International Journal of Computer Science and Management Research
ISSN 2278-733X
Image Segmentation: A Review
Shraddha Tripathi Krishna Kumar
Electronics & Communication Engineering Department, BTKIT Dwarahat, Uttarakhand, India
Abstract- This paper presented a review on different image
segmentation techniques. Segmentation is the stage where a
significant commitment is made during automated analysis by
delineating structures of interest and discriminating them from
background tissue. It is also useful for feature extraction, image
measurements and image display. The aim of this paper is to give
a detailed review on digital image segmentation techniques in
three major fields of images as gray scale images, hyperspectral
images and medical images. It has been useful in medical image
processing as well as hyperspectral image processing. This
evaluation on image segmentation techniques will be very useful
for the development and improvement of new techniques.
Keywords- Segmentation, Medical Image Segmentation
I. INTRODUCTION
The image segmentation is a key process of the image analysis
and the image comprehension. Because of the influence of the
complicated background, the object characteristics diversity
and the noise, the image segmentation is the difficult and hot
research issues on the image processing. The process of
partitioning a digital image into multiple regions (sets of
pixels) is called image segmentation. Actually, partitions are
different objects in image which have the same texture or
colour. The result of image segmentation is a set of regions
that collectively cover the entire image, or a set of contours
extracted from the image. All of the pixels in a region are
similar with respect to some characteristic or computed
property, such as color, intensity, or texture. Adjacent regions
are significantly different with respect to the same
characteristics. Some of practical applications of image
Vol 1 Issue 4 November 2012
B.K.Singh R.P.Singh
Thresholding is a very common approach used for Region-
based segmentation where an image represented as groups of
pixels with values greater or equal to the threshold and values
less to threshold value.
Clustering is also an approach for region segmentation where
an image is partitioned into the sets or clusters of pixels
having similarity in feature space. Region growing is another
approach of region segmentation algorithms where assigned
the adjacent pixels or regions to the same segment.
There are three types of images as gray scale, hyperspectral
and medical images.
II. SEGMENTATION FOR GREY SCALE IMAGES
Many techniques have been proposed to deal with the image
segmentation problem in Grey-Scale.
(a) INVERSION TECHNIQUE
This technique is used to continuously update the muscle
activity where produced a face movement following a given
face trajectory (Smith et al., 1986; Terzopoulos et al., 1991;
Press et al., 1992; Waters et al., 1996)[2]. When the inversion
had been carried out for all frames then the inverted activity
was generated an animation. A conventional nonlinear
optimizer was used for minimizing a cost function that was
selected to implement the inversion. The cost function E was
the sum of the squares of the Euclidean distances between the
markers and the corresponding face model nodes:
E  |m  n |
segmentation are: image processing, computer vision, face 

recognition, medical imaging, digital libraries, image and

video retrieval, etc [1]. There are various segmentation Where m and n are the 3-D positions of the i marker and
techniques depending upon the classification schemes [1] face model node, respectively, N is the number of nodes used
i) Manual , semi-automatic and automatic in the inversion, and |m  n | is the vectorial magnitude
ii) Pixel-based (local methods), and Region-based square operator, i.e. the sum of the squares of each coordinate
(global methods) of the vector, so, that the inversion could produce different
iii) Manual delineation, low-level segmentation activity patterns, depend on the initial conditions. To limit the
(thresholding, region-growing, etc) and model-based number of solutions, some constraints added to the inversion.
segmentation (multispectral or feature map
techniques, dynamic programming, contour (b) ACTIVE CONTOUR MODELS
following, etc.) The goal of Active contour models, to apply segmentation
iv) Classical (thresholding, edge-based and region-based process to an image by deforming the initial contour towards
techniques), statistical, fuzzy and neural networks the boundary of the object. We do that by deforming an initial
techniques. contour to minimize the energy function which defined on
Basically the segmentation is divided in two categories- contours (Kass et al. 1987; Ray et al., 2002; Zimmer et al.,
1) Region-based segmentation and 2002; Kruse et al., 1996; Sacan et al., 2008) [2]. There are
2) Edge-based segmentation two components in this energy: the potential energy that is
small when the contour is aligned to the edges of the image,

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International Journal of Computer Science and Management Research
and the internal deformation energy, that is small for the
smooth contour. Both energy components are contour
integrals with respect to a parameter of the contour. Active
contour models represented by two models: region based
models and edge-based models. The characteristics of the
image are used to determine the model. The advantage of this
model is to give a linear description of the object shape during
the time of convergence without adding extra processing.
(c)THRESHOLD METHOD
Thresholding algorithms can be selected manually according
to a priori knowledge or automatically by image information.
These algorithms further divided to edge-based, region-based
and hybrid. Edge-based algorithms are related with the edge
information. The Structures of an object can be depicted by
edge points. Common edge detection algorithms such as
canny edge detector and Laplacian edge detector can be
classified to this type of regions. These algorithms are used to
find the edge pixels while eliminating the noise influence. For
example, canny edge detector used the threshold of gradient
magnitude to find the potential edge pixels and suppressed
them through the procedures of the non maximal suppression
and hysterics thresholding. As the operations used in these
algorithms are based on pixels, the detected edges are
consisted of discrete pixels and hence may be incomplete or
discontinuous. Hence, it must be apply the post processing
like morphological operation to connect the breaks or
eliminate the holes. This method has the ability that can be
used to segment 3D image with good accuracy, but the
disadvantage of this method is the difficulty to process the
images of textured blob objects.
(d) EDGE FLOW METHOD
It is used for boundary detection and required very little
parameter tuning. As the edges are located at local maxima
by the gradient operator in the intensity feature. It first
identified a flow direction at each pixel location where two
opposite direction of edge flow occurred. It is used to utilize
the predictive coding model to identify and integrate the
direction of change in some attributes such as colour, texture
and phase discontinuities.
(e) CLUSTERING TECHNIQUE
There are two approaches used in Clustering based
techniques-
i) K-means clustering-It is used to solve the low level
segmentation tasks. This algorithm is convergent and
computationally efficient.
ii) Fuzzy Clustering-It is effectively used in image processing
pattern recognition and fuzzy modeling. There are different
types of similarity measures used to identify classes depended
on the data and the application. These similarity measures
such as distance, connectivity, and intensity are used. Its
application is in data analysis, pattern recognition and image
segments.
Shraddha Tripathi et.al. 839
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ISSN 2278-733X
(f) GRAPH CUTS AND EFFICIENT N-D IMAGE SEGMENTATION
This approach is used to object/background segmentation
using a s-t graph cuts. It is used to solve the problems in
vision and graphics. The main goal is a completely automatic
high-level grouping of image pixels [5]. To build an efficient
object extraction tools for N-D applications where used a
binary graph-cuts based on contextual information and useful
topological constraint. The object segmentation is possible
only for some 2D object segmentation methods and are more
reliable and robust. The graph cuts formulated segmentation
energy over binary variables whose values represent the
location of the pixel whether inside or outside.
(g) K-WAY IMAGE SEGMENTATION TECHNIQUE FOR RANDOM
WALKS
The K-way image segmentation technique which gives the
user defined seeds where each seed specify the location
belongs to K objects. Calculate the probability that walker
first reaches each of the K-points [6]. Assign K-tuple vector to
each pixel i.e. the probability of a random walker starting
from each unseeded pixel will first reach each of the K-seed
points. The final segmentation derived from these K-tuples by
selecting the most probable seed destination for a random
walker. Each edge assigned a real valued that corresponds to
the probable that a random walker cross the edge. The
advantage of formulating the probability on a graph made the
operators used easily that require no discretization and
therefore no error and ambiguities.
(h) HYBRID IMAGE SEGMENTATION USING WATERSHED AND
FAST REGION MERGING
There is a general segmentation problem as how to segment
an image into homogeneous segments such that after
combining two neighbors it gives a heterogeneous segment.
There are many techniques for an error-free image partitions
as histogram-based represents the simple probability
distribution function of intensity values of any image. Edge-
based technique used to detect using differential filter in order
of image gradient or laplacian and then grouped them into
contours represents the surface. In the region-based
segmentation technique segment the image into a set of
homogeneous regions then merged them according to certain
decision rules [7]. In the Markov random field based
segmentation technique the true image is realized by a
Markov or Gibbs random field with a distribution function.
Hybrid segmentation techniques are combined such as edge
based and region based techniques. In this image is firstly
partitioned into regions and then merged them using split and
merge technique and after that detected the contours using
edge-based technique.
III. MEDICAL IMAGE SEGMENTATION
Segmentation is an important tool in medical images analysis
as it provides information about 3-D visualization, surgery. It
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International Journal of Computer Science and Management Research Vol 1 Issue 4 November 2012
ISSN 2278-733X

is very useful in many applications including detection of the image and can be measured over spatial scales. B-mode
coronary border in angiograms, multiple sclerosis lesion ultrasound segmentation was used for similarity measure and
quantification, surgery simulations, surgical planning, provides a displacement estimate as constraint. The mutual
measuring tumor volume and its response to therapy, information of image geometry used for the evaluation of an
functional mapping, automated classification of blood cells, average intensity profile. The textures of an ultrasound image
studying brain development, detection of microcalcifications were dependent on the imaging system and characterized by
on mammograms, image registration, atlas-matching, the microstructure of the tissue being imaged.
detection of tumors, etc. Medical image segmentation iii) Shape- For a reliable and accurate segmentation the
algorithms have two components i.e. supervised and ultrasound images required not only the edge cues and region
unsupervised. information but also some shape constraints. The shape
Unsupervised algorithms are completely automatic and region constraints include the boundary regularization such that the
splitting with high density. It consists of different algorithms parametric shape and preferred shape was imposed.
as feature-space based technique, clustering based (K-means,
C-means, E-means), histogram thresholding, Image-domain or (c) WAVELET BASED SEGMENTATION OF HYPERSPECTRAL
Region-based techniques (Split-merge techniques, Region COLON TISSUE IMAGERY
growing, Neural-network techniques, Edge detection), Fuzzy
techniques, Wavelet based techniques etc. The hyperspectral imaging sensors are used to capture the
scenes in narrow spectral bands over visible and near infrared
(a) K-MEANS CLUSTERING AND MARKOV CONTROLLED wavelength range of electromagnetic spectrum. Their range
WATERSHED ALGORITHM was tens to hundreds of spectral features of the captured
material. The images are visualized as a 3D cube or a stack of
The watershed is used in the segmentation of medical images multiple 2D images where the cube face is represented in
using K-means clustering and Markov controlled watershed spatial co-ordinates fx, y and depth as a wavelength dλ.
algorithm. The watershed transform segmented the gray
matter, white matter and cerebrospinal fluid from magnetic
resonance (MR) brain images. Image gradient was used to
initial point and region could get by region growing in
watershed algorithm. A catchment basin represented the area
draining into a river or reservoir where bright areas were high
and dark areas were low that looked like a plane.
There are two approaches in terms of catchment basins and
watershed lines i.e. Rainfall approach and Flooding approach.
In rainfall local minima was assigned an exclusive tag. The
drop moved to low amplitude neighbor as long as it reached a
tagged pixel and tag value. Figure: 1 Hyperspectral image data representation
In flooding approach the intangible pixel holes are
corresponds to each local minima. The water entered into The colon of a human body is the upper part of the large
holes and filled the each catchment basin. intestine tube and the rectum is the lower part. They are
This algorithm has the advantage that it is a fast, simple and characterized as cancer instances and their composite name
intuitive method and produced an entire division of the image was Colorectal or Bowel cancer. The uncontrolled growth of
in regions even when the contrast is poor. The limitation on tissue cells in colon or rectum caused the colorectal cancer.
this approach was over-segmentation and sensitive to noise. The human colon tissue cell consists of four parts as nuclei,
cytoplasm, lamina, propria and lumen.
(b) ULTRASOUND IMAGE SEGMENTATION
There are some task-specific constraints or priors for a good
ultrasound image.
i) Speckle- Speckle simply represents the noise and there are
many algorithms proposed to reduce them where we measure
tissue displacement and optimize image registration. It gives
the granular appearance.
ii) Image Features-The Rayleigh distribution was used in
active contour approach and in the level set segmentation
algorithm. The most popular algorithm is the Gradient based
level set algorithm. We found the boundary or edge function
of the relative orientation of the boundary. For analyzing the Figure: 2 Human colons in Digestive system
good quality clinical images, intensity gradient information
was used. Phases are responsible to obtain the structure in an

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International Journal of Computer Science and Management Research
There are two segmentation ways as-
i) Spatial analysis-It exploits the spatial relationship.
ii) Spectral analysis-
The Wavelet multiresolution technique used to evaluate the
spatial relationship between the objects in an image at
multiple scale and falls in the former category. They are the
orthogonal basis function supported by time (space) and
represent the signal. Wavelet theory consists of the tools as
pyramidal image processing, subband coding and quadrature
mirror filtering. Textures represented by the attributes of
spatial arrangement of the gray levels of the pixels.
Figure: 3 Sequence of operations for Wavelet based texture
analysis
IV. HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGE SEGMENTATION
The segmentation techniques represented by the integration of
information from several images called as Multispectral or
Multimodal. In multispectral images where each pixel is
characterized by a set of features and the segmentation can be
performed in multidimensional feature space using clustering
algorithms. The hyperspectral image plot is the formation of
three-dimensional feature space. There are many segmentation
techniques proposed as k-nearest neighbors, k-means, fuzzy c-
means, artificial networks algorithm, binary partition tree,
level set segmentation, Spatial-Spectral graph, baysian
approach etc.
(a) USING BINARY PARTITION TREE
The hyperspectral images have led to the growing number of
applications such as remote sensing, food safety, healthcare or
medical research. In the pixel-spectrum based representation
using Binary Partition Tree (BPT). It stored the hierarchical
region based representation in a tree structure. The
representation of many applications of tree is such as
segmentation, classification, and indexing, filtering,
compression or object recognition. BPT branches which
consist of analyzing its own BPT branches based on the
construction of the affinity matrices. It represents the distance
based measure according to the canonical correlations. The
minimal cut proposed as BPT pruning by using the recursive
spectral graph partitioning algorithm.
There are three types of nodes such as leaf node, root node
and merging the neighbouring nodes.
(b) A REGION BASED LEVEL SET SEGMENTATION
This segmentation is used for the road detection, buildings
detection and other man-made objects in the satellite images.
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ISSN 2278-733X
The images contain the information formulated and
encapsulated.
Figure: 4 BPT Constructions
There are many techniques employed for buildings and road
extraction such as Snakes employed by Cohen (1991).The
semi-automatic extraction of linear objects and roads by
Gruen and Li (1997) from remote sensing images. For colour
information and localizing the road structures of small width
given by Zafiroprulos and Schenk(1998). The limitation in
Snakes is to automatically change their topology during
propagation given by Osher and Paragios (2003). This
problem solved by Caselles (1997) by introducing geodesic
active contours (GAC). It further expanded and formulated by
Osher and Sethian (1998). Level set technique for
photogrammetric and remote sensing applications. In GAC,
the initial curve was given before the curve proceeded to
evolution. Its energy depend on the edges (gradients)
inheriting. In 2005, Cao et.al. employed an energy functional
based on Mumford –Shah segmentation model which was
used to detect the automatic man-made object in aerial
images. The strategy used was the Coarse-to- fine and a
fractal error metric. It is used not only for extracting the
buildings but also to extract urban and sub-urban regions.
(c) ADAPTIVE MARKOV RANDOM FIELD FOR JOINT MIXING
AND SEGMENTATION
Hyperspectral images are represented by a very high
resolution remote sensing images that required a hundred of
spectral bands but there is a problem of spectral unmixing.
The unmixing algorithm is represented by the combination of
several pure material spectra or end members with relative
fractions as abundances [12]. The endmember extraction
algorithm (EEA) used to recover the spectral signature that
includes the minimum volume simplex analysis (MVSA) and
N-FINDR algorithm. The Baysian approach where spatial
Correlation between pixels was taken by using Markov-
random Fields (MRF) to model pixel dependencies resulted in
a joint segmentation and unmixing algorithm. The MRF
actively used for modeling spatial correlations in image
[13][14]. The drawback of this technique is the computational
cost proportional to the size of the image. This problem
reduced by using the mathematical morphology based on
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International Journal of Computer Science and Management Research
lattice theory where similar regions are built by using filter
stemming.
(d) ROAD EXTRACTION USING SVM
Road information is an important data layer in the
Geographical information System (GIS). The automatic road
extraction save time and labor. There are several Methods for
road extractions as-
i) Ridge Finding- In this technique edge magnitude and
direction are devised by edge operators followed by
thresholding and thinning process to get the ridge pixels given
by Nevatia and Babu in 1980 and Treash and Amaratunga in
2000. These ridge pixels are linked to get the road segment.
ii) Heuristic reasoning is based on knowledge of a series of a
pre-set rules on road characteristics as shape index, the
distance between image primitives, fragments trend and
contextual information to detect and connect the primitives or
antiparallel linear edges to road segments by McKeown in
1985 and Zhu and Yen in 1986. In the dynamic programming
methods used a model of the roads with a set of mathematical
equation of roads like smooth curves, homogeneous surface,
narrow linear features and relatively constant width. The
statistical interference method used to model the linear
features as a Markov point process or a geometric-stochastic
model on the road width, direction, intensity, background
intensity and maximum a posteriori probability used to
estimate the road network given by Barzohar and Cooper in
1996 and Stoica et.al. in 2000. In map-matching method,
existing road maps were used as the starting point and update
the road network.
Support vector Machine (SVM) involves two stapes
i) A roads group that include actual roads and features having
some spectral reflectance.
ii) A non- road groups that include all other features having
spectral values different from roads.
The SVM is used for the bias- variance trade- off and over-
fitting problem by achieving the best generalization
performance where balancing the relationship between the
accuracy obtained on the training data and the capacity of the
machine given by Vapnik at AT&T Bell Laboratories in 1995,
Then applied in every fields of image processing as
handwritten digit recognition, face detection in images and
text categorization. It is used to separate the classes so as to
maximize the margin in a hyperplanes surface also
implemented the structural risk minimization principle by
Vapnik in 1982.
(e) UNSUPERVISED IMAGE SEGMENTATION BASED ON TEXEMS
The hyperspectral images having the several emerging
applications in the fields such as remote sensing, fine arts etc.
Segmentation techniques are used to detect the data of salient
regions as accurate as possible.
There are two problems in the hyperspectral image
segmentation technique-
i) The hyperspectral images involved a large amount of
information and had the problem of how to select the useful
information by avoiding redundancies.
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ii) The segmentation is a very challenging task in
hyperspectral images irrespective of the given input. It is a
very complicated task to manage the amount of information
that a hyperspectral data have. The dimensionality reduction
technique is used to avoid the redundancies and irrelevant data
in terms of computational or time-saving or accuracy. The
texem model was applied on color images for segmentation.
The labeled data are hard to obtain due to the high variability
of the input images so here used the unsupervised way.
(f) CLUSTERING-BASED BAND SELECTION
The drawback of the hyperspectral images are-
i) It has a large amount of information hence It is very
difficult to the application of supervised techniques.
ii) For the classification or representation task it is represented
in a large number of bands that are highly correlated.
To reduce the hyperspectral representation we used feature
extraction and feature selection techniques. Feature extraction
represented by the transformed initial information to obtain
the new and reduced data set. Feature selections have a subset
of relevant data from the original information. Hence the
processing step in hyperspectral imaging on pixel
classification tasks performed by the redundant information
without loosing accuracy and no supervised information.
(g) BAYSIAN HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGE SEGMENTATION WITH
DISCRIMINATIVE CLASS LEARNING
The applications of hyperspectral images are very dedicated
task as it is difficult to learn high dimensional densities by a
very limited number of training samples. The discriminative
approach deals with small class distances, high dimensionality
and limited training sets. It holds the state-of art in supervised
hyperspectral image [17].
The Baysian segmentation approach for hyperspectral images
where spatial dependencies enforced by a multi-level logstic
(MLL), Markov-Gibs prior in favor of neighboring labels of
the same class. These class densities built on the
discriminative Fast Sparse Multiresolution Regression
(FSMIR) which has a fast version of the sparse multinomial
regression (SMLR). The SMLR includes Laplacian prior to
control the complexity of the classifier and achieve good
generalization capabilities.
(h) SPECTRAL–SPATIAL CLASSIFICATION OF HYPERSPECTRAL
DATA BASED ON A STOCHASTIC MINIMUM SPANNING FOREST
APPROACH
The recent algorithm was proposed as Minimum Spanning
Forest (MSF) approach which is used for the best
classification accuracy values by automatically selected
markers [20]. The markers represented by the pixels that are
initiated the growing procedure where each marker being
assigned a distinct label. The seeds are chosen to initiate the
growing procedure of the forest i.e. crucial. The pixel wise
classification of the hyperspectral data set is performed and
computed the probabilistic map. From the classification map,
the most reliable pixels are kept as markers using which the
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International Journal of Computer Science and Management Research Vol 1 Issue 4 November 2012
ISSN 2278-733X

MSF is built. This method was used to provide very good [18] Boykov, Y., Veksler, O., Zabih, R “Fast Approximate Energy
Minimization via Graph Cuts” IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis
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