Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Course Layout
• Duration : 9.5 Days (Mon – Fri)
• Start : 8:30 am
• Coffee Break : 10:00 – 10:30 am
• Lunch : 12:30 – 1:30 pm
• Tea Break : 3:00 – 3:30 pm
• Day End : 5:00 pm
• Course Objective: To train and prepare participants to obtain
required skill and knowledge in Ultrasonic Testing and to meet the
examination schemes requirements.
NDT
Most common NDT methods:
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Mainly used for
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) surface testing
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Radiographic Testing (RT)
Mainly used for
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Internal Testing
NDT
• Which method is the best ?
Depends on many factors and conditions
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
• To understand and appreciate the
capability and limitation of UT
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested
The sound reflected back to the probe is
displayed on
the Flaw Detector
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector
The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance
Signal from the backwall
Bottom / Backwall
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of the flaw
detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material
The BWE signal
Defect signal
Defect
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
60 mm
The depth of the defect can be read with reference to
the marker on the screen
Thickness / depth measurement
The closer the reflector to
the surface, the signal will
be more to the left of the
C B A
screen
30 46 68
The thickness is read from the screen
The THINNER the material the
C less distance the sound travel
A
Ultrasonic Testing
Principles of Sound
Sound
• Wavelength :
The distance required to complete a cycle
• Measured in Meter or mm
• Frequency :
The number of cycles per unit time
• Measured in Hertz (Hz) or Cycles per second (cps)
• Velocity :
How quick the sound travels
Distance per unit time
• Measured in meter / second (m / sec)
Properties of a sound wave
• Sound cannot travel in
vacuum
• Sound energy to be
transmitted / transferred
from one particle to
another
4 times
If the frequency remain constant, in what material does sound
has the highest velocity, steel, water, or air?
Steel
If the frequency remain constant, in what material does sound
has the shortest wavelength, steel, water, or air?
Air
Remember the formula
= v / f
ULTRASONIC TESTING
Very High Frequency
5 M Hz
Glass
High Frequency
5 K Hz
DRUM BEAT
Low Frequency Sound
40 Hz
Ultrasonic
• Sound : mechanical vibration
What is Ultrasonic?
Very High Frequency sound – above 20 KHz
20,000 cps
Acoustic Spectrum
Sonic / Audible
Ultrasonic
Human
> 20kHz = 20,000Hz
16Hz ‐ 20kHz
0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m
Ultrasonic Testing
0.5MHz ‐ 50MHz
Ultrasonic : Sound with frequency above 20 KHz
Frequency
• Frequency : Number of cycles per
second
THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY THE SMALLER THE WAVELENGTH
Frequency
• 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
• 1 Kilohertz = 1 KHz = 1000Hz
• 1 Megahertz = 1 MHz = 1000 000Hz
20 KHz = 20 000 Hz
5 M Hz = 5 000 000 Hz
Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance required to complete a cycle.
Sound waves are the vibration of particles in solids, liquids or
gases.
Particles vibrate about a mean position.
wavelength
Displacement
The distance
taken to
wavelength complete one
cycle
One cycle
Wavelength Velocity
V
f
Frequency
Frequency & Wavelength
LONGEST SMALLEST
= v / f
F F
Which probe has the smallest wavelength?
Which probe has the longest wavelength?
Wavelength is a function of frequency and velocity.
Therefore:
V f V
or or V f
f
5MHz compression wave
probe in steel
5,900,000
1.18mm
5,000,000
• Which of the following compressional probe has the
highest sensitivity?
• 1 MHz
• 2 MHz
• 5 MHz
• 10 MHz
10 MHz
Wavelength and frequency
• The higher the frequency the smaller the wavelength
• The smaller the wavelength the higher the sensitivity
• Sensitivity : The smallest detectable
flaw by the system or
technique
• In UT the smallest detectable flaw is ½ (half the
wavelength)
The Sound Beam
• Dead Zone
• Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
• Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone
The Sound Beam
NZ FZ Main
Beam
Intensity
varies
Exponential Decay
Distance
The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may give
different amplitudes of signals
Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest intensity of
sound energy
Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main beam
will reflect the high amount of
energy
Main Beam
Sound Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
• Thickness • Thickness
measurement measurement
• Detection of defects • Defect detection
• Sizing of large defects • Sizing of all defects
only
D2 f
Near Zone
4V
10 5 , 000 , 000
2
4 5 , 920 , 000
21 . 1 mm
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or
low frequency?
Which of the above probes has the longest Near Zone ?
1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or
low frequency?
Beam Spread
• In the far zone sound pulses spread out as they
move away from the crystal
/2
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis or
Main Beam
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam
spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the beam
spread
Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a
shear wave probe?
Beam Spread
• What is the beam spread of a 10mm,5MHz
compression wave probe in steel?
KV
Sine
2 Df
1 . 08 5920
5000 10
0 . 1278 7 . 35 o
Which of the above probes has the Largest Beam Spread ?
1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam
spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the beam
spread
Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a
shear wave probe?
Testing close to side walls
Ultrasonic Testing techniques
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
Pulse Echo Technique
• Single probe sends and receives
sound
• Gives an indication of defect
depth and dimensions
• Not fail safe
Defect Position
B
A
No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)
Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes on
opposite sides of the
specimen
Presence of defect
indicated by reduction
in transmission signal
No indication of
defect location
Fail safe method
Through Transmission Technique
Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be
• No dead zone identified
• Orientation does not • Vertical defects don’t
matter show
• Must be automated
• Need access to both
surfaces
Transmission with Reflection
T R
Also known as:
Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
Ultrasonic Pulse
• A short pulse of electricity is applied to a piezo‐
electric crystal
• The crystal begins to vibration increases to
maximum amplitude and then decays
Maximum
10% of
Maximum
Pulse length
Pulse Length
• The longer the pulse, the more penetrating the
sound
• The shorter the pulse the better the sensitivity
and resolution
Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles
Ideal Pulse Length
5 cycles for weld testing
The Sound Beam
• Dead Zone
• Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
• Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone
The Sound Beam
NZ FZ Main
Beam
Intensity
varies
Exponential Decay
Distance
The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may give
different amplitudes of signals
Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest intensity of
sound energy
Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main beam
will reflect the high amount of
energy
Main Beam
Sound Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
• Thickness • Thickness
measurement measurement
• Detection of defects • Defect detection
• Sizing of large defects • Sizing of all defects
only
Near zone length as small as possible
Near Zone
2
D
Near Zone
4
V
f
D2 f
Near Zone
4V
Near Zone
• What is the near zone length of a 5MHz compression
probe with a crystal diameter of 10mm in steel?
D2 f
Near Zone
4V
10 5 , 000 , 000
2
4 5 , 920 , 000
21 . 1 mm
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or
low frequency?
Which of the above probes has the longest Near Zone ?
1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or
low frequency?
Beam Spread
• In the far zone sound pulses spread out as they
move away from the crystal
/2
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis or
Main Beam
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam
spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the beam
spread
Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a
shear wave probe?
Beam Spread
• What is the beam spread of a 10mm,5MHz
compression wave probe in steel?
KV
Sine
2 Df
1 . 08 5920
5000 10
0 . 1278 7 . 35 o
Which of the above probes has the Largest Beam Spread ?
1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam
spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the beam
spread
Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a
shear wave probe?
Testing close to side walls
Sound at an Interface
• Sound will be either transmitted across or
reflected back
Reflected
How much is reflected and
Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of the
2 materials
Transmitted
The Phenomenon of Sound
REFLECTION
DIFFRACTION
Law of Reflection
• Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection
60o 60o
Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident
Transmitted
The sound is refracted due to differences in sound
velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
30°
Refracted
REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different VELOCITIES
30°
30°
Steel Water
Steel Steel
65°
30°
No Refraction Refracted
Snell’s Law
Normal
Incident I
Material 1
Material 2 Refracted
R
Perspex
Steel
48.3
C
24
S
Snell’s Law
C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two different
materials: REFRACTION occurs
Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear
When a waveform changes into
another waveform: MODE
C CHANGE
C
SS
Snell’s Law
If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases
Up to a point where the
Compression Wave is at 90°
Perspex from the Normal
C
S
1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted at 90
degrees
33
S
2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57
S (Surface Wave)
90
Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees
Shear wave becomes a surface wave
1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730
Sine 90 5960
Perspex
Sin 90 1
C
Steel 2730
SinI
5960
S SinI 0 .458
I 27 .26
2nd Critical Angle Calculation
C C Sine I 2730
57.4
Sine 90 3240
Perspex
Sin 90 1
S
Steel 2730
SinI
3240
SinI 0 .8425
I 57 .4
Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There are
1st. both Compression and Shear wave in
the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE Compression
2nd. wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the material
C S
S
Snell’s Law
• Calculate the 1st critical angle for a
perspex/copper interface
• V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec
• V Comp copper : 4700m/sec
2730
SinI 0 . 5808 35 . 5
4700
Sound Generation
• Hammers (Wheel tapers)
• Magnetostrictive
• Lasers
• Piezo‐electric
magnetostrictive
Piezo‐Electric Effect
• When exposed to an alternating current a crystal
expands and contracts
‐ + + ‐ ‐ +
Piezo‐Electric Materials
QUARTZ LITHIUM SULPHATE
• Resistant to wear • Efficient receiver
• Insoluble in water • Low electrical impedance
• Resists ageing • Operates on low voltage
• Inefficient converter of • Water soluble
energy • Low mechanical strength
• Needs a relatively high • Useable only up to 30ºC
voltage
Used mainly in medical
Very rarely used nowadays
Polarized Crystals
• Powders heated to Examples
high temperatures • Barium titanate (Ba Ti O3)
• Pressed into shape • Lead metaniobate
• Cooled in very strong (Pb Nb O6)
electrical fields • Lead zirconate titanate (Pb Ti
O3 or Pb Zr O3)
Most of the probes for conventional usage use
PZT : Lead Zirconate Titanate
Probes
Z
Probes
• The most important part of the
probe is the crystal
• The crystal are cut to a particular
way and thickness to give the X
intended properties
• Most of the conventional crystal
are X – cut to produce
Compression wave Y
X X
Probes
• The frequency of the probe depends on the
THICKNESS of the crystal
• Formula for frequency:
Ff = V / 2t
Where Ff = the Fundamental frequency
V = the velocity in the crystal
t = the thickness of the crystal
Fundamental frequency is the frequency of the material ( crystal ) where
at that frequency the material will vibrate.
Probes
• The Thinner the crystal the Higher the frequency
• Which of the followings has the Thinnest crystal ?
1 MHz Compression probe
5 MHz Compression probe
10 MHz Shear probe
25 MHz Shear probe
25 MHz Shear
Probe
Probe Design
• Compression Probe Electrical
• Normal probe connectors
• 0°
Housing
Damping
Transducer
Probe Design
• Shear Probe
• Angle probe
Backing medium
Damping
Transducer
Probe Shoe
Perspex wedge
Probe Design
Advantages
Twin Crystal • Can be focused
Transmitter Receiver • Measure thin plate
• Near surface resolution
Disadvantages
• Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
• Sizing small defects
Focusing • Signal amplitude /
Separator /
lens focal spot length
Insulator
Sound Intensity
Comparing the intensity of 2 signals
I 0 P0
I1 P1
Electrical power proportional to the
square of the voltage produced
2 2
P0 (V0) I0 (V0)
2 Hence 2
P1 (V1) I1 (V1)
Sound Intensity
I0 (V0)2
2 Will lead to large ratios
I1 (V1)
2
I0 (V0)
Therefore Log..10 Log..10 2
I1 (V1)
I0 V0
Log..10 2Log..10 BELS
I1 V1
I0 V0
Log..10 20Log..10 dB
I1 V1
2 signals at 20% and 40% FSH.
What is the difference between them in dB’s?
H0
dB 20Log..10
H1
40
dB 20Log..10 20Log..102
20
dB 20 0.3010
dB 6dB
2 signals at 10% and 100% FSH.
What is the difference between them in dB’s?
H0
dB 20Log..10
H1
100
dB 20Log..10 20Log..1010
10
dB 20 1
dB 20dB
Amplitude ratios in decibels
• 2 : 1 = 6bB
• 4 : 1 = 12dB
• 5 : 1 = 14dB
• 10 : 1 = 20dB
• 100 : 1 = 40dB
Automated Inspections
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
• Contact scanning
• Gap scanning
• Immersion testing
Gap Scanning
• Probe held a fixed distance above
the surface (1 or 2mm)
• Couplant is fed into the gap
Immersion Testing
• Component is placed in a water filled tank
• Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed distance
above the surface
Immersion Testing
Water path
distance
Front surface Back surface
Defect
Water path distance
Ultrasonic Testing
• Sensitivity
• Defect sizing
• Scanning procedures
Sensitivity
• The ability of an ultrasonic system to find the
smallest specified defect at the maximum testing
range
Depends upon
• Probe and flaw detector combination
• Material properties
• Probe frequency
• Signal to noise ratio
Methods of Setting Sensitivity
• Smallest defect at maximum test range
• Back wall echo
• Disc equivalent
• Grass levels
• Notches
• Side Drilled Holes, DAC Curves
Artificial / actual defect
Example: The defect echo is set to
FSH (Full Screen Height)
Sizing Methods
6 dB Drop
• For sizing large planar reflectors only
• Signal / echo reduced to half the height
• Example:
100% to 50%
80% to 40%
70% to 35%
20% to 10%
Centre of probe marked representing the edge of defect.
6 dB Drop
Defect BWE
The back wall echo reduced as some part of the
beam now striking the defect
The echo of the defect has NOT yet maximise as
the whole beam Not yet striking the defect
Plan View
6 dB Drop
Defect
Now the whole beam is on the defect
Back wall echo is now may be reduced or
disappeared
Plan View
6 dB Drop
Defect BWE
The probe is moved back until the echo is
reduced by half of it’s original height
At this point the probe centre beam is directly
on the edge of the defect
Plan View The probe is then removed and the centre is
marked, and repeat to size the whole defect
Sizing Method
• Maximum Amplitude Technique
For sizing multifaceted defect – eg. crack
Not very accurate
Small probe movement
Maximum Amplitude
Multifaceted defect : crack
The whole probe beam is on the on the
defect
At this point, multipoint of the defect reflect
the sound to the probe
The echo (signal) show as a few peaks
Maximum Amplitude
Multifaceted defect : crack
If the probe is moved into the defect,
The probe is moved out of the the signals height increase
defect, the signal disappeared One of the peak maximised
If the edge of the beam strike the At this point the MAIN BEAM is
edge of the defect, a very small directly at the edge of the defect
echo appears
Remember: The peak which maximised does not
Maximum Amplitude have to be the tallest or the first one
Length
The probe is to be moved to the other end Mark the point under the
of the defect centre of the probe
which indicates the edge
The signals will flactuate as the beam hits the
of the defect
different faces of the defects
The probe is moved back into the defect and The length of the defect is
to observe a peak of the signal maximises measured
The equalization technique can ONLY be used if the
defect is halfway the thickness
Equalization Technique
Defect BWE
At this point the whole beam is on the The BWE is at it maximum
back wall
At this point the whole beam is on The Defect echo is at it
the defect maximum
At the edge of the defect, half of The defect echo is at equal
the beam is on the defect, and height as the back wall
another half is on the back wall
The point is marked as the edge of defect
20 dB Drop
Defect BWE
20 dB Beam profile
10%
When the main beam is on the defect the defect signal is at it maximum
If the probe is moved and the signal is observed until it is reduced to 10%
(20dB Drop), the edge of the beam is on the edge of the defect
Repeat the above at the other side of the defect
Using the pre‐constructed Beam profile and a plotting card, the defect
maybe sized
Product Technology
Welding
A Weld : Definitions
• A union between • A continuous defect
pieces of metal at faces surrounded by parent
rendered plastic or material
liquid by heat,pressure
or both. NASA
BS 499
Welds
• An ideal weld must give a strong bond between
materials with the interfaces disappearing
To achieve this
• Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
• Surfaces shall be free from contaminants
• Metals shall be free from impurities
• Metals shall have identical crystalline structures
Welding
• A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources
• Ultrasonics
• Electron beam
• Friction
• Electric resistance
• Electric arc
Electric Arc Welding
Electrode
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp(Earth)
Electric Arc Welding
• Electric discharge produced between cathode and anode by
a potential difference (40 to 60 volts)
• Discharge ionises air and produces ‐ve electrons and +ve
ions
• Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon cathode
• Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to heat (7000o C)
and light
• Amperage controls number of ions and electrons, Voltage
controls their velocity
Electric Arc Welding
Arc Welding Processes
• Manual metal arc
• Tungsten Inert Gas
• Metal Inert Gas
• Submerged Arc
Corner Lap Joint
Joint
Flux coating
Arc
Evolved gas
shield
Core wire
Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal
Manual Metal Arc Welding
• Shielding provided by Welder controls
decomposition of flux • Arc length
covering
• Angle of electrode
• Electrode consumable
• Speed of travel
• Manual process
• Amperage settings
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Gas nozzle
Filler wire
Non‐consumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas shield
Arc
Weld metal
Parent metal
Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas nozzle Reel feed
Consumable
electrode(filler wire)
Gas shield
Arc
Weld metal
Parent metal
Submerged Arc
Reel feed
Flux
retrieval Consumable
electrode
Flux feed
Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal
Electroslag
Filler wire
Water cooled
copper shoes
Molten flux
Weld metal
Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types
• Solidification cracks
• Hydrogen induced cracks
• Lamellar tearing
• Reheat cracks
Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
• Longitudinal
• HAZ
• Transverse
• Centreline
• Branched
• Chevron
• Crater
• Fusion zone
• Parent metal
Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification
• Occurs during weld solidification process
• Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at
elevated temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
• eg Crater cracking
Welding Defects
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced
• Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters via welding arc
• Hydrogen source ‐ atmosphere or contamination of
preparation or electrode
• Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
• Most likely in HAZ
Welding Defects
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
• Step like appearance
• Occurs in parent material or HAZ
• Only in rolled direction of the parent material
• Associated with restrained joints subjected to through
thickness stresses on corners, tees and fillets
• Requires high sulphur or non‐metallic inclusions
Welding Defects
Cracks
Re‐Heat Cracking
• Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during post weld
heat treatment or service at elevated temperatures
• Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects
• Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor profile
material selection and controlled post weld heat
treatment
Welding Defects
• Incomplete root penetration
Causes
• Too large or small a root gap
• Arc too long
• Wrong polarity
• Electrode too large for joint preparation
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Too fast a speed of travel for current
Welding Defects
• Root concavity
Causes
• Root gap too large
• Insufficient arc energy
• Excessive back purge (TIG)
Welding Defects
• Lack of fusion
Causes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Amperage too low
• Amperage too high (welder increases speed of
travel)
Welding Defects
• Undercut
Causes
• Excessive welding current
• Welding speed too high
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Excessive weave
• Electrode too large
Welding Defects
• Incompletely Filled Groove
Causes
• Insufficient weld metal deposited
• Improper welding technique
Welding Defects
• Gas pores / Porosity
Causes
• Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
• Contaminated preparation
• Low welding current
• Arc length too long
• Damaged electrode flux
• Removal of gas shield
Welding Defects
• Inclusions ‐ Slag
Causes
• Insufficient cleaning between passes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Welding over irregular profile
• Incorrect welding speed
• Arc length too long
Welding Defects
• Inclusions ‐ Tungsten
Causes
• Contamination of weld during TIG welding
process
Welding Defects
• Burn Through
Causes
• Excessive amperage during welding of root
• Excessive root grinding
• Improper welding technique
Welding Defects
• Arc Strikes • Spatter
Causes Causes
• Electrode straying onto • Excessive arc energy
parent metal • Excessive arc length
• Electrode holder with • Damp electrodes
poor insulation • Arc blow
• Poor contact of earth
clamp
Nature and Origin of Defects
• Inherent
• Processing
• In Service
Heat Induced Defects
• Heat treatment cracks
• Grinding cracks
• Friction induced cracks
In Service Cracks
Cyclic stress
• Fatigue cracks Fatique
crack
• Stress corrosion cracks
• Hydrogen induced cracks
Hydrogen
Product Technology
Steel Production