arts

Article
Rock Art of Soqotra, Yemen: A Forgotten
Heritage Revisited
Julian Jansen van Rensburg
Excellence Cluster TOPOI, Freie Universität, 14195 Berlin, Germany; jansenvanrensburg.julian@gmail.com




Received: 27 September 2018; Accepted: 28 November 2018; Published: 3 December 2018


Abstract: This paper presents a comprehensive review of historical and current rock art research
on the island of Soqotra, Yemen and places these sites within a spatial framework from which it
analyses themes concerning water and the visibility and invisibility of these sites within the broader
landscape. The analysis of these sites shows how water was of fundamental importance to the
indigenous inhabitants over the longue durée. It also highlights how rock art has not only been
able to reinforce the ethnographic and historical accounts of the indigenous inhabitants, but also
strengthen our temporal knowledge of the social and cultural lives of the inhabitants of Soqotra.

Keywords: Soqotra; Yemen; rock art; petroglyph; parietal art; water; invisibility

1. Introduction
In 1996, the rock art researcher Michael Jung undertook a literary review of all the rock art sites
on Soqotra (Jung 1996). Within this work, five open-air petroglyph sites and one cave containing
pictograms were identified. While recognising that rock art on the island had probably been neglected
during the numerous archaeological expeditions to the island, Jung suggested that the paucity of
rock art sites on Soqotra was to be attributed to the fact that rock art had little importance for the
inhabitants (Jung 1996, p. 79). With recent fieldwork undertaken by the author, however, this situation
is changing and not only is the richness of Soqotra’s rock art tradition being recognised, but new rock
art sites are being discovered and others for which few records existed are being comprehensively
recorded (Strauch 2012; Jansen van Rensburg and De Geest 2015; Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, 2018;
Jansen van Rensburg et al. 2018). The aims of this paper are twofold: firstly, to revisit Soqotra’s rock art
heritage and catalogue the sites and motifs from historical and current studies. Secondly, to analyse
the spatial relationship of the sites from natural and cultural perspective. This comprehensive record
and analysis of the sites and their motifs provides an important step forward in enriching rock art
studies on Soqotra.

2. Background
The Soqotra Archipelago lies approximately 250 km northeast of Cape Guardafui, Somalia and
380 km south of Rās Fartaq, Yemen. The archipelago is made up of four main islands, Soqotra, ‘Abd
al-Kūri, Samha and Darsa, and two rocky outcrops Sābūniyah and Ka‘al Fı̄r‘ūn. The main island of
Soqotra is c. 135 km in length, c. 42 km in width and has a surface area of c. 3650 sq. km making it
one of the largest of the Arabian islands (Edgell 2006, p. 423). Geologically, the island of Soqotra is
composed of Precambrian basement rocks that are overlain unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary
limestones that range from between 300 m and 900 m in elevation and cover almost half of the island’s
surface (Beydoun and Bichan 1970, p. 414). The older igneous and metamorphic basement rocks are
particularly well exposed along the H. agher, a granite mountain range that stretches across the centre of
the island west south-westerly to east north-easterly ridge and reaches up to c. 1500 m above sea level

Arts 2018, 7, 99; doi:10.3390/arts7040099 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts

Arts 2018, 7, 99 2 of 19

(Figure 1). The limestone plateau forms a rich karstic landscape that is composed of numerous natural
rock cavities, or tafoni (sing. tafone), and several large cave systems (De Geest 2006, pp. 7–8). The tafoni
openings have and continue to be used by the inhabitants for storage, living quarters, animal shelters,
and in some cases burials. The cave systems, however, are avoided as according to folkloric belief they
are inhabited by enormous white snakes believed to be capable of killing a man (Morris 2002, p. 214).
Due to Soqotra’s unique geographical position and mountainous landscape, it is influenced
by several large-scale weather phenomena, which include the seasonally reversing south-west and
north-east monsoon winds. Unlike the low-lying neighbouring areas of Arabia and Africa, both these
winds bring rain, although the majority of the rainfall occurs during the north-east monsoon. Average
annual rainfall varies greatly between the coast and interior plains, which receive approximately 170
mm, and the mountains that receive approximately 1500 mm. Rainfall in the mountains generally
occurs in the form of short convection thunderstorms that result in violent flash floods. The high
precipitation in the mountains is also the result of dews, drizzle and fogs that, especially during the
south-west monsoon, can contribute up to 357–567 mm of moisture (Scholte and Geest 2010, p. 1507).
This precipitation is especially important during the drier south-west season as it generates a slow
but persistent surface runoff, which is often the only source of water in the H . agher and surrounding
limestone plateaux (Rossini 2014, p. 29). While the precipitation regime appears to be stable, the reality
is that they do fail. The failure of these rains and the ensuing drought often has dire consequences,
such as in 1847 when a severe drought caused wide-spread famine and decimated livestock (Hunter
and Sealey 1986, p. 113).
The north coast was, and remains, the most densely populated area on Soqotra with over twelve
thousand people spread out between the three main villages of H . adiboh, Qalansiyah and Qādub.
This can be attributed to the morphological nature of the H . agher, which influences the drainage of
water in an almost entirely north north-easterly direction across the northern coastal plains. The two
exceptions to this are the westerly flow of the wadis in the valleys of Qalansiyah and Shu’ub, and the
southerly flow of a limited number of wadis along the southern Nōged coastal plain (Beydoun and
Bichan 1970, p. 415). The southern coastal plain on Soqotra is made up of one continuous arid plain
of c. 80 km in length that reaches approximately 6 km inland where it ends at the sheer cliffs of the
limestone escarpment (Cheung et al. 2006, p. 31). Settlement along the south coast was up until the
20th century limited to a few fishing villages, although during the wetter months some transhumance
was practiced by Bedouins living in the interior (Morris 2002, pp. 221–22).
Soqotra’s population is geographically and culturally divided into two groups of people, those
who live in the mountains and those who live along the coastal plains. A geographical division
that refers to those people who belong to kin-based tribal groups, own land, and have access to
specific land and water resources; and those who have no tribal affiliation and are not land owning
(Morris 2002, p. 223). The latter being mostly African and Arab settlers who live along the coast, and the
former an array of different tribes that live in the mountainous interior and call themselves Bedouins.
The island of Soqotra has a rich historical record that is inextricably linked to both its strategic
position at the entrance to the Red Sea and the islands abundant supplies of incense, aloes and Dragon’s
Blood (Jansen van Rensburg 2016b, pp. 6–16). The earliest detailed historical account of the people
residing on Soqotra was written by an anonymous Greek trader from Egypt in the mid-1st century AD
in a book entitled the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Casson 1989, p. 69). According to the Periplus, Soqotra
was under the rule of the ‘king of the frankincense-bearing land’ (Hadhramaut) and was being leased
to Arabian merchants. Moreover, we learn these merchants together with other traders from ancient
Greece and India resided on the island’s north coast (Casson 1989, pp. 169–70). During the medieval
period, there are prolific references to Soqotra in the writings of Muslim, Chinese, and European
geographers, navigators, and travellers. These accounts tend to be primarily concerned with the
procurement of aloes, dragon’s blood and ambergris and the presence of a Christian population
(Jansen van Rensburg 2016b). The earliest account concerning Christians is in the 6th century AD,
when the Greek Nestorian Christian monk and merchant from Egypt, Cosmas Indicopleustes, refers
Arts 2018, 7, 99 3 of 19

to having met Greek Christians from Soqotra in Ethiopia (McCrindle 1896, p. 119). While3the
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 19
exact
date for the Christianisation of Soqotra is uncertain, it evidently took place no earlier than the 4th
centuryearlier
AD than the 4th
(Müller century
2001, AD (Müller
pp. 146–47). 2001, pp. of
The presence 146–47). The presence
Christians of Christians
on Soqotra attracts a on
lot Soqotra
of attention
attractsand
in Muslim a lotEuropean
of attention in Muslim
accounts from andtheEuropean
6th to 17th accounts from AD
centuries the 6th to 17th centuries
(Biedermann 2006).AD Within
these(Biedermann 2006). Within
accounts, however, therethese
areaccounts,
a number however,
of authorstherewho
are a also
number of authors
mention thatwho
the also mention
Soqotri, notably
thosethat the Soqotri, notably those believed to be the indigenous inhabitants, were engaged in various
believed to be the indigenous inhabitants, were engaged in various forms of witchcraft; could
forms of witchcraft; could change their shape at will and raise storms that would either bring ships
change their shape at will and raise storms that would either bring ships back to the shore or conceal
back to the shore or conceal the island from raiders (Yule and Cordier 1993, p. 407; Smith 2008, p.
the island from raiders (Yule and Cordier 1993, p. 407; Smith 2008, p. 264). The inhabitants were,
264). The inhabitants were, up until the 20th century, also known to have practised selenolatry and
up until the
litholatry20thandcentury, also known
there remained to have
a strong practised
belief in witches selenolatry
who wereand litholatry
often tried and and therekilled
either remained
or a
strongbanished
belief infromwitches who were often tried and either killed or banished from the island
the island (Snell 1955; Botting 1958, p. 204; Boxhall 1966, p. 218; Naumkin 1993, pp. (Snell 1955;
Botting 1958, p. 204; Boxhall 1966, p. 218; Naumkin 1993, pp. 315–23).
315–23).
The archaeological
The archaeological exploration
exploration ofofSoqotra
Soqotrahas,
has, since
sinceits
itsbeginnings
beginnings in in
thethe
mid-19th century,
mid-19th been been
century,
primarily
primarily concerned
concerned withwith locatingremains
locating remains of of the
the pre-Islamic
pre-Islamic occupation
occupation of of
Soqotra, particularly
Soqotra, particularly
thosethose
which which
would would support
support thethe rich
rich historicalevidence
historical evidence of ofthis
thisperiod.
period.These
Theseexpeditions havehave
expeditions locatedlocated
stone tools believed to date to the Neolithic and Oldowan period (Naumkin and Sedov 1993, p. 537;
stone tools believed to date to the Neolithic and Oldowan period (Naumkin and Sedov 1993, p. 537;
Amirkhanov et al. 2009, pp. 68–74); a pre-Islamic settlement dated to the c. 1st to c. 4th centuries AD
Amirkhanov et al. 2009, pp. 68–74); a pre-Islamic settlement dated to the c. 1st to c. 4th centuries AD
(Naumkin and Sedov 1993, p. 605), and several structures, settlements and graves believed to date
(Naumkin
between andtheSedov
c. 6th1993,
to c. p.
17th605), and several
centuries structures,
AD (Bent settlements
1900; Shinnie and 1992;
1960; Doe graves believed1993;
Naumkin to date between
Weeks
the c. et6th to c. 17th
al. 2002). centuries AD (Bent 1900; Shinnie 1960; Doe 1992; Naumkin 1993; Weeks et al. 2002).

FigureFigure 1. Map
1. Map showing
showing thethe location
location ofofthe
thefour
four main
main island
islandofofthe
theSoqotra
Soqotraarchipelago: Soqotra,
archipelago: ‘Abd‘Abd
Soqotra,
al-Kūri, Samha, and Darsa.
al-Kūri, Samha, and Darsa.

3. Rock
3. Rock Art Art
DespiteDespite
over over two centuries
two centuries of intermittent
of intermittent exploration
exploration and and archaeological
archaeological surveys
surveys rockrock art
art remains
remains one of the most neglected areas of study on Soqotra. Indeed, the earliest documented
one of the most neglected areas of study on Soqotra. Indeed, the earliest documented rock art sites that rock
art sites that were recorded by Bent (1900) and Doe (1970, 1992) are some of the only records we have.
were recorded by Bent (1900) and Doe (1970, 1992) are some of the only records we have. This situation
This situation is exacerbated by the lack of location data that has hindered attempts by the author to
is exacerbated by the lack of location data that has hindered attempts by the author to relocate these
relocate these rock art sites. This situation has only recently begun to change with fieldwork
rock art
undertaken by situation
sites. This the author,has onlyhas
which recently begun
relocated andtorecorded
change both
witholdfieldwork
and newundertaken by the
rock art sites
author, which has
throughout the relocated
island. Whatand recorded
follows both oldofand
is a catalogue rocknew rock their
art sites, art sites throughout
location the island.
(where known),
Whatdescription,
follows is anda catalogue of rockofart
a brief synopsis thesites,
motifstheir
foundlocation
(Figure (where
2). known), description, and a brief
synopsis of the motifs found (Figure 2).
Arts 2018, 7, 99 4 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

Figure
Figure 2. 2.
MapMapshowing
showingthe
the location
location of
ofthe
theknown
knownrock artart
rock sites.
sites.

3.1. Cave
3.1. Cave RockRock
Art Art Sites
Sites
The beginnings
The beginnings of speleologicalexplorations
of speleological explorations on
on Soqotra
Soqotraarguably
arguablybegan in the
began 1940s,
in the although
1940s, although
the first comprehensive explorations were undertaken by a Belgian Speleological Mission (The(The
the first comprehensive explorations were undertaken by a Belgian Speleological Mission Soqotra
Soqotra Karst Project 2000–2008), led by Peter De Geest. These missions explored 50 caves and
Karst Project 2000–2008), led by Peter De Geest. These missions explored 50 caves and mapped over
mapped over 32 km of underground galleries throughout the island (De Geest 2006). During these
32 km of underground galleries throughout the island (De Geest 2006). During these speleological
speleological explorations two caves containing only pictograms were discovered.
explorations two caves containing only pictograms were discovered.
3.1.1. Cave-Drawings in the West
3.1.1. Cave-Drawings in the West
The first cave art site on Soqotra was found sometime during the Second World War, when
The first
British cavewere
forces art site on Soqotra
stationed was found
on Soqotra. sometime
The only evidenceduring thehowever,
for this, Second World
comes War,
from when
a reportBritish
forcesbywere stationed
Douglas Botting,onan Soqotra. Thevisited
explorer who only evidence for1956.
the island in this,Within
however, comes
his report he from
stated athat
report
he by
was Botting,
Douglas unable to an
visit the western
explorer whoend of thethe
visited island werein
island cave-drawings
1956. Withinhad hisbeen found
report during that
he stated the last
he was
war
unable to(Botting
visit the1958, p. 206).
western endDespite
of theextensive
island werespeleological explorations
cave-drawings and research,
had been the location
found during of war
the last
this cave remains an enigma.
(Botting 1958, p. 206). Despite extensive speleological explorations and research, the location of this
cave remains an enigma.
3.1.2. Hoq Cave
3.1.2. HoqThe
Cave
discovery of Hoq cave was made during the first speleological mission undertaken by the
Soqotra Karst Project (SKP) in 2000. The cave is situated in a limestone plateau on the north-east coast
The discovery of Hoq cave was made during the first speleological mission undertaken by the
of Soqotra. The entrance to the cave lies midway up the side of the karst plateau and is clearly visible
Soqotra Karst Project (SKP)
from the shoreline when in 2000. from
arriving The cave is situated
a north-east in a limestone
direction. Access to the plateau
cave isonpossible
the north-east
by
coastwalking
of Soqotra. The entrance to the cave lies midway up the side of the karst
up a steep path towards a flat plateau situated 50 m below the entrance where the plateau and is clearly
village
visible
Hoqfrom
hadthe shoreline
been located. when arriving
This village wasfrom a north-east
abandoned several direction. Access
centuries earlier to the
when thecave is possible
freshwater
resources
by walking upfound at the
a steep pathentrance
towards to the cave
a flat dried out.
plateau The cave
situated 50 m consists
belowofthea huge main where
entrance gallery,the
up tovillage
100 m wide and 30 m high, and stretches c. 2.5 km from the entrance to the
Hoq had been located. This village was abandoned several centuries earlier when the freshwater end in an east south-east,
west north-west
resources found at the direction
entrance(Figure
to the3).cave
Approximately
dried out. 200
Themcavefromconsists
the entrance
of a one
hugereaches
main the limiteup to
gallery,
d’éclairement (Rouzaud 1997, p. 259), or the point at which it is necessary to have some form of artificial
100 m wide and 30 m high, and stretches c. 2.5 km from the entrance to the end in an east south-east,
light. The first evidence for rock art is found approximately 1 km from the entrance and continues in
west north-west direction (Figure 3). Approximately 200 m from the entrance one reaches the limite
what has been described as a processional path through to the end of the cave (Strauch 2012, p. 29).
d’éclairement (Rouzaud
The findings within1997,
Hoq p. 259),
cave or thea point
include range at
of which it is necessary
pictograms of Indian, to haveArabian,
South some form of artificial
Ethiopian,
light.Greek
The first
and Bactrian inscriptions and images dated to from the 1st century BC to the 6th century AD in
evidence for rock art is found approximately 1 km from the entrance and continues
what(Figure
has been4). described
In addition,asseveral
a processional path through
incense burners, to the end
shells, torches, of the
pottery cave (Strauch
fragments, 2012, p. 29).
and a wooden
The findings within Hoq cave include a range of pictograms of Indian, South Arabian, Ethiopian,
Greek and Bactrian inscriptions and images dated to from the 1st century BC to the 6th century AD
(Figure 4). In addition, several incense burners, shells, torches, pottery fragments, and a wooden tablet
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, 99 5 of 19

tablet inscribed in Palmyrene were found (Strauch 2012). This corpus of finds remains one of the
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19
richest sources
inscribed of evidence
in Palmyrene forfound
were seafarers visiting
(Strauch Soqotra
2012). This and the of
corpus island’s involvement
finds remains one of in the
the richest
Indian
Ocean
sources trade
tablet networks
inscribed in
of evidence (Dridi
forPalmyrene 2002;
seafarerswere Dridi
found
visiting and Gorea
(Strauch
Soqotra 2003;
2012).
and Strauch
This corpus
the island’s 2012). Due to
of finds remains
involvement the
in theone various
of the
Indian ship
Ocean
motifs,
trade incense
richest sources
networks burners,
(Dridi and auspicious
of evidence
2002; Dridi symbology
for seafarers visiting
and Gorea found
Soqotra
2003; andwithin
Strauch the the
island’s
2012). cave
Due to found
involvement itinis the
the various considered
Indian
ship to
motifs,
have Ocean
been atrade networks
mariner’s (Dridi sanctuary
religious 2002; Dridi (Dridi
and Gorea 2003;
2002, p. Strauch
589). 2012). Due
Evidence for to the
the various
ancient ship
indigenous
incense burners, and auspicious symbology found within the cave found it is considered to have been
motifs, ofincense burners, and auspicious symbology found within the cave found it is considered to
ainhabitants Soqotra,
mariner’s religious however,
sanctuary was 2002,
(Dridi noticeably
p. 589).lacking.
Evidence for the ancient indigenous inhabitants of
have been a mariner’s religious sanctuary (Dridi 2002, p. 589). Evidence for the ancient indigenous
Soqotra, however,
inhabitants was noticeably
of Soqotra, however,lacking.
was noticeably lacking.

Figure
Figure 3. Map
Figure
3. Map of
3. Map Hoq
of of
Hoq cave.
Hoq cave.The
cave. Thenumbers
The mark
numbers mark
numbers the
markthe location
thelocation of of
location thethe
of rock
rock
the art.
art. art.
rock

Figure 4. Image of a ship believed to date to the 2nd century AD, found at site 6 in Hoq cave (Photo:
author).

Figure
Figure 4. Image
4. Image
3.1.3. Dahaisi a of
ofCave a ship
ship believed
believed to date
to date to2nd
to the the 2nd century
century AD, AD,
foundfound at6site
at site 6 in Hoq
in Hoq cave cave (Photo:
(Photo: author).
author).
3.1.3. Dahaisi
DahaisiCave
cave is located in the eastern interior of Soqotra on the Mōmi plateau at the base of a
limestone
3.1.3.Dahaisi
Dahaisicaveoutcrop on the north-eastern edge of a shallow valley. The entrance to Dahaisi cave is 5 m
Caveis located in the eastern interior of Soqotra on the Mōmi plateau at the base of a
high and 10 m wide, yet it is only visible when approached from a southerly direction, and then only
limestone
Dahaisioutcrop
at a distance on
caveofis the north-eastern
located in the
approximately edge
100eastern
m. Entry of a the
interior
into shallow
of valley.
Soqotra
cave onThe
involves the entrance
Mōmidown
clambering to Dahaisi
plateau at the
a series cave
of is of
base
large 5 ma
high and 10
limestone m wide,
outcrop onyet
theitnorth-eastern
is only visibleedge
when ofapproached from aThe
a shallow valley. southerly direction,
entrance andcave
to Dahaisi thenisonly
5m
at a distance of approximately 100 m. Entry into the cave involves clambering down a
high and 10 m wide, yet it is only visible when approached from a southerly direction, and then series of large
only
rocks and relict
at a distance speleothems that
of approximately 100appear to be
m. Entry related
into to the
the cave collapse
involves of what was
clambering an earlier,
down a seriesprobably
of large
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, 99 6 of 19

rocks and relict speleothems that appear to be related to the collapse of what was an earlier, probably
larger, entrance
entrance(Jansen
(Jansenvan vanRensburg
Rensburg and
and DeDe Geest
Geest 2015).
2015). TheThe main
main gallery
gallery is approximately
is approximately 2m
2 m high
high
and 5and 5 m wide
m wide and branches
and branches right right
almost almost immediately
immediately after after entering,
entering, and one andneedone need only travel
only travel 25 m
25 m before
before reachingreaching the limite
the limite d’éclairement.
d’éclairement. At this Atpoint
this point
a narrowa narrow side gallery
side gallery branchesbranches off south,
off to the to the
south,
while the while
main thegallery
main extends
gallery extends down slope
down a gentle a gentle
in aslope in a south-west,
south-west, north-eastnorth-east direction
direction (Figure 5).
(Figure
A well-worn 5). A pathway
well-wornis pathway is clearly
clearly visible along visible along
the floor the cave
of the floorand
of the cave and
in several in several
areas, areas,
speleothems
speleothems have been anthropogenically
have been anthropogenically modified
modified to provide to provide
easier easier van
access (Jansen access (Jansen 2018).
Rensburg van Rensburg
The first
2018). The first
pictograms pictograms
are located 70 mare
from located 70 m from
the entrance the entrance
and consist and badly
of several consist of several
faded geometricbadly faded
patterns
geometric
and cruciform shapes (Jansen van Rensburg 2018). The remaining pictograms are all located in are
patterns and cruciform shapes (Jansen van Rensburg 2018). The remaining pictograms the
all
finallocated
chamber,in the final which
within chamber, within
a large which a large
water-filled sump water-filled
extends insump extends in adirection
a north-easterly north-easterly
under
direction
the floor of under the floor
the cave. Theof the cave. The
pictograms pictograms
are spread overarefivespread
panelsover five
in the panels in
southern halftheofsouthern
the chamberhalf
of the chamber and appears to surround the water-filled sump. The largest
and appears to surround the water-filled sump. The largest panel lies directly above the sump and panel lies directly above
the sump and
is replete withisareplete
varietywith a variety
of motifs thatofinclude
motifs geometric
that include geometric
patterns, patterns,
a variety a variety ofshapes
of cruciform cruciform
and
shapes
an Arabic andshahada
an Arabic shahada inscription.
inscription. The other
The other panels havepanels have very
very similar similar geometric
geometric patterns and patterns and
cruciform
cruciform
shapes, yetshapes, yet they
they include what include
have been what have been
interpreted interpreted
as ships, as ships,
therianthropic and therianthropic
zoomorphic figures, and
zoomorphic
an animal with figures,
rider,anand animal with rider,
additional Arabicand additional
inscriptions Arabic6).inscriptions
(Figure (Figure 6).
Whilst no absolute Whilst
dates no
for the
absolute dates for the rock art were obtained, the author was able to identify
rock art were obtained, the author was able to identify four phases that could be attributed to between four phases that could
be
theattributed to between
c. 1st century BC to the thec.c.15th
1st century
centuryBC ADto(Jansen
the c. 15th
van century
Rensburg AD (Jansen
2018). Thevan Rensburg
profusion 2018).
of motifs
The
overprofusion
such a long oftime
motifs over
span, such
and thata they
long surround
time span,the and that they surround
water-filled sump in the theend
water-filled sump in
chamber, suggests
the
thatend chamber,
the Dahaisi suggests
cave must havethat the Dahaisias
functioned cave must havenodal
an important functioned as an important
point within the landscape nodalthatpoint
was
within
related the landscape
to the presencethat was related
of water withintothethecave.
presence of water within the cave.

Figure 5.
Figure Map of
5. Map of Dahaisi
Dahaisi cave
cave with
with the
the location
location of
of the
the various
various rock
rock art
art sites
sites marked
marked in
in red.
red.
Arts 2018, 7, 99 7 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

Figure 6.Figure 6. East-facing

East-facing photoline
photo and anddrawing
line drawing ofmotifs
of the the motifs found
found on on panel
panel 1 in
1 in Dahaisicave
Dahaisi cave(Photo:
(Photo: author).
author).
3.2. Open-Air Petroglyph Sites
3.2. Open-Air Petroglyph Sites
Sites containing petroglyphs were amongst the first archaeological remains found during the
mid-19thSites containing
century petroglyphs
expeditions were (Wellsted
to Soqotra amongst the first archaeological
1835). However, it wasremains foundthe
not until during
20th the
century
mid-19th century expeditions to Soqotra (Wellsted 1835). However, it was not until the 20th century
expeditions that the majority of these sites on Soqotra were recorded.
expeditions that the majority of these sites on Soqotra were recorded.
3.2.1. Eriosh
3.2.1. Eriosh
Eriosh is located on Soqotra’s north coast approximately 20 km south-west of the capital H
Eriosh is located on Soqotra’s north coast approximately 20 km south-west of the capital adiboh . adiboh
and 500
and 500 m south of the village Almāh. The site consists of a flat subhorizontal reefal limestone plainplain
m south of the village Almāh. The site consists of a flat subhorizontal reefal limestone
measuring approximately 10,000 2
measuring approximately 10,000mm2 (1 (1 ha). Afterthe
ha). After the rains
rains of the
of the monsoon
monsoon period, period,
most ofmost of the
the site is site
is covered
covered bybywater,
water, which
which isisused
used locally
locally to water
to water livestock.
livestock. Petroglyphs
Petroglyphs can be foundcan be found
across across the
the entire
entiresite, although
site, although theythey
are densest towardstowards
are densest the centralthepart of the part
central site, which
of thewas site, reported
whichtowas havereported
had a to
roughly built wall built along its northern extent (Doe 1970, p. 5; 1992,
have had a roughly built wall built along its northern extent (Doe 1970, p. 5; 1992, p. 55). The site p. 55). The site was first
recorded
was first by Lieutenant
recorded Wellsted
by Lieutenant in 1834, in
Wellsted who remarked
1834, on the presence
who remarked on theof presence
inscriptions ofhe believed he
inscriptions
to be Ethiopic, figures of men and camels, feet, crosses and ‘figures having a snake’s head’ (Wellsted
believed to be Ethiopic, figures of men and camels, feet, crosses and ‘figures having a snake’s head’
1835, p. 196). A subsequent visit by Hunter (1878, p. 371), mentions that he was unable to locate the
(Wellsted 1835, p. 196). A subsequent visit by Hunter (1878, p. 371), mentions that he was unable
inscriptions, but did record numerous hieroglyphs that were spread across the site. In addition, he
to locate the inscriptions,
mentions but did record
that the most numerous numerous
petroglyphs found at hieroglyphs
this site werethat the were
outlines spread
of feet,across
mostlythe in site.
In addition, he mentions
pairs (Hunter that The
1878, p. 371). the inscriptions
most numerous continuepetroglyphs found at
to attract attention this
and site were
during the outlines
an expedition to of
feet, mostly
Soqotra in in pairs
1881 the(Hunter 1878,
naturalist p. 371).
George The inscriptions
Schweinfurth visited continue
Eriosh andtodescribed
attract attention and during an
seeing hieroglyphs
expedition
as wellto asSoqotra
letters fromin 1881 the naturalist
the Greek and Roman George Schweinfurth
script. He also comments visitedonEriosh
finding and described
several crosses, seeing
circles and figures having a snake’s head (Schweinfurth 1891, p.
hieroglyphs as well as letters from the Greek and Roman script. He also comments on finding several 52). Several years later the
archaeologist
crosses, circles and Theodore
figuresBenthavingdocumented
a snake’swhathead he(Schweinfurth
deemed to be a 1891, ‘purelyp.Ethiopic script’years
52). Several similarlater
to the
that he had seen in Aksum (Bent 1900, p. 354). Amongst the script
archaeologist Theodore Bent documented what he deemed to be a ‘purely Ethiopic script’ similarhe also recorded seeing images of to
camels, snakes, numerous feet drawn side by side, and crosses. Some of the crosses were said to have
that he had seen in Aksum (Bent 1900, p. 354). Amongst the script he also recorded seeing images
been drawn between the feet, while others were drawn within a circle that were believed to be similar
of camels, snakes, numerous feet drawn side by side, and crosses. Some of the crosses were said to
to those found on Ethiopic coins (Bent 1900, p. 354). In 1956, as part of an Oxford expedition to
haveSoqotra,
been drawn between the
the archaeologist feet, while
Shinnie visitedothers
the sitewere drawn within
and recorded severalamotifs,
circle remarking
that were thatbelieved
many to be
similar to those found on Ethiopic coins (Bent 1900, p. 354). In 1956, as part
of them were camel brands, possible inscriptions and feet (Shinnie 1960, p. 107). He also provides one of an Oxford expedition to
Soqotra, the archaeologist Shinnie visited the site and recorded several
of the first published drawn record of motifs from the site, much of which he had copied from motifs, remarking that many
of them were that
drawings camel werebrands, possible
done during the inscriptions
earlier visits ofand feet (Shinnie
Hunter 1960, p. but
and Schweinfurth, 107). He published
never also provides
one of(Shinnie
the first 1960, p. 109, Figure
published drawn7). Theseofdrawings
record motifs from depictthea number
site, much of cruciform
of which shapes,
he had feetcopiedand from
outlines
drawings thatof were
feet, adone
camel, inscriptions,
during and avisits
the earlier number of indeterminable
of Hunter geometric but
and Schweinfurth, patterns.
neverShortly
published
after1960,
(Shinnie Shinnie,
p. 109,Eriosh was7).
Figure visited
Thesebydrawings
Captain depict
Peter Boxhall
a number whoofmentions
cruciform that in addition
shapes, feet and to the
outlines
inscriptions, feet, camels and crosses found there were also portrayals of hands, goats and ‘symbolic
of feet, a camel, inscriptions, and a number of indeterminable geometric patterns. Shortly after Shinnie,
plants’ (Boxhall 1966, p. 220). In 1967, the archaeologist Brian Doe also sought out Eriosh, remarking
Eriosh was visited by Captain Peter Boxhall who mentions that in addition to the inscriptions, feet,
camels and crosses found there were also portrayals of hands, goats and ‘symbolic plants’ (Boxhall 1966,
p. 220). In 1967, the archaeologist Brian Doe also sought out Eriosh, remarking that the inscriptions
he observed bore resemblance to early South Arabian inscriptions on the mainland with Ethiopic
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, 99 8 of 19
that the inscriptions he observed bore resemblance to early South Arabian inscriptions on the
mainland with Ethiopic characteristics (Doe 1970, p. 5). He mentions that amongst the motifs there
characteristics
are numerous (Doe 1970, p.
depictions of5). He mentions
outlines of feet,that amongst
geometric the motifs
shapes, thereand
animals are numerous
anthropomorphs depictions of
(Doe
outlines of feet, geometric shapes, animals and anthropomorphs (Doe 1992, p.
1992, p. 57). In addition, Doe drew 40 motifs from the site, remarking that it had not been possible to 57). In addition, Doe drew
40
takemotifs from the due
photographs site, remarking
to the lack that
of a itshadow
had notcastbeen bypossible to take photographs
the shallowness of the pecking due (Doe
to the1970,
lack ofpp.a
shadow cast by the shallowness of the pecking (Doe 1970, pp. 31–33, Figures
31–33, Figures 8–10; 1992, p. 43, Figure 4; p. 54, Figure 12; p. 56, Figure 13). The drawings depict the 8–10; 1992, p. 43, Figure 4;
p. 54, Figure 12;feet
inscriptions, p. 56, Figure
and 13). The
outlines of drawings depict the
feet, cruciform inscriptions,
shapes, crosses feetwithin
and outlines
circlesof feet,
and cruciform
squares,
shapes, crosses within circles and squares, anthropomorphs (described
anthropomorphs (described by Jung (1996, p. 80) as orants), several indeterminable geometric by Jung (1996, p. 80) as orants),
several
patterns, and what has been described by Jung (1996, p. 80) as ibex, sheep, or oxen, and Boxhallas(1966,
indeterminable geometric patterns, and what has been described by Jung (1996, p. 80) ibex,
sheep,
p. 220)orasoxen,goatsand Boxhall
(Figure 7).(1966,
During p. 220)
the as goats
1980s a (Figure 7). During thestudy
joint Soviet-Yemeni 1980s of a joint
the Soviet-Yemeni
island and its
study of the island and its inhabitants was undertaken by Vitaly Naumkin,
inhabitants was undertaken by Vitaly Naumkin, who remarked that at Eriosh there were depictions who remarked that at
Eriosh
of feet, a camel being hunted and inscriptions that did not resemble an early South Arabian script an
there were depictions of feet, a camel being hunted and inscriptions that did not resemble as
early South Arabian
was proposed by Doe script as p.
(1992, was proposed
57). In addition by Doe (1992,
to these p. 57). In addition
descriptions he also to these descriptions
recorded 23 motifs that he
also recorded
included 23 motifsfeet,
inscriptions, thataincluded
cruciform inscriptions, feet, acamels,
within a circle, cruciform
andwithin
various a indeterminable
circle, camels, and various
geometric
indeterminable geometric patterns (Naumkin 1993, p. 97, Figures 4 and
patterns (Naumkin 1993, p. 97, Figures 4 and 5a,b; 2012, p. 136, Figure 12). In conclusion, Naumkin 5a,b; 2012, p. 136, Figure 12).
In conclusion,
(1993, Naumkin
p. 93) proposed (1993,
dating thep.motifs
93) proposed
at Erioshdating
to the the motifs
second halfatofEriosh
the firstto millennium
the second half BC, of the
based
first millennium BC, based on data obtained from a cemetery excavated
on data obtained from a cemetery excavated in Raquf, in the north-eastern interior of the island. in Raquf, in the north-eastern
interior
However, of no
theexplanation
island. However, no explanation
concerning the reasoningconcerning
behind the thisreasoning
hypothesis behind
is given.thisMoreover,
hypothesisthe is
given. Moreover, the dating of the cemetery has also been disputed (Weeks et
dating of the cemetery has also been disputed (Weeks et al. 2002, p. 120). Despite these various reports al. 2002, p. 120). Despite
these various reports
and drawings made, and drawings
the site of Erioshmade,has the sitebeen
never of Eriosh
fully has never and
recorded beenitfully
is notrecorded
clear as and it is
to the not
exact
clear
number as toofthe exact
motifs number
that of motifs
are present. This that are present.
situation This situation
was exacerbated by was exacerbated
roadworks that inby2003
roadworks
cut a c.
that in 2003 cut a c. 10 m wide swath through the eastern part of the site
10 m wide swath through the eastern part of the site destroying up to 10% of the motifs (Van Damme destroying up to 10% of the
motifs (Van Damme et al. 2004).
et al. 2004).

Figure 7. Overhead image showing a series of foot motifs found at Eriosh (Photo:
(Photo: author).

3.2.2. SHP_067
3.2.2. SHP_067
SHP_067
SHP_067 lies
lies on
on the
the north-eastern
north-eastern edge edge of
of the
the H adiboh plain,
. adiboh plain, c.
c. 350
350 mm south-west
south-west of of the
the modern
modern
town
town ofof Suq
Suq and
and c. c. 2.5
2.5km
kmwest
westofofthe
thecapital,
capital, adiboh.
H. adiboh. The
The site
site is is composed
composed of of
anan outcropping
outcropping of
of several flat plates of Calcarenite limestone that extends 176 m in an
several flat plates of Calcarenite limestone that extends 176 m in an east-west direction andeast-west direction and are
are
interspersed
interspersed with
with aeolian
aeolian and
and alluvial
alluvial sands,
sands, gravel,
gravel, and scrub. Petroglyphs
and scrub. Petroglyphs can can be
be found
found throughout
throughout
the
the entire
entire outcrop,
outcrop, although
although thethe main
main concentration
concentration lies lies c.
c. 103
103 m
m west
west ofof the
the eastern-most
eastern-most edgeedge of of the
the
outcrop area spanning approximately 11 m ×
outcrop in an area spanning approximately 11 m × 5 m. The first documented evidence of this was
in an 5 m. The first documented evidence of this site site
by
wasBoxhall (1966, (1966,
by Boxhall p. 20) who,
p. 20)other
who,than mentioning
other having found
than mentioning having the found
site, provided
the site,noprovided
description no
of
description of the motifs. Shortly thereafter, the site was visited by Doe (1961, 1992) who recordedofa
the motifs. Shortly thereafter, the site was visited by Doe (1961, 1992) who recorded a ‘number
pecked
‘numberdesigns’,
of peckedthatdesigns’,
includedthatcruciform
included shapes, a foot,shapes,
cruciform and motifs thatand
a foot, were ‘fanciful
motifs that and
were flowerlike’
‘fanciful
in
anddesign (Doe 1992,
flowerlike’ p. 82).(Doe
in design According
1992, p.to82).
Doe,According
some of the to motifs were of
Doe, some made by the Portuguese
the motifs were made duringby the
their
Portuguese during their short-lived occupation of Soqotra, while others, particularly some ofwere
short-lived occupation of Soqotra, while others, particularly some of the cruciform shapes the
Arts 2018, 7, 99 9 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

pecked
cruciform during
shapes thewere
earlypecked
foundation during ofthe
Christianity on Soqotra
early foundation (Doe 1992, p.
of Christianity on82). He attributes
Soqotra (Doe 1992, this
p.
early date to the similarities between the cruciform shapes found at
82). He attributes this early date to the similarities between the cruciform shapes found at SHP_067SHP_067 and those found in the
vicinity
and those of found
a sixthincentury AD text
the vicinity of recorded at H
a sixth century . us.AD
n al-Ghurāb,
text recorded present-day
at u n Bi’r ‘Alı̄ in the
al-Ghurāb, Southern
present-day
HBi ʾ
ad
. . r ʿ
ramawt
Alī in (Doe
the 1961).
Southern Doe’s
a description
ramawt (Doe and
1961). his sketches
Doe’s of
description ten motifs
and his (see Doe
sketches 1970,
of ten pp.
motifs84–85,
(see
Figures 29 and 30; 1992, pp. 82–83, Figures 19 and 20) were, up until
Doe 1970, pp. 84–85, Figures 29 and 30; 1992, pp. 82–83, Figures 19 and 20) were, up until recently, recently, the sole record of this
site. Further
the sole record work undertaken
of this site. Furtherby thework
author in conjunction
undertaken by thewithauthor the Soqotra Heritage
in conjunction Project
with in 2018,
the Soqotra
has expanded upon this corpus, locating and recording 187 rock art
Heritage Project in 2018, has expanded upon this corpus, locating and recording 187 rock art motifs motifs that include feet, cupules,
athat
ship, various
include geometric
feet, cupules, patterns,
a ship, cruciform shapes, several
various geometric plant-like
patterns, cruciformmotifs, and a several
shapes, script (Jansen van
plant-like
Rensburg
motifs, and etaal. 2018)
script (Figure
(Jansen van 8).Rensburg
The scriptetfound at SHP_067
al. 2018) (Figure 8). is The
similar to found
script the inscriptions
at SHP_067 recorded in
is similar
Eriosh (Doe 1970, pp. 84–85, Figures 29 and 30; 1992, pp. 82–83, Figures
to the inscriptions recorded in Eriosh (Doe 1970, pp. 84–85, Figures 29 and 30; 1992, pp. 82–83, Figures19 and 20), both of which have
recently
19 and 20), been identified
both of whichashave being the same
recently beenor identified
closely related to athe
as being script
same recorded
or closelyin Dhofar,
related toknown as
a script
Script
recorded 1 (Alı̄ Mah.āš al-Šah
in Dhofar, known . rı̄ and
as King.
Script 1 n.d.
(Alī n.d.,
Ma p.
āš 2). Whilst
al-Ša rī andthis script
King is
n.d., known
p. 2). to be
Whilst related
this to
script the
is
family of South Semitic scripts it has not yet been dated or deciphered.
known to be related to the family of South Semitic scripts it has not yet been dated or deciphered. The initial dating of the site by
Doe suggests
The initial a 6thofcentury
dating the siteAD terminus
by Doe post quem.
suggests However,
a 6th century ADin terminus
light of the postrecent
quem.historical
However,evidence
in light
for the conversion of the population at a much earlier period than
of the recent historical evidence for the conversion of the population at a much earlier period thanhad previously been considered
(Bukharin
had previously 2012,been
pp. 522–26),
considered it is(Bukharin
possible to2012,
extendpp. the terminus
522–26), it ispost quemto
possible toextend
at leastthetheterminus
4th century
post
AD.
quemUnfortunately,
to at least thethis 4th site
centurylies inAD.oneUnfortunately,
of the most populated
this siteareas
lies in ononeSoqotra,
of theand mostlarge swaths of
populated the
areas
site are already divided into plots for housing.
on Soqotra, and large swaths of the site are already divided into plots for housing.

Figure 8.8.Overhead
Overheadimage
image of the
of the densest
densest area
area of of petroglyphs
petroglyphs found
found at at SHP_067,
SHP_067, showing
showing the the
cruciform
cruciform
shapes shapes
(Photo: (Photo: author).
author).

3.2.3. Di S.eberho
3.2.3. Di eberho
The site of Di S.eberho lies at the western extremity of the southern coastal plain, c. 1 km west
The site of Di eberho lies at the western extremity of the southern coastal plain, c. 1 km west of
of the village of Di S.eberho. The site, located in 2015, is the first recorded instance of rock art in the
the village of Di eberho. The site, located in 2015, is the first recorded instance of rock art in the south
south coast of Soqotra (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a). The petroglyphs recorded were all pecked onto
coast of Soqotra (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a). The petroglyphs recorded were all pecked onto a flat,
a flat, quaternary limestone outcrop that has been exposed along a well-worn track that runs east to
quaternary limestone outcrop that has been exposed along a well-worn track that runs east to west
west from Di S.eberho to Ras Qat.anan, and is still used by local herders. The actual size of the site is as
from Di eberho to Ras Qa anan, and is still used by local herders. The actual size of the site is as yet
yet unclear, as large areas remain covered by aeolian and alluvial sands and scrub. The petroglyphs
unclear, as large areas remain covered by aeolian and alluvial sands and scrub. The petroglyphs that
that were recorded include various foot motifs, orants, cupules, a three-leaf clover-shaped motif
were recorded include various foot motifs, orants, cupules, a three-leaf clover-shaped motif and
and geometric patterns that have been interpreted as wasum, or signs that are used to indicate tribal
geometric patterns that have been interpreted as wasum, or signs that are used to indicate tribal
identity, affiliation or ownership (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 150) (Figure 9). The site is believed to
identity, affiliation or ownership (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 150) (Figure 9). The site is believed
have functioned as a religious site and/or milestone along a ritualistic pathway. Due to the lack of
to have functioned as a religious site and/or milestone along a ritualistic pathway. Due to the lack of
cross symbology found at this site it is further supposed that the inhabitants had either not adopted
cross symbology found at this site it is further supposed that the inhabitants had either not adopted
Christianity, or that this site had been abandoned before the arrival of Christianity on the island in the
Christianity, or that this site had been abandoned before the arrival of Christianity on the island in
4th to 5th century AD (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 151).
the 4th to 5th century AD (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 151).
Arts 2018, 7, 99
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

Figure 9. Image of the large number of foot motifs found at Di eberho (Photo: author).
Figure 9. Image of the large number of foot motifs found at Di S. eberho (Photo: author).
3.2.4. Simar Qar
3.2.4. Simar Qar
3.2.4. Simar Qar
Simar Qar is located within a wide bay on the north-west coast, approximately 7 km south of
Simar
Rās Bidoh
Simarand Qar
Qar11isislocated
km eastwithin
located of Rās aShu’ub.
within awide
widebayThe
bay onpetroglyphs
thethe
on north-west coast,
are found
north-west approximately
onapproximately
coast, 7 km
a large rectangular 7 kmsouth of Rās
limestone
south of
Bidoh
block and
that and
Rās Bidoh 11 km
appears
11 kmeast of
to eastRās Shu’ub.
haveofformed The petroglyphs
part of
Rās Shu’ub. The the are
southern wall
petroglyphs found on a large
of a large
are found rectangular
on a abandoned
large rectangularlimestone
settlement. block
The
limestone
that
blockappears
limestone
that blockto have
appears hastoformed
two
havedeep partdepressions
formed of the
partsouthern
of the wall
into of
cutsouthern thea wall
largeofabandoned
front surface
a largeand settlement.
what appear
abandoned The tolimestone
settlement. be five
The
block
abraded has two
limestonegeometric deep depressions
block hasmotifs two deep cut into
alongdepressions the front
the side (Figure surface and
10). According
cut into what appear
to Doe,and
the front surface to be
the whatfive
limestoneabraded
appear blockgeometric
to was an
be five
motifs
‘alter’
abraded along
stone the side
with
geometric two (Figure
libation
motifs 10).
along According
cupules
the sideand to Doe,
an
(Figure the
abbreviated
10). limestone block
inscription
According to was
Doe,or an
monogram
the ‘alter’ stone
limestone inblock with
early two
South
was an
libation
Arabian cupules
‘alter’ stonescript.
withHe and anlibation
also
two abbreviated
remarks thatinscription
cupules the inscription
and or monogram
also bears
an abbreviated insimilarities
early South
inscription withArabian
or monogram script.
in earlyHe
a geometric also
pattern
South
remarks
Arabian that
recorded theHe
by the
script. inscription
Bents
alsoinremarks also that
Zimbabwe bears similarities
(Doe
the 1970, pp.with
inscription alsoapl.
1–2, geometric pattern
5–6;similarities
bears 1992, recorded
p. 46,with
pl. 26). by the
When
a geometric Bents
analysing in
pattern
Zimbabwe
the (Doe
imagesbyofthe
recorded 1970,
theBents pp.
limestone 1–2, pl. 5–6; 1992,
block it is(Doe
in Zimbabwe p.
clear1970, 46,
that the pl.
pp. two26). When
1–2,so-called analysing
libation
pl. 5–6; 1992, the
holes
p. 46, images
pl. are of
26).not
When the limestone
onlyanalysing
aligned,
block
but areit is
alsoclear
cut that
to thethe two
same so-called
depth. libation
This, together holes are
with not
the only
fact thataligned,
they do
the images of the limestone block it is clear that the two so-called libation holes are not only aligned,but
not are also
occur oncuttheto the
same same
face
depth.
as
butthe This, together
areinscriptions
also cut to the with
would
same the
seem fact that
to indicate
depth. they do not
that they
This, together occur
were
with on the
the probably same face
postdo
fact that they as
supports the
not occur inscriptions
rather
on thethan would
libation
same face
seem
as theto
holes. indicate that
inscriptions theyseem
would were to probably
indicatepost
thatsupports
they were rather than post
probably libation holes.rather than libation
supports
holes.

Figure 10. Image showing the ‘alter’ stone (Photo: author).

Figure 10. Image showing the ‘alter’ stone (Photo: author).
Arts 2018, 7, 99 11 of 19

3.2.5. Haidi, Qalansiyah

During the travels of Mabel and Theodore Bent they recorded a number of petroglyph sites,
including one that was said to be near Haidi village ‘some distance in the direction of the mountains’
from Qalansiyah (Bent 1900, p. 351, Appendices VI). Despite several attempts, it has been impossible to
relocate this site as there is no known village known as Haidi, and Qalansiyah has several mountains in
its vicinity. According to the Bents, the site consisted of a large upright rock with inscriptions believed
to be either late Himyaritic or Ethiopic (Bent 1900, p. 351). The inscriptions that were copied, however,
appear to be the same or closely related to the scripts that were recorded in Eriosh and SHP_067,
which have been identified as being similar or closely related to a Script 1 that was recorded in Dhofar
(Alı̄ Mah.āš al-Šah.rı̄ and King. n.d. n.d., p. 2).

3.2.6. Dihaiterere
The site of Dihaiterere remains another enigmatic site that was recorded by the Bents during their
travels around Soqotra. Within the appendices, there are eight cross designs that were said to have
been copied from the rocks of Dihaiterere on the hill Ditrerre, a spur of Hamar (Bent 1900, p. 438).
While this site is not directly mentioned in the text it is likely that the reference to ‘a rock at the top
of a hill to the east of the island which had been covered with rude representations of the Ethiopic
cross’ refers to this site (Bent 1900, p. 356). The name Dihaiterere is not known locally, although it is
possible that it could refer to a hill in the vicinity of wadi Dirhor, known as Dihaher, which lies in the
east (Bezděk et al. 2012, p. 39). This far, however, it has not been possible to relocate the site.

4. Discussion
Rock art is by its very nature part of the landscape insofar as it is a permanent inscription upon
the land that creates a place from space. The signing of landscape and with it the act of place making is
a practice that is widely known and has been in use for millennia. Nonetheless, it still provides a useful
insight into the relationship between people and their natural surroundings, and how they included
this into their social and ideological realms. To grasp even a rudimentary understanding of this space
and the symbols therein one needs to see the landscape as a palimpsest that is multi-layered and
continually changing both temporally, spatially and cognitively. Moreover, by going beyond the limits
of seeing place as small, culturally significant locales within a specific temporal setting, one can also
explore how visual signs were used within the overall natural and cultural environment of Soqotra.
To achieve this, I analyze the above-mentioned sites and their motifs (see Table 1) in a social, cultural
and environmental context in an attempt to gain an insight into the social, ideological, and cultural
lives of the indigenous inhabitants’ of Soqotra.

Table 1. A brief synopsis of the location, size, motifs, and period of the sites mentioned in the text.

Site Location and Size Motifs Period

Cave-drawings in
Unknown
the west
North-eastern coast.
Hoq cave A 2.5 km long
underground gallery.
Eastern interior. Momi
Dahaisi cave Plateau. A 175 m long
underground gallery.
North coast. The site spans
Eriosh an area of approximately
10,000 m2 .
North coast, near the village
of Suq. The site is 173 m
SHP_067
long and spans an area of
approximately 1500 m2
Unknown Unknown
248 pictograms consisting of Indian, South
1st century BC to 6th
Arabian, Ethiopian, Greek and Bactrian
century AD
inscriptions and images.
104 pictograms that include geometric lines and
1st century BC to
patterns, cruciform shapes, ships, therianthropic
15th century AD
and zoomorphic figures, and an Arabic script.
63 petroglyphs have been recorded. The motifs
documented include feet (singularly and in pairs),
Doubtful date of
zoomorphic figures, a South Semitic script,
500 BC
cruciform shapes, anthropomorphic figures, and
various geometric patterns.
187 petroglyphs that include feet (singularly and in
pairs), cupules, a ship, various geometric patterns, 4th to arguably the
cruciform shapes, several plant-like motifs, and a 16th century AD
South Semitic script
Arts 2018, 7, 99 12 of 19

Table 1. Cont.

Site Location and Size Motifs Period

South-western coast. The
Di S.eberho actual size of the site
remains unclear.
West coast. A large cut
Simar Qar
limestone block.
North-west coast.
Haidi
A large rock.
Eastern interior. The size of
Dihaiterere
the site is unknown.
51 petroglyphs were recorded. These consisted of
Terminus ante quem of
feet (singularly and in pairs), an orant, hoof prints,
4th century AD.
and two geometric shapes.
5 geometric petroglyphs believed to be
Unknown
an inscription.
An unknown number of petroglyphs believed to
be inscriptions, one of which has been identified as Unknown
a South Semitic script.
8 petroglyphs were recorded. These consisted of
Unknown
various cruciform shapes.

4.1. Water
The location of rock art near sources of water is a recurring theme throughout the world
(Bahn 2010, pp. 140–47). Whilst the reasons for this are varied and many hypotheses have been
put forward one inalienable fact remains, water is necessary for human survival. This is especially true
for Soqotra, which has a semi-arid climate with a highly variable precipitation regime that is influenced
by its large geographical variation and two clearly distinct monsoon seasons, the drier south-west
monsoon period (June to September) and the wetter north-east period (October to April). These factors
play a significant role in the lives of the inhabitants as they are directly related to the presence and
absence of water throughout the island. The importance of water for Soqotra’s inhabitants, especially
during the drier south-west monsoon period is clearly reflected in the historical, archaeological and
ethnographic record, which demonstrates not only the various management techniques employed in
the preservation and use of water but also the devastating effects a drought can have on the population
(Hunter and Sealey 1986, p. 113; Morris 2002; Jansen van Rensburg and Hopper 2017). Looking at the
importance of water in relation to the rock art found throughout Soqotra two sites stand out, Eriosh
and Dahaisi cave.
At Eriosh, the rock art occurs within a slight basin that especially during the rains of the monsoon
period fills with water, submerging the petroglyphs (Figure 11). In the past it was reported that the
northern extent of the site had been encompassed by a roughly built wall to hold the water in place so
it does not spread out and dissipate (Doe 1970, p. 5; 1992, p. 55). Today the site is no longer walled,
although it is still used by herders to water their livestock as it retains water for several weeks after
the north-east monsoon rains. While the chronological sequence of the rock art at Eriosh is not clear,
that it was likely to have been in use from arguably the second half of the first millennium would
imply that it had some special significance. To understand what this significance may have been, it is
necessary to look at how the symbology present interacts with the natural environment. To do this I
look at what is purportedly the most common motif found at the site, the foot. Foot symbology occurs
in many cultures throughout the world and much like the foot symbology found on Soqotra can occur
by themselves and in conjunction with other symbols. This has given rise to a number of different
interpretations relating to an associated with birth, death, fertility, places of power or/and sacredness
(Achrati 2008; Hawkins 1987; Nayeem 1996; Jung 1993; Červiček 1986; Bahn 1998). Indeed, Jung (1993,
p. 175) uses this point to argue that the cross symbology associated with the feet found at Eriosh
suggests that this site was considered to be sacred during the Christian period on Soqotra. Whilst
this interpretation would certainly fit with the historical record it is quite possible that the cruciform
shapes may have been added later in an apotropaic manner, to reinforce what was already a sacred
site. That this site may have been considered sacred lies in the fact that water has a direct correlation
with birth, death and fertility, and that this site is the only large body of water with this area. Moreover,
it is also likely that the annual submergence of the motifs held some form of special significance that
was related to this site, probably as some form of ritual that was related to the monsoon rains and the
life-giving water it would bring.
Arts 2018, 7, 99 13 of 19
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Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Westward view
Figure 11. Westward view over
over the
the site
site of
of Eriosh
Eriosh showing
showing how the site is submerged during the wet
season (Photo: author).
Figure 11. Westward view over the site of Eriosh showing how the site is submerged during the wet
season (Photo:
second author).
The second site is situated deep within the arid eastern interior of the island. Dahaisi cave is
site is situated deep within the arid eastern interior of the island. Dahaisi
unique in that it is easily accessible and that within the final chamber there is a water-filled sump
The second site is situated deep within the arid eastern interior of the island. Dahaisi cave is
surrounded by pictograms (removed for that
unique in that it is easily accessible and
peerwithin
review) (Figure 12). Whilst this cave, like others on
the final chamber there is a water-filled sump
Soqotra, is shunned
is shunned
surrounded by Soqotra’s
by Soqotra’s
by pictograms indigenous
indigenous
(removed inhabitants
inhabitants
for peer today
today
review) (Figure it Whilst
clearly
it clearly
12). held
held
this somesome
cave, importance
importance
like others onin the in
the
past,past, whether
whether
Soqotra, isas a as a general
general
shunned source
by Soqotra’ssource of water
ofindigenous
water for humans
forinhabitants
humans and/or
today and/or livestock,
itlivestock,
clearly orsome
held orimportance
a place a from
placewhich
from
in thewhich
water
water
would would
only
past, beonly
whether asbea general
obtained obtained
in times inoftimes
source of extremis.
extremis.
of water forThat That
it is
humans likely
and/or it islivestock,
tolikely
have to orhave
been been
only
a place used
from only used
during
which during
times
water of
times would
of only
extremis be obtained
would in
seem times
the of
mostextremis.
likely That it
scenario is likely
when to have
considering
extremis would seem the most likely scenario when considering the ethnographic evidence. been only
theused during
ethnographic times of
evidence.
extremis
However, thiswould seem to
is contrary thethemost likely of
presence scenario
rock art when considering
surrounding
surrounding thethe ethnographic
water-filled sump evidence.
in the final
However, this is contrary to the presence of rock art surrounding the water-filled sump in
chamber, which spans spansaaperiod
periodfrom fromthe the1st
1stcentury
century BCBC to to
thethe 15th 15th century
century AD.AD.
Whilst itthe
Whilst final
is it is likely
likely that
chamber, which spans a period from the 1st century BC to the 15th century AD. Whilst it is likely that
that
overover
this this
longlong period
period of use
of use Dahaisi
Dahaisi would
would havehave beenappropriated
been appropriatedinindifferent different ways,
ways, the motifs
over this long period of use Dahaisi would have been appropriated in different ways, the motifs
surrounding the water-filled sump indicates that, much much like like at at Eriosh,
Eriosh, it it was
was the
the presence
presence of of water,
surrounding the water-filled sump indicates that, much like at Eriosh, it was the presence of water,
and its importance for the
and its importance for the inhabitants
inhabitants that
inhabitantsthat provided
thatprovided
provided the the motivation
themotivation
motivation for
forfor the
thethe marking
marking
marking of this
of this
of this place.place.
place.

Figure 12. The water-filled sump in the final chamber of Dahaisi cave (Photo: Dan Britton, used by permission).
Arts 2018, 7, 99 14 of 19

Looking at the significance of other sites and their natural environment it is possible that some of
the sites that have not yet been located may have a water source in their vicinity, and others may have
had water in their vicinity sometime in the past. However, there remain those sites which are unlikely
to have ever been directly associated with a water source. I would argue that in this case, some of
the motifs could have been used as nodal points within the landscape. Points that could, amongst
other functions, have been areas within which the motifs would have been indicators of nearby water
sources. This is likely to have been the case at Di S.eberho, which lies in the western extremity of the
arid southern coastal plain. The motifs at this site are predominately feet, the majority of which face
in a westerly direction. It has been argued that these feet represent some form of ritualistic pathway,
yet the purpose of this was not discussed (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, pp. 149–50). When looking at
the broader landscape, notably the hydrological conditions within this area, it becomes immediately
apparent that to the west of this site there are a number of sources of water, that include non-perennial
wadis, a spring and hand-dug wells. The spring and hand-dug wells, however, are virtually impossible
to locate without local knowledge and their actual location is not readily shared with others outside of
the community. Moreover, this is the only available source of water along the western half of the south
coast (Othman 1996, p. 213). Consequently, it is likely that the rock art at Di S.eberho could have been
an important waypoint within the landscape from which one could learn where water sources were,
who had access to them and possibly even when water was available.

4.2. Visibility
The visibility and intervisibility of rock art sites are a major theme in rock art studies with
technologies such as GIS being used to analyse the landscape through various algorithms (Wienhold
and Robinson 2018). These tools provide archaeologists with new methods through which to
statistically and spatially analyse rock art and its position in the landscape, and allow new insights
to be obtained. However, in many cases, the research questions posed are modified or even driven
by the available technology (Lock 2000; Tschan et al. 2000; Wheatley and Gillings 2000). Whilst the
low number of rock art sites on Soqotra precluded a detailed analysis using GIS, it allowed their
distribution to be plotted throughout the island. Once plotted it became abundantly clear that there
was a clustering of rock art sites in the north, especially those near the coast. Whilst much could be
read into this apparent distribution, the reality is that this is more to do with the focus of archaeological
missions that have all but ignored the southern half of Soqotra (Weeks et al. 2002, p. 98). When looking
at the sites on a micro-level, however, it was possible to see some patterns emerge. With the exception of
Haidi, Qalansiyah and possibly Dihaiterere, for which little information is known, all of the petroglyph
sites are found on flat slabs of rock within a flat plain that has few if any distinguishing marks, and are
all but invisible until one almost walks over the site. This so-called invisibility is likely to have been
the initial intention when the site was first marked. The location of the site being as important as the
motifs that were displayed there. One could take this further and argue that these sites had various
spatial meanings that were related to how one found the site, which in turn would influence how one
would interpret the motifs therein. Therefore, the site could be experienced in different ways according
to whether it is found in a chance encounter or was located with prior knowledge. This is not to say
that these meanings remained static in a temporal sense, but rather that the meanings at various points
in time could have been related to the difficulties, and ways in which one located the site. Di S.eberho
is probably the clearest example of such a site, which is virtually impossible to find without prior
knowledge (Figure 13). Moreover, not knowing what the various motifs represented one would not
understand their meaning or be able to locate the available water sources to the west.
Arts 2018, 7, 99 15 of 19
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

Figure 13. A westward view over the site of Di S.eberho (Photo:

(Photo: author).

The site of SHP_067 also lies hidden within a flat plain with few visible visible landmarks within its
vicinity, however, it also lies within a densely populated plain. What
vicinity, however, it also lies within a densely populated plain. What is interesting is interesting about this this
about site is that
site is
the
thatfoot
the motifs, which
foot motifs, are arguably
which are arguablyearlier, are found
earlier, spread
are found out toout
spread theto east
theand
eastwest, whilewhile
and west, the main
the
cluster of motifs
main cluster ofinmotifs
the centre
in thecontain
centremostly cruciform
contain mostlyshapes. This would
cruciform shapes. appear
Thistowould
demonstrate
appearthat to
with the arrival
demonstrate ofwith
that Christianity
the arrival notof only did the sites
Christianity notfunction
only didpotentially change, potentially
the sites function but also thechange,
area of
the
but site
alsothat
the was
areaconsidered
of the site thatto havewasimportance.
considered The presence
to have of the cruciform
importance. The presenceshapesof outside of the
the cruciform
main
shapes outside of the main central area are likely to have been, much like Eriosh, added in 14).
central area are likely to have been, much like Eriosh, added in an apotropaic manner (Figure an
When comparing
apotropaic mannerthese two14).
(Figure sites it is clear
When that they
comparing both
these twofunctioned as a that
sites it is clear placethey
in space within the
both functioned
landscape,
as a place inand the within
space motifs thetherein were part
landscape, andofthethis process
motifs of creating
therein were part thisofspace. While Di
this process of Screating
. eberho
appears to have been used as a place from which one could learn the
this space. While Di eberho appears to have been used as a place from which one could learn the location of the water sources, at
SHP_067
location of the creation
the of this space
water sources, appears the
at SHP_067 to have beenofrelated
creation to theappears
this space importance of the
to have beenplace within
related to
the landscape,
importanceespecially
of the place during
within thetheChristian
landscape,period. That this
especially placethe
during may have been
Christian considered
period. That thisto
have
place amay
sacred
haveChristian function istointeresting
been considered have a sacred in that at Suq, approximately
Christian 500 m away,
function is interesting there
in that was
at Suq,
aapproximately
church (Doe 1992,500 mp. 88), there
away, which was served the local
a church congregation
(Doe 1992, up until
p. 88), which servedat least the congregation
the local 15th century
(Foster
up until1967, p. 33).
at least the That
15th this site had
century been1967,
(Foster chosen andThat
p. 33). marked this with overbeen
site had 70 cruciform
chosen andshapes,
marked andwith
that
it was70incruciform
over such closeshapes,
proximity andtothat
a church
it was could
in such beclose
related to the incorporation
proximity to a church could of whatbewas initially
related to the a
pagan site within
incorporation a Christian
of what ideology,
was initially which
a pagan would
site withincertainly explain
a Christian why many
ideology, whichofwould
the foot motifs
certainly
have crosses
explain why pecked
many ofinthe their
footvicinity.
motifs have crosses pecked in their vicinity.
Arts 2018, 7, 99 16 of 19
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Figure 14. An eastward view of the site of SHP_067 (Photo: author).

4.3. Indigenous Knowledge

4.3. Indigenous Knowledge
The neglect of
The neglect ofrock
rockart artstudies
studies onon Soqotra
Soqotra has,has, up until
up until recently,
recently, resulted
resulted in a much-skewed
in a much-skewed view
view of Soqotra and its inhabitants. In cataloguing and
of Soqotra and its inhabitants. In cataloguing and analysing the various rock art analysing the various rock art sites
sites found
found
throughout
throughout the theisland
islandnot notonly
onlyis itisnow possible
it now to begin
possible to better
to begin to understand
better understand the breadth and richness
the breadth and
of Soqotra’s rock art tradition, but also to glimpse elements of the
richness of Soqotra’s rock art tradition, but also to glimpse elements of the indigenous inhabitants’ indigenous inhabitants’ social,
ideological, and cultural
social, ideological, and lives.
cultural Moreover, these rock these
lives. Moreover, art sites rock andartthesites
motifsand therein are allowing
the motifs thereinfor area
better understanding of the often skewed view of the historical
allowing for a better understanding of the often skewed view of the historical and ethnographic and ethnographic narrative by taking
an indigenous
narrative point
by taking anof view. Firstly,
indigenous pointitof appears that with
view. Firstly, the arrival
it appears of Christianity
that with the arrival of the cruciform
Christianity
shape becameshape
the cruciform the mostbecame predominant symbol. However,
the most predominant symbol.it However,
appears that the cross
it appears may
that the have
cross been
may
placed besides the foot symbology not only in an apotropaic manner,
have been placed besides the foot symbology not only in an apotropaic manner, but also as a form of but also as a form of syncretism.
This syncretic
syncretism. behaviour
This syncretic is behaviour
noted in both historically
is noted in both and ethnographic
historically and accounts,
ethnographic which remark that
accounts, whichin
spite
remark of the
thatinhabitants
in spite of the being Christianbeing
inhabitants and revering
Christian the
and cross, they were
revering also involved
the cross, they wereinalso a number
involved of
pagan rituals (Snell 1955; Yule and Cordier 1993, p. 407). It could
in a number of pagan rituals (Snell 1955; Yule and Cordier 1993, p. 407). It could also be argued thatalso be argued that this was very
much
this wasthe very
case within
much Dahaisi
the casecave, within withDahaisi
its longcave,
sequencewithrock art that
its long appearsrock
sequence to demonstrate
art that appearsa changeto
from earlier pagan symbology, to later Christian cruciform shapes
demonstrate a change from earlier pagan symbology, to later Christian cruciform shapes and Arabic and Arabic inscriptions. This long
sequence
inscriptions.alsoThis
shows long that, despitealso
sequence recent folkloric
shows that,traditions
despite recent to thefolkloric
contrary,traditions
the Soqotri towere not only
the contrary,
entering
the Soqotri caves
werebutnot
spending time within
only entering cavesthem. That Hoq
but spending timecave is purported
within them. That to haveHoqhad cavenoisindigenous
purported
involvement
to have had no indigenous involvement would, therefore, in light of the findings inIndeed,
would, therefore, in light of the findings in Dahaisi, seem doubtful. Dahaisi, further
seem
surveys
doubtful. Indeed, further surveys and a reappraisal of the motifs within Hoq cave are likelyinto
and a reappraisal of the motifs within Hoq cave are likely to provide deeper insights to
the relationships between the visiting foreign sailors and merchants
provide deeper insights into the relationships between the visiting foreign sailors and merchants and and the indigenous inhabitants.
Finally, looking at
the indigenous the rock art
inhabitants. in the context
Finally, looking of at the
thegeographical
rock art in differentiation
the context of of thethegeographical
indigenous
inhabitants
differentiation mentioned in the historical
of the indigenous and ethnographic
inhabitants mentioned in sources, there does
the historical andnot appear to besources,
ethnographic a clear
cultural distinction in the style of the motifs. However, there is certainly
there does not appear to be a clear cultural distinction in the style of the motifs. However, there a change in the types of motifsis
from
certainly a change in the types of motifs from arguably the Christian period. This can .be seen in
arguably the Christian period. This can be seen when comparing the motifs at Di S eberho the
when
south and SHP_067
comparing the motifs and at Eriosh
Di eberhoin theinnorth. In alland
the south these sites similar
SHP_067 foot motifs,
and Eriosh in thegeometric
north. In patterns
all these
and orant figures are all present,
sites similar foot motifs, geometric patterns yet Di S
. eberhoand orant figures are all present, yet Dishapes.
is the only site that has no cruciform eberho is the
only site that has no cruciform shapes.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Revisiting the rock art heritage of Soqotra has demonstrated that, contrary to earlier reports,
the indigenous people of Soqotra were actively engaged in the production of rock art for millennia.
Revisiting the rock art heritage of Soqotra has demonstrated that, contrary to earlier reports, the
This long sequence, especially within Dahaisi cave, has shown that the aversion to entering caves
indigenous people of Soqotra were actively engaged in the production of rock art for millennia. This
as described in various ethnographic account is not a true reflection of the cultural beliefs of all the
long sequence, especially within Dahaisi cave, has shown that the aversion to entering caves as
described in various ethnographic account is not a true reflection of the cultural beliefs of all the
Arts
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2018, 7,
7, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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Arts 2018, 7, 99 17 of 19
indigenous
indigenous inhabitants
inhabitants of of Soqotra.
Soqotra. Cataloguing
Cataloguing these these sites
sites has
has alsoalso helped
helped in in our
our understanding
understanding of of
the
the temporal,
temporal, spatial,
spatial, and and cognitive
cognitive factorsfactors that
that played
played aa role
role in in the
the location
location of of sites.
sites. This
This has has been
been
indigenous
especially inhabitants
especially apparent
apparent when
when of looking
Soqotra.
looking at Cataloguing
at the
the presence
presence these
of sites has
of water.
water. While
Whilealsoitithelped
may
may not inbe
not ourclear
be understanding
clear as
as toto whether
whether of
the
watertemporal,
water waswas meant spatial,
meant to and
to symbolise cognitive
symbolise life, factors
life, death
death or that played
or fertility
fertility that a role
that itit held in
held an the location
an important
important role of sites.
role in This
in the
the lives has
lives of been
of the
the
especially
indigenous apparent
indigenous inhabitants when
inhabitants is looking
is clearly at
clearly demonstratedthe presence
demonstrated throughout of water.
throughout the While
the island. it
island. At may
At the not
the northbe clear
north coast as
coast site to
site of whether
of Eriosh
Eriosh
water
as
as with
with wasthemeant
the interior
interiorto site
symbolise
site of
of Dahaisi,life, death
Dahaisi, the
the rock or fertility
rock art
art is that it related
is directly
directly held anto
related important
to source role
aa source of in thewhile
of water,
water, lives at
while of the
at the
the
indigenous
south
south coast inhabitants
coast site
site of
of Di is
Di eberho clearly
eberho itit is demonstrated
is the
the presence
presence of throughout
of water
water in the
in the island.
the vicinity At
vicinity that the north
that not
not only coast
only makessite
makes this of Eriosh
this site
site
as with thebut
important,
important, interior
but helpssite
helps us
us to ofbetter
to Dahaisi,
better the rock art
understand
understand what
whatis meaning
directly
meaningrelatedthe
the motifs to asought
motifs source to
sought ofconvey.
to water, while
convey. In at the
In addition
addition
south
to the coast
to the presence
presencesite of
ofDi
of S.eberho
water,
water, the it
the is the presence
location
location of
of the of water insites
the petroglyph
petroglyph the vicinity
sites within
within large that
largenot only makes
featureless
featureless plainsthisalso
plains site
also
important,
indicates
indicates that buttheir
that helpslocation
their us to better
location was understand
was considered
considered to what
to have
have meaning
an the motifs
an importance
importance that
thatsought
is to convey.
is likely
likely to haveIn
to have been
beenaddition
initiallyto
initially
the presence
related
related to to the of water,
the difficulty
difficulty ofthe location
of finding
finding the of the
the site.petroglyph
site. Arguably, sites
Arguably, this within
this meaning large
meaning changed featureless
changed later plains
later when
when thealso indicates
the site
site was
was
that their
re-located, location
as can was
be seenconsidered
at SHP_067,to have an
where importance
the Christianthat
re-located, as can be seen at SHP_067, where the Christian symbology appears to have supplanted is likely
symbology to have
appears been to initially
have related
supplanted to
the
the difficulty
the earlier
earlier pagan of finding
pagan signs.the
signs. Thesite.
The Arguably,
changing
changing this meaning
symbology
symbology seen
seen inchanged
in the
the long
long later when theof
sequences
sequences ofsite
rock
rockwas artre-located,
art provides
provides
as can
further be seen
further insights at
insights into SHP_067,
into the where
the ethnographic
ethnographic and the Christian
and historical symbology
historical record, appears
record, showing
showing how to have
how the supplanted
syncretismthe
the syncretism earlier
that
that was
was
pagan
recorded signs.
recorded is The changing
is reflected
reflected in in the symbology
the rock
rock art. seen
art. Moreover, in the
Moreover, comparing long sequences
comparing the of
the differences rock
differences between art provides
between different further
different areas insights
areas has
has
into
begun
begun theto ethnographic
to allow
allow us us totoand teasehistorical
tease apart record,
apart the showing how
the geographical
geographical the syncretism
differentiation
differentiation that wasdifferent
between
between recordedindigenous
different is reflected
indigenous
in the rock
groups,
groups, art. Moreover,
showing
showing also
also how howcomparing
ideological
ideological the differences
beliefs,
beliefs, such
such asbetween different
as Christianity,
Christianity, did
did areas
not has
not reach
reachbegun
all to allow
all parts
parts of
of theus
the
to teaseFurther
island.
island. apart the
Further geographical
findings
findings and differentiation
and analysis
analysis of
of the between different
the relationships
relationships between
between indigenous
sites,
sites, theirgroups,
their showing
motifs,
motifs, and also
and their
their
how ideological
position
position within beliefs,
within the
the landscape such
landscape will as Christianity,
will undoubtable did
undoubtable provide not reach
provide more all parts
more details of
details fromthe island.
from which Further
which itit maymay befindings
be possible and
possible
analysis
to
to further of
further our the relationships
our understanding
understanding of between
of the sites,
the indigenous their motifs,
indigenous development and
development of their position
of rock
rock art art ofwithin
of Soqotra, the
Soqotra, and landscape
and ultimately will
ultimately
undoubtable
Arabia.
Arabia. However, provide
However, with more
with the details
the current
current lackfrom
lack of which
of formal it may
formal protectionbe possible
protection for to
for cultural further
cultural heritage our understanding
heritage sites
sites onon Soqotra
Soqotra ofand
the
and
indigenous
given
given that
that thedevelopment
the World
World Heritage of rock
Heritage status art of
status of Soqotra,
of the and
the island ultimately
island reflects
reflects natural Arabia.
natural heritage, However,
heritage, many with
many rock the
rock art current
art sites lack
sites may
may
of
notformal
not survive protection
survive long long enough for
enough for cultural
for future heritage
future research sites
research to on
to take Soqotra
take place.
place. and given that the World Heritage status
of the island reflects natural heritage, many rock art sites may not survive long enough for future
research
Funding:
Funding: Thisto take
This place.received
research
research received no no external
external funding.
funding.
Acknowledgments:
Acknowledgments:
Funding: II would
This research would like to
to thank
like no
received thank Peter
Peter
external De
De Geest,
funding.Geest, Dan
Dan Britton,
Britton, Dirk
Dirk Van
Van Dorpe
Dorpe and
and the
the Soqotra
Soqotra Heritage
Heritage
Project
Project team
team for
for their
their help
help in
in the
the finding
finding and
and recording
recording of of many
many ofof the
the rock
rock art
art sites
sites on
on Soqotra.
Soqotra.
Acknowledgments: I would like to thank Peter De Geest, Dan Britton, Dirk Van Dorpe and the Soqotra Heritage
Project team
Conflicts
Conflicts of for their help
of Interest:
Interest: The in the finding
The author
author declares
declaresand
no recording
no conflict ofof
conflict of many of the rock art sites on Soqotra.
interest.
interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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