).

x→b
Then
lim (f ◦ g)(x) = f (b)

x→a
or, equivalently,
lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)).

x→a x→a
Example 2.1.21 Evaluate lim sin(3x3 − 4x2 + 5x).

x→−1
Solution: Let
f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 3x3 − 4x2 + 5x.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (3x3 − 4x2 + 5x) = −12

x→−1
By Theorem 2.1.19,
f (x) = sin x is continuous at −12.

83

3 2 3 2
lim sin(3x − 4x + 5x) = sin lim (3x − 4x + 5x) = sin(−12).
x→−1 x→−1

x−5
Example 2.1.22 Evaluate lim cos .
x→5 x2 − 5
Solution: Let
x−5
f (x) = cos x and g(x) = .
x2 − 5
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x − 5) = 0 and lim (x2 − 5) = 20 6= 0.

x→5 x→5
x−5 lim (x − 5) 0
x→5
lim = 2 = = 0.
x→5 x2 − 5 lim (x − 5) 2
x→5
By Theorem 2.1.19,
f (x) = cos x is continuous at 0.

x−5 x−5
lim cos = cos lim 2 = cos(0) = 1.
x→5 x2 − 5 x→5 x − 5
1
x→0 x2 sec x
1 1 1 1
= 2· = 2 cos x.
x2 sec x x sec x x
1
lim = +∞
x→0 x2
and by Example 2.1.4,

84
lim cos x = 1.
x→0
Thus, by Theorem 1.5.19(i),

1
lim cos x = +∞.
x→0 x2

1 1
lim 2 = lim cos x = +∞.
x→0 x sec x x→0 x2
Example 2.1.24 Evaluate lim (cot x + sec x).

x→π −
Solution: By Corollary 2.1.9(iii),

lim cot x = −∞
x→π −
and by Corollary 2.1.11(ii),

lim sec x = −1.
x→π −
Therefore, by Theorem 1.5.15(ii),

lim (cot x + sec x) = −∞.
x→π −
Example 2.1.25 Evaluate limπ (cot x csc x).

x→ 2
Solution: By Corollary 2.1.9(i),

lim cot x = 0
x→ π2

lim csc x = 1.
x→ π2

limπ cot x sec x = limπ cot x limπ sec x = 0 · 1 = 0.
x→ 2 x→ 2 x→ 2
85
Exercises:
I. Evaluate the following limit if it exists.

sin x sin x
1. limπ 2. lim
x→ 2 x x→+∞ x
cos x sin 7x
3. limπ 2 4. lim
x→ 2 sin x

x→0 x
1 1 sec x
5. lim+ − 6. limπ −
x→π 1 + cos x cos x x→− 2 csc x
sin πx cos x − sin x
9. lim 2 10. limπ
x→1 x − cos πx x→ 4 tan x
11. lim sec(π − 2x) 12. limπ (cos x + sin x)4
x→π x→ 4
2
13. lim csc x 14. limπ tan(cos x − sin x)
x→π x→ 4
2.2 Limits and Continuity of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Theorem 2.2.1 Let a and b be positive real numbers. Then

(i) ln(ab) = ln a + ln b,
a
(ii) ln( ) = ln a − ln b,
b
(iii) ln 1 = 0,
(v) ln ar = r ln a, for all r ∈ R.
Theorem 2.2.2 If f (x) = ln x, then

(i) D(f ) = R+ and R(f ) = R,
(ii) lim ln x = ln a, for all a ∈ R+ ,
x→a
(iii) lim ln x = +∞,
x→+∞
(iv) lim+ ln x = −∞,
x→0
(v) lim− ln x does not exist,
x→0
(vi) lim ln x does not exist.
x→0
Theorem 2.2.3 The logarithmic function is continuous at every positive real

numbers.
86
Example 2.2.4 Evaluate lim ln(x2 − 2x − 4).

x→4
Solution: Let
f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x2 − 2x − 4
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = 4
x→4

f (x) = ln x is continuous at 4.
h i
lim ln(x2 − 2x − 4) = ln lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = ln 4.
x→4 x→4
√
Example 2.2.5 Evaluate lim ln x2 − 2x − 4.
x→4
Solution: Let
√
f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x2 − 2x − 4
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = 4.
x→4
Then
q √
lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = 4 = 2 ∈ R.
x→4

√ q
lim x2 − 2x − 4 = lim (x2 − 2x − 4) = 2
x→4 x→4

√ √
lim ln x2 − 2x − 4 = ln lim x2 − 2x − 4 = ln 2.
x→4 x→4
87
Example 2.2.6 Evaluate lim ln cos2 x.

x→0
Solution: Let
f (x) = ln x and g(x) = cos2 x.
By Theorem 2.1.4,
lim cos x = 1,
x→0
by Theorem 1.3.21,
2
2
lim cos x = lim cos x = 12 = 1,
x→0 x→0


2 2
lim ln cos x = ln lim cos x = ln 1 = 0.
x→0 x→0
Example 2.2.7 Evaluate lim+ ln(sec x + tan x).

x→0
Solution: Let
f (x) = ln x and g(x) = sec x + tan x.
By Corollary 2.1.11(i),
lim sec x = 1
x→0+

lim tan x = 0.
x→0+

lim (sec x + tan x) = lim+ sec x + lim+ tan x = 1 + 0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0 x→0

88

lim ln(sec x + tan x) = ln lim+ (sec x + tan x) = ln 1 = 0.
x→0+ x→0
Theorem 2.2.8 Let a and b be real numbers. Then

(i) ea+b = ea eb ,
ea
(ii) ea−b = b ,
e
(iii) era = (ea )r , for all r ∈ Q.
Theorem 2.2.9 If f (x) = ex , then

(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = R+ ,
(ii) lim ex = ea , for all a ∈ R,
x→a
(iii) lim ex = +∞,
x→+∞
(iv) lim ex = 0.
x→−∞
Theorem 2.2.10 The exponential function is continuous at every real numbers.
2 +2x−4
Example 2.2.11 Evaluate lim ex .
x→2
Solution: Let
f (x) = ex and g(x) = x2 + 2x − 4
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x2 + 2x − 4) = 4
x→2

f (x) = ex is continuous at 4.
x2 +2x−4
lim (x2 + 2x − 4)
lim e = ex→2 = e4 .
x→2
89
√
x2 +2x−4
Example 2.2.12 Evaluate lim e .
x→2
Solution: Let
√
f (x) = ex and g(x) = x2 + 2x − 4
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x2 + 2x − 4) = 4.
x→2
Then
q √
lim (x2 + 2x − 4) = 4 = 2 ∈ R.
x→2

√ q
lim x2 + 2x − 4 = lim (x2 + 2x − 4) = 2
x→2 x→2

√
√
x2 +2x−4
lim x2 + 2x − 4
lim e = ex→2 = e2 .
x→2
2
Example 2.2.13 Evaluate lim esin x .
x→0
Solution: Let
f (x) = ex and g(x) = sin2 x.
By Example 2.1.3,
lim sin x = 0,
x→0
by Theorem 1.3.21,
2
lim sin2 x = lim sin x = 02 = 0,
x→0 x→0

90
sin2 x
lim sin2 x
lim e = ex→0 = e0 = 1.
x→0
Example 2.2.14 Evaluate lim

π+
ecsc x+cot x .
x→ 2
Solution: Let
f (x) = ex and g(x) = csc x + cot x.
By Corollary 2.1.13(i),
lim csc x = 1
x→ π2 +
lim cot x = 0.
x→ π2 +
lim (csc x + cot x) = lim csc x + lim cot x = 1 + 0 = 1.

x→ π2 + π+
x→ 2 π+
x→ 2

lim (csc x + cot x)
sec x+tan x x→ π2 +
lim
π+
e = e = e1 .
x→ 2
91
2.3 Limits and Continuity of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Definition 2.3.1 The inverse sine function, denoted by arcsin, is defined

by
y = arcsin x if and only if x = sin y and − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 .
Theorem 2.3.2 If f (x) = arcsinx, then

(i) D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = − π2 , π2 ,

(ii) lim arcsin x = arcsin a, for all a ∈ (−1, 1),

x→a
(iii) lim arcsin x = 0,
x→0
π
(iv) lim− arcsin x = ,
x→1 2
π
(v) lim + arcsin x = − .
x→−1 2
Theorem 2.3.3 The inverse sine function is continuous on the closed interval
[−1, 1].
Example 2.3.4 Evaluate lim arcsin ex .

x→0
Solution: Let
f (x) = arcsin x and g(x) = ex
By Theorem 2.2.9,
lim ex = e0 = 1
x→0

f (x) = arcsin x is continuous at 1.
π
lim arcsin ex = arcsin lim ex = arcsin 1 = .
x→0 x→0 2
92
arcsin x
Example 2.3.5 Evaluate lim + .
x→−1 1 − x2
π
lim + arcsin x = − ,
x→−1 2
lim (1 − x2 ) = 0.
x→−1+
Consider a real number x > −1 but closer to −1. Let x = −0.9. Then
1 − (−0.9)2 = 0.19 > 0.
Hence,
lim arcsin x < 0 and (1 − x2 ) → 0 through positive values.
x→−1+
arcsin x
lim + = −∞.
x→−1 1 − x2
Definition 2.3.6 The inverse cosine function, denoted by arccos, is defined

by
y = arccos x if and only if x = cos y and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.
Theorem 2.3.7 If f (x) = arccos x, then

(i) D(f ) = [−1, 1] and R(f ) = [0, π],
(ii) lim arccos x = arccos a, for all a ∈ (−1, 1),
x→a
π
(iii) lim arccos x = ,
x→0 2
(iv) lim− arccos x = 0,
x→1
(v) lim + arccos x = π.
x→−1
93
Theorem 2.3.8 The inverse cosine function is continuous on the closed interval
[−1, 1].

1−x
Example 2.3.9 Evaluate lim arccos .
x→0 2+x
Solution: Let
1−x
f (x) = arccos x and g(x) =
2+x
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (1 − x) = 1 and lim (2 + x) = 2 6= 0.

x→0 x→0
1−x lim (1 − x) 1
lim = x→0 =
x→0 2 + x lim (2 + x) 2
x→0
f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 12 .

1−x 1−x 1 π
lim arccos = arccos lim = arccos = .
x→0 2+x x→0 2 + x 2 3
√
Example 2.3.10 Evaluate lim1 arccos 1 − x2 .
x→ 2
Solution: Let
√
f (x) = arccos x and g(x) = 1 − x2
By Theorem 1.3.8,
3
lim1 (1 − x2 ) =
x→ 2 4
Thus,
94
r √
r 3 3
lim (1 − x2 ) = = ∈ R.
x→ 12 4 2
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√
√ r 3
lim1 1 − x2 = lim1 (1 − x2 ) = .
x→ 2 x→ 2 2

√
3
f (x) = arccos x is continuous at 2
.

! √
√ √ 3 π
lim1 arccos 1 − x2 = arccos lim1 1 − x2 = arccos = .
x→ 2 x→ 2 2 6
Definition 2.3.11 The inverse tangent function, denoted by arctan, is

defined by
y = arctan x if and only if x = tan y and − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 .
Theorem 2.3.12 If f (x) =harctan x, then

π πi
(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = − , ,
2 2
(ii) lim arctan x = arctan a, for all a ∈ R,
x→a
(iii) lim arctan x = 0,
x→0
π
(iv) lim arctan x = ,
x→+∞ 2
π
(v) lim arctan x = − .
x→−∞ 2
Theorem 2.3.13 The inverse tangent function is continuous at every real

number.
Example 2.3.14 Evaluate limπ arctan (2 cos x).

x→ 6
95
Solution: Let
f (x) = arctan x and g(x) = 2 cos x
√
3
limπ cos x = ,
x→ 6 2
by Theorem 1.3.19,
√
3 √
limπ 2 cos x = 2 limπ cos x = 2 · = 3.
x→ 6 x→ 6 2
√
f (x) = arctan x is continuous at 3.

√

π
limπ arctan(2 cos x) = arctan limπ 2 cos x = arctan 3 = .
x→ 6 x→ 6 3
1 1
Example 2.3.15 Evaluate lim cos arctan .
x→+∞ x x
Solution:
1
(1) Evaluate lim cos .
x→+∞ x
Let
1
f1 (x) = cos x and g1 (x) = .
x
By Theorem 1.6.3,
1
lim = 0,
x→+∞ x
f1 (x) = cos x is continuous at 0.
By Theorem 1.8.24,
96

1 1
lim cos = cos lim = cos 0 = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
1
(2) Evaluate lim arctan .
x→+∞ x
Let
1
f2 (x) = arctan x and g2 (x) = .
x
By Theorem 1.6.3,
1
lim = 0,
x→+∞ x

f2 (x) = arctan x is continuous at 0.
By Theorem 1.8.24,

1 1
lim arctan = arctan lim = arctan 0 = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

1 1 1 1
lim cos arctan = lim cos lim arctan = 1 · 0 = 0.
x→+∞ x x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
Definition 2.3.16 The inverse cotangent function, denoted by cot−1 , is

defined by
y = cot−1 x if and only if x = cot y and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.
Theorem 2.3.17 If f (x) = cot−1 x, then

(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = [0, π],
(ii) lim cot−1 x = cot−1 a, for all a ∈ R,
x→a
(iii) limπ cot−1 x = 1,
x→ 2
(iv) lim cot−1 x = 0,
x→+∞
(v) lim cot−1 x = π.
x→−∞
97
Theorem 2.3.18 The inverse cotangent function is continuous at every real

number.
Definition 2.3.19 The inverse secant function, denoted by sec−1 , is defined

by
y = sec−1 x if and only if x = sec y and −π ≤ y < − π2 or 0 ≤ y < π2 .
Theorem 2.3.20 If f (x) = sec−1 x, then h π h π

(i) D(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) and R(f ) = −π, − ∪ 0, ,
2 2
(ii) lim sec−1 x = sec−1 a, for all a ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞),
x→a
(iii) lim+ sec−1 x = 0,
x→1
(iv) lim − sec−1 x = −π,
x→−1
π
(v) lim sec−1 x = ,
x→+∞ 2
−1 π
(vi) lim sec x = − .
x→−∞ 2
Theorem 2.3.21 The inverse secant function is continuous at every real number
in the interval (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞).
Definition 2.3.22 The inverse cosecant function, denoted by csc−1 , is

defined by
y = csc−1 x if and only if x = csc y and −π < y ≤ − π2 or 0 < y ≤ π2 .
Theorem 2.3.23 If f (x) = csc−1 x, then πi πi

(i) D(f ) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) and R(f ) = −π, − ∪ 0, ,
2 2
(ii) lim csc−1 x = csc−1 a, for all a ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞),
x→a
π
(iii) lim+ csc−1 x = ,
x→1 2
−1 π
(iv) lim − csc x = − ,
x→−1 2
(v) lim csc−1 x = 0,
x→+∞
(vi) lim csc−1 x = −π.
x→−∞
98
Theorem 2.3.24 The inverse cosecant function is continuous at every real

number in the interval (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞).

−1 x−1
Example 2.3.25 Evaluate lim cot .
x→0 x+1
Solution: Let
x−1
f (x) = cot−1 x and g(x) = .
x+1
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x − 1) = −1 and lim (x + 1) = 1 6= 0.
x→0 x→0
x−1 lim (x − 1) −1
lim = x→0 = = −1.
x→0 x + 1 lim (x + 1) 1
x→0

f (x) = cot−1 x is continuous at −1.

−1 x−1 −1 x−1 π
lim cot = cot lim = cot−1 (−1) = − .
x→0 x+1 x→0 x + 1 4
Example 2.3.26 Evaluate lim sec−1 (ex − 1).

x→−∞
Solution: Let
f (x) = sec−1 x and g(x) = ex − 1.
By Theorem 1.3.2,
lim 1 = 1
x→−∞
and by Theorem 2.2.9(iv),

lim ex = 0.
x→−∞
99
lim (ex − 1) = lim ex − lim 1 = 0 − 1 = −1.

x→−∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
f (x) = sec−1 x is continuous at −1.

−1 −1
lim sec x
(e − 1) = sec x
lim (e − 1) = sec−1 (−1) = −π.
x→−∞ x→−∞

−1 x+2
Example 2.3.27 Evaluate lim− csc √ .
x→0 2−x
Solution: Let
x+2
f (x) = csc−1 x and g(x) = √ .
2−x
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (x + 2) = 2 and lim− (2 − x) = 2.

x→0− x→0
Thus,
q √
lim− (2 − x) = 2 ∈ R.
x→0
By Theorem 1.3.25,
√ q √
lim− 2−x= lim− (2 − x) = 2 6= 0.
x→0 x→0
x+2 lim− (x + 2) 2 √
lim− √ = x→0 √ = √ = 2.
x→0 2−x lim− 2 − x 2
x→0

√
f (x) = csc−1 x is continuous at 2.

100
√

−1 x+2 −1 x+2 π
lim− csc √ = csc lim− √ = csc−1 2= .
x→0 2−x x→0 2−x 4
−1 (2x−4)
Example 2.3.28 Evaluate lim esec .
x→3
Solution: Let
f (x) = ex , g(x) = sec−1 x, and h(x) = 2x − 4.
By Theorem 1.3.8,
lim (2x − 4) = 2
x→3
g(x) = sec−1 x is continuous at 2.

−1 −1
h i π
lim sec (2x − 4) = sec lim (2x − 4) = sec−1 2 = .
x→3 x→3 3
f (x) = ex is continuous at π3 .
sec−1 (2x−4)
lim sec−1 (2x − 4) π
lim e = ex→3 = e3 .
x→3
CHAPTER 3
DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
3.1 Definition of the Derivative
Definition 3.1.1 Let f be a function of an independent variable x. Then the

derivative of f at x0 , denoted by f 0 (x0 , is given by
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim ,
h→0 h
if the limit exists. If f 0 (x0 ) exists, then f is said to be differentiable at x0 .
The function f is said to be differentiable if it is differentiable at each real
number in the domain.
The Three-Step Rule
Step 1. Simplify f (x + h) − f (x).
f (x + h) − f (x)
Step 2. Simplify , for h 6= 0.
h
f (x + h) − f (x)
Step 3. Evaluate lim .
h→0 h
f (x+h)−f (x)
If the limit exists, then f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
.
Example 3.1.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 +1 using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f (x+h)−f (x) = [(x+h)2 +1]−[x2 +1] = x2 +2xh+h2 +1−x2 −1 = 2xh+h2 .
f (x + h) − f (x) 2xh + h62 h(2x + h)

2. = = = 2x + h, for h 6= 0.
h h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
3. lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x.
h→0 h h→0
Therefore, f 0 (x) = 2x.

102
x+2
Example 3.1.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = using the three-step rule.
x+3
Solution:
x+h+2 x+2 h
1. f (x + h) − f (x) = − = .
x+h+3 x+3 (x + h + 3)(x + 3)
f (x + h) − f (x) h 1 1
2. = · = , for h 6= 0.
h (x + h + 3)(x + 3) h (x + h + 3)(x + 3)
f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
3. lim = lim = .
h→0 h h→0 (x + h + 3)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 3)
1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = .
(x + 3)(x + 3)
x+2
Example 3.1.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = using the three-step rule.
x+3
Solution:
x+h+2 x+2 h
1. f (x + h) − f (x) = − = .
x+h+3 x+3 (x + h + 3)(x + 3)
f (x + h) − f (x) h 1 1
2. = · = , for h 6= 0.
h (x + h + 3)(x + 3) h (x + h + 3)(x + 3)
f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
3. lim = lim = .
h→0 h h→0 (x + h + 3)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 3)
1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = .
(x + 3)(x + 3)
√
Example 3.1.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = x − 2 using the three-step
rule.
Solution:
√ √
1. f (x + h) − f (x) = x+h−2−
x−2
√ √
√ √ x+h−2+ x−2
= x+h−2− x−2· √ √
x+h−2+ x−2
h
=√ √ .
x+h−2+ x−2
f (x + h) − f (x) h 1
2. =√ √ ·
h x+h−2+ x−2 h
1
=√ √ , for h 6= 0.
x+h−2+ x−2
103
f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
3. lim = lim √ √ = √ .
h→0 h h→0 x+h−2+ x−2 2 x−2
1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = √ .
2 x−2
Example 3.1.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin x using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f (x + h) − f (x) = sin(x + h) − sin x

= sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x.
f (x + h) − f (x) sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
2. =
h h
cos x sin h − sin x(1 − cos h)
=
h
sin h 1 − cos h
= (cos x) · − (sin x) · .
h h
f (x + h) − f (x) sin h 1 − cos h
3. lim = lim (cos x) · − (sin x) ·
h→0 h h→0 h h
sin h 1 − cos h
= (cos x) · lim − (sin x) · lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= (cos x) · (1) − (sin x) · (0)
= cos x.
Therefore, f 0 (x) = cos x.
Example 3.1.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = tan x using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f (x + h) − f (x) = tan(x + h) − tan x

sin(x + h) sin x
= −
cos(x + h) cos x
cos x sin h + cos x sin h sin x
= −
cos x cos h − sin x sin h cos x
cos2 x sin h + sin2 x sin h
=
(cos x cos h − sin x sin h)(cos x)
sin h
= .
104
f (x + h) − f (x) sin h 1
2. = ·
h (cos x cos h − sin x sin h)(cos x) h
sin h
= h .
sin h
f (x + h) − f (x) h
3. lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 (cos x cos h − sin x sin h)(cos x)
sin h
lim
h→0 h
=
lim (cos x cos h − sin x sin h)(cos x)
h→0
1
= .
(cos x)(cos x)
Therefore, f 0 (x) = sec2 x.
Exercises.
I. Using the Three-Step Rule, find the derivative of the following functions.
1. f (x) = 7x − 3 2. f (x) = 4x2 − 5x + 1
3. f (x) = x4 4. f (x) = x3 − 2x
5. f (x) = sec x 6. f (x) = cot x

√
7. f (x) = 3
x 8. f (x) = cos2 x
3.2 Theorems on Differentiation
Definition 3.2.1 The process of finding the derivative of a function is called

differentiation.
Notations. If the function f is defined y = f (x), the derivative of f

at x can be denoted by
105
dy d
f 0 (x), y 0 , , [f (x)], Dx f , Dx f (x), Dx y
dx dx
Theorem 3.2.2 (Derivative of a Constant Function) Let c be a real

number. If f (x) = c for all x, then f 0 (x) = 0.
0
Example 3.2.3 √ 1. Let f (x) = −6 for all x. By 0Theorem 3.2.2, f (x) = 0.
2. Let f (x) = 5 for all x. By Theorem 3.2.2, f (x) = 0.
Theorem 3.2.4 Let r be a rational number. If f (x) = xr for all x, then

f 0 (x) = rxr−1 .
Example 3.2.5 1. Let f (x) = x5 for all x. By Theorem 3.2.4,
f 0 (x) = 5x5−1 = 5x4 .

3
2. Let f (x) = x− 2 for all x. By Theorem 3.2.4,
3 3 3 5
f 0 (x) = − x− 2 −1 = − x− 2 .
2 2
√
3 5
3. Let f (x) = x5 for all x. Then f (x) = x 3 for all x. By Theorem 3.2.4,
5 5 5 2 5√3
f 0 (x) = x 3 −1 = x 3 = x2 .
3 3 3
Theorem 3.2.6 Let f be a differentiable function at x and c a constant. If

F (x) = c · f (x), then F is differentiable at x and F 0 (x) = c · f 0 (x).
√
Example 3.2.7 1. Let F (x) = 2x5 for all x. By Theorem 3.2.4, f 0 (x) =
5x4 . Therefore, by Theorem 3.2.6,
√ √
F 0 (x) = 2(5x4 ) = 5 2x4 .
106
4 3
2. Let F (x) = − x− 2 for all x. By Theorem 3.2.4,
3
3 5
f 0 (x) = − x− 2 .
2

0 4 3 5 5
F (x) = − − x− 2 = 2x− 2 .
3 2
Theorem 3.2.8 (Derivative of a Polynomial Function) Let c0 , c1 , ..., cn−1 , cn

be constants. If f (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1+...+ c1 x + c0 , then f (x) = cn nxn−1 +
cn−1 (n − 1)xn−2 + ... + c1 .
Example 3.2.9 1. Let (x) = 4x5 − 3x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 2. By Theorem 3.2.8,

f 0 (x) = 20x4 − 9x2 + 12x + 4.
4 2 1
2. Let f (x) = − x5 + x4 − x3 − 7. By Theorem 3.2.8,
3 3 3
20 4 8 3
f 0 (x) = − x + x − x2 .
3 3
Theorem 3.2.10 (Derivative of a Sum) Let g and h be differentiable functions

at x. If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f is differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) + h0 (x).
Example 3.2.11 1. Find the derivative of f (x) = (5x3 + 4x2 − 7)(3x5 + 3x3 −
6x).
Solution: Let g(x) = 5x3 + 4x2 − 7 and h(x) = 3x5 + 3x3 − 6x. By Theorem
3.2.8,
g 0 (x) = 15x2 + 8x and h0 (x) = 15x4 + 9x2 − 6.
107
f 0 (x) = (15x2 + 8x) + (15x4 + 9x2 − 6) = 15x4 + 24x2 + 8x − 6.
Theorem 3.2.12 (Derivative of a Product) Let g and h be differentiable

functions at x. If f (x) = g(x) · h(x), then f is differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x).
Example 3.2.13 1. Find the derivative of f (x) = (4x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 6)(2x5 +

3x3 − 7x).
Solution: Let g(x) = 4x3 +3x2 −4x+6 and h(x) = 2x5 +3x3 −7x. By Theorem
3.2.8,
g 0 (x) = 12x2 + 6x − 4 and h0 (x) = 10x4 + 9x2 − 7.
f 0 (x) = (12x2 + 6x − 4)(2x5 + 3x3 − 7x) + (4x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 6)(10x4 + 9x2 − 7).

Theorem 3.2.14 (Derivative of a Quotient) Let g and h be differentiable

g(x)
functions at x. If f (x) = with h(x) 6= 0 for all x, then f is differentiable
h(x)
at x and
0 g 0 (x) · h(x) − g(x) · h0 (x)
f (x) = .
[h(x)]2
Example 3.2.15 1. Find the derivative of f (x) = (2x3 + 4x2 + 9)(3x4 − 7x2 ).
Solution: Let g(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 + 9 and h(x) = 3x4 − 7x2 . By Theorem 3.2.8,
g 0 (x) = 6x2 + 8x and h0 (x) = 12x3 − 14x.

108
(6x2 + 8x)(3x4 − 7x2 ) − (2x3 + 4x2 + 9)(12x3 − 14x)

f 0 (x) =
(3x4 − 7x2 )2
−6x6 − 24x5 − 14x4 − 108x3 + 126x
= .
(3x4 − 7x2 )2
Theorem 3.2.16 (The Chain Rule) Let g and h be differentiable functions

at x. If f (x) = g(h(x)), then f is differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = g 0 (h(x)) · h0 (x).
Corollary 3.2.17 Let r be a rational number. If f (x) = [g(x)]r for all x,

then f is differentiable at x and
f 0 (x) = r[g(x)]r−1 · g 0 (x).
Example 3.2.18 1. Find the derivative of f (x) = (5x2 − 4x + 1)4 .
Solution: Let g(x) = 5x2 − 4x + 1. By Theorem 3.2.8, g 0 (x) = 10x − 4.

f 0 (x) = 4(5x2 − 4x+)3 (10x − 4) = 8(5x − 2)(5x2 − 4x+)3 .
√
Example 3.2.19 1. Find the derivative of f (x) = 3 5x2 − 4x + 1.
p 2
Solution: Write f (x) = 3 (5x2 − 4x + 1)2 = (5x2 − 4x + 1) 3 .
Let g(x) = 5x2 − 4x + 1. By Theorem 3.2.8, g 0 (x) = 10x − 4.

2 4
2 1 (10x − 4) (5x − 2)
f 0 (x) = (5x2 − 4x + 1)− 3 (10x − 4) = 3
1 = √
3
3
.
3 (5x2 − 4x + 1) 3 5x2 − 4x + 1
109
√
Example 3.2.20 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3 5x2 − 4x + 1.
p 2
Solution: Write f (x) = 3 (5x2 − 4x + 1)2 = (5x2 − 4x + 1) 3 .
Let g(x) = 5x2 − 4x + 1. By Theorem 3.2.8, g 0 (x) = 10x − 4.

2 4
0 2 2 − 31 3
(10x − 4) 3
(5x − 2)
f (x) = (5x − 4x + 1) (10x − 4) = 1 = √
3
.
3 2
(5x − 4x + 1) 3 5x2 − 4x + 1
4
3x2 + 5

Example 3.2.21 Find the derivative of f (x) = .
4x + 7
3x2 +5
Solution: Write g(x) = 4x+7
and let
u(x) = 3x2 + 5 and v(x) = 4x + 7.

By Theorem 3.2.8,
u0 (x) = 6x and v 0 (x) = 4.
By Theorem 3.2.14,
6x(4x + 7) − (3x2 + 5)4 12x2 + 22
g 0 (x) = = .
(4x + 7)2 (4x + 7)2
2 3
12x2 + 22 8(6x2 + 11)(3x2 + 5)3

0 3x + 5
f (x) = 4 = .
4x + 7 (4x + 7)2 (4x + 7)5
Exercises
I. Find the derivative using the theorems on differentiation.
4x2 − 5x + 1
1. f (x) = (x4 − 1)(x3 + 5) 2. f (x) =
x3 + 8
√
3. f (x) = (x4 + 1) x3 + 5 4. f (x) = (x3 − 2x)3 (x4 + 6)4
110
(4x2 + 1)3 (x2 − 3)2 (4x2 + 1)3

5. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
x3 + 8 (x2 − 3)2 (x3 + 8)
√ 3
(3x + 4)3 2x + 5 (4x + 1)2

7. f (x) = 8. f (x) = √
(x2 − 3)2 3x + 5
s 5 r r
4 3x + 4 x2 + 4 3 3x2 − 5
9. f (x) = 10. f (x) =
x2 − 3 x2 − 3 x2 + 3
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Theorem 3.3.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then

(i) If f (u) = sin u, then f 0 (u) = (cos u)u0 (x) = u0 (x) cos u.
(ii) If f (u) = cos u, then f 0 (u) = (− sin u)u0 (x) = −u0 (x) sin u.
(iii) If f (u) = tan u, then f 0 (u) = (sec2 u)u0 (x) = u0 (x) sec2 u.
(iv) If f (u) = cot u, then f 0 (u) = (− csc u)u0 (x) = −u0 (x) csc u.
(v) If f (u) = sec u, then f 0 (u) = (sec u tan u)u0 (x) = u0 (x) sec u tan u.
(vi) If f (u) = csc u, then f 0 (u) = − csc u cot u)u0 (x) = −u0 (x) csc u cot u.
Example 3.3.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin(5x2 − 3x + 2).
Solution: Let u(x) = 5x2 − 3x + 2. Then, u0 (x) = 10x − 3.
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = u0 (x) cos u = (10x − 3) cos(5x2 − 3x + 2).
Example 3.3.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin 5x cos 5x.
Solution: Let u(x) = 5x. Then, u0 (x) = 5.
Let
g(x) = sin 5x and h(x) = cos 5x.
Then,
g 0 (x) = 5 cos 5x and h0 (x) = 5(− sin 5x) = −5 sin 5x.

111
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x)

= (5 cos 5x)(cos 5x) + (sin 5x)(−5 sin 5x)
= 5(cos2 5x − sin2 5x)
= 5 cos 10x.
sec 3x
1 + cos 3x
Solution: Let u(x) = 3x. Then u0 (x) = 3.
Let
g(x) = sec 3x and h(x) = 1 + cos 3x.
Then
g 0 (x) = 3 sec 3x tan 3x and h0 (x) = 0 + 3(− sin 3x) = −3 sin 3x.
Therefore,
g 0 (x) · h(x) − g(x) · h0 (x)

f 0 (x) =
[h(x)]2
(3 sec 3x tan 3x)(1 + cos 3x) − (sec 3x)(−3 sin 3x)
=
(1 + cos 3x)2
3 sec 3x tan 3x + 3 tan 3x + 3 tan 3x
=
(1 + cos 3x)2
3 tan 3x(sec 3x + 2)
= .
(1 + cos 3x)2
r
cos x − 1
sin x
Solution: Write
r 21
cos x − 1 cos x − 1
f (x) = = .
sin x sin x
112
Let
cos x − 1
g(x) = ,.
sin x
and let
r(x) = cos x − 1 and s(x) = sin x.
Then
r0 (x) = − sin x − 0 = − sin x and s0 (x) = cos x.
Thus,
r0 (x) · s(x) − r(x) · s0 (x)
g 0 (x) =
[s(x)]2
(− sin x)(sin x) − (cos x − 1)(cos x)
=
(sin x)2
− sin2 x − cos2 x + cos x
=
(sin x)2
cos x − 1
= .
sin2 x
Therefore,
1 1
f 0 (x) = [g(x)] 2 −1 · g 0 (x)
2
− 1
1 cos x − 1 2 cos x − 1
= ·
2 sin x sin2 x
1
(cos x − 1)− 2 cos x − 1
= ·
2(sin x) − 21 sin2 x
1
(cos x − 1) 2
= 3
2(sin x) 2
√
cos x − 1
= √ .
2 sin x sin x
Example 3.3.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = cos2 3x csc3 2x.
Solution: Let
113
u(x) = 3x and v(x) = 2x.
Then
u0 (x) = 3 and v 0 (x) = 2.
Let
g(x) = cos2 3x = (cos 3x)2 and h(x) = csc3 2x = (csc 2x)3 .
Thus,
g 0 (x) = 2(cos 3x)2−1 · Dx (cos 3x)

= 2(cos 3x)[3(− sin 3x)]
= −6 cos 3x sin 3x;
and
h0 (x) = 3(csc 2x)3−1 · Dx (csc 2x)
= 3(csc 2x)2 [2(− csc 2x cot 2x)]
= −6 csc3 2x cot 2x.
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x)

= (−6 cos 3x sin 3x)(csc3 2x) + (cos2 3x)(−6 csc3 2x cot 2x)
= −6 cos 3x csc3 2x(cos 3x cot 2x).
cot x2
Example 3.3.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = q .
1 − cot2 x2
x 1
Solution: Let u(x) = . Then u0 (x) = .
2 2
Let
x
g(x) = cot .
2
Then
1 x 1 x
g 0 (x) = − csc2 = − csc2 .
2 2 2 2
114
Let
x 12
r
x
h(x) = 1 − cot2 = 1 − cot2 .
2 2
Thus,
1 x 12 −1 x
h0 (x) = 1 − cot2 · Dx 1 − cot2 .
2 2 2
2 x

We solve first Dx 1 − cot .
2
2 x x 2−1 x

Dx 1 − cot = 0 − 2 cot · Dx cot
2 2 2
x 1 x
= −2 cot − csc2
2 2 2
x x
= cot csc2 .
2 2
Hence,
1 1 −1
2 x 2 x

0
h (x) = 1 − cot · Dx 1 − cot2
2 2 2
1 x − 12 x x
= 1 − cot2 · cot csc2
2 2 2 2
1
1 x x x 2 −
= cot csc2 1 − cot2 .
2 2 2 2
115
Therefore,
g 0 (x) · h(x) − g(x) · h0 (x)
f 0 (x) =
[h(x)]2

1
r − 21
2 x 2 x x 1 x 2 x 2 x

− csc 1 − cot − cot cot csc 1 − cot
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= r 2
x
1 − cot2
2
r r −1
1 2 x 2 x 1 2 x 2 x 2 x
− csc 1 − cot − cot csc 1 − cot
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= x
1 − cot2
2
x x x x
− csc2 1 − cot2 − cot2 csc2
= 2 2 2 2
x r x
2 1 − cot2 1 − cot2
2 2
x
csc2
=− r2 .
x x
2 1 − cot2 1 − cot2
2 2
Exercises
I. Find the derivative and simplify the result.

√
1. f (x) = 2 sec x 2. f (x) = x2 csc 2x
r
2 − 3 sec x sec4 2x
3. f (x) = 4. f (x) =
tan x cos 2x
p cot2 2x
5. f (x) = 3 cos2 (2x + 1) 6. f (x) =
1 + x2
3.4 Derivative of the Natural Lorarithmic Function
Theorem 3.4.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x and u(x) > 0. If

0 (x)
f (u) = ln u, then f 0 (u) = uu(x) .
116
Example 3.4.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(3x3 − 4x2 + 7).
Solution: Let u(x) = 3x3 − 4x2 + 7. Then u0 (x) = 9x2 − 8x.
Therefore,
u0 (x) 9x2 − 8x
f 0 (x) = = 3 .
u(x) 3x − 4x2 + 7
Example 3.4.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)].
Solution: Let u(x) = (4x2 + 3)(2x − 1). Then

u0 (x) = 8x(2x − 1) + (4x2 + 3)2 = 16x2 − 8x + 8x2 + 6 = 24x2 − 8x + 6.
Therefore,
u0 (x) 24x2 − 8x + 6
f 0 (x) = = .
u(x) (4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)
Example 3.4.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)].
Solution: Write
f (x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)] = ln(4x2 + 3) + ln(2x − 1).
Let u(x) = (4x2 + 3) and v(x) = (2x − 1). Then
u0 (x) = 8x and v 0 (x) = 2.
Therefore,
u0 (x) v 0 (x)
f 0 (x) = +
u(x) v(x)
8x 2
= 2 +
4x + 3 2x − 1
16x2 − 8x + 8x2 + 6
=
(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)
24x2 − 8x + 6
= .
(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)
117
Example 3.4.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(sec 2x + tan 2x).
Solution: Let u(x) = sec 2x + tan 2x. Then
u0 (x) = 2 sec 2x tan 2x + 2 sec2 2x = 2 sec 2x(sec 2x + tan 2x).
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) =
u(x)
2 sec 2x(sec 2x + tan 2x)
=
sec 2x + tan 2x
= 2 sec 2x.
Theorem 3.4.6 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = ln |u|, then

u0 (x)
f 0 (u) = .
u(x)
Example 3.4.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 (x2 − 1)4 (x + 1)5 .
Solution: We have
|f (x)| = |x3 (x2 − 1)4 (x + 1)5 |
= |x3 ||(x2 − 1)4 ||(x + 1)5 |.
Taking the natural logarithm and applying the properties of logarithm, we get
ln |f (x)| = ln |x3 ||(x2 − 1)4 ||(x + 1)5 |

= ln |x3 | + ln |(x2 − 1)4 | + ln |(x + 1)5 |

= 3 ln |x| + 4 ln |x2 − 1| + 5 ln |x + 1|.
Differentiating on nboth sides, we obtain
f 0 (x)

1 2x 1
=3 +4 +5
f (x) x x2 − 1 x+1
3 8x 5
= + 2 + .
x x −1 x+1
118
Therefore,

0 3 8x 5
f (x) = f (x) + +
x x2 − 1 x + 1
3(x2 − 1) + 8x(x) + 5x(x − 1)

3 2 4 5
= x (x − 1) (x + 1)
x(x + 1)(x − 1)
2 2 3 5 2
= x (x − 1) (x + 1) (16x − 5x − 3).
√
(3x + 4)3 2x + 5
(x2 − 3)2
Solution: Write
√ 1
(3x + 4)3 2x + 5 (3x + 4)3 (2x + 5) 2
f (x) = = .
(x2 − 3)2 (x2 − 3)2
Then

(3x + 4)3 (2x + 5) 21
|f (x)| =

2
(x − 3) 2

1
|(3x + 4)3 ||(2x + 5) 2 |
= .
|(x2 − 3)2 |
Taking the natural logarithm and applying the properties of logarithm, we get
1
!
|(3x + 4)3 ||(2x + 5) 2 |
ln |f (x)| = ln
|(x2 − 3)2 |
1
= ln |(3x + 4)3 | + ln |(2x + 5) 2 | − ln |(x2 − 3)2 |
1
= 3 ln |3x + 4| + ln |2x + 5| − 2 ln |x2 − 3|.
2
Differentiating on both sides, we obtain
f 0 (x)

3 1 2 2x
=3 + −2
f (x) 3x + 4 2 2x + 5 x2 − 3
9 1 x
= + − 2 .
3x + 4 2x + 5 x − 3
119
Therefore,

0 9 1 x
f (x) = f (x) + −
3x + 4 2x + 5 x2 − 3
1
(3x + 4)3 (2x + 5) 2

9 1 x
= + −
(x2 − 3)2 3x + 4 2x + 5 x2 − 3
1
(3x + 4)3 (2x + 5) 2 27x3 + 72x2 − 43x − 147

=
(x2 − 3)2 (3x + 4)(2x + 5)(x2 − 3)
(3x + 4)2 (27x3 + 72x2 − 43x − 147)
= 1 .
(2x + 5) 2 (x2 − 3)3
Exercises

√3
√
1. f (x) = ln 4 − x2 2. f (x) = ln tan x
r
2
4 x − 1
3. f (x) = ln 4. f (x) = ln[(5x − 3)4 (2x2 + 7)3 ]
x2 + 1
r
3 (x + 2)(x + 3) (x + 2)2 (2x − 3)1/2
4. f (x) = 5. f (x) = √
x+1 3
3x − 2
x3 sin 2x (x2 + 1)2/3 sec 4x
6. f (x) = √ 7. f (x) =
x2 + 1 1 + sin2 x
3.5 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function
Theorem 3.5.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = eu , then

f 0 (u) = u0 (x) · eu .
3 +3x2 −1
Example 3.5.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = ex .
Solution: Let u(x) = x3 + 3x2 − 1. Then u0 (x) = 3x2 + 6x.
Therefore,
3 +3x2 −1
f 0 (x) = u0 (x) · eu = (3x2 + 6x)ex .
120
Example 3.5.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = e2x+ln x .
Solution: Write
f (x) = e2x+ln x = e2x eln x = e2x (x) = xe2x .
Let g(x) = x and h(x) = e2x . Then
g 0 (x) = 1 and h0 (x) = 2e2x .
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x)
= 1 · e2x + x · 2e2x
= (1 + 2x)e2x .
Example 3.5.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = (tan 3x)etan 3x .
Solution: Let g(x) = tan 3x and h(x) = etan 3x . Then

g 0 (x) = 3 sec2 3x and h0 (x) = (3 sec2 3x)etan 3x .
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x)
= 3 sec2 3x · etan 3x + tan 3x · (3 sec2 3x)etan 3x
= 3 sec2 3xetan 3x (1 + tan 3x)
= (3 sec2 3x)(1 + tan 3x)etan 3x .
Exercises

√
x
1. f (x) = e2 sin 3x 2. f (x) = tan e
ex − e−x
3. f (x) = ex sin ex 4. f (x) =
ex + e−x
e4x − 1

2x 2 sec x
5. f (x) = sec e +e 6. f (x) = ln
e4x + 1
121
3.6 Derivatives of Other Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Theorem 3.6.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x and a a positive real

number. If f (u) = au , then f 0 (u) = u0 (x)(ln a)au .
3 +3x2 −1
Example 3.6.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3x .
Solution: Let u(x) = x3 + 3x2 − 1. Then u0 (x) = 3x2 + 6x.
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = u0 (x)(ln a)au

3 +3x2 −1
= (3x2 + 6x)(ln 3)3x
3 +3x2 −1
= (ln 3)(3x2 + 6x)3x .
Example 3.6.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = 2csc 3x .
Solution: Let u(x) = csc 3x. Then u0 (x) = 3(− csc 3x cot 3x) = −3 csc 3x cot 3x.
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = u0 (x)(ln 2)2u

= (−3 csc 3x cot 3x)(ln 2)2csc 3x
= −3 ln 2(csc 3x cot 3x)2csc 3x .
3 2
Example 3.6.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = 34x 56x .
3 2
Solution: Let g(x) = 34x and h(x) = 56x . Then
3 3
g 0 (x) = u0 (x)(ln a)au = 12x2 (ln 3)34x = (12 ln 3)x2 34x
and
2 2
h0 (x) = u0 (x)(ln a)au = 12x(ln 5)56x = (12 ln 5)x56x .
122
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x)
3 2 3 2
= (12 ln 3)x2 34x · 56x + 34x · (12 ln 5)x 56x
3 2
= 12x 34x 56x [(ln 3)x + ln 5].
Theorem 3.6.5 Let u be a differentiable function of x and a a positive real

u0 (x)
number. If f (u) = loga u, then f 0 (u) = .
(ln a)u
Example 3.6.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = log10 (3x2 − 1).

Solution: Let u(x) = 3x2 − 1. Then u0 (x) = 6x.
Therefore,
u0 (x) 6x
f 0 (x) = = .
(ln a)u (ln 10)(3x2 − 1)
x
Example 3.6.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = log10 .
x+1
x 1(x + 1) − x(1) 1
Solution: Let u(x) = . Then = .
x+1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
Therefore,
1
0
u (x) (x + 1)2 1
f 0 (x) = = x = .
(ln a)u (ln 10) (ln 10)(x2 + x)
x+1
Exercises

2
1. f (x) = 4sin 3x 2. f (x) = sec 3x
3. f (x) = ecot 5x 4. f (x) = 3tan 7x 5cot 7x

x x 1+x
5. f (x) = cos 3 sin 3 6. f (x) = log10
1−x
123
3.7 Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Theorem 3.7.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = sin−1 u,

u0 (x)
then f 0 (u) = √ .
1 − u2
Example 3.7.2 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin−1 x2 .

Solution: Let u(x) = x2 . Then u0 (x) = 2x.
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = √
1 − u2
2x
=p
1 − (x2 )2
2x
=√ .
1 − x4
√
Example 3.7.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = sin−1 1 − x2 .
√
Solution: Let u(x) = 1 − x2 = (1 − x2 )1/2 . Then
1 x
u0 (x) = (1 − x2 )−1/2 (−2x) = − √ .
2 1 − x2
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = √
1 − u2
x
−√
1 − x2
=q √
1 − ( 1 − x2 ) 2
x
−√
1 − x2
=p
1 − (1 − x2 )
x
−√
1 − x2
=
x
1
= −√ .
1 − x2
124
Theorem 3.7.4 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = cos−1 u,

u0 (x)
then f 0 (u) = − √ .
1 − u2
x
Example 3.7.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = cos−1 √ .
1 + x2
x x
Solution: Let u(x) = √ = 1 . Then
1 + x2 (1 + x2 ) 2
√ 1
0 1 1 + x2 − x[ 12 (1 + x2 )− 2 (2x)]
u (x) = √
( 1 + x2 )2
√ 1
1 + x2 − x2 (1 + x2 )− 2
=
1 + x2
1
= √ .
(1 + x2 ) 1 + x2
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = − √
1 − u2
1
√
(1 + x2 ) 1 + x2
= −s 2
x
1− √
1 + x2
1
√
(1 + x2 ) 1 + x2
=− r
x2
1−
1 + x2
1
√
(1 + x ) 1 + x2
2
=−
1
√
1 + x2
1
=− .
1 + x2
125
Example 3.7.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = cos−1 (sin x).
Solution: Let u(x) = sin x. Then u0 (x) = cos x.
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = − √
1 − u2
cos x
= −p
1 − (sin x)2
cos x
=−
cos x
= −1.
Theorem 3.7.7 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = tan−1 u,

u0 (x)
then f 0 (u) = .
1 + u2
1
Example 3.7.8 Find the derivative of f (x) = tan−1 .
x+1
1 1
Solution: Let u(x) = . Then u0 (x) = − .
x+1 (x + 1)2
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) =
1 + u2
1
−
(x + 1)2
= 2
1
1+
x+1
1
−
(x + 1)2
=
(x + 1)2 + 1
(x + 1)2
1
=− 2 .
x + 2x + 2
126
x
Example 3.7.9 Find the derivative of f (x) = tan−1 √ .
1 − x2
x x
Solution: Let u(x) = √ = 1 . Then
1 − x2 (1 − x2 ) 2
√ 1
0 1 1 − x2 − x[ 12 (1 − x2 )− 2 (−2x)]
u (x) = √
( 1 − x2 ) 2
√ 1
1 − x2 + x2 (1 − x2 )− 2
=
1 − x2
1
= √ .
(1 − x ) 1 − x2
2
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) =
1 + u2
1
√
(1 − x2 ) 1 − x2
= 2
x
1+ √
1 − x2
1
√
(1 − x2 ) 1 − x2
=
x2
1+
1 − x2
1
√
(1 − x ) 1 − x2
2
=
1
1 − x2
1
= √ .
1 − x2
Theorem 3.7.10 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = cot−1 u,

u0 (x)
then f 0 (u) = − .
1 + u2
2
Example 3.7.11 Find the derivative of f (x) = cot−1 .
x
127
2 2
Solution: Let u(x) = . Then u0 (x) = − 2 .
x x
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = −
1 + u2
2
− 2
=− x 2
2
1+
x
2
2
= 2x
x +4
x2
2
= 2 .
x +4
Theorem 3.7.12 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = sec−1 u,

u0 (x)
then f 0 (u) = √ .
u u2 − 1
√
Example 3.7.13 Find the derivative of f (x) = sec−1 x2 + 4.
√ 1 1 x
Solution: Let u(x) = x2 + 4. Then u0 (x) = (x2 + 4)− 2 (2x) = √ .
2 2
x +4
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = √
u u2 − 1
x
√
2
=√ qx√+ 4
x2 + 4 ( x2 + 4)2 − 1
x
= √ .
(x + 4) x2 + 3
2
128
Theorem 3.7.14 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f (u) = csc−1 u,

u0 (x)
then f 0 (u) = − √ .
u u2 − 1
√
Example 3.7.15 Find the derivative of f (x) = csc−1 x.
√ 1
Solution: Let u(x) = x. Then u0 (x) = √ .
2 x
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = − √
u u2 − 1
1
√
2 x
= −√ p √
x ( x)2 − 1
1
=− √ .
2x x − 1
Example 3.7.16 Find the derivative of f (x) = csc−1 (e2x ).
Solution: Let u(x) = e2x . Then u0 (x) = 2e2x .
Therefore,
u0 (x)
f 0 (x) = − √
u u2 − 1
2e2x
=− p
e2x (e2x )2 − 1
2
= −√ .
4x
e −1
√
Example 3.7.17 Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 − 1 sec−1 x.
√
Solution: Let g(x) = x2 − 1 and h(x) = sec−1 x. Then
129
1 1 x
g 0 (x) = (x2 − 1)− 2 (2x) = √
2 2
x −1
and
0 u0 (x) 1
h (x) = √ = √ .
2
u u −1 x x2 − 1
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0 (x)
x √ 1
=√ · sec−1 x + x2 − 1 · √
2
x −1 x x2 − 1
√
x2 sec−1 x + x2 − 1
= √ .
x x2 − 1
Exercises
1. f (x) = earcsin 2x 2. f (x) = e−3x arccos 3x

arccos 2x
3. f (x) = x arcsin x + x arccos x 4. f (x) = √
1 + 4x2

2x 3 sin x
5. f (x) = tan−1 6. f (x) = tan −1
1 − x2 4 + 5 cos x
1−x
7. f (x) = cot−1 8. f (x) = tan−1 x2 + cot−1 x2
1+x
√
1 + x2
9. f (x) = sec−1 10. f (x) = sec−1 5x + csc−1 5x
x
11. f (x) = csc−1 (e−3x ) 12. f (x) = sec−1 (2e3x )
3.8 Derivatives of the Hyperbolic Functions
Definition 3.8.1 The hyperbolic sine function, denoted by sinh, and the
hyperbolic cosine function, denoted by cosh, are defined as follows:
ex − ex ex + ex
sinh x = cosh x =
2 2
130
where x is any real number.

Dx (sinh u) = (Dx u) cosh u.
Dx (cosh u) = (Dx u) sinh u.
Example 3.8.3 Find the derivative of f (x) = sinh(x2 + 3x + 4).
Solution: Let u(x) = x2 + 3x + 4. Then Dx u = 2x + 3.
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = (Dx u) cosh u

= (2x + 3) cosh(x2 + 3x + 4).
√
Example 3.8.4 Find the derivative of f (x) = cosh 1 − x2 .
√
Solution: Let u(x) = 1 − x2 . Then
1 x
Dx u = (1 − x2 )−1/2 (−2x) = − √ .
2 1 − x2
Therefore,
f 0 (x) = (Dx u) sinh u

x √
= −√ sinh 1 − x2 .
1 − x2
Definition 3.8.5 The hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cotangent, hyperbolic

secant, and hyperbolic cosecant functions, denoted respectively by tanh, coth,
sech, and csch, are defined as follows:
sinh x cosh x
tanh x = coth x =
cosh x sinh x
1 1
sech x = csch x =
cosh x sinh x
131
where x is any real number.
Theorem 3.8.6 Let x be a real number. Then

1
tanh x = .
coth x
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.
1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x.
1 − coth2 x = −csch2 x.

cosh x + sinh x = ex .
cosh x − sinh x = e−x .

sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y.
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y.

sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x.
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x.

Dx (tanh u) = (Dx u) sech2 u.
Dx (cosh u) = (Dx u) (−csch2 u).
Dx (sech u) = (Dx u) (−sech u tanh u).
Dx (csch u) = (Dx u) (−csch u coth u).
Example 3.8.11 Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(tanh x) and simplify.

132
Solution: Let u(x) = tanh x. Then Dx u = sech2 x.
Therefore,
Dx u
f 0 (x) =
u
sech2 x
=
tanh x
1
= cosh2 x
sinh x
cosh x
1
=
sinh x cosh x
1
= 1
2
sinh 2x
= 2csch 2x.
√
Example 3.8.12 Find the derivative of f (x) = coth3 x.
√ √
Solution: Write f (x) = coth3 x = (coth x)3 .
√ 1
Let u(x) = x. Then Dx u = √ .
2 x
Thus,
√
Dx (coth x) = (Dx u)(−csch2 u)
1 √
= √ (−csch2 x)
2 x
1 √
= − √ csch2 x.
2 x
Therefore,
√ √
f 0 (x) = 3(coth
x)3−1 · Dx (coth x)
√ 2 √

1 2
= 3(coth x) − √ csch x
2 x
3 √ √
= − √ coth2 x csch2 x.
2 x
133
Exercises
1. f (x) = sinh x3 2. f (x) = ex cosh x

1
3. f (x) = coth 4. f (x) = sech2 4x
x
√
5. f (x) = tanh 3
x 6. f (x) = tan−1 (sinh 2x)
7. f (x) = sin−1 (tanh x2 ) 8. f (x) = coth(ln x)
II. Prove the following identities.

1 + tanh x
1. = e2x
1 − tanh x
x2 − 1
2. tanh(ln x) = 2
x +1
x2 + 1
3. cosh(ln x) =
2x
3.9 Implicit Differentiation
If a function f is defined by f = {(x, y) : y = 2x3 − 4x + 1}, then the

equation y = 2x3 − 4x + 1 defines the function f explicitly. There are some
functions which cannot be defined explicitly. For example, we cannot solve
the equation
x4 − 2x2 = y 6 − y 5 − y 3
for y in terms of x. A function f may exist such that if y = f (x), then the
equation above is satisfied, that is, the equation
x4 − 2x2 = [f (x)]6 − [f (x)]5 − [f (x)]3
holds for all x in the domain of f . In this case. the function f is defined
implicitly by the given equation.
The method of finding the derivative of a function defined implicitly is

called implicit differentiation.
134
Example 3.9.1 Suppose that y is differentiable function of a variable x given

by x3 + y 3 = 9. Find y 0 .
Solution: Differentiating both sides of the equation term by term, we get

3x2 + 3y 2 y 0 = 0.
Solving for y 0 , we get
0 3x2 x2
y = − 2 = − 2.
3y y

by x3 + y 2 = 5xy. Find y 0 .

3x2 + 2yy 0 = 5(y + xy 0 ).
Then
yy 0 − 5xy 0 = 5y − 3x2 .
0 5y − 3x2
y = .
2y − 5x

by 4x3 y − 2xy 3 = y 4 . Find y 0 .

4(3x2 y + x3 y 0 ) − 2[1(y 3 ) + x(3y 2 y 0 )] = 4y 3 y 0 .
Then
12x2 y + 4x3 y 0 − 2y 3 − 6xy 2 y 0 = 4y 3 y 0 .
0 2y 3 − 12x2 y y 3 − 6x2 y
y = 3 = 3 .
4x − 6xy 2 − 4y 3 2x − 3xy 2 − 2y 3
135

by x sin y + y cos x = 1. Find y 0 .
1(sin y) + x(y 0 cos y) + y 0 (cos x) + y(− sin x) = 0.
Then
(x cos y + cos x)y 0 = y sin x − sin y.
y sin x − sin y
y0 = .
x cos y + cos x

by cot xy + xy = 0. Find y 0 .
(1 · y + xy 0 )(− csc2 xy) + y + xy 0 = 0.
Then
xy 0 − xy 0 csc2 xy = −y + y csc2 xy.
−y(1 − csc2 xy)
y0 = .
x(1 − csc2 xy)
Exercises
I. Suppose that y is differentiable function of a variable x. Find y 0 .

√ √
1. x3 y + 4xy 3 = 2 2. x+ y=1
3. y = cos(x − y) 4. cos(x + y) = y sin x

2 2
5. + = 3x 6. csc(x − y) + sec(x + y) = x
x y
x+y √
7. f (x) = √ = 10 8. tan xy − 3xy = 4
xy
136
3.10 Derivatives of Higher Order
If the function f is differentiable, then its derivative f 0 is called the

first derivative of f . If the function f 0 is differentiable, then its derivative
f 00 is called the second derivative of f . If the fu8nction f 00 is differentiable,
then its derivative f 000 is called the third derivative of f . The nth derivative
of the function f , denoted by f ( n), is the derivative of the (n-1)st derivative
of f , provided it exist.
Notations: Given y = f (x).

y0 y 00 y 000 ... y n
f0 f 00 f 000 ... f n
dy d2 y d3 y dn y
...
dx dx2 dx3 dxn
Dx (f ) Dx2 (f ) Dx3 (f ) ... Dxn (f )
Example 3.10.1 Find all the derivatives of the function f (x) = 2x3 + 4x2 −
3x + 5.
Solution:
f 0 (x) = 6x2 + 4x − 3
f 00 (x) = 12x + 4
f 000 (x) = 12
f (4) (x) = 0
f (n) (x) = 0 for n ≥ 4.
√
Example 3.10.2 Find f 000 (x) if f (x) = 2x + 3.
Solution: √ 1
f (x) = 2x + 3 = (2x + 3) 2
1 1 1
f 0 (x) = (2x + 3)− 2 (2) = (2x + 3)− 2
2
1 3 3
f (x) = − (2x + 3)− 2 (2) = −(2x + 3)− 2
00
2
3 5 5 3 3
f 000 (x) = − [−(2x+3)− 2 ](2) = 3(2x+3)− 2 = p = √ .
2 (2x + 3) 5 (2x + 3)2 2x + 3

137
Example 3.10.3 Find Dx3 (f ) if f (x) = 3 sin x + 4 cos x − 3x2 .
Solution:
Dx (f ) = 3 cos x − 4 sin x − 6x
Dx2 (f ) = −3 sin x − 4 cos x − 6
Dx3 (f ) = −3 cos x + 4 sin x.
x−1
Example 3.10.4 Find Dx4 (f ) if f (x) = .
x+1
Solution:
1(x + 1) − (x − 1)1 2
Dx (f ) = 2
= 2
= 2(x + 1)−2
(x + 1) (x + 1)
Dx2 (f ) = −4(x + 1)−3 (1) = −4(x + 1)−3
Dx3 (f ) = 12(x + 1)−4 (1) = 12(x + 1)−4
48
Dx2 (f ) = −48(x + 1)−5 (1) = − .
(x + 1)5
Exercises
1. Find f 00 (x) if f (x) = (3x − 2)3 (x + 5)2 .

√
3
2. Find Dx3 (f ) if f (x) = x2 + 1.
cos x
3. Find Dx3 (f ) if f (x) = .
1 + sin x
4. Find f 00 (x) if f (x) = cot 3x + csc 3x.
1 + 2x
5. Find f 000 (x) if f (x) = .
1 − 2x
0
3.11 The Indeterminate Form 0
Definition 3.11.1 If f and g are two functions such that
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0

x→a x→a
138
f (x) 0
then has the indeterminate form at a.
g(x) 0
x2 − 9
Example 3.11.2 Let F (x) = . Then
x−3
lim (x2 − 9) = 0, and lim (x − 3) = 0.
x→3 x→3
2
x −9
Hence, F (x) = has the indeterminate form 00 at 3.
x−3
x − sin x
Example 3.11.3 Let F (x) = . Then
x3
lim (x − sin x) = 0, and lim (x3 ) = 0.
x→0 x→0
x − sin x 0
Hence, F (x) = has the indeterminate form 0
at 0.
x3
To find the limit at the number a of a function having the indeterminate

form 00 at a, we apply the theorem called L’Hopital’s Rule, named for the
French mathematician Guillaume Francois de L’Hopital (1661-1707).
Theorem 3.11.4 (L’Hopital’s Rule) Let f and g be functions differentiable

on an open interval I, except possibly at the number a in I. Suppose that for
all x 6= a in I, g 0 (x) 6= 0. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, and
x→a x→a
0
f (x) f (x)
if lim = L, then lim = L.
x→a g 0 (x) x→a g(x)
The theorem is valid if all the limits are right-hand limits or

all the limits are left-hand limits.
x3 − 2x2 − 2x − 3
x→3 x2 − 9
Solution:
(1) lim (x3 − 2x2 − 2x − 3) = 0 and lim (x2 − 9) = 0.
x→3 x→3
x3 − 2x2 − 2x − 3 0
The function has the indeterminate form 0
at 3.
x2 − 9
3x2 − 4x − 2 3(9) − 4(3) − 2 13
(2) lim = = .
x→3 2x 2(3) 6
3 2
x − 2x − 2x − 3 13
Therefore, lim 2
= .
x→3 x −9 6
139
x − sin x
x→0 x3
Solution:
(1) lim (x − sin x) = 0 and lim (x3 ) = 0.
x→0 x→0
x − sin x
The function has the indeterminate form 00 at 0.
x3
1 − cos x
(2) lim
x→0 3x2
1 − cos x
The function 2
has the indeterminate form 00 at 0.
3x
sin x
(3) lim
x→0 6x
sin x
6x
cos x 1
(4) lim =
x→0 6 6
x − sin x 1
Therefore, lim 3
= .
x→0 x 6
x−1
x→1 x−2 x−1−1
Solution: √
(1) lim+ (x − 1) = 0 and lim+ (x − 2 x − 1 − 1) = 0.
x→1 x→1
x−1 0
The function √ has the indeterminate form 0
at 1.
x−2 x−1−1
√
1 x−1
(2) lim+ 1 = lim+ √ = 0.
x→1 1 − √ x→1 x−1−1
x−1
x−1
Therefore, lim+ √ = 0.
x→1 x − 2 x − 1 − 1
3x − 2x
x→0 x
Solution: √
(1) lim+ (3x − 2x ) = 0 and lim+ x = 0.
x→0 x→0
140
3x − 2x
The function √ has the indeterminate form 00 at 0.
x
3x ln 3 − 2x ln 2 √
(2) lim+ = lim+ 2 x(3x ln 3 − 2x ln 2) = 0.
x→0 1 x→0
√
2 x
3x − 2x
Therefore, lim √ = 0.
x→0+ x

for all x > N , where N is a positive constant, and suppose that for all x > N ,
g 0 (x) 6= 0. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, and
x→+∞ x→+∞
f 0 (x) f (x)
if lim =L then lim = L.
x→+∞ g 0 (x) x→+∞ g(x)
The theorem is valid if x → +∞ is replaced by x → −∞.
1
x
x→+∞ tan x1
Solution:
1 1
(1) lim =0 and lim tan = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
1
x 0
The function has the indeterminate form at +∞.
tan x1 0
− x12 1
(2) lim = lim = 1.
1 1
sec2 x1

x→+∞ − x2 sec x2 x→+∞
1
x
Therefore, lim = 1.
x→+∞ tan x1
1
x
cos x1
x→−∞ sin x1
Solution:
1 1 1
(1) lim cos = 0 and lim sin = 0.
x→−∞ x x x→−∞ x
1 1
cos 0
The function x 1 x has the indeterminate form 0
at −∞.
sin x
141
− x12 cos x1 − x13 sin x1

1 1
(2) lim = lim 1 + tan = 1.
x→−∞ − x12 cos x1 x→−∞ x x
1
cos 1
Therefore, lim x 1 x = 1.
x→−∞ sin
x
Exercises
Evaluate the following limits:
tan 3x ln(sin x
1. lim 2. limπ
x→0 sin x x→ 2 (π − 2x)2
1 − sin x ln(sin x)
3. limπ 4. limπ
x→ 2 cos x x→ 2 1 − sin x
x sin x ex − 10x
5. lim x 6. lim
x→0 e − cos x x→0 x
sinh x − sin x x2
7. lim 8. lim
x→0 sin3 x − cos x x→0 1 − cosh x
±∞
3.12 The Indeterminate Form ±∞
Another indeterminate form of a quotient of two functions occurs when

the numerator increases or decreases without bound and the denominator
increases or decreases without bound. For example, evaluate
ln x
lim 1 .
x→a
x2
Here, we cannot apply the limit of the quotient since

1
lim ln x = −∞ and lim = +∞.
x→a x→a x2
In this case, we say that the function

ln x
.
1
x2
−∞
has the indeterminate form +∞
at 0.
142

on an open interval I, except possibly at the number a in I. Suppose that for
all x 6= a in I, g 0 (x) 6= 0. If lim f (x) is +∞ or −∞ and lim g(x) is +∞ or
x→a x→a
−∞, and
f 0 (x) f (x)
if lim =L then lim = L.
x→a g 0 (x) x→a g(x)
The theorem is valid if all the limits are right-hand limits or

all the limits are left-hand limits.
ln x
Example 3.12.2 Evaluate lim+ 1 .
x→0
x
Solution:
1
(1) lim+ ln x = −∞ and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
ln x −∞
The function 1 has the indeterminate form +∞
at 0.
x
1
x
(2) lim+ = lim+ (−x) = 0.
x→0 − x12 x→0
ln x
Therefore, lim+ 1 = 0.
x→0
x
ln(x + ex )
x→+∞ 3x
Solution:
(1) lim ln(x + ex ) = +∞ and lim (3x) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞
ln(x + ex ) +∞
The function has the indeterminate form +∞
at +∞.
3x
1+ex
x+ex 1 + ex
(2) lim = lim .
x→+∞ 3 x→+∞ 3x + 3ex
1 + ex +∞
at +∞.
3x + 3ex
ex
(3) lim
x→+∞ 3 + 3ex
143
ex +∞
at +∞.
3 + 3ex
ex 1 1
(4) lim = lim = .
x→+∞ 3ex x→+∞ 3 3
ln(x + ex ) 1
Therefore, lim = .
x→+∞ 3x 3
ln x
x→0 ln(2ex − 2)
Solution:
(1) lim+ ln x = −∞ and lim ln(2ex − 2) = −∞.
x→0 x→0+
ln x −∞
The function has the indeterminate form −∞ at 0.
ln(2ex − 2)
1
x ex − 1
(2) lim+ 2ex = lim+ .
x→0
2ex −2
x→0 xex
ex − 1
xex
ex
(3) lim+ x = 1.
x→0 e + xex
ln x
Therefore, lim+ = 1.
x→0 ln(2ex − 2)
Exercises
x2 + 2x ln(cos x)
1. lim 3x 2. lim
x→+∞ e −1 π−
x→ 2 ln(tan x)
ln(x + ex ) csc x
3. lim+ 1 4. lim+ 1
x→0 x→0
x x
1
(ln x)3 e− x
5. lim 6. lim+
x→+∞ x x→0 x
3.13 Other Indeterminate Forms
0 ±∞
In addition to and , other indeterminate forms are 0 · (+∞),
0 ±∞
(+∞) − (+∞), 00 , (±∞)0 , and 1±∞ . To find the limit of a function having
144
0 ±∞
one of these indeterminate forms, it must be changed to either form 0
or ±∞
before L’Hopital’s Rule can be applied.
Example 3.13.1 Evaluate lim sin−1 x csc x.

x→0+
Solution:
lim sin−1 x = 0 and lim csc x = +∞.

x→0+ x→0+
The function sin−1 x csc x has the indeterminate form 0 · (+∞) at 0. Write the
function as a ratio of two functions.
sin−1 x
lim+ sin−1 x csc x = lim+ .
x→0 x→0 sin x
(1) lim+ sin−1 x = 0 and lim sin x = 0.
x→0 x→0+
sin−1 x 0
at 0.
sin x
√ 1
1−x2 1
(2) lim+ = = 1.
x→0 cos x 1
Therefore, lim sin−1 x csc x = 1.
x→0+
Example 3.13.2 Evaluate lim (sec x − tan x).

x→ π2 −
Solution:
lim sec x = +∞ and lim tan x = +∞.

x→ π2 − x→ π2 −
The function sec x − tan x has the indeterminate form (+∞) − (+∞) at π/2.
Write the function as a ratio of two functions.
1 − sin x
lim (sec x − tan x) = lim .
π−
x→ 2 π−
x→ 2 cos x
Then
(1) lim
π−
(1 − sin x) = 0 and lim cos x = 0.
x→ 2 x→ π2 −
145
1−sin x 0
The function cos x
has the indeterminate form 0
at π2 .
− cos x 0
(2) lim = = 0.
π−
x→ 2 − sin x 1
Therefore, lim (sec x − tan x) = 0.
x→ π2 −
1
Example 3.13.3 Evaluate lim+ (1 + x) x .
x→0
Solution:
1
lim+ (1 + x) = 1 and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
1 1
The function (1 + x) x has the indeterminate form 1+∞ at 0. Let y = (1 + x) x .
Then
1 ln(1 + x)
ln y = ln(1 + x) x = ;
x
and
ln(1 + x)
lim+ ln y = lim+ .
x→0 x→0 x
We have,
(1) lim+ ln(1 + x) = 0 and lim x = 0.
x→0 x→0+
ln(1 + x) 0
at 0.
x
1
1+x
(2) lim+ = 1.
x→0 1
Hence, lim ln y = 1.
x→0+

Thus, exp lim+ ln y = exp(1). ⇒ lim y = e.
x→0 x→0+
1
Therefore, lim+ (1 + x) x = e.
x→0
Example 3.13.4 Evaluate lim (cot x)x .

x→0+
Solution:
146
lim (cot x) = +∞ and lim x = 0.

x→0+ x→0+
The function (cot x)x has the indeterminate form (+∞)0 at 0. Let y = (cot x)x .
Then
ln cot x
ln y = ln(cot x)x = x ln cot x = 1 ;
x
and
ln cot x
lim+ ln y = lim+ 1 .
x→0 x→0
x
We have,
1
(1) lim+ ln cot x = +∞ and lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
ln cot x +∞
The function 1 has the indeterminate form +∞
at 0.
x
− csc2 x
cot x x2
(2) lim+ = lim+
x→0 − x12 x→0 sin x cos x
x2 0
at 0.
sin x cos x
2x 0
(3) lim+ 2 = = 0.
x→0 cos2 x − sin x 1−0
Hence, lim ln y = 0.
x→0+

Thus, exp lim+ ln y = exp(0). ⇒ lim y = 1.
x→0 x→0+
Therefore, lim (cot x)x = 1.

x→0+
Exercises
ln x
1. lim+ tan−1 x cot x 2. lim
x→0 x→0 ex
1 − sin x ln(sin x)
3. lim 4. lim
x→π/2 cos x x→π/2 1 − sin x

2 1
5. lim+ x cot x 6. lim cot x − 2
x→0 x→+∞ x
2
7. lim x4x 8. lim xx
x→0 x→0

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CALCULUS I

RENE E. LEONIDA, Ph.D.

1 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 1

2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF TRANCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 75

3 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 101

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

1.1 Intuitive Idea of Limit

Let f be a function defined at each x on some open interval I containing

Example 1.1.1 Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = x + 1 and a = 1. Then f

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999

x 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1

Hence, f (x) approaches 2 as x approaches 1. In symbols, we write

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999

x 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

Hence, f (x) approaches 4 as x approaches 2. In symbols, we write

x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

Hence, f (x) does not approaches to a single value as x approaches 0.

lim f (x) does not exist.

x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001

x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

Hence, f (x) does not approach to a real number as x approaches 0. In

lim f (x) does not exist.

1.2 Definition of Limit of a Function

Definition 1.2.1 Let f be a function which is defined for all x on an open

if for every  > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .

Example 1.2.2 Show that lim (2x + 1) = 3.

|(2x + 1) − 3| <  whenever 0 < |x − 5| < δ.

|(2x + 1) − 3| = |2x − 2| = |2(x − 1)| = 2|x − 1|.

Thus, we must show that

2|x − 1| <  whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ,

Now, choose δ = 2 . Hence, we have

|2x + 1) − 3| <  whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ,

1.3 Limit Theorems

We need some powerful rules to evaluate the limits of functions ina

Theorem 1.3.1 (Uniqueness of a Limit) Let f and g be functions such

Theorem 1.3.2 (Limit of a Constant Function) If c is a constant, then

Example 1.3.3 Evaluate lim 4.

Solution: By Theorem 1.3.2, lim 4 = 4.

Example 1.3.7 Evaluate lim x.

Theorem 1.3.8 (Limit of a Polynomial Function) If c0 , c1 , ..., cn−1 , cn are

Example 1.3.9 Evaluate lim (4x − 7).

Solution: By Theorem 1.3.8, lim (4x − 7) = 4(3) − 7 = 5.

Example 1.3.10 Evaluate lim (2x2 − 6x + 1).

Theorem 1.3.11 (Limit of a Sum) Let f and g be functions such that

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x).

The next result is an extension of Theorem 1.3.11.

Example 1.3.13 Evaluate lim [(2x + 1) + (3x4 − x2 )].

Solution: By Theorem 1.3.8,

Therefore, by Theorem 1.3.11,

lim [(2x + 1) + (3x4 − x2 )] = lim (2x + 1) + lim (3x4 − x2 )

Example 1.3.14 Evaluate lim [(2x3 + 1) + (x2 − 5x) − (3x4 − 6)].

Solution: By Theorem 1.3.8,

lim (2x3 + 1) = 2(2)3 + 1 = 17,

lim (x2 − 5x) = (2)2 − 5(2) = −6, and

lim (3x4 − 6) = 3(2)4 − 6 = 42.

Therefore, by Corollary 1.3.12,

Theorem 1.3.15 (Limit of a Product) Let f and g be functions such that

lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x).

By induction, we obtain the following extension of Theorem 1.3.15.

Example 1.3.17 Evaluate lim [(2x + 1)(3x3 − x2 )].

Solution: By Theorem 1.3.8,

if for every > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .

|(2x + 1) − 3| < whenever 0 < |x − 5| < δ.

2|x − 1| < whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ,

Now, choose δ = 2 . Hence, we have

|2x + 1) − 3| < whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ,

if 0 < x − a < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .

if 0 < a − x < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .