FRAMEWORKS OF ETHICS

META-ETHICS
The foundation of morality

Moral Realism
 The belief that there are moral facts, in the same way that there are scientific facts.
 Any moral disposition statement can be true or false.
 Our gut intuition tells us that there are moral facts, somethings are just wrong and others are indisputably
right.

Moral Absolutism
 There are absolute standards against with moral questions can be judge.
 There are moral facts that don’t change regardless of the culture or circumstances.
 Moral facts should be applied.
 It is universal and constant as gravity.

Moral Relativism
 More than one moral position on a given topic can be correct. Cultural relativism is most famous form of
moral relativism. Cultural relativism has two types.

Descriptive Cultural Relativism

 People’s moral beliefs differ from culture to culture.

Normative Cultural Relativism

 It’s not the beliefs but moral facts differ from culture to culture.

Criticism about cultural relativism

o If every culture is the sole arbiter of what is right, it means no culture can actually be wrong.
o The concept of moral progress doesn’t make sense. If what everyone is doing right now is right, then
there’s no reason to change anything.

Grounding Problem
 It is the search for a foundation for our moral belief, something solid that would make them true in a way
that is clear, objective and unmoving.

Moral Anti-Realism
 The belief that moral proposition doesn’t refer to objective features of the world at all. That there are no
moral facts.

Moral Subjectivism
 Moral standards can be true or false, right or wrong but they refer only to people’s attitude rather than
action.
 Those preferences are the key into personal attitude but not into actual objective moral facts about the
norms.
  There are no moral facts only moral attitudes. These were grounded in moral beliefs and strengthens
the moral principle of an individual.

Ethical Theories
 There are the moral foundations to come up with consistent answers to right and wrong.
 These are composed of moral principles as building blocks of the theory.

2 Well-Known Ethical Theories

Natural Law Theory
Rules on the starting assumption that God created the universe according to well-ordered plan
Utilitarianism
Relies on the starting assumption that all being share a common desire and seek pleasure and avoid pain.

NORMATIVE ETHICS
 Branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act morally. Simply, it’s prescribing ethics.
 It examines ethical norms that is, those about what is right, worthwhile, virtuous and just.
 It attempts to discover which actions are in fact right or wrong.

3 Theories under Normative Ethics

Deontology
 Rule/obligation based theory
 Bases of morality are dependent to moral rules and duties
 Also called as non-consequentialism.
 Non-consequentialism is submitted as obligatory regardless of the consequence that action produce.

Teleology
 An outcome-based theory. A theory that sees the end of every decision.
 Refers to moral system that determine the moral value of action as morally right if favorable
consequences are greater than its adverse outcomes.
 Also referred to consequentialism.
 Consequentialism where in morality is determined solely by a cost-benefit evaluation of the actions or
consequences. A theory that attains the end goal.

Human End Goals

 Egoism- self-interest
 Eudaimonism- happiness
 Utilitarianism-general good or welfare of nation
 Hedonism- satisfaction and desire
 Intellectualism- knowledge derived from pure reason.

Virtue Ethics
A character-based theory that implies what is the intention or benefit of the action.
It means, the choice of an individual could be either and both considered equally good.
APPLIED ETHICS
 It examines specific, controversial moral issues. Ethics attempts to determine the ethically correct course of
action in specific realm of human action

5 Areas of Applied Ethics

Bioethics
Ethical issues pertaining to life and biomedical researches.

Environmental Ethics
Moral issues that are not limited to environment and surroundings but also in the animal welfare.

Business Ethics
Moral principles concerning business environment which involves issues about corporate practice, policies,
business behaviors and conduct and relationships

Sexual Ethics
Moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior.

Social Ethics
Deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole. Focus on the proper behavior for
people as a whole

ETHICS OF SOCRATES AND PLATO

Socrates believed un the existence of objective ethical standards

He coined himself as a “gadfly” because he is an annoying person.

Socratic Method – a form of philosophical questioning. An argument to disprove or refute)

Self-knowledge is a sufficient condition to good life. If knowledge can be learned, so as virtue. It can be taught.

“The unexamined life is not worth living”.

One must seek knowledge and wisdom to check his/her life and be worthy of living. Knowledge and wisdom
are also considered as an ethical action for Socrates.

“One’s true happiness is promoted by doing what is right.”

When your true identity is served (giving your soul) you are achieving happiness.
And the evidence of true happiness is its long term effect in our soul.

“Human actions aim toward the good in accordance with purpose in nature. No one chooses evil, no one
chooses to act in ignorance. We seek the good but fail to achieve it by ignorance or lack of knowledge.
No one would intentionally harm themselves”

This beliefs of Socrates were criticized by Aristotle.

Socrates Three Dialogues (the Theory of Happiness)

The Euthydemus

 Happiness is what all people desire since it’s the end goal of our activity. (Unconditional goods)
 Happiness does not depend on external things but how those external things are USED.
 Ex. You’ll use your money to buy something that will make you happy.
 Conditional goods/external goods are the things we can used to be happy such as possession, good looks or
abilities.
 Misuse of it will lead to worse situation far from happiness.
 Happiness cannot be found in goods but in the agency of the person himself who gives his life direction and
focus.
 Happiness leads to satisfaction of desire that is worth satisfying. We need to use wisdom to distinguish the
right desire to be fulfilled.

The Symposium
In a dinner party held by Eros (the God of love and desire) he asked his three friends to say something about
him
 Dr. Eryximachus
Above all gods, he is capable of bringing us happiness.
He is a force which gives life to all living things including human desires and the source of all goodness.

 Play writer Aristophanes

Eros is a helper of mankind. He eliminates those evil whose cure brings the greatest happiness to human. He is
a force which seeks to reunite human being after the split to male and female opposites.

 Socrates
Eros has a darker side
He is representing desire and he is constantly longing and never completely satisfied.
He is not a full god because it takes divinity to be a god. Divinity is supposed to be eternal and self-sufficient.
Yet, Eros is vitally important in human quest for happiness.
The power of desire begins by sending physical pleasure but it can be retrained to pursue higher things of mind.
Retrain means, human can be educated to move away from love of beautiful things which perish and move to
a pure love of beauty itself.
When we come up to this retraining, our soul will find complete satisfaction.
And this complete satisfaction of the soul will result to Rapture or Epiphany.

The Republic- Plato’s Masterpiece

Socrates wants to prove that the just person is happier than the unjust person.
Socrates has Three Arguments
1. What is happiness?
 It is an analogy between health in body and justice in the soul
  We prefer to be healthy, but health is the harmony among different parts of our body.
 Justice is a similar kind of harmony among different parts of one’s soul
 Injustice is defined as a sort of civil war between parts of our soul. It includes rebellion, desirous part of
our nature and reasons as controlling power.
 A just soul possesses psychic harmony. It means, no matter what life throws you, you never lose your
inner composure, maintain peace and tranquility despite of the harshest of life circumstances

2. Relationship between pleasure and happiness

 Living a virtuous life brings greater pleasure than unvirtuous life.
 In connection with the first argument, psychic harmony that results a just life bring, with it greater peace
and inner tranquility which is more pleasant than unjust life.
 Unjust life brings discord, guilt, stress and anxiety.
 Just life is not just having peace of mind but excitement of pursuing knowledge that produces an almost
godlike state in human being. It is the higher realm of truth.

3. Relativity of Pleasure
 The most powerful argument.
 The relationship between pleasure, happiness and virtue.
 Most pleasure are not really pleasure but just a result from the absence of pain.
 Socrates believed that some pleasures are concern to higher parts of the soul which is called philosophical
pleasures.
 Philosophical pleasures are pure pleasure of coming to a greater understanding of reality.
 After Socrates, philosopher Epicurus made a distinction between positive and negative pleasures.

 Positive Pleasure
It always depends on pain because it’s nothing but the removal of pain.
Always quantifiable Ex. I want to sleep than to eat.
Somewhat frustrating as a result because there’s always contrast.

 Negative Pleasure
A state of harmony where you no longer feel any pain, we no longer have positive pleasure.
It is the removal of desire.

According to Epicurus, he concludes that the true state of happiness is the state of negative pleasure, the state
of not experiencing any unfulfilled desire.

Pleasure is not the goal of existence but integral aspect of the exercise of virtue in a fully human life.

VIRTUE THEORY OF ARISTOTLE

Virtue theory
It will not tell you what to do.
It is an ethical theory that emphasizes in individual’s character rather than following a set of rules.
If we can be good people, the right actions will follow effortlessly.
Being a good person is equal to good/right actions
 Proper Functioning
Aristotle believes that everything has their specific function
Ex. Worms are created not just to live but to be a food for birds
 Knife is to cut  Teachers to teach
 Students are to study  Doctor to heal

We humans have our specific functions too.

We need to be good, healthy and fertile (to reproduce)
We are also rational, that we need to live with reasons and get along with others.

For Aristotle, it’s not about God’s plan but rather our built in nature to desire to be virtuous.
Ex. An Acorn is destined to be an oak tree.

What does it mean to be virtuous?

It is doing the right thing at the right time, in the right way with a right amount towards right people.

You don’t need to specific because if you are virtuous, you just know what to do, all the time.

 You know how to handle yourself
 Know how to get along with others
 You can give good judgment
 You always know what to say
 You can read a room
 You know what is right and when
 Can deliver tough news gracefully
 Confident without being arrogant
 Brave but not reckless
 Generous but not extravagant

Virtue is a set of robust character that the moment its developed, it will lead to predictively good behavior.

The Golden Means

Based on Aristotle, every virtue has its extremes. It’s deficiency and excess but we should always have its balance
called the Golden Mean. Golden mean pertains to the right amount of virtue that we need to a specific situation.

VICE VIRTUE VICE

Deficiency Golden Mean Excess

Courage
Deficiency: Cowardice when we let our fears intervene and hold us to do something
Excess: Recklessness we act without analyzing the situation.
Golden Mean: Finding the right way to act

Honesty
Deficiency: failing to say something that need to be said
Excess: Brutal honesty that will lead to offense
Golden Mean: knowing how to deliver hard truth gracefully. Know to break bad news gently. Offers criticism in
a way that is constructive.
Generosity
Deficiency: Stinginess unwillingness to spend
Excess: Over spending
Golden Mean: giving when you have in some considerable situations.

How can we learn virtue?

Virtue is a skill, a way of living that can only be learned through experience.
Virtue is a kind of knowledge called Practical wisdom or Street smart.

Character is developed through habituation.

Once you do a certain act over and over again, it will become part of your character.
But first, you need to find someone who already knows virtue. People or authority that shows virtuous living
and worthy of emulating. They are called MORAL EXEMPLARS.

Based on Aristotle, we have this built in ability to recognize this people and the desire to imitate them
First, it will be hard for individuals to copy certain virtue from people who are better than them, and but in due
time, it will be an engraved part of their character. It will just manifest everytime they need it.

Virtue theory tells us to be virtuous to attain the pinnacle of humanity. It allows us to achieve EUDAIMONIA.

Eudaimonia is a Life-Well Lived or Human Flourishing

A life of eudaimonia is a life of striving. A life of pushing yourself to your limits until you find success.
A eudaimonistic life will be full of happiness that comes from achieving something really difficult than just having
it handed to you.

Choosing this life means you’re not done improving. You are constantly setting up new goals, develop new skills
and create new learning.

Eudaimonia is the feeling of being accomplished and pushing yourself to be the best person you could be.
This is morality for Aristotle. Being the best person you can be, honing your strengths while working with your
weakness.

NATURAL LAW THEORY OF THOMAS AQUINAS

According Aquinas, God made us, preloaded with all the tools that we need to know what is good.
Aquinas argued that God created the world according to natural law- a predictable and goal-driven system,
whereby life is sustained and everything functions smoothly.

We need to seek the 7 Basic Goods

1. Life
It pertains to self-preservation, drive and how to sustain life. We are created with survival instincts.
2. Reproduction
It is the concerns of creating more life. One of the duties of one’s life is to reproduce.
3. Educate one’s offspring
After reproducing, we need to educate our offspring to achieve the same character and virtue that we have.
4. Seek God
According Aquinas, we have this nature of seeking God.
5. Live in society
While short solitude can be good, he believes that we’re basically social animals who desire for love and
acceptance and susceptible by peer pressure. It means that we should be able to live in harmony with people
in the society.
6. Avoid offense
In maintaining harmony, we are trying to avoid conflicts and misunderstanding with people. Failure to
maintain peace and harmony, individual may feel guilt and shame for the bad things they’ve cause to other
people.
7. Shun ignorance
We are all natural knower, we are inquisitive and want to be right all the time. By educating oneself, we are
eliminating ignorance.

In line with the 7 basic goods, we have this form of Prohibitions and Positive Injunction to cause prevention and
promotion.

Examples:
The Basic Good is LIFE
ProhibitionPreserve life Do not kill
Positive Injunction promote life feeding the hungry, charity works etc.

Criticism for Aquinas theory:

Of God created us to seek good and if we’re built with ability to recognize and seek it, then why do people
violate the natural law all the time?

Aquinas has two answers: Ignorance and Emotion.

Ignorance
Sometimes, we seek what we think is good, but we’re wrong because we’re just ignorant. But this ignorance
cannot cover all the stupid things we do in our lives.

Emotion
We see what we should do but emotion overpowers our reason, and we fail to do the things we know we should.

In Aquinas theory of natural law, the grounding problem was clearly answered.
It tells that morality is grounded in God, that He created the moral order.

KANTIAN THEORY OF IMMANUEL KANT

He believed that morality is like in mathematical sense, it is absolute.

He has two imperatives. Hypothetical and Categorical Imperatives.
Hypothetical Imperatives.
We ought to do something not as a moral choice but just a representation of our desire.
It is a command that we should follow if we want something.
Ex. If you want to have money, you need to find a job. If you want to pass, you need to study.

Categorical Imperatives
These are commands you must follow regardless of your desire.
Your moral obligation is derived from pure reason.
It doesn’t matter whether you want to be moral or not, but the moral law is binding on all of us.
It also stated that we don’t need to have religion to determine what the law is, because what is right and what
is wrong is totally knowable just by using intellectual.

2 Formulations of Categorical Imperative

 The Universalizability principle

Act only according to that MAXIM which you can, at the same will, that is should become a universal law
without contradiction.
Maxim means rule or principle in Action
Universal Law means it can be done in similar situations.

We always ask ourselves, what is the maxim, what is the moral rule that we have with our actions.
If you are able to do it, everyone should do it.
Ex. If you want to choose sleep over studying, everyone is entitled to do it also.

The main morality of this principle is that, it’s not fair to make exemptions to yourself.

 The Formula of Humanity (The-End-OF-Ourselves)

Act so that you treat humanity whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never
as mere means. Mere Means simply implies to your own benefit.

The End of Ourselves

We’re not objects that exist to be used by others. We are our own ends.
We are rational and autonomous because we have the ability to set our goals and works towards them.
Human exist for themselves, not for others.

We do use people but not for mere means yet some people agreed of being used.
Ex. Teachers, Parents

You and I do not deserve to be used as mere means because of our autonomy.
We’re self-governed. We are to make our own free decision based on our rational skills.

Absolute moral worth is that we shouldn’t be manipulated nor manipulate others for our own benefits.

Some people treat us as mere means to accomplish their goals without thinking our goal and interest. This
is a violation of Kant second categorical imperative.