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Abstract
Sustaining injectivity of disposal wells is a challenging task in oil industry because of inconsistent injected
water quality and the need to meet disposal capacity of produced water. Disposal water contains large
amounts of carry over oil, suspended solids and other associated water treatment chemicals. Such water
property will damage near wellbore formation permeability and consequently decline well injectivity as
documented by lab and field reported data.
An extensive lab work was carried out to: 1) evaluate the effect of water quality on injectivity of disposal
wells using reservoir core plugs, and 2) restore injectivity of damaged wells. Parameters such as core
permeability and water quality in terms of suspended solids, particle size and oil content were examined
at reservoir conditions using coreflood testing. Effect of natural clean up and different chemical treatment
systems was also studied. The experimental work included water characterization in terms of geochemical
analysis, total suspended solids (TSS), particle size distributions (PDS) and oil content. Solubility and
compatibility tests were conducted to assess different cleanup systems.
In this paper, water quality guidelines to minimize/prevent formation damage are recommended. In
addition, an optimization of conventional chemical treatments for horizontal sandstone water disposal wells
is discussed. Based on lab work, a novel chemical treatment was successfully applied to restore injectivity of
several damaged disposal wells. This novel treatment reduced the long operation time and cost of a typical
treatment practice, while effectively stimulated the well with over two folds increase in well potential and
over 70% reduction in treatment cost and operation time.
Water is being injected into formation for pressure maintenance, disposal purposes, or the combination
of them. Injectivity of power injector or disposal wells is a function of water quality including amount of
suspended solids, particle size distributions, oil content, and formation characteristics (permeability and
porosity). According to Eylander 1988, the degree of impairment over a period of time is believed to be
related to the total quantity of suspended solids in the injected water, the particle size distribution and the
formation characteristics. Plugging and bridging in the pore system is controlled by the specific size of the
invading particles, flow velocity of the fluid in which they are contained, the pore size distribution and, to
a certain extent, the wettability of the fines and formation under consideration (Bennion et al., 2001). Raju
et al., (2005) found that iron sulfide particles (0.25 micron) caused damage to cores with permeability < 20
mD after injecting 1,000 pore volumes of the mixed water. No damage was noted in high permeable cores
(> 100 mD) even after the injection of 600 PV of the same water.
Water quality has a great influence on the injectivity of injection and disposal wells. Poor injection or
disposal water quality can compromise the effective injectivity of even high quality sandstone or carbonate
formations, resulting in economic failures and the need for costly workovers and recompletions on a regular
basis to facilitate injection operations (Murti et al., 1988). According to Kumar (1988), source water used
for injection often contained solid impurities which can reduce permeability of the formation around the
wellbore. Whenever foreign waters are pumped into a well, care must be taken to prevent formation damage.
The quality of water with respect to its suspended solids should be measured to aid in designing a proper
filtration system that will prevent formation damage (Ershaghi et al., 1986).
Several researchers have examined various impairment mechanisms due to the presence of particles
and oil in water injection and disposal wells (e.g. Ershaghi et al., 1986, Barkman and Davidson, 1972).
According to Barkman and Davidson (1972), solid particles can impair well injectivity through the
following four mechanisms: wellbore narrowing (cake formation invasion of particles deep into the
reservoir, wellbore fill up by particle settling, and perforation plugging. According to the studies, the damage
depends on particle size of the solids and oil present in the injected water and the average pore throat
diameter of the formation. If the particles are larger than the average pore throat diameter of the formation,
then the particles cannot penetrate the pores. As a result, an external filter cake with permeability lower than
that of the formation will formed, Fig. 1-a. This type of damage occurs very fast and has a great impact on
well injectivity (Ershagi et al., 1986). The degree of plugging and the extent of injectivity damage depend
on: (a) rock characteristics, permeability and porosity, (b) oil content and drop size distributions (c) flow
velocity, and (d) total suspended solids.
Another type of injectivity impairment occurs when the size of the particles present in the injected
water is smaller than the average pore throat diameter of the formation. These particles will invade the
formation and bridge at some pores, Fig. 1-b. The degree of damage is controlled by three factors: particle
SPE-183743-MS 3
characteristics, concentration and fluid flow. As solids concentration in the injection water is increased, the
rate of permeability decline becomes higher.
Obviously, if the size of the particles is significantly smaller than the average pore throat diameter of the
formation (Fig. 1-c) then, the particles will flow through the formation without causing any damage. As a
result, there will be no loss of injectivity for a long period of time. The presence of solids in the injected
water can cause other types of damage. For particles invasion mechanism, Barkman and Davidson (1972),
and Vetter et al., (1987) reported that particles in the injection fluid can be transported to great distance from
the wellbore and will deposit at a radial distance where the pressure gradient is low, subsequently the rate
of permeability impairment will be negligible.
Ideally, injected water should be compatible with the formation water and should not contain suspended
solids or oil in order to prevent formation damage and thus maintain good/long term injectivity. According
to Bennion et al. (2001), injection water should be pristinely clean and contain little or no suspended solids.
Unfortunately, due to the realities of production/processing operations, economic, and practical limitations
on water filtration and treatment, this is generally not the case and almost all injection fluids contain some
amount of suspended particulate matter. Therefore, several rules and models have been used to initiate the
water quality guideline that will prevent or at least minimize injectivity impairment. Among these rules
were rules-of-thumb (1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/10). These rules relate size of particulate in injection water to
potential permeability reduction, thus help in selection of proper filtration equipment (Pautz et al., 1989).
These rules have been used to relate the average of particles that can ‘safely" invade a formation without
resulting in permanent damage. For example, the 1/3 rule implies that the average diameter of the invading
particles should be less than 1/3 of the average pore diameter to maintain reasonable injection rates.
Nasr-El-Din and Al-Taq, (1998) recommended water quality requirements to minimize loss of injectivity
where total suspended material (solids and oil) should not exceed 50 ppm, mean particle size should not
exceed 4 microns, hydrogen sulfide concentration should not exceed 10 ppm, and total iron concentration
should not exceed 2 ppm. Murti et al., (1988) reported that the typical environmental regulations call for a
maximum of 20 ppm of free oil in the effluent. Evans et al., (2004) used an on-site coreflooding as a well-
accepted method to directly measure the plugging effects of "live" system water on reservoir rocks and set
a realistic water quality specification to minimize formation damage. Yong et al., (2012) presented Chinese
standards (SY-T 5329-1994) for injected water into a tight formation (10 mD). These specifications are very
restrict where TSS of be less than 1 mg/L, oil content of less than 5 mg/L and particle size of less than 0.8
µm are recommended.
feldspars, chert, micas, and carbonate materials as cement or overgrowth on grains, along with other
minerals. Hydrochloric acid is not effective in removing most of constituents of silicate rocks.
Disposal wells in carbonate formations are usually treated with hydrochloric acid, formic acid, acetic acid
or combination of these acids. In carbonate formations, hydrochloric acid (up to 28 wt%), formic acid (up
to 10 wt%), acetic acid (up to 10 wt%), and combinations of these acids, can be used to remove formation
damage and enhance well injectivity (Nasr-El-din et al. 205, Al-Hajri and Al-Subaie 2015, A, Nasr-El-Din
et al., 2004). The acids are used to dissolve the inorganic scale and bypass the organic scales by creating
wormholes.
In sandstone formations, where the formation permeability cannot be stimulated and the ultimate target is
to restore original formation permeability, a two-stage treatment is commonly used to remove damage from
disposal wells. For a sandstone sensitive formation in Saudi Arabia, Nasr-El-Din et al. (2005) proposed a
methodology to stimulate water disposal wells that included a preflush of aromatic solvents followed with
stages of 10 wt% HCl and 9:1 HCl:HF acids. A foamed diverter was used to achieve better acid diversion
for the long perforated intervals (200 ft) with high permeability contrast.
Nasr-El-Din and Al-Taq (1998) presented a two-stage treatment to successfully restore injectivity of a
sandstone disposal well damaged with organic/inorganic deposition. The first stage included injection of
xylene in diesel with mutual solvent using CT to remove the organic material and thus provide better contact
between the inorganic deposits and acid used in the second stage. Following the treatment, the injection
rate increased from 3,000 bbls/day at wellhead injection pressure (WHIP) of 2,200 psig to 15,000 bbls at
WHIP of 1,700 psig.
Analytical Techniques
The concentrations of the key cations present in the sampled waters were measured by the Inductively
Coupled Plasma (ICP). The sulfate ion concentration in the aqueous phase was measured turbid-metrically
following precipitation with a 0.1N barium chloride solution. The chloride ion was measured by titration
using a 0.1N silver nitrate solution. The density of various waters was measured using a Paar densitometer
model DMA 35. The pH of all water samples examined was measured using an Orion model 250A meter
and Cole Parmer Ag/AgCl single junction pH electrode. Alkalinity was determined using the acid titration
method where an auto-titrator with a pH glass electrode is used to determine the amount of acid necessary
to reach pH values of 8.3 and 4.5 for phenolphthalein and methyl orange end points, respectively. These
values approximate the points where the hydroxide and bicarbonate ions are neutralized.
Total suspended solids (TSS) is measured as dry weight of the solids retained on a 0.45 μm Millipore
type HA membrane and total dissolved salts (TDS) is measured by the conductivity method. Oil content
was measured using Shimadzu Total Organic Carbon Analyzer. Oil content in disposal water samples was
measured using TOC-VCPH instrument, made by Shimadzu. The total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer
works based on 680ºC combustion catalytic oxidation.
8. The labeled filter paper and the glass bottle were placed in the oven at 60°C and left overnight to dry.
9. The sludge solubility was calculated using the following equation:
Coreflood Test
Coreflood experiments were conducted at reservoir temperature, an overburden pressure of 3,000 and a back
pressure of 500 psi. Reservoir core plugs were used where the test procedure was performed as follows:
1. Evacuate core samples of air and saturate it with 7 wt% NaCl brine.
2. Load core sample in the core holder.
3. Apply 3,000 psi confining stress and 500 psi backpressure.
4. Elevate oven temperature to the reservoir temperature.
5. Inject 7 wt% NaCl brine water at a constant rate while monitoring differential pressure and elapsed
time.
6. Continue brine injection until a stable differential pressure is obtained.
7. Calculate specific permeability to 7 wt% NaCl brine.
8. Inject unfiltered disposal water at a constant rate while monitoring differential pressure and elapsed
time
9. Plot reduction permeability (K/Ki) versus commutative pore volume. The permeability is calculated
using Darcy law:
(1)
Where:
K = Permeability, mD
Q = Fluid flow rate, cm3/min
μf = Fluid viscosity, cP
Ls = Core plug length, cm
As = Core plug cross-section, cm2
ΔP = Pressure drop, psi
The reduction in permeably was calculated as follows:
(2)
Where:
Ki = the initial brine permeability
Kf = the ultimate brine permeability
Or it can be calculated also from Darcy law using the pressure drop as follows:
(3)
Where:
ΔPi = the initial pressure drop due to injection of disposal water, psi
ΔPf = the ultimate pressure drop due to injection of disposal water, psi
6 SPE-183743-MS
The calcium ions in collected disposal water samples ranged from 13,151 to 14,487 mg/L and the average
value is 14,122.7. Strontium ions concentration was in the range of 519 to 618 mg/L and the average value
is nearly 561 mg/L. Concentrations of bicarbonate ions ranged from 172 to 489 mg/L and the average value
is nearly 382 mg/L. The low concentration in the sample collected in December 2014 (172 mg/L) might be
due to relatively low pH value of this sample (6.3) at which part of bicarbonate is converted to carbonic
(H2CO3) acid. The sulfate ions concentrations were comparable and had an average value of 376 mg/L. The
iron was not detected in all examined water samples (<1 mg/L).
Total suspended solids which are an important parameter in characterization of disposal water were
measured for six samples collected in May/June of 2014 and February/March of 2015 (Fig. 2). The TSS for
the disposal water samples collected from the common outlet header of the disposal pumps on February 23,
2015 and March 26, 2015 were 50.4 and 95.5 mg/L, respectively. The TSS values for the other four samples
(collected in May/June of 2014) were all above 140 mg/L. The results reveal the considerable variations in
produced water quality in terms of TSS (Fig. 2). Particle size distributions for suspended solids in disposal
water sample collected on February 23, 2015 are shown in Fig. 3. The mean particle size was nearly 18 μm
while 90% of the particles had a size of 51.52 μm or less and 10% of them had a size of 3.54 μm or less.
These results suggest the need to have filtration process to reduce the amount and the average particle size
and thus minimize injectivity loss.
SPE-183743-MS 7
Figure 2—Total suspended solids in disposal water samples collected at different dates
Oil content measurement for disposal water samples collected from GOSP-B during the period from
January to March, 2015 is shown in Fig. 4. The average oil content value was 31.7 ppm with few points
above 50 ppm (the maximum limit). The results indicate a good control of oil in disposal water with respect
to the designated limit. This limit should be reduced to minimize formation damage in disposal wells.
8 SPE-183743-MS
Figure 4—Oil content in disposal water separated from GOSP during the first quarter of 2015
Effect of TSS
The coreflood results indicate that the extent of damage in core permeability is a function of disposal water
quality (in terms of TSS) and core initial permeability. The results reveal that disposal water, even with high
TSS; will have less impact on high permeability formation. Fig. 5 shows the impact of injected high TSS
(95.5 mg/L) disposal water on low and high permeability core plugs. The low permeability core plug (1.3
mD) was severely damaged by this water where a reduction of 20% in its initial permeability was observed
compared to only 1.7% for the high permeability core plug (418.3 mD). These results indicate that the poor
quality injected water will have more impact on low permeability formation. Fig. 6 shows that the higher
the TSS in disposal water, the higher the extent of damage in the core permeability's. For the same core
permeability (~1.3 mD), the damage due to injection of disposal water with TSS of 50.4 mg/L was nearly
10% while that due to injection of disposal water with TSS of 95.5 mg/L was 20%.
SPE-183743-MS 9
Figure 5—Reduction in core permeability due to injection of disposal water for low and high core permeability
was found to be 110.60 Md Fig. 7 shows the pressure drop across the core due to injection of 7 wt% NaCl
brine and filtered disposal water with oil at 100 ppm. The results show that the injection of nearly 97 pore
volumes of the disposal water resulted in reduction of core brine permeability by more than 8%. Flow back
was able to remove more than 50% of the created damage, the reduction in permeability reduced from more
than 8% to nearly 4%. These results indicate that the natural clean up by flowing back the well is effective
to partially remove the damage created by oil carryover.
Figure 7—Pressure drop across the core due to injection of 7 wt% NaCl brine
and filtered disposal water with 100 ppm oil for a core plug with Kair of 263 mD
Figure 8—Pressure drop across the core due to injection of 7 wt% NaCl brine, filtered and disposal water
Figure 9—Effect of filtration on reduction on core permeability due of injection of disposal water
drop across the core due to injection of 7 wt% NaCl brine, filtered disposal water, filtered ground water,
mixed (50:50) filtered disposal and ground water. A filter of 0.45 μm was used. The results showed no
indication of damage and suggest that ground water is compatible with the disposal water. Mixing of ground
water with disposal water may present as an alternative method to minimize of damage associated with
disposal.
Figure 10—Pressure drop across the core due to injection of 7 wt% NaCl brine, filtered
disposal water, filtered ground a water and mixed filtered disposal and ground water
• Total suspended material (solids and oil) should not exceed 50 ppm and mean particle size should
not exceed 5 microns.
• Oil content should not exceed 20 ppm.
• To prevent formation damage due to particle settling, disposal water should be injected
continuously into the disposal wells.
• In case of the well was shut-in, flow it back before putting it into injection.
halite. The inorganic solid XRD and ESEM analyses showed that it is mainly sodium chloride and iron
corrosion products including iron sulfides and oxides, Tables 2 and 3.
Figure 11—Photo of sludge sample collected from disposal water flowline before and after washing with solvent
Figure 12—TGA analysis of sludge sample before and after washing with solvent
14 SPE-183743-MS
Figure 13—Photo of asphaltene and inorganic material separated from Well-A sludge sample
Table 2—XRD analysis results of scale sample collected from disposal Well-A
Halite-NaCl 64 64
Lepidocrocite-FeO(OH) 16 4
Magnetite-Fe3O4 4 -
Greigite-Fe3S4 7 -
Mackinawite-FeS 6 -
Troilite-FeS 3 -
Calcite-CaCO3 - 18
Quartz-SiO2 - 14
Concentration, wt%
Spectrum No. O Na S Cl Ca Fe
Spectrum 1 24.39 20.34 3.46 33.95 2.87 15
Spectrum 2 25.1 31.78 2.03 31.06 1.1 8.92
Spectrum 3 28.85 16.78 4.09 29.36 2.35 18.56
Spectrum 4 29.04 21.15 4.02 28.16 1.84 15.8
Average 26.84 22.51 3.4 30.63 2.04 14.57
The solubility tests conducted to evaluate dissolving sludge material in disposal flow lines were
conducted at 120 °F. The results showed that the emulsified 15 wt% HCl/solvent system exhibited the
highest dissolution power. It was able to dissolve more than 85 wt% of Well-A sludge sample at 120°F
and after 1 hour and nearly 95 wt% after 2 hours (Fig. 15). Increasing the soaking time to 3 and 4 hours
increased slightly the solubility (95.6 and 96.96 wt%, respectively). Solubility of Well-A sludge sample in
the emulsified formic acid/solvent and acetic acid/solvent systems was less than that obtained for emulsified
15 wt% HCl/solvent system.
Figure 15—Solubility of Well-A sludge sample in emulsified 15 wt% HCl/solvent system at 120°Fas a function of time
16 SPE-183743-MS
• Initially we should avoid the main water disposal pipeline and start with the branched pipelines
(pipelines connected to the disposal wells). This is to avoid any potential of influencing the integrity
of the old main pipeline.
• Use the emulsified 15 wt% HCl/solvent system including corrosion inhibitor to remove the sludge
from the water disposal pipelines.
• Fresh water should be used in preparation of the emulsified 15 wt% HCl/solvent system since the
salt found to induce phase separation.
• The emulsified 15 wt% HCl/solvent system should be agitated to provide good contact with the
sludge material and then soaked for 3-4 hours.
• The disposal water can be used to displace and remove the acid/solvent sludge reaction products
outside the pipelines.
Field Applications
Based on laboratory optimized recipes, chemical treatment campaign on Field-A disposal wells was safely
and successfully implemented in 2015. Over 50 MBWD gain in injection capacity was achieved after
stimulation treatments of four disposal wells in Field-A. The dead and low injectivity wells were stimulated
in two chemical treatment stages (near well bore and matrix stimulation) with a total volume of 325 bbls of
solvent recipe and 130 bbls of organic acid for each well utilizing 2″ coiled tubing (CT). Prior to the chemical
treatment job, a panametric injectivity tests were conducted on these wells. Treatment of the wellbore area
included pumping 65 bbls of the solvent recipe followed by 65 bbls of the organic acid at 1.5 bpm using the
2″ CT. The CT was POOH while jetting to the top of the perforated interval. Fresh water with H2S scavenger
was used to displace the solvent system. The solvent system was allowed to soak for 4 hours. Following,
the well was flowed back using nitrogen lift. The flowback was continued until the returns were solid free.
The matrix treatment involved squeezing 260 bbls of solvent system into the formation at 1-2 bpm while
reciprocating the CT across the perforated region. The solvent system was allowed to soak for 8-12 hours.
While reciprocating the CT across the perforated liner, 65 bbls of the organic acid was squeezed into the
formation. The solvent treatment was displaced from the CT with fresh water mixed with H2S scavenger.
The solvent system was allowed to soak for 4 hours. The well was flowed back using nitrogen lift until
returns were solid free.
The optimized stimulation treatments were effective in reducing treatment cost and time with significant
increase in well injectivity as given in Table 4. The post treatment injectivity tests showed a gain in injectivity
of four treated wells with nearly 60 MBWD.
SPE-183743-MS 17
Table 4—Injection data before and after stimulation treatments of disposal wells
Conclusions
• Disposal water was found to contain considerable amounts of oil and suspended solids.
• To maintain a good injectivity in disposal wells, an integrated approach starting from the lab to
the field was established.
• Treatment of disposal water flowlines and proper remedial treatments should be considered.
• The extent of damage to the core permeability was found to be a function of TSS and initial core
permeability. As the TSS increase, the extent of damage to the core permeability increase and it
was more pronounced in the low permeability core plugs.
• Coreflood experiments showed that filtration of disposal water was effective to reduce the extent
of damage to the core permeability.
• Based on laboratory studies, a water quality guidelines was set to minimize formation damage in
disposal water wells.
• Disposal water wells in Field-A were damaged with organic/inorganic scales. The organic deposits
included variable amounts of asphaltene while the inorganic deposits were halite with corrosion
products (iron oxides and sulfides).
• Disposal water wells were treated successfully using laboratory optimized two stage chemical
treatment involved solvent system and organic acid. A gain of nearly 60 MBWD in injectivity was
achieved for 4 treated disposal wells.
Recommendations
The following water quality requirements are recommended to minimize loss of disposal wells injectivity:
• Total suspended material (solids and oil) should not exceed 50 ppm and mean particle size should
not exceed 5 microns.
• Oil content should not exceed 20 ppm.
• To prevent formation damage due to particle settling, disposal water should be injected
continuously into the disposal wells.
• In case of the well was shut-in, flow it back before putting it into injection.
Nomenclature
CT : Coiled Tubing
ESEM : Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy
GOSP : Gas Oil Separation Plant
MBWD : Thousands Barrels of Water per Day
POOH : Pull out of hole
18 SPE-183743-MS
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