OiI VIOilIIICE TI,J'GM I:]NAI

And terrorisno_ iq particular

lrrr

Joh.an Galtung
G oa l s, P ro e e sse s a n cl fndicator s of Developm ent Pr oject,
U n i te d N a ti o n s Univer sity, Geneva;
Chair in Confl.ict ancl Peace Researeh,
U n i ve rsi ty of 0s1o, 0s1o

1. I n t r cd u cti o n : T h e mu ltiplicitv of viol

T o ta l Jr a b o u t violence is a little bit like talkin g

about disease in general: one lcror.rs one is touehing something
important, that ls very complocated., that it is easy to moralize
a n r l d . i f fi cu l t to co me u p vr lth diagnosis, pr ognosis, not to
mentlon a cure, a theraplr or the best of all: preventlve therapl'.
L\rt havlng sald tiris there is also a very inportant dissimilarity
b e t w e e n th e tr*o fi e l d s: wher eas in the theor y of cliseases we
h a v e l e a rn t to re ke typ o l ogies of diseases, and typologies o f
c a u s e s o f d l se a si e s, r,,ri th a complex r elationship between the
llst o f ca u se s a r:d th e l i s t of pathological effectsr w€ ar e s ti l l
irt a much more primitive stage in the theory of violer.G€ r
A l t h o u g h th e re n a y n o t b e so m uch of the old tendency to see
violcnce as a ruritary phenomenon, one type on1y, there is still
a t e n d e n cy to a sk fo r th e cause of violence. Some"author s fi nd.
i t i n t he p a rti cu l a r stru c tur e of the hum an br ain,' / other s i n
t h e l a c k o f i n sti n ct p ro tection, sti1J. other s uould look for
some residual instlncts in man, particularly relating to terri-
torlal possessiveness; then there is the vrhole raf,lge of explana-
tionr.; stemming from individu-aI psychology, from social psycholory
a n r L f r o n mo re ma e ro -o rl e nted social sciences.

I have found it rnore useful to start in the other

e n d . : n o t a ski n g fo r ca u ses, but asking for effectst for types
of violeDC€. A th e o rl o f violence should be victim- or iented,
n o t m c th o d .-o ri e n te d .-/ And the victir ns we ar e concer ned vr ith
are human beings who suffer, I shaLl use a broad definition of
vlolence as r whether i t
i s c a u se d b y a cti .o n s o f other hum ar beings ( dir ect violence) o"
somehow the regRlt of the worklngs of social structures (structu-
r a l . v l o le n ce ),)) ttsu ffer j.ngtt may not be the best ter m: a
better expression might be travoidable reductj.on in hunan self-
realizatton"t*/ leavlng it very open what this night mean in
 2-

v a r i . o u s cu l tu re s, l n va ri o us points ln geogr aphlear space,

i n v a r l o u g p o l n ts l n h i sto r lcar tim e. Mor e par ticular r y,
f o u r t y p es o f vi o l e n ce w i rl be dlstinguished: violence pr oper ,
m e a n l n g v l o l cn ce to th e h u man body; poger "tylm iser y which is
n o r e l l k e l y to b e n e l a te d to goclal str uctur e than to any
c o n s e l o u s d e l i b e n a te i n fri ction of suffer ing by other human
belngsl vi o l e n ce i n th e Bense of alienation, of loss of
ldentity; a n d vl o l e n ce i n the sense of r epr essiog, of losg
o f f r e e d o m, p a n ti cu l a rl " y freedom of ehoice. Thus, the total
v i o l e n c e w o u L d h u rt a n d h a nr nmultilate both body and soul.
r t w o l d ad d p o ve n ty a n d rn iser y and lack of cr osenesg to any-
t h i n g m e a n tn g fu l to th e i n dividual to bodily vior ence and
l a c k o f fn e e d o m. rn o th e n wor ds, total vlor ence is what we
f i n d t o d a y p ra cti se d i n to tar ltar ign societies in the for m
o f c o n c e ntn a tl .o n ca rn p s, p nLsons and othen institutions,
r e p r e s s i n g p co p l e a n d a l l e nating them fr om anything they want
t o b e c l o se to , i n a sta te of per petual niser y, often adding
b o d i l y t ortu rc to th e o th e r for ns of violence. 5)

T h e n e a re i mp o rta nt r elationships between theee

t y p e s o f vl o l cn ce : j u st a s a disease can cause another dleease
t h n o u g h g e n e n a l d e te n i o n a ti on of the body, one type of
v l o l e n c e ma y ma ke a so ci e ty mor e vulner "able to the othen types .
T h u s , t h e re l s th e cx.'a ssi cal. ( but centainr y not pr oven) theor y
t h a t n i s e ry b re e d s d l n e e t vlolence; and the mone plausible
t h e o r y t h a t a l te n a tl o n b n e ede dlr ect violence.o/ Thr ough
p a t t e r n s o f a l l e n a ti o n d i n ect compassion ls bnoken down,
soclety l s ru n a s a l o n g -d l stance r ather than a shont- distance
s o c i e t y , a n d me ch a n i sms th at have pnotected people fr om har ning
e a c h o t h e r b o d l l y, e ve n ki l ling each other ar e er oded away. //
s i m l l a n l y th e re i s a l i n ka ge between r epr ession and miser y:
i n a s o c ie ty n a rke d b y r^e pr "ession a str uctur e that inflicts mi s er y
e v e n o n t h a ma Jo ri ty. mi g h t be mone viable, over gener ations,
e v e n c e n tu n i e e . D i re ct vi olence may be used to establish
s o c l e t l e s w l th h l g h l e ve L s of r epr ession and miser y, and they
m l g h t b n e e d d l rcct vl o l e n ce in r etur nr BB an effor .t to over come
t h l e p h e n o me n o n . T h u sr th e o1d adage ttviolence bneeds violencerl
w o u l d l n g e n e n a l h o rd n o t only for " each type of violenee, but
a l e o b e t we e n th e va r.i o u s ty pes of vlolenee. 8)
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fn a tl o f th i s ther e is a par adox for moder n, r ich,

s m a l l so cl e ti e g l l ke New ZeaLand on fon that m atter Nor wa y .
F o r a l l p ra ctl ca l p u rp oses we have been able to abollsh mi s er y
a n d ha ve e xte n d e d fn e edoms to the entine populatlon ln a
c o n Bl d e n a b l e n u n b e n o f fields: Ln choice of spouse, pLace to
l i v e , o ccu p a tl o n ; th e fr eedom of thought, of impr ession a nd
e x p n e e e i o n g th e fre e d on of m over nent, of assoeiatlon and organi -
zation; th e fn ce d o m of consumer behaviour all of these
within L i ml ta tl o n s fo r sur e, and mor e extended to some cla s s es
t h a n to o th e n s, b u t rar ely entir ely denied to r najor sections
o f t he p o p u l a tl o n . Why then, ehould we have an upsur ge ln
d i r e c t vi o l e n ce ? 9 ) And why, then, shouLd we at the sane
t i m e h a ve a n i n cre a se in m entaL diseaees? 10) gotn pr oble m s
h a v e b e e n b o th e ri n g N ew Zealandfs society to the best of my
k n o wL e d g e , a n d i t i s tempting to explor e the possible r elati ons
b g t w ee n th e se p h e n o mena.

On e l l n ka g e rn ay be pr ovided hene by the concept of

a l i e n a ti o n , rrl ,o n g -d i stance societytt. The concept is aB pr obl e-
n a t i c a srrd L se a se tta n d rr violencer r , so this m ay be a clear
c a s e o f tryi n g to e xp l ain the obscur e by neans of sonethin g
e v e n mo re o b scu re . H owever , if a per son loses some kind of
f u n d a me n ta l co n ta ct w i th the envir onm ent, with other peop l e,
w i t h so ci e ty a s a w h o le, with natur e, in the sense that lt
a l . l ap p e a rs a b ctra ctr ES r em ote objects to be handled and
m a n l p u l a te d ra th e r th an as something live and wann, near and
e m o tl o n a l , w o u l d i t then be so str ange if this phenonenon
s h o u l d re l a te b o th to psyehological distur bances and to vi ol entt
11) Ther e could even be tniangular
s o c i a l d i e tu rb a n ce s?
r e i n f o rcl n g re l a ti o n s her e: alienation leadinB to soft, not
y e t e o ci a l l y u n a cce p table psychologically aber nations, thes e
l n t u rn l e a d l n g to vi oLence, violence leading to despaLr t
a n x i e ty, fe a n o f cl o se ness which in tur n wouLd lead to' o r
b e i de n ti ca l w l th , mo r e al"ienation. InJect then into this
t h e kl n d o f l a ck o f contact with onets own self that m ay be
t h e re su l t o f th e o th er types of alienation, not to mention
t h e typ e o f a L i e n a ti o n that stens fnom r outinlzed and bor ing
w o n k w l th n o d l re ct p er eonal r elation to the wonk pr oductt
a n d a se n se o f n e a n i n glessness r + ith llfe r night be the obv i ous
c o n so w u e n ce . 1 2 ) V l o l ence offer s an answer her e: it is an
 4-

o u t l e t f o n a cti vi ty, fo r shor t- ter m m eaningfulness, in a

s e n g e a h ea L th y si g n r € .B .a nong ghetto youths depr lved of
practically a l l o th e r p o g si btllties of exper ienclng together -
n e s s w l t h o th e n s l n IJ) ( ln conneetlon with vioLence
t" " r
"
u g u a l l y r e fe me d to a s a g a ng) , der iving m eaning fr om shor t-
t e r m Bu o c esse s, n o t fro m l o ng- ter m uneer tain pnonises of
c a r G e r s u cce E s. rn g h o rt, ls it to be expected that one
ca n e o n s t nu ct a so cl e ty Il ke the society we have without
ln p l i e a t i o n g o f th e ki n d mentioned? on put differ ently:
c o u l d t t b e th a t o u r e co n o m ic well- being and our fr eedom
h a v e b e e n b o u g h t a t a p ri e e ln ter ms of violence and alienation
t h a t u L t i n a te l y mi g h t B e rve to r educe the amount of fr eedom
w e h a v e g a i n e d , i n e ffo rts to contnol the violence, and ar so
t o r e d u c e th e e e o n o n i c w e l L - being because ther e is a limit
t o h o w w e ll a l i e n a te d ro b o ts r eally can "deliver the goods"e14)

T o e xp ro re th i s n o re deeply tnor e aspects of contem po-

ra n y t r m o de rn ftB o cl e ty w i l l have to be explor ed. And thie
w 1 1 1 b e t h e to p i c o f th e p n esentation, ending with the eon-
c l u g i o n t h a t th e re rn a y b e some for tunate, if unexpected
e o m p a t l b i l l ty b e tw e e n ce r" ta in steps moder n, r ich societies
w i l l h a v e to ta ke to co p e w ith the obJeetive intennational
s i t u a t l o n a n d th e i n te rn a l cr ises in our societies as expr essed
ln t e r m g o f vi o l e n ce a n d a l i enation.

2, 9 n s o cl a :I strg e tl re g , e lose and dlstant .

T o g o mo re d e e p l y i nto this, let us now concelve
o f e o c l e t l es a e ma d e u p o f two types of str uctur es; an
f r a l p h a g t n u ctu n e " w h i ch i s what above is called
long- distanee
soclety, and a rrb e ta stru ctu rer t which is based m or e on elose-
1t r \
n e s s . *" T h e fa mi l y, th e fr iendship gr oup, the sm all tr adi-
t l o n a L v l l l a g e rn a y b e e xa n pl"es of the latter ; the str uctur e
o f m o d e r n b u re a u e ra ci e s, co r pr br ations and univer sitles of
t h e f o n m e r. S o ci e ti e s h a ve v ar ious m ixtunes of these two,
f n o m s o c l e ti e s th a t a n e ve ry loosely eonneeted sets of beta
u n i t s , u a ua l l y n e l a ti ve L y self- sufficient, to socleties wher e
t h e s e u n i t s h a ve (a l mo st) d issolved and str ong alpha etnuctunes
d o m L n a t e . T h e p ro ce ss th a t r r took Eur ope out of the I' tiddle
1K \
A g e s r r L v ' a n d i n to i ts p re sent, phase ls the long stor y of
 -5

h o w a L p h a g ra d u a l l y w a s builtr or r an ever lar ger " scalet

b e t w e cn sta te a n d ca p i tal, Later on joined by the univer si-
t l e s a n d rce e a rch i n e ti tutions in gener al, ultinately bur st i ng
t h n o u g h n a ti o n a L b o rd e ns into wor ld- eneonpassing str uctur es .
f n t h l g p ro ccss th e srnaLl units had to suffer . Relatively
s e l f - su ffi cl e n t vl J.l a g es can today onLy be found in the nos t
r e m o te , ma rg i n a l co rn e r s; f,r iendship gr oups ar e pr obably
m o r e fl " u l d th a n b e fo re r and as to the fam ily: not only ar e
t h e t l e s o f th e e xte n d ed fanily vanishlng, The t' nuelcar fam i l y 'r
( r a t h e r cl u n sy so ci o l o g ese fon the couple with their offspri ng)
l s a l eo d l se o l vi n g a n d not only thnough separ ation and divor c e
o f t h e p a n e n ts, b u t a l so thr ough a pr ocess wher eby par ents
e n d ch l l d ra n b e co me n r.ltually ir r elevant to eaeh other at an
e v e r e a rl l e ru t" g " .1 7 ) Thus, lt m ay look as if par ents
l n c r e asl n g l y g i ve u p raising their chil"dr en in any mor al
r R\
B e n 6 er'" ' h o p i n g th a t s chooLs, agsoeiatione, and Itsocletyr l
w i L L so n e h o w ta ke ca re of the job, Ineidentally, for this
t r e m e n d o u s so e l a l tra n sfor m ation to take placer a technology
b a s e d o n n o n -a n i n a l e n er gy and machines for pr oduction and
m o r e a n d mo re e ffe cti ve for m s of tnanspor tation and com m uni -
c a t i o n w e n e n e ce ssa ry, but har dly sufficient causes. There
a l s o h a d to b e a n e th o s, a mentallty defining these huge and 1 9 )
v e r t l ca l g tn u ctu re s a B somehowr ight, moder n, natur aJ., norm al .

T o d a y th a t me ntality is suppl- ied to all of us thr ough

a t h e o ry o f Itd e ve l o p mentr ' , cur iously enough shar ed by liberal
a n d ma rxi st th i n ki n g r2 o ) accor ding to which not only indus -
t r l a l l za tl o n , b u t a l so lar ge seale str uctur es ar e nor mal a nd
l n d e ed d e a i ra b L e a sp e cts of the pr ocess lte ar e in. One na y
d e b a te , fl g h t, e ve n d i e for the r tcor r eettt r atlo between
p r i v a te (o o rp o ra te ) a nd state ( bur eauer atic) ownar ship of
n e a , n 6 o f p ro d u e tl o n l a ninor factor , it would seenr r elativ e
t o t h e co n se n su s so fa r that big is m oder r n, small is outda ted'
a r c h al c, tra d i tl o n a l .2 l ) As a consequence nar iages came about
b y r fn a ti n g tt ca rd e i n com putens, leaving the matching pr oces s
t o h ug e n a rri a g e fi rms; Chr istm as cakes ar e supplied by the
s u p e r ma n ke t n a th e r th a n by Mothen baking them , vacatLons c om e
i n c o n rrl n ti e n t p re -a rranged packages, etc. - evenybody ean
s u p p l y h l s a n d h e r mi nor vacatlons of the sam e baslc them e.
T h o s e to th e l e ft w 1 1 1 tend to be cr ibical. of cor por ate bi pgr es s t
t h o s c to th e rl g h t o f state bigness; eittr er wiLl tend r ath er
 5

o p t l m i s t l c al l y to a ssu n e that lf one could get nld of

t h e o t h e n typ e , th e w n o n g type of bJ.gness, then the type
o n e f a v o r s w 1 1 1 p ro ve h a rm less. But this position is
c e r t a i n l y n o t b o n n o u t b y pr esent day exper ience fr om
e o u n t n l e g w h e re th e g ta te is ver y str ong and cor por al
capital i a w e a k (S o vi e t U nion, Easter n Eur ope) , or whene
c o r p o n a t c ca p l ta l l s vo ry str ong and the etate r elatively
w e a k ( U n l tcd S ta te s? ). R ather , what is her e called an
a l p h a s t r uctu n e l e mo re o r less the sam e ver tical, fr ag-
m e n t i n g , se g me n ti n g - w h e then its em bodim ent is state or
conporate.

t, T w o .t yp g s o f d i rq _ ct vi olence.
T h e p ro b l e n , th e n , is exactly tr ow this effects
patterns o f vl o l e n cei n moder n soeieiies, this tim e stieking
t o m o r e co n ve n tl o n a l co n ceptions of vioLenee, par ticular ly
t h e v l o l e nce th a t ki l l s, a nd ki1Is dir ectly. Let us distin-
g u l s h , h ow e ve r, b e tw e e n tw o cases: violence against per sgns,
and , par tl"cular ly agalnst the
s t a t e a n d a g a l n st co rp o ra ti ons. The latten is usually r efer r ed
t o a s ' f p o l l ti ca l vi o 3 .e n ce ", because the violent act is seen
a s i n s t r u ncn ta l to so me ki nd of societal change. The for r ner
l s r e f e r n e d to & s tte ri n e tt; bodily har m j- s made use of as
a c c e s s t o mo n e y o r o th e r objects, for the pur pose of r evenge,
f o n s e x u lL g ra tl fl ca tl o n . Just aB the old distinctiongr r r htr otr t
c r i m e g a g a l n st p ro p e rty, against the hum an body, for sexual
p u r p o s c s , a n d w h i te co l l a n cr imes ar e not ver y good as an
e m p i n l c a l typ o l o g y b e ca u se they m ay be com bined in a aingle
a c t , t h c d l e ti n cti o n b e tw een violence against per sons and
a g a l n s t org a n i za ti o n s 1 s also pr oblem atic. Needlese to sayt
t h e t t t e n ro n L g t" a l so g e ts per sonal gr atification, and even
i f h e i e p o l i ti ca l l y a co n s cious: he nay gain gr atification
f r o m t h e p ro fe ssi o n a l l y w ell executed act of violencer for
46\

i n g t a n c e .ttl A n d , co n ve rsely: the pr esent author lear nt when

s e r v l n g h a l f a ye a r i n a Nor wegian pr ison ae a conscientious
o b j e c t o n l n th e 1 9 5 0 s h o w r for dinar yil pr isoner s saw their
c r i m e s , usu a l l y a g a i n st p roper ty, 8e snaIl battleer badly
c o o n d l n a te d , p o o rl y e xe cu ted, in a long and uphill fight
a g a l n s t so ci e ty: " b y-n o w they must undenstand how despenate
my sltuatlon i u r" .2 3 ) T h er e wer e visions of how cr im inal acts
 n
T-

m i g ht p ro l l fe n a te a n d aceumuiaLe like str ikes ln one of

t h e na n xl st ca ta stro p h e visicis i*,:,* :: g;ener al str ike
i n t o & sta te o f g e n e raS"Lav*} ee$nesc" "And thenfr , f would
ask rrw h a t h a p p e n s? i l - *nd +;i' r ear lswsr s usually becane ver y
v a g ue . 0 f co u rse , i f tl:e answer $ had not become vague, that
p e n go n w o u L d p ro b a b )-v e- th*.' :: have tr *en a suceessful enoug h
c r l m i n a L n o t to b e e a r:gi:t, or - a p;*) "ii ic ian, r naSr be belongi ng
t o &n rfe xtre mi sttt g ro i "lp" Never tnei.r ss, the dietinctlon is
a u se fu L o n e a s l o n g as one is willinE to assume that in a
s i n g le a ct o f vi o l e n ce tlr er * nay he comp,:nents of either
t y p e , a n d th a t h u ma n moti.v.?t,ion* usuall:f ar e ni- xed,, not as
s i n g l e mi n d e d a s so e i *.1 s' :ieEr ,e t;gpr r i,r gies night m ake us
b e l l e ve .

4 . Co n d i ti g n s Jo r :i o L e_q,fj: aagi{ r st, psr scns.

U n d e r w h a t co nditions, thenn do we get violence

a g a l nst p e rso n s? Ma ybe the best way of answer ing wouLd be
t o s ta rt b y re p h ra si n g the question: why is it that we d o
n o t h a ve mo re vi o l e n ce in society that we have? W hy is lt
t h a t tte d o n o t h a ve , in faet , ti"r e fan*us condition descr ib ed
b y T h o ma s H o b b e s, th e wap oi alll ar iainst all, the soeiety
w h e re l i fe i s n a sty, br utish anC shor t? If we assum e that
all human beings are out te get 8.ny1.i'r1tt't*, cr at, least some-
thing, w h y i s th e re n ot mor e violence? Par tly because pe opl e,
m a n y p e o p l e o i n ma n y s oei"eties car : Eet quite a lot wlthout
v i o l en o e , p a n tL y b e e a use ther e ar e sr r *ng counter valling
f o r c es a n d ma i n l y b eeause soeiety has mechanisns that at
t h e E a n e ti me re g u L a te what people can get and inhibit ag ai ns t
v i o l e n ce u n d e n e e r'" ain ecnditions.

On e o f th e l e ading soeial" scientists of this cent ur y ,

R u e si a n b o rn P i ti ri m Sor okin *,' r howor ked r nost of his pr odueti v e
l i f e i n th e U n i te d S tates, uged to distinguish between thr ee
t y p es o f l n te rp e rso n a l r elations that at the sam e time co ns ti -
tute types of power: €gip,ill.gtlq., gglf.Sfgg!-Ugl,and coetsive.
T h e fo n n e n w o rks i n cl.ose social r elations, is ver y nor mati v e,
m o r a l , ta ke s l n th e w hole per sonaJ- ity, does not aek for r ew ar d
or punJ.shnent but simptl:r ,i,t, l"ike ti:e mother-ehl}d relation from
w h l ch th e fa th e r p rcl bably is lear ning. Ther e is an elenent of
 9-

On e b a si c fa etor under Lying al.l of this, and par tl y

r e f l e cte d i n th e te rm Sor okin ehose, ilfam llisticn, is the
l d e a o f n o n -su b sti .tu tability. fn a family the member ear e
o n l y su b sti tu ta b l e w ith gr eat palns: one may lose & child
i n a n a a o l d e n t a n d a dopt anothen ( or the chlld nay lose a
p a r e n t a n d g e t e ste p- par ent ) ; one may r emar r y after div or c e
b u t th e n c i s u su a l l y much suffer Lng involved" It is ver y
diffenent fro m ch a n g ing a eoll"eague at wor k or fr om what i s
f o u nd l n a b u sd ri ve r/passenger or . mailman/mail r eceiver
n e l a ti " o n sh i p . In th ese r elationshlps, typieal of long
d l e ta n ce , a L p h a typ e society, thene is a ver y higb Level of
s u b stttu 9 a L l l tty: changes in per sons may be aecompanied by
s u r p rl sc, b u t h a rd l y by suffer ing ( or r atheno lf ther e is
s u f fcrl n g i n vo l ve d , then this is a sLgn that a femilistic
e l e n e n t h a s cre p t i n to an other wise eonbr actual" r elationsh i p) .

A *1 th a t h a s been said also applies to cr ine in

g e ne n a l a n d to vi o l e n c e in par ticular . fn elose social
n e l atl o n sh i p s vi o l e n ce cer tainly also may oecur , when the
f a e to n s me n tl o n e d d o not wor k sufficiently wel"l, But when
v l o le n ce stri ke s, lt w111 have a ver y specific, non- subs ti -
t u t a b l e ta rg e t. T h e cr im es of passion belong her e: the
p a B sl o n i l tu n s fro m the cLoseness of the r elationship, the
c r i ne fro n th e fru stratlon when the r elationship does not
w o rk o u t. A tri a n g l e loaded with jealouey nay lead to
v l o le n cc ve ry d i ffe re nt fr om the r apist who kills his vic ti m ;
i n th e fo rme r tt i s quite clear who w111 be the tanget( s)' in
t h e l a tte r th e re i s a ver y high level of substitutability
l t i s d l re cte d a g a i n s t W om ellag such. For that r eeson r ec ent
f e mi n i e te n a 1 yse so fr8 ,pez5m 1ationofdom 1n&nceand
v l o l e n cc rrb e tw e e n th e two Bexesr t, as opposed to r fbetwee n the
t w o p e n so n stt l n vo l ve d, seem s ver y cor r ect. But it is als o a
d e pe rso n a l l ze d , a -h u man r elation typica) . of our social for m a-
tlon. T h e n e 1 g a l so lnpenoLogical theor y $ome r eeognitio n
o f th i e d i ffe re n ce : even if the penalty m eted out for a m ur der
s h ou l d b e th e s& me i n the non- substitutable and the subs ti tutabLe
c a 6e sn th e d a n g e r o f r ecidivism is obviously much higher i n
t h e l a ttcr. C ri me s o f passion ar e to som e extent excuged.
 10

In th e We b e r-P a rsons tr adition in sociology iwo

o t h e r w o rd -p a l rg h a ve p l a yed a consider able r oLe:
I u n l . v e t r a a l l e ti c vs. p a rti e u lanlstic" and ltdiffuse vs. specifiett25)
T h e f o n m er co rre sp o n d s ro u gh!.y to our ttnon- substitutaOle vs.
s u b s t l t u t a b l e tt, fo r i n a unlver salistie r elationship other
p e o p l e a r e tre a te d a l l ke , aeeor dj.ng to obJective cr iter ia,
n o t a c c o rd L n g to o n e rs o w n par ticular r elationship to them.
T h e l a t t e n h a s to d o w i th how much.of the other per son ls
b r o u g h t ln to th e re l a ti o n sh ip, whether it isr r single- str andedr t
(spectflc) o r rrmu l ti -stra n ded' t ( diffuse) as anthr opologists
m a y s a y . Ob vi o u sl y, i n g e ner al non- substitutable r elationships
w i l l d e v e l o p rn o re e a si l y the mor e the othr er per son is taken in,
i,e. t h e mo re d i ffu se th e relationshlp. But a far nilistic
n e l a t l o n s hi p re p re se n ts so ne kind of qualitative jum p, it is
n o t m e n el y a q u e sti o n o f a dding m or e qual.ities in oner s per -
c e p t l o n of th e o th e r. On e r nay get to know som ebodym or e and
m o r e r Ve t th e tn a n si ti o n i nto fniendship/Iove or enmity/hatr ed
b r l n g s i n so me th i n g q u a l i ta tively differ ent.

Sch e ma ti ca l l y, th e concepts r elate as follows:

p a rti cu l a r istic univer salistic
(nffie) ffi)
diffuse FA MILIS T I C
TitEfrFstnanded) (B e ta , c loseness)

s p e ci f l c CONTRACTUAL
( s i n g l e *s tra n d e d ) ( AI.pha, dLstir nce )

T h u s , l n a l .p h a stn u ctu re s ther e ar e also ways of getting what

o n e w a n t e, b u t th e y a re mor e specifically defined, and obtained
l n m o r e un l ve rsa l l sti e a l l y defined r elations. In shor t, they
a r e c o n t ra ctu a l ; th e l o g i c of the social r elationship is
dlfferent. On e b a sl c p ro blem is now, that thr ough contr aetual
r e l a t i o n s ma te ri a l th i n g s can be obtained; m oney and the m ar k et
b e i n g t h e me ch a n i sms th ro u gh which the univer salistlc/specifie
l o t i c o f th e so cl e ty a re upheld and r "elnfor eed. But this is n ot
s o Eo o d fo r n o n -ma te ri a l gr atification love cannot be bough t
f o r m o n ey, th e a d a te sa ys.

Mo n e o ve rr th e e xp ansive natur e of alpha str uctur es

wllI a l s o w h e t a p p e ti te s of al- ) , of us for mor e and mor e of, the
 11

m a te ri a l B o the idea of tr ying to E€tr by extr a -

th l n g sr
c o n tra ctu a l me th o d s, what one cannot get eontr actuaLLy
c ome s e e sl l y. It i s ver y naive to believe that this ide a
w ou l d co me n o st e a sily to those who get least under contr ac t,
l n o th e r w o rd s to the lowest income gr oups, not to menti on
t h oe e e ve n b e l o w co ntr actual nelations. Appetites may be
p no p o rti o n a te to w h at one has, not to what one needs.
M o n e o ve r, th e me ch anism s inhibiting cr iminal behavior m ay
b e mo re o p e n a ti ve l ower down in society, for r easons to be
e x p l o re d b e l o w , e xcept at the veny lowest, m ost m ar ginal i z ed,
l n co h e sl ve l e ve l s. Consequently, white collar cr im es may be
m uch mo re i n p o rta n t to society than bLue co1lar cr imes,
T h a t th e syste m h i ts the latter mor e is an obvious cons equenc e
o f th e fa ct th a t l a ws ar e m ade by, and lega1 institutions ar e
o t a ffe d b y, p e o p l e with white r athen than blue collar s,

L e t u s n o w tr y to summ ar ize what has been said

s o fa n l n th e S -e u rve_lr ypothesis of iner easinF violence:

F r e q u e n cy 6
of
v i o l e n ce
a ga i n st
p erso n s

B e ta stru ctur esr close Alpha str uctur es r distant

F a mi l i sti c FamiListic Contr actual Cont r ac tual
re l a tl o n s r elations r elatione r elat i ons
e ffe e t i ve not effeetive effective not e ffec ti v e
T h e b e e t p ro te cti o n atainst violence is the elosely wov en beta
s t r u ctu n e . T h i s d o es not m ean that fam ily life ig all that
n o n -vl o L e n t. A fte r all, chiLd- beating and wife- beating ar e
w el l kn o w n p h e n o me na- but they should be taken as signs that
t h e re L a ti o n sh i p i e not fanilistic, that thene ar e elem ents
t h a t tn h l b i t co mp a ssion fr "om developing, for instance.
M on e o ve r, th e re i s not only the beatlng of childr en tr in c ol d
b l o o d rr, b u t a IE o trhot bloodr r vlolence, 8s m entLoned abo v e.
N on e th e l e ss, th e vi olence levels ate low r elative to what i s
known fnon 'tnoder.n" gociet y ,27l
 In a l p h a stru ctuneg the pr otection against violence
l s m o re fra g l l e , vo l a ti l e, vulner able, It wor ks as long as
i t w o rks. B u t co n tra ctual r elationa ar e not the mater lal
o u t o f w h i ch g u l l g a n d shage ( or , m or e pr eciseLy, ln or der
t o h a v e a d e te rre n t e ffect: the anticipated pain of 6uilt
a n d s h a me ) a re n a d e . And it is cer tainly not the r nater ial
o u t o f w h i ch co mp a ssi o n is for med, Hence, m oder :nsoeiety i s
b a s e d o n a ve ry d o u b tfu J. hypothesis: that conpassion+ gullt+ .s h&m e
c a n b e b u l l t i n o n e se tting, pr esum ably the famlly, and then
t r a n s f e n n e d to , d ro w n upon so to speak, in another setting,
i n s c ho o l s, & t w o rk, i n society at lar ge. W hy is ther e so
llttle crl me l n vl l l a g e s, in the countr yside in gener al?
Be e a use th e mo ra l e b u i l ding context is also the one which
o n e w o rks, l l ve e i n g e ner al tt is not only becauge of
h l g h e r vl si b i L i ty i n th e cloeer nilieu. The Spanlsh veJtr ii enz a
i e w h a t o n e n a y fe e l i n fnacting a nor m coning fr "om *Shssenean by ,
f a m i l y, kl n , n e i g h b o u rs not fr om pinching a tooL in the
w o r k s h o p o r mi sa p p ro p ri atingsome funds in an anonym ously
r u n c o mp a n y. It i s n o t enough to be a nor m- r eceiver when t he
n o r n - se n d e rs a re fa r
" *"r .28)
Wh y d o cri me ra tes seem to be so m uch lower in Japan
t h a n in th e We ste rn i n d ustr ialized wor ld in spite of the fac t
t h a t a n a sse mb l y l i n e l ooks fair ly m uch the sam e ln both plac es ?
B e c a ue e th e Ja p a n e se h ave under stood to som e extent how to
c o m b ln e trtn a d i tl o n a l t' and r r moder n" elem ents, not only in th e
s e n s e o f h a vl n g th e m co- exist, side by side, but ln the sens e
o f c r e a tl n g a n e w typ e : the univer salistic/diffuse cor nbi-
.tA \

n a t i o n.tvl In a Ja p a n ese company hlghly objective r ules

e x l s t d e fl n l n g re l a ti o n shiper €,t. r uleg of senionlty. But
t h e n e l a tl o n sh l p i s mu ch mor e diffuse than in the W est,
t h e c omp a n y re l a te s to m any m or e aspects of the lj"fe of the
e m p l oye e e , e .!. th a t o f finding a spouse, of actint as a
g o - b e tw e e n , o f p n e si d i n g over the wedding. The wor d "fam iI y "
o r t r o n e b tg fa n i l yrr i s often used ln this connectLon and
bnlngs out the obvious: this_jig_Ltrq settint that nakes the
m o r a l e-b u i l d i n g a n d th e wor king life context col.ncide to
the point that the Japanese may even behaJe rrbetlert' in work
conte_xt thaq-ln g famil.y conig{t. Something of the same may
 L3

a l so a p p l y to th e People!s Comm uneChinesen br "lt lt is

t o b e e xp e ct*d th a t un,ler tlr e pr e.:s*nt post- M ao r egine
a tra n g fo rrn a ti o n fron univer sa} ieticlCiffuse to univer sa-
l lsti c/sp e cl fl c w i ll take place, with eonsequent r ise i n
crl me n a te ,, ]o )

A t th i s p o inf,, then, let us br ing I.n ihe faeton

B o fa r n o t to u ch e d at a} l": qg_eqc_ionr or , if one pr efer s
t ha t te rm; p u n i e h ment ( includlng for detenr ence, the th r eat
of p u n l e h me n t ). T tr e ter m aetually stands for a sequen c e
of p ro ce sse s, su ch as iaw- m aking; deteetion- m echanisms ;
ad Ju d l ca tl o n (co mpar ing vaLidated detection r epor ts wi th
va l i d a te d ru l e s); adr ninistr ation of sanetione; and r "evi ew
of th e e n tl re p ro cess. The social logie of this scheme i s
mo n e co mp a ti b l e w i th alpha than with beta doninated so c i ety :
ce n tn a l i ze d L a w -making, r elatively centr aLized law- enfor c e-
me n t a n d a h i g n l " evel of division of labor built into the
e n tl n e sch e me . T he system itself is based on contr actu a]
mo re th a n o n fa n i l i stic r elations
a) "though m any efforts ,
an d l n p o rta n t e ffo rts, ar e made to buiLd the law- enfor c i ng
ag a n t (tn e p o L i ce man) into the city neighbour hood by g i v i ng
h l m a b ro a d e r ra n g e of activitles than deteetion and a ppr e-
h g n si o n , In th e village the policenan ls usually mor e
effe cti ve th e mo re he i.s a par t of tne vi} lage collectiv el y
an d ca n d ra w o n re ser voir s of antieipated shr ame,not o nl y
fe a r o f p u n i sh me n b. The pr ice paid in ter m s of cor r upti on
a n d a ml g o rL sm i s p r obably a r ninor one r el,atfve to the gai ns ,

A cco rd l n g to this type of t,hinking ther e should be

a re l a ti o n o f mu tual r einfor cem ent between the gr owth of
th e a l p h a strl l ctu re and the gnowth of eoer eian as an i ns ti -
tu ti o n o f crl me co ntr ol. 0n the other hangu the tr ansi ti on
fro m fa mi l l sti e to contr actual r elationship bot,h iner eas es
th e mo ti va ti o n , a nd decr eases the softer impedlm ents agai ns t
c ri rn e l n g e n e re l a nd vlolence in par ticular : as deser i bed
ab o ve . T h e g ro w th of J"ar ge- scaLe citi.es pr ovldes setti ngs
ni e h i n mu tu a l ).y substitut,able victir ns, Mur der s in tr i angl es
of Jo a l o u sy ma y co ntinue; violence inside the well- func ti o-
n i n g fa ml l y co n ti n ues to be Low ( but thene r nay be fewe r
w e L l fu n ctl o n i n g far nilies ) ; violence in fr iendshlp gr o ups
is l o w (a n d th e re may be mor e of them) ; violenee in a w el l
 15

l n t he mo st co n tra ctu a l of aLI societies, the United States ,

t h r o u g h th e d e a l s ma d e between the cr iminal and the police/c our t
offlcialB: rryo u te sti fy agalnst other e, and we ehall not
F u r g u e yo u n ca se fu rth er r f - a patter n no doubt also found
e l e e w h e re , b u t n o t so explicitlyr so contr actually) . t2)

In g e n e ra l th e Iaw enfor cenent institution is see n

a s e xa ctl y th a tr 8 8 a n institution in society r ather than
o f e o cl e ty. P re d i cta b ly, it will lead to effonts am ong
c r l m i n a l e to b e a t th e lnstitution, and the logic is ver y
sinllar to th a t o f a n ar ms r ace: each side watches the gr o w th
i n e ffl ci e n cy o f th e other side and concludes that it has to
d o s o n e th l n g si mi l a r i n or der to ( r e) gain the upper hand.
T h e mo re so p h i sti ca te d the techniquee of the or r €e the nor e
s o p h l stl ca te d th e te ch niques of the other . Just as for the
a r m s ra ce th e re l s a deLicate and not well under stood nan gi n
b e t w e e n th e S e yl l a o f too little law enfor eenent nachiner y
( a s s e e n w h e n th e p o l i ce is on str ikeS3) ) and the0har ybdis
o f t oo mu ch (a s se e n i n soeieties wher e ther e is vir tual
w a r f a re b e tw e e n p o l i ce and cr iminals) . In gener al it look s
a s l f th i s n a rg i n o rrrwlndowr ' ( if, indeed, ther e is a posi ti v e
w i n d o w a n yw h e re : th e window r nay be negative) is being ove r -
s t e p p e d q u l cl tl y, mo vi ng towands ever hlgher levels of lnte r nal
l a w en fo n ce n e n t ma ch i neny, and that was the point we wer e
trylng to ma ke .

5, Co n d L ti o n e fo r vi oLence against or ganlzations.

L e t u s th e n move on to the gecond type: vLoLence

a g a l n st o n g a n i za tl o n sr op political violence, today known as
t t t e r r o rl sh tt, a n d , fo r ehor t, let us use that ter m . W hy shoul d
t h e r e b e a B i n cre a se i n ter nor ist vLolence today? W hy does i t
c o m e ri g h t n o w , w h e n we tr never had it so good?ff Two facto r s
s e e m to b e p a rti cu L a rl y impor tant ln any effor t to tr y to c om e
to trips w i th th i s p roblem , maybe thr ee.

F i rst, w i th b eta pushed ever fur ther back and alph a

p n e d o ml n a ti n g th e n e w iLl be a com ntunicatiog pr obleg in sgc i ety .
T h e stru ctu re i s to o l ar ge, too ventleal, too complicated
n o t fo r p n o b l e ms a n d conflict to be ar tlculated that is
a l w a yc p o a si b l e i n a eociety whieh har bor s so nuch fir eedo tn of
 16

e x p r e s s L o n l n i ts ma ss n edl.a and its political Ooaiesll)

b u t f o r p ro b l e ms a n d co n fllcts to be r esglygA with a speed
c o m m e n g u ra te w i th th e sp eed to which people living in these
a o c l e t l "e s h a ve b e co me a cc ugtomed. Ter r or isn is a sign fr om
lhe intenlol o f_ 9 h e se so c leties that sonething. am ong it
c o n m u n l q a tl o n , l l o e s n o t function _well. Ther e ar e obvious
c a s e s e uch a s th e fl g h t for liber ation for national minor ities
( t n e Pa l e e tl n l a n ca se ) a nd less obvious, l- n the sense of
l e s g c l e a n -cu t, ca se s su ch as the incneasing pol.itlcal violenc e
l n t h e 0e rma n , Ita l i a n a nd Japanese societi"*?4) l"r s clear -
c u t b e c a u se tt l s l e ss cl ear what the goal is. An lndependent
n e w n a t l on 'e ta te l s e a sl l y undenstood by those who fight for
i t a n d by th o se w h o re g i st; a classless society r em ains
u n c l e a r sl mp l y b e ca u se th er e is no clear ' - cut model ar ound"
Thus,lt l s h a n d to b e l -i e ve that people r eaIly, in the 1ong
r u n , w i ll co n ti n u e sa cri fi c ing their lives in or der to have
b u e i n e s s ru n mo re b y sta te buneaucr ats and less by ttpr lvater t
intereste. B u t, h o w e ve r this may be, ther e is a pr oblem
s o m e w h en e , a n d i t i s w l se not to assum e that the pr oblem is
n e n e l y l o ca te d l n th e p sychology 6f the lndividual ter nonists.

S e co n d , w i th i n creaslng centr alizatlon of society

t h e s o c l e ti e e n o t o n l y b ecome mor e eentr allzed and mor e diffi-
cult t o e h a n g e b e ca u se o f size and r igidityl they also becom e
m e f q _ v q l n e fa b l e . P o l i tl ca I power is concentr ated ln few
p e r s o n s l n th e sta te o r cor por ation m achiner ies, ener ty power
l n f e w ce n tre e a w e l l dir ected abducation and a well placed
bonb may have more lmpact in paralyzirtg bureaueraciee and
c o r p D r a ti o n a , a n d l n e n e r gy suppLies, than in less centr alized
s o c i a l fo rma ti o n s. T h e black- outs in New Yor k ar e godd
e x a n p L e e h e re , a n d so l s the abducation and ultimate kilLing
o f a k e y Ita L i a n p o l i ti cl a n Easter 1978,35) of cour se, ther e
a r e o t h e n Ita l i a n p o l l ti ci ans, but the sym bolic significance
i g n o n e th e l e ss co n si d e ra b Le. It ls a str ike against the cor e
o f t h e eta te , a n d th e symbolic vaLue r ests pr eeisely in the
c h a r a c t er o f th e vi cti m as being non- substitutable it is
n o t o l n p l y a n y p o l i ti ci a n but one who enbodies the system
m o r e t h an mo st, T h e vu l n er ability r ests with this cir cunstanc e
aleo Bo me p o l i ti cl a n s tend to become vlr tually indispensable
i n l a n g e sca l .e syste ms b y vir tue of their exper ienee and the
 17

s e cre ts a n d co n fi d e n c e vested in them . Com par e thls to a

h i g h l y d e ce n tra l i ze d system, a countr y consisting of num er ous
s ma l l b e ta u n J.tsr e ach one with its own sets of por iticlans
a n d e n e rg y su p p l y system - each one per haps somewhat vul nenabl e
t o su ch p ra cti ce s, but then the other s wil1 gunvive.

T h u s, th e structune pr oduces both m otivation albe i t

o f te n o f a ve n y d i ffu se natur e, a deoir e to cr y and shou t
o n e t s p ro te ste to th e heavens, a4q- a str ate3y: fthit at the
v u ln e ra b L e b ra i n ce nter s of the system; they m a;r be well
h i d d e n a n d p ro te cte d but once dar nagedr the pay- off in ter m s
o f syste m p a ra l ysi s is consider able' f. And to this, then ,
s h o u l d b e a d d e d a p osslble thlr d factor hinted at above:
t h e w a y l n w h l ch th e system itself pr oduoes contexts that
a n e h i g h l y n e l e va n t econom ically, socially and poLiticalJ .y
b u t n o t n o ra l l y a nd consequently not pr "otected by compas s i on,
g u l l t o r sh a n e . T e r r or ism dr awe on the sam e basic nateri aL
a s o rd i n a ry e ri me , b ut it would be a basic m istake to de fi ne
t h e te rro rl sts a s o rdinar y cr iminalg however nuch they m ay
c o o p e n a te w i th so me of them because they need their pr o-
f e esi o n a l l sm i n so me of the techniealities.

Wh o a re th e ter r or ists? 0f cour "se they ar e fYom

t h e u p p e r ra n g e s o f Other segments of society
"o.i"ty.J5)
n e y a L so w a n t ch a n g e, but not of society, only in society
a o th a t th e y te t mo r e power and mone oppor tunity to enjoy the
p n l vl l e g e e b u i l t i n to the social str uctur e. They ane not
t h no u g h w l th th a t e ocial for m ationSST ) ,n", have only had
e n o u g h o f b e l n g d o n i nated and explolted whlch toes far t ow ar ds
explalnlng why thcy do so eaally aeeept .ldeologl,cs*that re-
p r o d u ce l n e q u a l l ty under other for mulas, nor e pnom isi.ng for
t h en se l ve e . Ma n y o f the ter r or ists nay be of this type,
a n d to th e e xte n t th ey ar e intellectuals thus may be hop i ng
f o r a e o ci a l o rd e r wher e education will count mor e and
c a pi ta l l e ss, fo n i n s tance. But for other sthe totaL form ati on
h a e to b e ch a n g e d , giving bir th to a new social or der - they
h a ve se e n i t a l l (n ot the least in the livee of their pa r ents )
a n d fo u n d i t w a n tl n g " They ar e thr ough with it.
In a d d l tl o n to this ther e ls another factor : the y
a l m o st h a ve to b e i n tellectuals, on at least to have a sol i d
 18

intellectual ke rn e l .J8 ) They need theonies to guide then

l n t h e u nd e rsta n d l n g o f moder n society, and in onder to locate
w h a t i s , p re su n a b l y, l ts nost vuLner able points. Above all,
t h e y h a v e to b e l n te l l e e tu a l"s in or den to belleve that socletie s
a r e c h a n g e d th ro u g h su ch actslg) - or , per haps none than
i n t e l l e c t u a rg ,
th e y h a ve to be alm ost mystics to believe that
o u t o f t h e a sh e g th e y rn i g ht conceivably cr eate by som e well
d i r e c t e d h i ts a t th e ce n tpr s of m oder n society Bir d Phoenix
m l g h t a r l se . Mo re p a rtl cu l ar ly, to belleve that out of the
f a s c i s m e a sl l y g e n e ra te d by destr oying contempor ar y social or
llberal d e mo cra tl c so cl e ty some kind of socialist or anar chist
u t o p i a wi l l a ri se re q u i re s a faith bor der ing the m ystical.
A m u e h mo re re a l i sti c p n e diction would be that out of fascisn
c o m e s e v e n mo re fa sci srn - par "tieular ly gince a fascist sociaL
o r d e r c a n b e se e n a s l i ttl e but an author itar ian ver sion of th e
a l p h a s t r u ctu re s a l re a d y char acter izlng our society. But who
s a i d i n t el l e ctu a l s a re re a Listic?

Ju st a s fo r crl me andviolence against per sons it may

b e p r e d l cte d th a t vi o l e n ce against or ganizations poLitical
v l o l e n c e - w i l l b e a cco mp anied by and r einfor eed by incr easing
thettforees o f l a w a n d o rden' r . As a matter of fact, the analo gy
w i t t r a n a rms ra ce w i l l b e even m or e appr opr iate for the simple
r e a s o n t ha t o n th e o th e n side, the non- law- abiding eide, ther e
a r e n o l o n g e r o n d l n a n y cri minals who accept the goals of socle ty
( e v e r m o re ma te ri a l g o o d s), but not the r ules of the gam e as t o
h o w t o a ch i e ve i t. 0 n th e other side ar e highly intelligent,
w e l l - t n a l ne d p e o p l e , i n ful1 com m andof social r esour ces inclu -
d i n g s t y l e s o f b e h a vi o r, ways of talklng and aeting. A lower
n i d d l e c l a e e p o l l ce fo rce , socially and educationaS.ly, used to
d e a l t n g w l th a l o w e r cl a ss cllentele of blue collar cr iminals,
s u d d e n l y h a e to d e a l w i th upper middle class ter r or iste, their
s u p e r l o r c i n a d l sa g re e a b l e number of contexts. Hence, not so
s t r a n g e th a t th e y a re re mankably inept at dealing with them w i th
c o n v e n t l o n a L p o l l ce me th o ds, even when pr aeticed at a lar ge sc al e.
C o n e e q u e n tl y, l t l s to b e expected that society wiLl nobillze
m o r e c o u n te rfo n ce , a n d p a rticular ' ly m one intelligence in both
s e n s e s o f th a t w o rd a n d since that pr esunably is available
l n t h e ml Il ta ry, l n e n e a si n g m ilitar ization of the fight agains t
t e r n o r l e m i s to b e e xp e e ted."/ This, in tur n, will m ake the
e o c l e t y mo re l i ke th e so ciety the ter r or ists say they ar e fighti ng
 L9

a t a l n st, th u s ma ki n g th elr doctr ine less welr cl,

In sh o rt, th e coneLuslon le about the same as for
v l o l "e n ce a g a l n st p e n so ns: the violence is eaused by a cer tai n
g o c l a l e tu u ctu n e ; to counter act the violencer m eaour es ar e made
u e e o f th a t re i n fo rce that str uctune fur ther ;.,as a eonsequ enc e
w e a r e o n th e u p w a rd rl se of a spir al of aeti!- r gactio eec al ati on.
H o w f an th i s ca n co n ti n ue is difficult to B&Vr but bhe r elati v el y
s a f e p re d l cti o n w o u l d be that incr easing pr opor tions of the
s o c i e ty w 1 1 1 e n ta g e i n law- br eaking and J.aw- enfor cenent; or i n
d e v l a nt b e h a vl o r a n d l ts contr ol. ObvLously, if that pr opor ti on
b e e o me g to o h i g h , so ci ety entens a pathoJ.ogical state. Poos i bl y r
l a t e r g e n e ra ti o n s w i l l say that som e of our most tmoder ll"
e o c l e tl e s h a ve a l re a d y enter ed that stags.4l)

5.9@19 s.
Wh a t, th e n , w o uld be a cour se of action with a m ore
b n l g h t p ro g n o si s a tta ch ed to it? Given the pnesent analysi s
t h e a nsw e r to th a t typ e of question ls obvious: str engthen
b e t a stru ctu re s, w e a ke n or modify the alpha^str uctur es;
r e e n e a te p a tte l n g o f cl osegess, for shor t.4z) Ther e is a
c o n c r ete e xa mp l e : th e nfr ee city' t of Chr istiania in the ver y
c e n t e r o f C o p e n h a g e n , to a lar ge extent populated by r tdr ug
a d d i c ts a n d j u ve n l J.e d elinquentsr r as the detr actonsof giant
s o c i a l e xp e ri n e n t, b a sed on the peaceful occupation of unu s ed
r n l l i t a ry b a rra cks w o u L d expr ess it.43) no*"u"", this is not
t h e pJ.a ce to e n te n l n to any of the detail"s in that connect l on;
e u f f l ce l t o n l y to e mphasize that new patter ns of closenes s
m a y o n L y e tru o tu ra l l y be sim ilar to what we alr eady know fr om
h i s t o n y, th e y d o n o t h ave to be identical. r t is not a ques ti on
o f r e cre a ti n g th e e xte nded fanily or even the nuclean fam i Ly
o f t h e p a st; th a t w o u l d pr obably be meaningless anyhow.
c o n v i vi a l l ty ma y b e b a sed on other factor s than consanguini ty
a s t h e co n n u n e s te n d to showl but then it should also be poi nted
o u t t ha t th e y te n d to be mor e shor tlived than a far i1y.44)
O r , l e i t ra th e r th a t the biological fam ily has so dor ninat ed
o u r vj .sl o n o f w h a t cl o seness m ay m ean that we cannot abstr a c t
e u f f i ci e n tl y a w a y fro rn it to tet at what is egeential? After al l ,
t h e f ami J.y i s a ve ry p ower ful sour oe of m or ale and mor aS.i ty
building l n sp i te o f the fact that we do not choose nost of the
 2A

o t h e r f an i l y me mb e rs, w e can pick spouses and fr lende

a c c o r d l n t to p e rso n a L i ty, but chiLdr en we only m ake;
a n d t h e ch i l d n e n ce rta i n l y do not chooge their par ents.
T h u c , c on vl vi a l i ty b a se d on mor e fneedon of choice miar r t
c o n c e i v a b l y e ta n d a b e tte r chance, although the fneedom
o f c h o l ce n a y a l so i mp l y the fr eedom of r eJectlon ( just as
t h e f n e e d o m to d l vo rce w as an obvious eonsequence of fneedom
o f c h o i e e o f sp o u g e a B o pposed to nam iage contr acts dr awn
u p b y p an e n ts a n d o th e n s).

In co n cL u si o n L e t it only be pointed out that our

s o c i e t i e e - mo d e n n , i n d u e tr ialized, dem ocr atic - m ay have
t o n e c r ea te p a tte n n s o f cr ogeness whether they want it or
n o t , a n d n o t a s a re sp o n s e to incneasing vlolence. of cour se,
t h e l a t t er ma y a l so p l a y a r ole: neighbor s r nay com e together
l n v e n t l n g me ch a n L smso f d efence against the per petr ator s of
violence; th e y ma y e ve n l eave clties and find r efuge in a
c o u n t r y si d e l e se g a tu ra te d with objects for the enr ichment
o f t h o s e w h o co mmi t vi o l e nee against per sons r op Less satu-
r a t e d w i th ta rg e ts th a t pay off for those who com nit political
violence. T h e g e d e fe n se mechanism s would a' lr eady ental a
c e n t a l n d e ce n tra l l za ti o n , but this is not so much what we
h a v e l n mi n d .

R a th e rr w € h a ve i n m ind decentr alization, or r ecentr al i -

zatlon as i t l s b e tte r re fer r ed to, as a r r esponse to the
e c o n o m i c re g tru ctu ri n g cu nr ently taking place in the wor ld
( w e r e f u se to re fe r to i t as attcr isistt, for what is cr isis
t o o n e ma y n o o fte n b e p rom ise to anothen) . The big state
a n d c o r p o n a te stru e tu re s built in m oder n societieg also owe
t h e l r e ize to th e i r a ctu a l and potentlal use fan beyond
n a t t o n a l b o n d e re , i n i n te r gover nm ental and tr ansnational
c o o p e r a tl o n . B u t th i s p n esupposes a lot fr om the r eet of
t h e w o n l d , p a n ti cu l a rl y that not all par ts of it ar e capable
o f d o l n g th e sa me . E ve n mor e par ticular ly: it pr esupposes
a L a n g e T h i rd Wo rl d w l l l i n g to ser ve infer ior r oles in the
i n t e r n a t lo n a l d l vi si o n o f Iabor . But it ls pr ecisely this
l n t e r n a t lo n a l d l vi si o n o f labor that is under going basic
c h a n g e , w l th a n u mb e r o f countr ies that som e year s ato pLayed
v e n y m arg l n a l ro l e s to d a y star ting as expontens of industnial
p r o d u o t s. It ma y b e o b j e cted that the pr ofits etill to a
 2I

l a r g e e xte n t a ccru e to the Fir st W onld, but that is only a

t r a n a l ti o n p h a se . T h e basic point is that these countr ies,
l "i k e J a p a n d i d , a re g o ing to make a substantial dent into t he
t r a d e h e g e mo n y o f th e Fir st wor ld, pushing the Finst wor r d bac k
t o m o re re a so n a b l e g h a nes in wonld pr oduction, tur .n- over and
c o n s u mp tl o n o f ra w ma ter ials. The r esulting im balanee between
p r o d u cti ve ca p a ,cl ty a n d effective denand on the wor ld nar ke t,
g l v e n th l g tra n sfo rn a tl o n wiLl sooner or later , thr ough phas es
o f u n e mp l o yn e n tr p o g g i bly also war to r egain lost positions and
t o c n e a te d e ma n d th ro u gh destr uctions, have to end up with
s o c l a l fo rn a tl o n s l e ss doninated by induetr iallsn and m ass
o v e r - p ro d u cti o n re l a ti ve to Fir st W or ld dem and. Under such
c l r c u me ta n ce s so ci e ti e s based on a mueh higher level of sel f-
r e l i a n ce , i n cl u d i n g l o cal self- r ellance m ay be r ecneated in
t h e We e t th e fl rst si gns alr eady being ther e ( ttthe gr een w av er t!.

A e f.i ke l y, o r nor e likely some m ight sBVr however ,

w o u l d b e a d e ve l o p me n t j- n an iner easingly fascist dir ection,
w h i c h i n th a t ca se w o u ld r eceive inspir ation fr om iner easlng
i n t e r n a l . vl o l e n ce o f th e twg types descr ibed and incr easing
e x t e r n a l p re ssu re fo r som e kind of economic r oIl- back, as a
n e c e so a ry a n d l o g i ca l sequel to the political- m ilitany r oll- bac k
k n o w n a s th e d e co L o n i zation of the 1960s.

S o ; th e re w e a re, ,faeed with consider able diler nm as .

An d v r e h a ve n o t e ve n mentioned the other sym ptoms of a soci al
f o r m a ti o n a p p ro a ch i n g the end of its potentials: the wor ld tr ends
t o w a r ds i n cre a si n g n u mber s of people living in miser y, lncneas i ng
l n t e r n a tl o n a l r epr eesion in var ioug par ts of the w or l d,
vi o l e n e e ,
n o t t o me n tl o n th e i n crease in nentaL digeases. In shontr the
t o t a l vl o L e n ce me n ti o n ed in the intnoduction seens to be on the
L n c r e a se . E co n o mi c w e ll- being and fr eedom of choice ar e eti l l
p r i v l l eg e s fo r n e ta ti ve Ly sm all par ts of hum ankind; lsLands i n
a n o ce a n o f vl o l e n ce , miser y, r epr ession and alienation, often
f o u n d ti g h tl y i n te rw o ve n with these phenom ena. Dlnect vlol enc e
a g a l n o t p e n so n s a n d a g ainst the society ar e par te of these
p h e n o n e n a , b u t th e y a re cnucial aspects of them, Solutions or
p r o c e co e s th a t th e n d to decr ease these fonms of violence may
well at the Bame tlne have important bearing on the other forms
of soolal llLs.
So, the rest of our eentury will cal-1 on al-l-
gur t4a8fns$'t-$brand Cr€atlvlty - there are glant tasks to be
dfne t' :
 ??
tI0 T i l ltl

) * Fap c:r : p r epared for the New Z e a l-a n d la w S o c le t y Co n v e n t io n ,

Au ck1 a n r i, 3I l4arch, 1978.

: i. A r . h h u r K o e stl e r h a s p u b l i shed a.n ar ticl- e all ar aund the

wOrld arOUnrl *hi.: fh.mo, arj usu:rl very ConVinCingly Written,
r fhe le in only one difiicultJr wj t h the K o e s t le r t jre s is :
j . t i s a bo u t h u ma n b e i n g s as a r vhoie, about lp$q_,seeie4q.
It does not explain why there are such vari6TliffiEiig
no cle ti es, and within socie t ie s o v e r t ime , n o t t o me n t io n
why there are such va.rlations anong human beings and in
h u n a n b eings over time. i' I h a t s u c h t h e o rie s a c t u a lllr t e ll
1l:r i s nainly that there is e p o t e n t ia l f o r v io l, e n c e a n o a
ca l.pa cjty for violence in h u ma n b e in g s r f lo t t h e ra t h e r im-
po ::tan t where, who, rvhen a n d wh y .

?, llo we ve r , a general fascirrat io n v lit h tho ' ro z ' n o * z ' : rn y o f

v i o l - e n c e a n rl h i s o r h e r tools .bae, or tJ"' Jib".r r l,i"r .a the
r n o r e h u ma n i ta rl o n co n ce rn vr ith the victim , and has had a
p r o f o r : n d i n fi u e n ce o n e ri minological thlnking.

'i'h is clir;tinetion v/as first n a d c b y t h e pr esent author in

th c a :r ticlerfV iolenee, P e a e e , a n d P e a c e Qrrs ee r6r| fl ,Tournal t v\

qf l cacc F.eseareh 1969, id o . -J 1 a ls o in ls s a v s in P e a c e

-Ii e:r ea r ch, V o1. T, Copenhag e n , I jle rs , 1
*A
J.
I'Vi olcn ce is here clefi.nec l a s t h e c a u s e o f t h e c lif f e re n c e
be tw ee n the potential and t h e a c t u a L , in wh a t c o u ld h a v e
bce n a n rl vrhat is. V iolenc e is t h . a t u rh ic h in c re a s e s t h e
cj- ir ;ta n ce between the poten t ia l a n d t h e a c t u a l, and that
t"r h jch i mpedes the rlecrease o f t h is d is t a n c e ' r. I b jc i, p . 1 1 1 .
!a
'l'h u s, i.f one rvants to k:rorv u t lt a t p e a . c e i3 , s o rT t ein s ig h t can
h e o b ta- i-ned f::om.pris-:onsi, c o n c c n t ra t io n c a mp s a n d s in ila r
J.n:i titutlons used by depre r; s iv e ' : : e g irn e s . llo r, ie v e r, it s h o u ld
lr e a r ld e rl that peace i= not s imp l; ' t ie n e g a t r o n o f t h e s e f o rrn s
o f vi ole nce, it has al-so a lo s it iv e c o n n o t a t io n rT lo re o p e n
to l m ng ination and constrlet irre t h o u g h t a n d p ra c t ic e .

O1 Anr l th ir : is also a theory t h a t h a s b e e n p re s e n t e . l f o r t h e

r,-r.n!r,"r'+nnrnrrorlf,
1, .
. ' , ", . "
j6n of the I'iew Zeal-and f-1awSoe'i etrr- i n the l /vvr L vj IIr
t t V io le n e e t r.
I) ap e r b y Dr. R.TT. Culpan, He d . o e s n o t u s e t h e '

wo r r l n.l ienatinn, but he s a J rs : ilA g re a t p a rt o f t h e s e t ra d i-

ti on a l- st::ueture ..,:ha''re rlis in t e g ra t e c l in t o c la y t s s o c ie t y .
l l nthe r has often been d.emo t e d t o a c o g in a ma c h in e a n d h is
j n fl tr cr ree rcplaced by the rn e c lia a n ri b y p e e r: ' . One by one,
r n a the 'r r r: tasks have been t a k e n a l. ia y f ro m h . e r b y Co me s t ic
a n iille n e ies and by social a g e n c ie s , f o rc in g h e r t o e mb a rk
on a l i fe-long and often h o p e le s s q u e s t f o r a n e w ro le rt .
,7
ll Tt i s e nough to think of t h e p o s s ib il-it y o f lo n g -d is t a n c e
ki Ll in g to real-ize the sign if ic : : rc e o f t h is p o in t ; it
r ;ho u l.cl only be remembered t h a t t h e lo n g rlis t a n c e is n o t
n ( - - ( .- 'esscrrilythat betweren t h e R5 ? p ilo t a n d t h e S o u t h -E a s t
Asi an p eanant, measured in f e e t , b u t t h e d is t a n c e b e t we e n
i .r you n g thug and a taxi driv e r: , rn e a s u re d in a n o n y mit y u n j-t s .
 ? L .-

1 7 . T n o t h e r r+o rd s, h o ri l o n tal dlvor ee between par ents and

chlldren may be much more important as a sign of breakdornrn
< l f t h e fa mi l y th a n ve rti cal divor ce betvr een the par ents.
I ' e r h i l p s th e l e a st stu d i ed categor ;r vr ould be r r r /er tieal d"ivorc er l
betrveen sl'bllngs to what extent are Bfblings removed frcrn
c a c l : o th e r to th e p o i n t of total- ir r elevance bJr the str uctures
o f n o r l e rn so ci e ty? Jn shor t, it r nay be that the expr essj.on
i n r ; o el o l o g e o e Itn u cl e a r fanilytt is not so bad after al- L:
t h e r e i s so me si mi l a ri ty to the fission of a nucletos.- ' in the
p r o c e s s o ve r ti me !

1 8 . A m l t a i E tzl o n i i s re p e a ted"ly making this point - a r ather

lnrportant one. l,lith the general assumptlon of the wel-fare
i t a t e th a t f'th e sta te w ill somehor rtake r car e of itr r one
s h o r ; l d n o t b e a sto n i sh e d if people contr ibute Ie ss voluntar y
l t s s i s t a n e e d u ri n g n a tu ral disa*er s or som ehowassume that
r : a i s i n g o f ch i l d .re n w 1 11 also ultinately be taken car e of
b y t h e sta te , i f n o t a t schoo]r , &t least and u"ltim ately in
y o u t h p ri so n s o :: yo u th c alnps ( todayr s funetional- equivalent
o f p u ttl n g th e yo u n g b o y s into the. ar m y or on boar d a ship
t o b e at so me d .i sci p l i n e into them?) .
1 9 , t \ n d . t h i n e th o s ce rta i n l y exists it seems to be close to
t h e w e ste rn e o n ce p t o f development. For m or e on this, see
J o h a n Ga l tu n g , T o re l l e i ested, Iir ilc Rudeng, ' r On the last
2 5 0 0 Ye a rs o f l l e ste rn Histor y, A' ncl Some Rem ar ks .3It the
O o m i n g 5 0 0 " , C h a p te r 1 3 , Vol.lJ, The I' TewCambr idge l{ oder n
tTlstoitr, !p . 518)75L, fcirthconing

?.O. i,'or the sirnilarity betvreen marxi-sm and liberalism in that

regarrl, $ee Johan Ga1tung, Itf\'ro llays of belng r"'lestern:
i l o m e Si mi l -a ri ti e s b e tw een lt{ ar xism and f,iber alismr r , paper s,
C h a i r l n C o n fl i ct a n cl Peace Tlesear :ch,Univer sity of 0s1or 19 78.
2 1 . l n t h i r .t re sp e ct, co mp a ri.ng the Un:ted States ancl the Soviet
i i n i o n , th i s co n se n sr.l sb etvr een liber alism and nar xi.sn seer ns
t o b e so n ru ch mo re i mp or tant than many of tlr e similar ities
b e t t *c en th e m. A n d th i s j- s r a.the:: signif- leant in the cur r en t
i r l e o l o g i ca l si tu a ti o n since so many people seem to feel that
( . ) n ee ith e r h a s to b e o n e or the other , ther e is no thir d
a l t e r n ati ve , T h i s, o f cour se, io r dr ong: the Youth Revolte
o f t h e l a te 1 9 5 0 s, n o l r/ per haps in a mor e passive phage,
b e a r te sti mo n y to a co nsider able inter est in a thir d alter -
nat-i.ve rvhere sma1l units will- play rnuch more of a ro1e.

? ? . . J n o n e o f th e rn o re i n te r esting ar ticles on Ger m an ter uor j- srn,

.r'lr interview tvi.th one of them in Der Spiegel r T.August 1978
( " L c h h a b e b l i n d w ttti g dar an geglau ilprofesslonal
p r o f : i.ci .e n cy u n d e rl yi n g these a e t s o f v io le n c e b e c o me $ Y e ry
p r o n i ne n t.

2r, Tlhls was very rn:ef ny o\.m e-xperience lrith fe11ow.a.u,nfi,tGg

in a l{onvegian prisoir vrhere I tvas 't doing ti-metr as a
c o n s :ci e n tl o u $ o b j e cto r in 0s1o six m onths dur ing the winter
1 9 6 + -5 5 -^re p o rt-e d i n ny book Fengselssamfi4netf nt For sak pA
+ p a l fr.sg r,Os1 o , U -n i ve rsiietsfor
t h o t r g h t th a t th l s w a s mor e a vision- .oS the politica[] cons c i ous
p r i s o n i n ma te , th e vra y r saw nr yself, { _t pr oved to be iision s
?Fied by very many of them, or at lea^st-a language in which
t h e i r g ri e va n ce s a g a i n st society l^fer e er pr essed.
? 4 . K o estl e r, fo r l n sta n ce in } ,.is ar ticle j- n tj.e ftalian
J ,
.-nir i l sp re sso .r'Qu e ,1se rn ente che ci str iscia nel cr aniott is
v e r y p e s].l si i c i n tl i s r egar d ( f g r ebr uar y 19?8, pp.B5- 9 ?)
llowever, the comments made in footnote 1 above are sti11
relevant: th.ere must also be nany other factors at work,
per:haps some of those factcrs are more amenabl-e to change
than tlLe strrrcture of the human brain.
. r i - o f nn rrre o , tl re e o l l .e ctive cxr ;r ession of ::l.pe as a ,"veapon
i r r m o st cl e a r i n ca ses of ' ,,iar ; evidentl;i naily offieer s
s e e rc to th i n k th a t i t is thc pr er ogative of their soldiers
t h a t th e y sh o u l d b e 1et loose on the unpr otected women in
a co n q u e re d co u n try. 0r , coul.d it r ather be that this is
the re rva rri h e l d o u t to the soldier s for cloing the m ost
clirty an.c1c1...urgerous t;ork of t^rar, the offrcers being the
a c l mi n i stra to rs, re se rving for themselves sex under less
p r : ' - mi ti ve co n d i ti o n s, but at the ar r nyr s expense? For an
a t t a l ysi s o f th e ro l e of r ape in connection r .r ith occupatio n,
r ; e e I'T a l a Jral T p si rl e -d o rwr , bJ' el.ir . llee Onr r r leder al Publicat i ons ,
::i n '-ann,^tr, )976, chapt c r ? , ' r? -a p e rr
. ( lh e t it le
l /ar

of chapter 1
i r r rrConfusion'r and of c h a p t e r 3 t r-l' ; o o t in : a n c l F -o b b e ry rt ).
-

Thc reference, of cours e , 1 s t o t n e ja p a n e s e o c c u p a t io n o f

1 9 42-45,
2 6 . ilo r : s.n anall,rsis of all t h e s e t e rms , s e e J o h a n G a lt u n g ,
l i tlmbers of -lTvro llo:r1ds , 0 s 1 o , Un iv e rs , lt e t s f o rla g e t , I 9 7 l. ,
a rt1 cu -Ia rl y
'./ .
6 }.''r1.\r af'r *; the footnotes.

? 7 , T n e a rl i e r l h a se s o f wester n l"- isto::;r the idea of or iginal

tin vras impor:tant, as also the id.ea that they coul<l be
b c a te n o u t o f ch i l d re nr Childr en v/er e p;' ivate pr oper t;' ,
t h a fa th e r v/a s n o t a ccountable to anybodlr , they could be
e v a l .u -a te d i n te rms o f econonic utility and be pr eser ved 1f
t h e u ti l i tl ' r':e re :ri g h, be slank- ed to deatl] :f the utility
r,fcrg 1or,,tr.

2 . { \ , T i r is p o i n t ca n n o t b e r uade often enough: ther e is a differ e nc e

b e t we e n a n a b stra ct nor m and a nor n associated vr ith a eon-
c r e te D o rrn -s€ n d ,e r, e ven a sendei to r ' r homthe r eceiver has
c . v e ry p o si ti ve , e motional r ela.tionship. Iviaybewe shoul d
even not use the sane term rrnormrrin the two cases, maybe
t 1 i at o n l y a tl d sto th e confusion?
? . 9 . l l o i ' rh e re i r th i s so w ell d.escr ibed. as in James Abegglen
c l a ss-l c, T h e " T a l a n e Fe Factor y, Glencoe, The Fr ee Pr ess, 1- 957.
j ; 0 . r ' L '',e u n i .vcrsa l i sti .c/e i ffusc r clationship iL "Tap&Dis pater na-
J i s ti c, b a ce rl o n th e Iteoncer n' r of the factor y an,d.the manager s '
. f o :: th c to ta l - p e rso n ality of the nor ker . In a Chinese Peopl es r
C o m rn u n e i t i s i n p ri n c.iple m or e hor i.zontal, ever ybodyr s
c o n ce rn w i th e ve ryb o dy, and" all- aspects of ever ybody. In
b o th so ci e ti e s th e movement is pr obabl;r - i- n the dir ection of
h,....LJ..-*
' i r rh a n i rd i vi d u a l mo bility, but in.or cler to detaeh the
-irrrlivirlual ,from a Japanese faet,orl/company or a Ch-inese
Comrnunethere has to be a change from a d.iffuse to a more
r p e ci fi c o ri e n ta ti o n . The r .est of the stohy v,r spr obabl- y l c r o','r :
t b e re r,ri l l b e mo re i ndivir ir :a1 nobility, but a- l- sor ising c r i m e
r a t es b e ca u se o f th e detachnent of the individ"ual- fr or n th e
p r o te cti ve co co o n o f the conlany or eoffnr r ner
 .2 6 -

-;l - rlrlronn mnrr f6' One

inStrtUtiOn that iS even n6re inStfUetj.Ve
ond effectj.ve ped.agogical-ly than TY: partict-pation_.in a t'/ar.
In the very earefull-y researched st-udy-by.larrc-Arglhgr and
J i o n e m a ryGa ::tn e r, 'rV i o l e n t Acts aJr d Violent Tim es: A Compar a-
t i v e Ap pro a ch to P o sttva r Hom - icide li.atesr r , { mar lean Soeiological
I ! v i - e y ^ l 7 l S t P p . 9 3 7 -9 6 3 ,. it is shot,m tht t
i - i , s u b s ta n ti a l . i n cre a se i n hom icid.e, in fact the ) r ighest of
e l l t h e rn ti o n r sa mp l cd , ,.' r herthe post scconcl wor ld r var per iod
i s c o m pa re d w i th th e p e rl oci befor e that tr r &r r The author s
c : r a m i n c a n u mb e r o f p o ssi bl- e explanator y theor ies, and cone
u p w i t ) t " th e 'rl e g i ti ma ti o n of violence moclel- ,r +hieh pr edicts
p o s t t v a r i n cre a se s a s a result of .the per wasive war time pr esenc e
6f oficlally sa n cti o n e d killing" ( 1. l6c;, The nr esent i.utho r
i n i n c l i n e d to a tta e h n o re signlficanee to gener al tr ends in
m o d e r n , rT l o reo r l e ss o ve rrlevoloped" societies than to the in-
f l . u e n c e o f rva rs, b u t th i s ma;' also have been one factor .

i?. , J : r r e c e n t ti me s i t a l so l ooks as if a publishing contr act

with an important company could enter the relation so that
r n n m n l o - d e a l b e tw e e n d e fend4nt, pr osecutcr , publishing
company anrl possibly al-so the d,efence 1a',',1's1might be an
i m p o r t a n t p a rt o f th e ma c) r iner y of ar ljudication,

5: ', f l ' o m y l m o t^ rl e d g eth e re i s no study contr ast j- ng the r ole of

i l s t r i k e b y th e p o l i ce i n ) r ighlJr al- ienating long- d,istance
c o n t e x t s su ch a s b rg ci ti e s and m or e clor e, shor t- distamce
c o m m u n i t-l e s a stu d y o f tha.i type vr oulr l be inter esting.

. l/1ry thesd three socletles,

7,,1 the Axis powers of the Second,';'iorld
l , h , r ? D o e s i t h a ve so n e th i ng to do r ^r ith the unfulfilled aspir a-
t . i "o n s b e h i n d th e i r b e l l i g e r ent activities, is it due to a
commonfactor that makes for fasci"sm on the one hand anC these
p h e n o r n en ao n th e o th e r, o r is ther e no r elation at all?
l i l h e r e i . s p ro b a b l y so n e re lation, for j.nstanee the tendenc;'
a n i o n g n ome p e o p l e to b e l j eve ti:Lat violence can be a cause of
f u n r L a m en ta l so ci a l ch a n g e 1f dir ected. a.ge- inst well chosen
r ' , c o p l e . F o r th i -s to b e u sefr - r l as an hypothesis it is not
n e c e s s a r y 'th a t tl -l e te rro rl sts thennselves' believe in such
t h e o r i e s , l i re y n a y e n g a g e i,n the viol- ence for totally differ ent
r e a $ o n s , su .ch a s p e rso n a l gr atification. lut for tne penom enon
t o b e t a ke n su ffi ci e n tl y ser iously by a sufficient number of
p o o p l e to co n sti tn te a stnr ctur e anr l a lr ocess r ^iithin the
s o e l e t y , a n e th o s o f th e type m entioned might be a thir cl bac k -
grouncl fbo:bon. -, -- - . .'--
"3';, \/r; h.ave probably far from seen the end of tjre Aldo lvioro story;'
Tlrun, .,.redo not lcror,vr.ihat lcind of secrets he seems to have
brltra.ved
vv u!aJ!ru tn
vV hisr
rr{}) enntors-
vcll-'uv!ut arnY'|
rrvr rln r'ro 'ffr6g tO what eXtent i'lOro
hL m se lf r.ns .in a process of a c c e p t in g s o mc o f t h e id e o lo g ic a l
no
r'" siti
''- on si o.f h.in captors. -A -jo n : n a lis t ' , lh o rn t e rt ' ie we d the
h ca cl o f that s ec ti on of th e p o lic e in Ro m e , t r t a p r iy g t e
conmunication to the present- author, reported thd?rff.a 6f the
p o l i c e to sa y th a t frw e cannot affor ci to catch hj- m aliver l
t h e p r e s s a g e n cy fo r vrh i c hshe was t/or king r efused" to publlsh
t h a t r e p o rt.

3(, . r l l l r i c i r . ; o f co u rse n o t tr-re of ar "ll of then, but par ticular ly

o f t h e le a d e rs - u p p e r mi ddle class backgr oundr themselves
I t u . r i e n t s, mo re o fte n ti ra n not of socio1o3,l' . _19r ye day one
n l i n h . t c on cl u d e th a t th e Uil soc- iology of the 1950s car r j- es
s o t e o f th c re tl o n si b i l i ty for being so stm ctur e:bflnclr so
 27-

r l i - -void of any serious e f f o rt t o d ls c n s s s o c ia l c la s s e s an d

tlr e lr relations that a s o c io -1 -o g r e x a g 0 e ra t i: rg in t h e o i] : e r
cl i .reetion sirnply har.l t o e n e rg e .

36 . lthil; is a birr:r'.e theme in G a l' b r" rn g r T o re I I e ie s t a d . ,

rr0n "Tohan
ll::l-l.r l.u11eng, the .l-rr:cll.-ine and. ?al_1. of lmpires: the Ilornan
li:npire aJril '.,'cstern lrnp c ri. a lii: m O o mp a re d rt , P a p e rs , Ch a ir i n
Conft:.ct an"d.Peace Iicsec.reh, Univeisity of-fss'ry}Br -
ll cl s oc i al fornati ons a r e lilr e l; ' t o e m e r [ , ; ca t t h e b e h e s t o f
d c s.;-i .l l u sj -cl n eedl -i ,te s thr cmgli t' ,' it1- ineir
" ol.,n socLety, r ath er
t l t a n vri th 'b h o se a t the bo' btonror outside tlet socitiv- en..'c T i
t o [e t i n to p o sj .ti o n s of po,,,r erand" pr ivilcgc.
' ) i \ . J l o r .'a ],!'a r L l f,a i n st o cc u;yi:' r .- for ces
no intellectuals ar e needed
t l t e e n Omy:i .s e a r]r to ir lentif;.' , the goal .is clear . I,or ac ti on
a;;'"j-nct a soeial structure llrh.ere the e1?enyis not so t*Cryi. to
irlentiflr and @e.-6oaf. fa:: fron c]e:r, nuch- th.eory woulc be
n c ed e tl to ma l ceu p fo r thj.s lack of clar ity;

3). r ' o r a n a n a l ysi s_ g f this lylg of belief , see ,r ohan Galtun g,

I ' D e cl u cti ve T h i n ki n g and Political lr actice: .N,nEssay on
l l l e u to n .i c In te l l e ctu a l 5ty1e r r , laper s on liethodolos.r . llss ar r s
- i n i T e th o ci o 1 o 3 Y l \ro 1 .ff,.]i1er hapter "e.
4 0 . I t a ly rve n t mr:e h fu .rther r n this dir ection Cur ins the sea r c j i
f o r L l d o I'l o ro th a n d id llesi"it";il;6t r jis sear 6h for Han4s -
Ger r nn' r r in
i l a r ti n l ch l e ye r. i l o vev"", countr l, i1 ean pr ob abl y
l , c a scr" rme itlj ra t p a ra nilitar ;.' ' mits of the tjpe that acted
.iri l'logad.i.scio have been active for a lonn tlme and vrill in-
c r ca ,g e i n si g n i f i e a n ce,

4 1 , T r o r so rl e c1 a ta , th e Jolan Galtung and lionica fiem egah fr Ov er -

d e ve l o l me n t a :rtl th e hltner native ila;r s of Life 1n tich Cor - r nt:i j es t'-
l ' a p e r ? o r su b -p ::oj e ct ttAlter r r ative ' .,' nr r sof r i f pr r r lon' ls - T ) r on.,r * 3,
-_+_,
r . n d ,In rl i ca to rs o f )e velopnent Pr o jeet, United llations Uni v er s i tgr ,
f , . en e va , n i g i rt b e u se ful.

4?-, Ior a rn o re d e ta i l e c analysls of se' ,.' er a1' ,iays in vihich alp ha

in D r r vn J. )r,rni vl .riryar \ai t
f,nd bgt a 3f r nr nf t r r . oc r
"; ; ; ; ; : "; "; * i ri r- r rn'rnu. or . , h
i ra''"nrnr rl Jr nu
u n 'm b i n a t i 6 n S
th a' t o' ni r wvuej, !u- ;he laper referre,l to-in footnote ID
above.

4'-;.'l'h"ore 1s I rran,]rr flio Christra:ria c-qoerrrnentIt Dominant iva;rg

^yi
o f l j fe r; b ;i l ;" [,']'-' p"""enteci.
r r : ' i l te rn a tj .ve i " 'a ys o f T,ife", Goals, for the sub- pr oject
pr ocesses air d ind.icato r s
o ' [ l e rrcl o p mcn t P ro Je et, Lnfr ], C.eneva, &t Car tigny 21_24 A pr i l 19?8.
t,4-. Ilorvever, cven if a corunune goes r-rnd.erits menbers may g6: to
o t h er co n ffu n e s e l -se wher e for that r eason it is alf- fi6u1t
t,q say horv short or long-liverl a cornmlrneis. Ior an analyeis
of thi::, see Jol,^.anGaJ-trrng, Jelf-Reliante and Globar rntb::-
l}*g$-?no?, ottarva, canadian cy,
] 9 7 e _ : p a rti cu l p rl l - chapter 2 t' Poor countr ies vs. - Rich, p6or - '
l''eople vs. Rich: I'ihornvrj.ll- tl're New fnternational Eeon6mic Order
T l 6 ' y 1 6 g ' fr i + ? ll
a