LESSON 8: THEATER
pahiyang (rituals), The dulambayan (people’s
The term “theater” refers to an art form that
involves performing carefully planned actions and
emotions in front of an audience. It has a six
elements, performers, audience, director,
performance, space, design and text.
Philippine theater is described as a wide
range of mimetic, performances that were created
and presented during occasions. These performances
are also with specific social objectives in mind.
ELEMENTS OF THEATER
Performers
These are persons who are onstage and
portray their characters in a convincing way for the
audience.
Audience
The performers have to present in front of an
audience and connect with them. They tend to
respond to the energy the audience shows while
watching the play.
Director
The director serves as an overseer to the
entire production. He or she ensures that the
performers are doing their job well, including
understanding and delivering the text. The director
also ensures that the production design works well.
Performance Space
This element may refer to the space in which
the actors can perform. It may also refer to the space
for the audience to sit or stand.
Design
The design is essential in placing the overall
feel of the production. There are two aspects of
design. Visual aspects include lighting, set, and
costumes, while nonvisual aspects primarily include
sound.
Text
This refers to the script. This must be
present in a particular play or production.
FORMS AND TYPES OF PHILIPPINE THEATER
A typology of Philippine theater was
developed based on another typology created by Dr.
Prospero R. Covar, a Filipino anthropologist. In this
typology, there are four dramatic traditions based on
where contemporary theater takes place: The dulang
theater), The teatrong pansimbahan (church
related theater), and Theater as art.
Dulang Pahiyang
In this category, theater is not viewed as a
separate activity, but as part of life. Rituals fall under
this type. Other forms include duplo, balagtasan,
bayok, and balitaw.
 Rituals
A ritual is described as a way to
communicate with gods or spirits. This
involves a shaman, usually a babaylan or an
albularyo, calling the spirit and being
possessed by that spirit. While in that
particular state, the shaman performs a
sacrifice or pours water over the offerings.
 Duplo
The duplo is described as a poetic
debate, in which the balagtasan was derived
from. The balagtasan involves poems with
four lines with 12 syllables per line.
 Bayok
The bayok is a Maranao mimetic joust. The
theme of the joust depends on the occasion
on when the joust is to be perfomed. Two or
more singers interpret the theme in a
spontaneous song-dance-debate. The
singers, however, have to be careful in
articulating verses in order to avoid heated
conflict.
 Balitaw
The balitaw is a poetic debate
between a man a woman. Although the term
“balitaw” may also refer to the song and its
lyrics, or dance, it may also refer to the
entire performance itself since it exhibits an
exchange of words in a hypothetical
situations. The balitaw later evolved into
drama-balitaw, which involves portraying a
particular story on stage with minimal set.
Dulambayan
Also known as people’s theater, this is
considered “theater in the context of social
movements.” Plays under this type aim to improve
current systems of government. Common among
unions of peasants, groups of workers, and
liberationist movements, these theatrical forms
includes drama simboliko, historical plays, plays with
social realism, teatrong bayan ng manggagawa,
people’s theater, nationalist/ protest/ propaganda
theater, and street theater.
 Drama Simboliko
This refers to allegorical nationalist
drama which began during the American
 regime. However, this was revived during the
Marcos regime.
 Street Theater
This refers to theater that is presented
outside the theater building and without the
stage area. The political theater is form o
street theater. However, street theater can
also be applied in rituals and religious plays.
Teatrong Pansimbahan
Thia type of theater is concerned with
spirituality. This is usually performed depending on
the events in the church calendar (Catholic,
Protestant). There are some forms that are traditional
or folk, such as in the case of the senakulo and the
komedya.
 Komedya
The komedya is a play in verse that
portrays the lives of saints. However, the
komedya may also depict actual events, or
tales about royalty in the kingdoms of Africa,
Europe, Arabia and Persia.
 Dapit
Dapit refers to the tradition of
fetching the image of the community’s patron
saint. This usually done the night before the
fiesta or even on the day itself. A typical
dapit involves escorting the image from the
house of the caretaker to the church,
accompanied with music played by the brass
band and dance.
 Flores
Flores, which is presented in the
month of May, has three variations. It may
refer to the festival of flowers in honor of
Mary, mother of Jesus (Flores de Mayo), the
everyday offering of flowers to the image of
the Virgin (alay), or the closing procession
on the last Sunday of May (Flores de Maria).
Another variant of the flowers is the
sunduan, which involves males fetching
young ladies and going together with the
procession. People participating in the
sunduan carry beautiful arrangements of
flowers.
 Hudas
This refers to the burning of the
image of Judas Iscariot, which is popular in
Bulaca, Pampanga and Cebu. This is usually
held on the evening of Black Saturday or on
the morning of Easter Sunday.
 Huling Hapunan
This is an actual supper enacted to
commemorate the last supper of Jesus with
his disciples on the night before His
crucifixion.
 Moriones
This is a short street play portraying
the capture and beheading of Roman soldier
Longinus, who was involved in the crucifixion
of Jesus Christ.
 Paghuhugas ng Paa
This short ritual reenacts Christ
washing the feet of his disciples before the
Last Supper. This ritual demonstrates
humility and serving others.
 Panunuluyan
This is a procession that reenacts
Mary and Joseph’s search for an inn in
Bethlehem. This involves using two karo or
floats, which bear the images of Mary and
Joseph, and singing of one male and one
female singer accompanied by a brass band.
 Pastores or Shepherd’s Dance
This is a reenactment of shepherds
honoring the infant Jesus. This is typically
presented before Christmas Day. In some
areas, pastores involves a group of singers
dressed as shepherds who go to every
house in the area singing and dancing to
Christmas songs.
 Osana
The osana is a short reenactment
of the triumphal entry of Jesus Christ to
Jerusalem.
 Pangangaluluwa
This refers to a tradition involving
carolers who go to each house in the
community to act like souls in purgatory and
beg for alms.
 Siete Palabras
This is a reenactment of the last
three hours of Jesus Christ on the cross. It
was during this time when the Seven Last
Words were stated.
 Sinakulo
A sinakulo is a play performed
during the Holy Week. It depicts the story of
salvation, starting from the creation of the
world up to the life, death, and resurrection
of Jesus Christ. The traditional sinakulo
focused on the final triumph of good over
evil. However, the sinakulo evolved and is
now depicting the struggle between sectors
and classes.
 Salubong
This short reenactment focuses on
the meeting of Mary, mother of Jesus, and
Jesus Christ who rose from the dead.
 Soledad
This procession, which is usually
performed late in the evening, portrays
Mary’s grief after burying Jesus Christ.
  Tatlong Hari
This is reenactment of the travel of
the Magi to worship the Infant Jesus in
Bethlehem.
 Via Crucis
This tradition is a way of
remembering the events leading to Christ’s
death and burial.
THEATER AS ART
In this category, theater under this category
is based on Western models. Theater is viewed as a
profession. Production values, including set design,
props, and lighting, are being considered seriously.
Plays are being performed in formal private buildings
and school auditorium. The culture of ticketing also
plays a role in making sure that the profession will
thrive.
Related to school-based theater is the
children’s theater, which may refer to plays with
children as actors. It may also include plays
performed by adults for an audience of children.
Children’s theater can also be a community-based,
which aims to educate the children and the rest of the
members of the community on basic rights of the
children and issues concerning them.
Puppet theater is another example. This is
also frequently performed in schools. This is a form of
drama in which puppets portrays the roles of the
characters in the story. Theses puppets can be flat
figures that cast shadows on a screen. Rounded
miniature figures that are controlled by the puppeteer
can also be used. These rounded figures can be
manipulate using hands, rods, strings or wires.
Indigenous Theater
This type of theater is usually seen in the
form of rituals, mimetic customs, and dances.
Indigenous theater has mostly Malay qualities and is
performed in communities that comprise about 5% of
the country’s population. The balitaw, duplo, and
Maranao bayok also fall under this type.
Plays with Spanish Influence
These plays include drama, komedya,
sinakkulo, and sarswela. A sarswela is considered to
be the most popular form of musical theater in the
Philippines. It is generally described as a musical play
with a particular structure and standards. Themes
depicted in sarswelas usually revolve in Filipimo
domestic and social situations.
Theater with Anglo-American Influence
This comprises of bodabil, and modern
Filipino plays written in English and in Filipino.
 Bodabil - the bodabil is a stage presentation
that consist of a range of musical and
comedy acts, skit and monologues, novelty
and acrobatic numbes, solos and chorus
lines. During the 1980’s, this was used
mainly as a form of political theater.
Nowadays, the bodabil is performed during
town fiestas, in film musicals and in radio.
 Modern or Original Plays by Filipino -
during the 1990’s, writers continue to create
theater texts using the Filipino language.
The themes of these plays still revolve
around social, economic, political, and
cultural issues in the country. Other
developments in theater include the
existence of the pro-gay culture movement,
and the growing number of the theater
scholars.
There are two types of modern
plays written by Filipinos. The
representational style involves making an
illusion of reality with well-rounded
characters. The representational play can be
psychological, which gives emphasis on the
problems of individuals, or social, which
focuses on individual problems within the
context of the society. An original Filipino
play can be also presentational, meaning it
focuses on discussing social issues and
ideas. A presentational play can be
categorized into the following:
 Documentary Style - this is
performed to connect historical
persons and events to the present.
 Brechtian Theater - this is also
known as theater of instruction.
Inspired by Bertolt Brecht, this play
features a social orientation and
utilizes mime, dances, songs,
stylized sets and costumes, and
typical characters. Themes are
usually taken from history, folklore,
and other sources. Related to the
Brechtian theater is the Absurd
Theater in which situations are
deliberately exaggerated to prove
an idea and whose characters are
seen as types instead of as
individuals.
 Dula - Tula - The dula-tula is a
variant of the dramatic monologue,
which involves one actor speaking
while acting out his emotions and
thoughts. However, in the dula-tula,
other characters are present to play
 all the parts, and one actor simply
acts as the narrator and is the only
person speaking in the play. This
was first performed by UP
Repertory Company during early
1970’s.
 Traditional forms such as
sinakulo and komedya.
LESSON 9: FILM
Film refers to a sequence of moving,
pictures, which is typically shown on television or in a
cinema. Filmmaking became an industry in the
Philippines during the 1950’s. However, the 1970’s
was considered to be a remarkable era in the history
of cinema in the Philippines. During this decade, the
academe started to produce a new breed of
filmmakers, thanks to the increasing number of
Philippine school offering mass communication. It
was also during time when the intellectuals were
attracted to Filipino films party because of the
influence of the nationalist movement in searching for
that unique Filipino identity for film. Foreign audiences
in international film festivals also started to show
interest in Filipino films.
Some of these filmmakers were educated on
art films that were created outside the constraints of
commercial filmmaking. These filmmakers, called
alternative filmmakers, started producing highly
critical and imaginative works. These alternative films
include animation, traditional documentaries, docu-
dramas, experimental films, mixed media, short
features, and many others. However, these films were
usually shown in schools, international film festival,
and outreach programs organized by some
institutions.
The subject matter of films shifted to social
commentaries during the dictatorship in the 1980’s.
On the other hand, the 1990’s was marked with the
persistence of mainstream formulas and imitations.
There were also stereotypical tendencies in creating
films for specific audiences. For instance,
melodramas were continued to be produced in order
to cater to the female population, while action films
were created for male patronage.
ELEMENTS OF FILM
Time - this is considered as the most significant
element of cinema. It has three aspects:
 Physical Time - this refers to the time for an
action to take place as it is being filmed and
projected on the screen. This can be altered
through accelerated motion, slow motion,
stopped motion, and reverse motion.
 Psychological Time - this refers to the
impression of the viewer on how long does it
take for a certain action to take place and
how he or she feels when watching that
particular action. For instance, a viewer feels
excited when watching fast action scenes.
 Dramatic Time - this signifies the timeline of
events portrayed in the film.
Space - just like in a painting or a photograph, a
film, when projected on the screen has two
dimensions. However, the viewer is able to perceive
space because of the following aspects of space:
 Scale - this aspect indicates the size of the
object on the screen and how these objects
relate with the area surrounding them. It may
also involve where the camera is positioned
in taking the shot. For example, when the
camera is situated very far from the object,
an expansive view on a small scale is
produced. In this case, the viewer will be
able to take note of the relationship between
the objects showed in the film.
 Shooting angle - this denotes the location
or angle from where the camera records the
scene. Shots may be taken with the camera
directed vertically downwards, vertically
upwards, or horizontally. Each position or
angle will have a different effect on the
scene that is being recorded.
 Lighting - the position of lights can affect
how the illusion of depth is created in the
film. The relationship of light and dark on the
object can give that illusion of depth to the
object.
Sound - aside from dialogue, sound also includes
background music, theme melodies and silence.
TECHNIQUES OF CINEMA
Cutting or Editing - this involves joining one shot
with another, making sure that these two shot are
logically connected. This helps in ensuring that only
the scenes that are required in the story will be
shown. Transitions are used for emphasis or for
smooth changing of one shot to another, such as
dissolve, fade and turn-over.
Camera Movement - this is done in order to have a
smoother change of view, to help in gradual growth of
emotions, or to simulate a familiar scene.
Framing - this helps in bringing balance to the film
as it is being viewed. Framing can also get the
attraction of the audience and sustain that attention.
FORMS AND TYPES OF FILM
Aksyon (Action)
This American-influenced type of film mainly
uses physical conflict as emphasis. There are two
types of action films: The first one is based on real-
life stories or actual experiences of real persons. An
example of this is Nardong Putik (1972) which starred
Ramon Revilla Sr. The other type of action films,
which is centered on purely fictional events, may be
based from the tradition of metrical romance or of the
literary komedya, or with contemporary issues.
Animation
Animation is a film that involves creating
illustrations or inanimate images and bringing them to
life. Single-frame photography was used to capture
images of a series of arranged drawings. These shots
are the run in the movie projector on 10 or 24 frames
per second. There are three types of animations:
drawn animation, cut-out animation, and model or live
animation.
Drawn Animation involves the use of drawings for a
certain image. In this type of animation, a single
movement requires creating another image on a
separate sheet of celluloid (cel) or acetate sheet.
Acrylic colors are used in creating drawings on a cel
or acetate.
Cut-out involves cutting out images from photos,
cardboard, or other flat materials. A collage is formed
out of these materials. This process is simpler,
relatively cheaper and does not take too much time.
However, this is not popular among filmmakers
because the final output does not have the smooth
flow of movement compared to that in drawn
animation. Lastly, model or live animation involves
moving three dimensional objects made from sand,
clay, wire, or other solid objects. These movements
are recorded by the camera.
Bomba
Bomba, a film that primarily depicts nudity
and sex, become popular from 1970’s up to 1990’s.
Known as “bold”, “wet look” and “ST”, bomba is
different from X-rated pornography.
Dokyu (Documentary)
The dokyu is a motion picture that narrates
or discusses news events. It may also explain other
subject matter based on facts. The director may add
fiction to the subject matter: There are five types of
the dokyu: film journalism, which reports events
based on facts and gives emphasis on timeliness:
general-interest film, which is primarily informs the
public on a particular subject (e.g., travelogue);
natured documentaries, which brings knowledge
about the physical world; committed documentaries,
which tackles social problems and issues like injustice
and poverty; and cinema direct, which presents reality
using a unique point of view, language and technique.
Drama
This refers to a motion picture that dwells on
personal problems and conflicts. Drama draws
sentiment and emotion. It is typically meant to be a
tearjerker.
Experimental
This type of films attempts to create
something radically innovative or something that is
never done before with the camera. It also explores
the hidden potentials of film.
Fantasy
This film depicts scenes in an imaginary
world. Komiks stories, folkore, and science fiction all
fall under fantasy.
Historical
This type of film shows actual events that
occurred in the past. It may depict real stories of
famous persons, or historical events and places that
are recreated in the film.
Horror
A horror film is shown to bring fear to the
audience. It includes supernatural beings like ghosts,
goblin, vampires, and imaginary monsters to the
story. This genre is very appealing to most Filipinos,
and it may be attributed to the fondness of the Filipino
for the supernatural and the unknown.
Komedi (Comedy)
The aim of this film is to induce laughter in
the audience. There are two types of komedi. The
romantic comedy, which is a love story that is
presented with music and humor, usually focuses on
chance encounters, mistaken identity, and use of
disguises. On the other hand, slapstick comedy
focuses on using a physical or psychological defect,
or on using ill-mannered behavior of characters as
sources of laughter.
Musical
This is essential a romantic comedy that is
presented with dances, skits, and songs. There are
four types of musical. These are the filmed sarswela,
sarswela-type musical, Hollywood-type musical and
new musical.
 Period

A period film centers on characters and

events, which are recreated in the movie, occur in a
historical place and time. A good example of this is
Oro Plata Mata (1982), which tries to reconstruct life
in Negros before, during and immediately after the
occupation of the Japanese. This movie, however,
centers on a fictional extended family of a sugar
baron.