UNIT I (Cell - Transport Mechanisms)

STEM 2019-2020 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 FEU Senior High School
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
A.Y. 2019 – 2020
MODULE 3
(Cell: Transport Mechanisms)
CONTENT
I. The Cell
a. Introduction to Biology
❖ Biology and its Importance
❖ Biological Organization
❖ The Cell: Basic principles
❖ Cell Theory
b. Prokaryotic Cell
❖ shapes and sizes
❖ structures and functions
c. Eukaryotic Cell
❖ shapes and sizes
❖ structures and functions
d. Transport Mechanisms
❖ Structure of the Plasma Membrane
❖ Functions of the Plasma Membrane
❖ Membrane Transport
e. Cell Modifications
❖ Plant
❖ Animal
f. Cellular Reproduction
❖ Cell Cycle
❖ Cell Division: Mitosis
❖ Cell Division: Meiosis
❖ Mutation
❖ Cancer cells
II. Biological Molecules

❖ Carbohydrates
❖ Lipids
❖ Proteins and Enzymes
❖ Nucleic acid
III. Energy Transformation

❖ ATP-ADP Cycle
❖ Photosynthesis
❖ Cellular Respiration
IV. References
UNIT I: CELL
LESSON 4: TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
INTRODUCTION
An important function of a biological membrane is to serve as a barrier to the outside
world. However, membranes are not impenetrable walls. Obviously, nutrients must enter
the cell and waste products must leave in order for the cell to survive. For this and many
other reasons, it is crucial that membranes be selectively permeable. For example, the
movement of ions across membranes is important in regulating vital cell characteristics such
as cellular pH and osmotic pressure. Membrane permeability is also a key determinant in the
effectiveness of drug absorption, distribution, and elimination. For example, a drug taken
orally that targets cells in the central nervous system must cross several membranes: first
the barrier presented by the intestinal epithelium, then the walls of the capillaries that
perfuse the gut, then the blood-brain barrier. Some endogenous substances and many drugs
easily diffuse across the lipid bilayer. However, the lipid bilayer presents a formidable
barrier to larger and more hydrophilic molecules (such as ions). These substances must be
transported across the membrane by special proteins. We will first look briefly at the three
major ways that both endogenous substances and drugs cross the barriers presented by cell
membranes. We will then discuss in more detail two of these mechanisms, which are the
primary ways that drugs cross membranes.
OBJECTIVES:
In this chapter you are expected to:
1. describe the structural components of the cell membrane

2. relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to its function
3. explain transport mechanisms in cells (passive transport and active transport)
4. differentiate exocytosis and endocytosis
SUBJECT MATTER:
A. Structure of the Cell/Plasma Membrane

In all organisms, cell membranes are lipid bilayers made up mostly of phospholipids.
The polar head of a phospholipid interacts with water molecules; the nonpolar fatty acids
tails do not. Because of these properties, they organize themselves as a lipid bilayer sheet or
bubble in a liquid medium.
Figure 1. Structure of a Cell Membrane

In all organisms, cell membranes are lipid bilayers made up mostly of phospholipids.
The polar head of a phospholipid interacts with water molecules; the nonpolar fatty acids
tails do not. Because of these properties, they organize themselves as a lipid bilayer sheet or
bubble in a liquid medium.
Figure 2. Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Regions of the Cell Membrane
Embedded in or attached to the lipid bilayer are other molecules like cholesterol and
proteins. Cholesterol molecules prevent the plasma membrane from becoming too fluid at
higher temperature and too solid at lower temperatures. A cell membrane has been
described as a fluid mosaic. The “mosaic” part is attributed to the mixed composition of the
cell membrane, and the “fluid” part come from the ability of the bilayer to drift sideways and
spin around their long axis. This happens because the phospholipids in a typical membrane
are not bonded to one another.
Figure 3. Fluid Mosaic Model
Many types of proteins are associated with a cell membrane, and each type adds
specific function to it. Thus, a cell membrane can have different characteristics depending on
the proteins present in it. The types of proteins that may be present in the cell membrane
and the functions they carry out are as follows:
Figure 4. Types of Proteins in the Cell Membrane

1. Cell Membrane Lipids
A. Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. Phospholipids form a lipid

bilayer in which their hydrophilic (attracted to water) head areas spontaneously
arrange to face the aqueous cytosol and the extracellular fluid, while their
hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face away from the cytosol and
extracellular fluid. The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain
molecules to diffuse across the membrane.
B. Cholesterol is another lipid component of animal cell membrane. Cholesterol

molecules are selectively dispersed between membrane phospholipids. This helps to
keep cell membranes from becoming stiff by preventing phospholipids from being
too closely packed together. Cholesterol is not found in the membranes of plant cells.
C. Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have a carbohydrate sugar
chain attached to them. They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.
Figure 5. Cell Membrane Lipids
2. Cell Membrane Proteins

The cell membrane contains two types of associated proteins:
A. Peripheral membrane proteins are exterior to and connected to the
membrane by interactions with other proteins.
B. Integral membrane proteins are inserted into the membrane and most pass
through the membrane. Portions of these transmembrane proteins are exposed
on both sides of the membrane.
Figure 6. Associated Proteins in the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane contains four types of transmembrane proteins:

A. Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape.
B. Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate with their external
environment using hormones neurotransmitters, and other signaling molecules.
C. Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecules across cell
membranes through facilitated diffusion.
D. Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. They are embedded in
the cell membrane and help in cell to cell communications and molecule transport
across the membrane.
Figure 7. Transmembrane Proteins in the Cell Membrane

B. Functions of the Plasma Membrane

1. It protects the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances
into the cell while keeping other substances out.
2. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and
the cell wall in others. Thus, the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell
and help maintain its shape.
3. Another function of the membrane is to regulate cell growth through the balance
of endocytosis and exocytosis.
Types of Substances:
Hydrophobic substances – this is similar to the phospholipid center of the membrane cab
easily diffuse across membranes without consuming energy.
Polar molecules – which are chemically incompatible with the center of the membrane,
require an expenditure of energy for their transport.
Non- charged molecules – can freely cross the membranes since they can easily pass
through the hydrophobic tails of the membrane because they are also nonpolar.
Ex. Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, Glycerol, and Alcohol
Figure 8. Different Types of Membrane Transport

C. Membrane Transport
1. Passive Transport
- A transport protein moves substances from a region of higher concentration to
one of lower concentration. This is the reason why passive transport is also called
facilitated transport.
- Energy – independent mechanism of the cell, allowing small molecules to enter
into it without energy consumption
A. Simple Diffusion
- The spontaneous movement of molecules from higher concentration to a lower
concentration, that is, down their concentration gradient, until molecules are
distributed equally.
- This is a process that results from the random motion of molecules. For instance,
when a crystal of dye is dropped in water, the molecules of both dye and water
move in different directions, but their net movement, that is the sum of their
motion, is toward the region with lower concentration.
Solution – made up of both a solute, usually a solid, and a solvent, usually a liquid. In
this case, the solute is the dye, and the solvent is the water. Once the solute and the
solvent are evenly distributed, their movement continues, but there is no net
movement in either direction.
The speed of mixing between molecules depends on the following factors:
1. Size – it takes more energy to move bigger molecules, thus, the smaller the size,
the faster the rate of diffusion, and vice versa.
2. Temperature – molecules moves faster at high temperature, making them collide
more often. Thus, the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
3. Concentration – the difference in solute concentration between adjacent regions
of a solution.
Solutes – tends to diffuse “down” their concentration gradient, that is, from a
region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. As the
concentration of a solution increases, the molecules become more crowded,
and the collision between them become more often. Thus, during a given
interval of time, more molecules are bumped out of region of higher
concentration than bumped into it.
4. Charge – charged particle of matter (ion or molecule) in a fluid add up to the
fluid’s overall electrical charge. A difference in charge between two regions of the
fluid can influence the rate and direction of diffusion between them
Ex. Positively – charge substances like sodium ions will tend to diffuse
toward a region with an overall negative charge
5. Pressure – a change, or difference in pressure between two adjoining regions
may affect the rate and direction of diffusion. Pressure squeezes molecules
together, and the more crowded the molecules become, the more frequent
molecules collide and rebound among them, thus, the faster the diffusion
B. Facilitated Diffusion or Facilitated Transport

- The solute simple binds to the transport protein and gets released to the other
side of the membrane
Transport protein – moves substances down their concentration gradient by:
1. Changing its shape when it bonds to the molecule like glucose, and then
reverting to its original shape after releasing the molecule to the other side
of the membrane
2. Forming permanently open channels through membrane
3. Forming gated channels that open and close in response to a stimulus such
as binding to a signaling molecules or a shift in electrical charge.
Figure 9. Passive Transport in the Cell Membrane
C. Osmosis
- A special example of diffusion
- It is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane from a more
dilute solution to a more concentrated solution – down the water potential
gradient)
Note: Diffusion and osmosis are both passive, i.e. energy from ATP is not used.
A partially permeable membrane is a barrier that permits the passage of some
substances but not others; it allows the passage of the solvent molecules but not some of the
larger solute molecules.
Figure 10. Osmosis in the Cell Membrane
Cell membranes are described as selectively permeable because not only do they
allow the passage of water but also allow the passage of certain solutes. The presence of
solutes stimulates the membrane to open specific channels or trigger active transport
mechanisms to allow the passage of those chemicals across the membrane.
Some major examples of osmosis:
• Absorption of water by plant roots.
• Re-absorption of water by the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the
nephron.
• Re-absorption of tissue fluid into the venule ends of the blood capillaries.
• Absorption of water by the alimentary canal — stomach, small intestine and
the colon.
Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is keeping the concentration of cell cytoplasm or blood at a suitable
concentration.
a. Amoeba, living in freshwater, uses a contractile vacuole to expel the excess
water from its cytoplasm (thus need more respiration/O2/ATP than isotonic
(marine) Amoebae).
b. The kidneys maintain the blood (thus, whole body) at the correct concentration.
Osmosis and Plant Cells

a. Plant Cells in a hypotonic (= weaker) solution – cells have lower water
potential
• The plant cells gain water by osmosis.
• The vacuole and cytoplasm increase in volume.
• The cell membrane is pushed harder against the cell wall causing
it to stretch a little.
• The plant tissue becomes stiffer (= turgid).
b. Plant Cells in a hypertonic (=stronger) solution – cells have higher water

potential
• The plant cells lose water by osmosis.
• The vacuole and cytoplasm decrease in volume.
• The cell shrinks away from the cell wall.
• Shrinkage stops when the cell sap is at the same concentration as
the external solution.
• The plant tissue becomes flaccid, it has shrunk slightly
• May go on to become plasmolysed.
Figure 11. Effects of Different Solutions in Cells

Turgor
- The pressure of the swollen cell contents against the cell wall when the external
solution more dilute than the cell sap of the vacuole.
Role of Turgor in Plants:

• Mechanical support for soft non-woody tissue, e.g., leaves.
• Change in shape of guard cells forming the stomatal opening between them.
• Enlargement of young immature plant cells to mature size.
Figure 12. Osmosis in Animal and Plant Cells
2. Active Transport
- Substances are move against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower
concentration to one of higher concentration
- The transport protein uses energy from ATP to pump solute against its
concentration gradient
Ex. Calcium pumps – moves calcium ions from across the cell membrane
• This process is important to maintain the concentration gradient of
a particular solute at a certain level.
• Calcium ions – act as potent messenger inside the cells and they
affect the activity of many enzymes
Figure 13. Active Transport in the Cell Membrane
A. Primary Active Transport

-Movement of substances against the concentration gradient through a membrane
protein
B. Secondary Active Transport

-movement of one substance against its concentration gradient by coupling it to
the movement of another molecule
-The concentration of the other molecule was generated using ATP.
Figure 14. Primary and Secondary Active Transport in the Cell Membrane
C. Bulk/ Vesicular Transport
- Some molecules or particles are just too large to pass through the plasma
membrane or to move through a transport protein. So, cells use two other active
transport processes to move these macromolecules (large molecules) into or out
of the cell. Vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm move macromolecules or
large particles across the plasma membrane.
- There are two types of vesicle transport, endocytosis and exocytosis. Both
processes are active transport processes, requiring energy.
1. Endocytosis – the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the

cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane. The membrane folds over the
substance and it becomes completely enclosed by the membrane. At this point a
membrane-bound sac, or vesicle, pinches off and moves the substance into the
cytosol.
Two kinds of endocytosis:

• Phagocytosis – (cellular eating) occurs when the dissolved materials
enter the cell. The plasma membrane engulfs the solid material,
forming a phagocytic vesicle.
• Pinocytosis – (cellular drinking) occurs when the plasma membrane

folds inward to form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter
the cell, when the channel is closed, the liquid is encircled within a
pinocytic vesicle.
Figure 15. Endocytosis in the Cell Membrane

2. Exocytosis – describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane
and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell. Exocytosis occurs when a
cell produces substances for export, such as a protein, or when the cell is getting
rid of a waste product or a toxin. Newly made membrane proteins and membrane
lipids are moved on top of the plasma membrane by exocytosis.
Figure 16. Exocytosis in the Cell Membrane
Figure 17. Endocytosis and Exocytosis in the Cell Membrane

D. Summary
Figure 18. Structure of the Cell Membrane

Figure 19. Dichotomous Key of Cellular Transport

ACTIVITY 3: Movements of Molecules in Cell Membrane Worksheet
NAME: ____________________________ DATE OF SUBMISSION: ________________

SECTION: _________________________ SCORE: ________________
I. Circle one phospholipid and label hydrophilic heads, hydrophilic tails. For each
type of transport, use an arrow to show direction the substances (small molecules,
ions, water, and larger molecules) are moving across the membrane. (15 points)
II. Which type(s) of transport is each statement true for the following membrane
transport mechanism? Add ticks to the correct boxes. (10 points)
Active
Diffusion Osmosis
Transport
A substance moves from an area of low
concentration to an area of high
concentration.
Can happen in living cells.
A substance moves and becomes more

evenly spread out.
The movement does not use energy and

is caused by the random movement of .
individual particles.
The movement requires energy from

respiration.
Only water is involved in this type of
movement.
Water moves from a less concentrated
solution to a more concentrated
solution.
REFERENCES
➢ Cell Membrane. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from https://www.thoughtco.com/cell-

membrane-373364
➢ Cell Membrane Structure. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/components-and-
structure/
➢ Hardin, Jeff et al. (2012). Becker’s World of Cell, 8th ed. Pearson Education, Inc.
➢ Hardin, Jeff et al. (2017). Becker’s World of Cell, 9th ed. Pearson Education, Inc.
➢ Karp, Gerald. (2010). Cell and Molecular Biology Concepts and Experiments. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
➢ Membrane Transport. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

http://www2.yvcc.edu/Biology/109Modules/Modules/MembraneTransport/membranetra
nsport.htm
➢ Reece, Jane et al. (2008). Campbell Biology, 8th ed. USA: Pearson Education Limited.
➢ Structure of Plasma Membrane. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-the-cell-
membrane/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane

UNIT I (Cell - Transport Mechanisms)

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STEM 2019-2020 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 FEU Senior High School

II. Biological Molecules

III. Energy Transformation

LESSON 4: TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

In this chapter you are expected to:

1. describe the structural components of the cell membrane

A. Structure of the Cell/Plasma Membrane

Figure 1. Structure of a Cell Membrane

Figure 2. Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Regions of the Cell Membrane

Figure 3. Fluid Mosaic Model

Figure 4. Types of Proteins in the Cell Membrane

1. Cell Membrane Lipids

A. Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. Phospholipids form a lipid

B. Cholesterol is another lipid component of animal cell membrane. Cholesterol

Figure 5. Cell Membrane Lipids

2. Cell Membrane Proteins

Figure 6. Associated Proteins in the Cell Membrane

The cell membrane contains four types of transmembrane proteins:

Figure 7. Transmembrane Proteins in the Cell Membrane

B. Functions of the Plasma Membrane

Figure 8. Different Types of Membrane Transport

B. Facilitated Diffusion or Facilitated Transport

Figure 9. Passive Transport in the Cell Membrane

Figure 10. Osmosis in the Cell Membrane

Osmosis and Plant Cells

b. Plant Cells in a hypertonic (=stronger) solution – cells have higher water

Figure 11. Effects of Different Solutions in Cells

Role of Turgor in Plants:

Figure 12. Osmosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Figure 13. Active Transport in the Cell Membrane

A. Primary Active Transport

B. Secondary Active Transport

-The concentration of the other molecule was generated using ATP.

C. Bulk/ Vesicular Transport

1. Endocytosis – the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the

Two kinds of endocytosis:

• Pinocytosis – (cellular drinking) occurs when the plasma membrane

Figure 15. Endocytosis in the Cell Membrane

Figure 16. Exocytosis in the Cell Membrane

Figure 17. Endocytosis and Exocytosis in the Cell Membrane

Figure 18. Structure of the Cell Membrane

Figure 19. Dichotomous Key of Cellular Transport

ACTIVITY 3: Movements of Molecules in Cell Membrane Worksheet

NAME: ____________________________ DATE OF SUBMISSION: ________________

A substance moves and becomes more

The movement does not use energy and

The movement requires energy from

➢ Cell Membrane. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from https://www.thoughtco.com/cell-

➢ Cell Membrane Structure. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

➢ Membrane Transport. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

➢ Structure of Plasma Membrane. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

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NAME: ____________ DATE OF SUBMISSION: