Lesson 4: Processor CP310L1

Processor

The CPU is a microchip, installed on a motherboard that performs calculations and coordinates with the hardware
components.

Most of the calculations take place in the Processor (CPU). The computing power of the CPU is the most important
element in the computer system. On a small workstation and personal computer, the CPU is housed in a single chip
called a microprocessor. On bigger computers such as servers CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards to
house multiple processors.

Processor Components

The Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations on integer (whole number) and real (with a
decimal point) operands. It also performs logical operations (equality, greater than and less than) between
operands.

The I/O unit manages data and instructions entering and leaving the processor.

The control unit manages all activities inside the processor itself.

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Speed

Speed in computer terminology is often referred to Clock speed. It is the rate at which a CPU is able to perform
instructions and is measured in megahertz (MHz), with 1 MHz representing a million clock cycles per second. In CPU
architecture, the faster the clock speed the faster the computer. The clock speed determines how many instructions
can be executed per second by the processor.

The clock rate is the rate at which a computer performs its most basic operations such as adding two numbers or
transferring a value from one processor register to another. It is the fundamental rate in cycles per second and is
measured in hertz.

Different makes of the processors on the same computer motherboard may have different clock rates. Usually when
referring to a computer, the term "clock rate" is used to refer to the speed of the CPU.

Note:
The original IBM PC, circa 1981, had a clock rate of 4.77 MHz (4,770,000 cycles/second). In 1995, Intel's Pentium
chip ran at 100 MHz (100 million cycles/second), and in 2002, an Intel Pentium 4 model was introduced as the first
CPU with a clock rate of 3 GHz (three billion cycles/second).

When comparing the speeds of computers, other factors are also considered, like the clock rate of the memory chips,
the clock rate of the computer's FSB (front side bus), the width in bits of the CPU's bus, and the amount of Level 1
and Level 2 cache.

A table to showcase different architectures and their definition.

Clock Speed of the processor's internal clock, which dictates how fast the processor can process
Speed(GHz/MHz) data. Clock speed is usually measured in GHz (gigahertz, or billions of pulses per second).
Front Side The connecting path between the processor and other key components such as the memory
Bus(GHz/MHz) controller hub. FSB speed is measured in GHz or MHz.
A temporary storage area for frequently accessed or recently accessed data. Having certain
Cache(MB/KB) data stored in a cache speeds up the operation of the computer. Cache size is measured in
megabytes (MB) or kilobytes (KB).

Note:

If the processor operates at 3.2 GHz internally but 800 MHz externally, the processor frequency is 3.2 GHz, and the
system bus frequency is 800 MHz. In this case, the processor operates at four times the system bus frequency. This
factor is called the multiplier. If you multiply the system bus frequency by the multiplier, you get the processor
frequency:

System bus frequency x multiplier = processor frequency

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Cache Levels

Cache memory is a fast storage area used to store frequently used data and instructions. It uses a small amount of
physical RAM for storage.

A cache used by the CPU to reduce the average time to access memory. As long as most memory accesses are to
cached memory locations, the average time taken for memory accesses will be less than time taken to access main
memory.

The processor has an internal cache controller that integrates the cache with the CPU. This cache controller stores
frequently accessed RAM locations to provide faster execution of data and instruction. Such a cache is known as a
level 1 Cache. There is a similar cache external to the CPU, called a level 2 Cache. The level 2 Cache performs the
same functions as level 1 Cache and can speed up the performance. Basically, a larger cache leads to a faster
CPU.

When the processor has to read or write a location in main memory, it first checks whether that memory location is in
the cache. This is done by comparing the address of the memory location to all tags in the cache that might contain
that address. If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, it is a cache hit, otherwise it is a cache
miss. In the case of a cache hit, the processor immediately reads or writes the data in the cache line. The proportion
of accesses that result in a cache hit is known as the hit rate, and is a measure of the effectiveness of the cache.

L1 cache

Level 1 cache also referred to as L1 cache is a memory cache built into the CPU chip or packaged within the same
module as the chip. Sometimes known as the "primary cache," an L1 cache is the memory closest to the CPU.

L2 cache

The L2 cache also referred to as secondary cache is a memory cache that is external to the CPU chip, typically
located on the motherboard. An L2 cache feeds the L1 cache.

L3 cache

If the L2 cache is also integrated on the CPU chip, then the external motherboard cache becomes the L3 cache. The
L3 cache feeds the L2 cache, which feeds the L1 cache, which in turn feeds the CPU.

Sockets / Slots

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The CPU socket or slot is where the processor is installed. It is the connector that connects a computer's
motherboard and the processor itself. The CPU sockets and processors on most computers in use today are built
around the pin grid array (PGA) architecture, in which the pins on the underside of the processor are inserted into the
socket, usually with Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) to aid installation. Slot based processors are cartridge shaped and fix
into a slot that looks similar to expansion slots.

List of sockets and slots

Different kinds of Slots

 Slot 1 - Celeron, Pentium II, Pentium III

 Slot 2 - Pentium II Xeon, Pentium III Xeon
 Slot A - Early Athlons

Slot B - DEC Alpha

Sockets / Slots

Different kinds of Slots

 Socket 1 - 486
 Socket 2 - 486
 Socket 3 - 486
 Socket 4 - Early Pentiums (60-66)
 Socket 5 - Pentium, IDT Winchip C6, Winchip 2
 Socket 463 - (also known as Socket NexGen) - NexGen Nx586
 Socket 6 - Intel 80486
 Socket 7 - Pentium
 Super Socket 7 - Faster Bus Speed - AMD K6-2, K6-III, Rise mP6
 Socket 8 - Pentium Pro
 Socket 370 - Celeron, Pentium III, Cyrix III
 Socket 423 - Pentium 4 but short lived
 Socket 478 - Intel Celeron, Pentium 4
 Socket 479 - Mobile Pentium
 Socket 775 - (also known as LGA 775 or Socket T) - Intel Pentium 4

VRM's

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Lesson 4: Processor CP310L1

VRM (Voltage Regulator Module) is used for supplying proper voltage to the processor for its operation. A VRM
(Voltage Regulator Module) is installed in Header 8 on the motherboard.

Most VRMs have VID (Voltage ID). VID allows the processor to program the correct voltage during power-on. If the
motherboard has Header 8, then a VRM must be installed in the header to power the processor.

High-performance computers use multiple microprocessors to satisfy the computingspeeds. The applications use one
VRM for each microprocessor to take advantage of the modularity and economy offered by the VRM. These multiple
VRMS are designed to share the total current demand of the processors

Overclocking

Overclocking is running a processor higher speed than the manufacturer suggested speed. It is not recommend
because the speed is not guaranteed to be stable. Overclocking can result in overheating that can damage the
processor. Warranties for the motherboard and processors are voided when they are overclocked.

Throttling

Throttling is a technique in computer architecture that automatically adjusted the speed of the processor to conserve
the power or to reduce the amount of heat generated by the processor chip.

Intel’s CPU throttling technology is Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology (EIST) used in mobile technology. AMD
introduces PowerNow! for mobile technology and Cool and Quiet in server and desktop technology.

Multiprocessor Platform

Installing more than one processor on a motherboard. A motherboard must be designed to support more
than one processor by providing more than one processor socket.

Multi-Core Processing

The processor housing contains two or more cores that operate at the same frequency but independently of
each other. Each core is a logical processor which contains two ALUs. Each core within a processor has its
own independent internal L1 and L2 caches. In addition, all cores might share an L3 cache within the
processor package.
Dual Core (two cores) supports four instructions at once
Triple Core (three cores) supports six instructions at once
Quad Core (four cores) supports eight instructions at once

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Processor Technologies

Hyper-Threading

Hyper-Threading technology is a technique which enables a single CPU to act like

multiple CPU's. It is Intel's trademark for what is more commonly referred to in the
industry as Simultaneous Multi-Threading (SMT). Hyper-Threading is supported by
some Intel Xeon and Pentium processors.

To determine if a CPU supports Hyper-Threading, look for the special "HT" marking on the CPU logo.

32-bit versus 64-bit Processing

A processor can use 32-bit instructions and operating systems or 64-bit instructions and operating systems.
All desktop and notebook processors sold today are hybrid processors that can support either 32-bit or 64-
bit computing. Intel calls this technology EM64T (Extended Memory 64 Technology); the processors are
also known as x86-64bit processors.

Multimedia Extension (MMX)

MMX was the first technology to support repetitive looping, whereby the processor receives an instruction
and then applies it to a stream of data that follows. Prior to MMX, each data set had to be preceded by an
instruction to process it. MMX helps with processing multimedia data, which includes a lot of repetition
when managing audio and graphics data.

Intel Processors

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AMD Processors

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