Industrial Safety

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R DIS – 2
I-V
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Diploma in Industrial Safety
COURSE – II
SAFETY IN PROCESS PLANTS

Annamalai University
UNITS : I – V
Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only)
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DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

COURSE–II : SAFETY IN PROCESS PLANTS
SYLLABUS
Aim
The course is aimed at making the student to understand the safety aspects in
chemical processes.
Objectives
On completion of course the students are expected to be familiar with the
techniques of protecting the persons and process equipments from fire, explosion
and health hazards.
Unit – I
Plant Layout for Safety-Location and Design-distance between hazardous
units-Lighting-Ventilation-Color coding-Flowcharts-Pilot plant applications, and
Machine Guarding and its types-Housekeeping
Unit – II
Factors contributing towards fire-Chemistry of fire-Common causes of
industrial fires-Types of fires-Fire extinguishers-types and handling. Fire detection
and alarm systems-water spray systems-BLEVE-Confined and UVCE
Unit – III
Personal protective equipments-need, selection, applicable standards, supply,
use, care and maintenance. Respiratory personal protective devices for various
hazards-instruction and training in use of breathing apparatus. Non-respiratory
personal protective devices for head, ear, face, eye, foot, knee and body protection.
Unit – IV
Major Accident Hazards-consequences of major hazard accidents-role of
management and public. On-site and off-site Emergency planning-structure of
disaster management system-constitution of disaster management group-control of
emergencies.
Unit – V
Maintenance of machines and equipments- types and its advantages.
Accidents related with maintenance. Work permit systems-significance of
documentation-types of work requires permit-clearance procedures-permission to
test, etc.
Reference Book
1. Frank P Lees - Loss prevention in Process Industries, Vol. 1& 2, Butterworth-
Heinemann Ltd., London (1991).
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DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

COURSE–II : SAFETY IN PROCESS PLANTS
CONTENTS
Units Title Page No.
I Introduction 1
II Fire 46
III Personal Protective Equipment 89
IV Major Accident Hazards 130
V Maintenance of Machines and Equipments 176
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UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
CONTENT
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Location of Site
1.3 Site Selection
1.4 Plant Layout
1.5 Plant Design
1.6 Industrial Lighting
1.7 Industrial Ventilation
1.8 Pilot Plant and Scale up
1.9 Machine guarding
1.10 House Keeping in Industry
1.11 Intext Questions
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Accidents have become a regular feature of modern industrial life. 98 % of the
industrial accidents are preventable. More than 85% of the accidents are due to
faulty inspection, inability of the employee, poor discipline, lack of concentration,
unsafe practice and mental and physical unfitness of the persons doing the job.
10% are due to faulty equipment and/or bad working condition. Fatigue and
mental changes in the workers in the industrial area increase the tendency to
accidents. Thus many of the accidents are created by the psychological conditions.
They are preventable.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
 Understand the Plant layout for Safety
 Location and Design – distance between hazardous units
The industries responsible for the largest number of accidents are textile,
transport equipment, basic metal industries, petroleum processing and coal
products industries. Accidents do not happen, they are caused. Accidents
invariably lead to injury or death, which result from a sequence of factors. These
factors are:
1. Social environment
2. Fault of a person
3. Unsafe act or condition
Amongst these factors it is easiest and most effective to remove the unsafe act
or condition. Faults of personnel can be minimized by proper training. Environment
has two components: working and social. Working environment can be maintained
at optimum level by improving proper ventilation and illumination and
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housekeeping. Social environment can be maintained at a highest level by properly

taking care of the well being of persons involved. Prevention of unsafe act and
removal of unsafe conditions are the most important aspects of safety management.
Some of the unsafe acts are:
1. Working on moving or dangerous equipment.
2. Operating the equipment without authority
3. Unsafe loading and placing
4. Taking unsafe positions
5. Using unsafe equipment
6. Working art unsafe speeds
7. Making safety devices inoperative
8. Distractive or abusive actions
The unsafe conditions are:
1. Hazardous arrangements
2. Unguarded or improperly guarded equipment
3. Equipment defects
Measures to prevent accidents
1. Safety measures for persons
2. Safety measures for equipment
3. Training in safety
Providing of safe working conditions starts from the selection of proper site for
the plant.
Safety measures should be considered during the design of equipment and
layout of the entire process. These built in safety aspects greatly reduce the risk of
accidents. In addition, protective measures should be available during the day to
operations.
1.2 LOCATION OF SITE
Plant location
The location of a plant should be such that people can sell goods most
profitably and manufacture them with the least expense without any risk for loss of
life or property. The site for the proposed plant may be within the existing site or an
entirely new location. If it is a new site it is called green - field site
Factors influencing the location of a site:
Site should be selected based on the following considerations:
1. Nearness to raw materials.
2. Accessibility to raw materials.
1. Nearness to raw materials
There is an assurance of a constant and immediate supply without
dependence on transport or weather conditions. The cost of transporting bulky raw
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material is minimized. Jute in Culcutta, iron and steel in Jamshedpur and cement
in various localities are examples.
Sometime it would be preferable to select the plant nearer to the market.
2. Nearness of accessibility to market has the following advantages.
1. Cost of transportation of bulky product is minimized.
2. Supply demand gap can be easily filled.
3. Product inventory can be reduced to an extent.
In addition to the above the following points also should be considered if
necessary:
i) Association with other industries
ii) Accessibility of the site
A number of similar concerns in a locality can secure materials to better
advantage than a single. Concentration of similar industries can improve the labor
market.
Group of similar industries can jointly establish the repair shops, foundries,
machine shops and waste treatment facilities. The site should be well accessible by
road, rail, and water.
1.3 SITE SELECTION
After identifying the area for location of the plant site selection comes.
Nature of site - geophysical factors: water level, water table, floods; nature of
soil: settling, ground disturbances etc.
Plant terrain
i) Soil must be explored for foundation or load carrying characteristics.
ii) Contour maps showing ground elevations which are useful in plant
drainage and plant roadway systems should be prepared.
iii) General slope or peculiarities of the sites are also necessary in
establishing preliminary grading which in turn indicates the type of
construction grading equipment.
Climatological conditions - dispersion of volatile and inflammable and/or
harmful substances over the site and the windward positioning of ignition sources –
study of wind direction necessary. Calm conditions enhance the probability of
increased concentration of inflammable and or poisonous fumes and gases at the
site.
Weather data
Prevailing wind direction can help in finalizing Useful in plant arrangement.
Assume the plant is located in area where the wind is from south east. It would be
undesirable to locate a process which frequently discharges noxious fumes on the
south east side of the plant where they would constantly be blown through the
plant. General wind direction must be considered in locating any process which is
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extraordinarily hazardous or subject to fires. The effect of wind direction on storage

areas for flammable products should also be studied.
Maximum wind velocity and hurricane or tornado frequency are used in
setting proper design conditions for wind loads on exposed structures, equipments
or buildings.
Maximum and minimum atmospheric temperature
Used in the process design, in the selection of insulation, in determining plant-
building types for process equipment protection, in building design for personnel
comfort and in selecting maintenance procedures. The design of cooling water
system and selection of equipment are also influenced by atmospheric temperature
ranges. Temperature ranges should be studied over a two year period or longer, to
provide the best estimates of average values.
Relative humidity (range by day, month, and seasonal average)
Required for design of cooling towers, air dryers for process air and for
determining personnel comfort requirement for buildings.
Rainfall (maximum, yearly, and seasonal average):
Required for plant drainage design, building design and possibly in process
design.
Snow conditions
Required for structure design, maintenance procedures and building design.
Some other climatological data required are frost line and local flood and tide conditions
Water requirements and supply
The process industries rank above all others as users of water. No process
plant could operate without water as a cooling medium and also as a direct raw
material in certain phases of a process. The water supply of an area , therefore,
must be studied before that area can be considered as a possible site. Prior to the
study, a detailed estimate of water requirements both for the present and the future
must be made. This should be then followed by careful study of the water available
in the region being considered. If well water is to be used a complete study of the
past history of the underground water table is necessary. Water capacity of the well
can be approximately found using the existing wells around the area. Water levels
in observation wells are measured during the pumping of nearby wells.
Surface waters from streams or lakes also require careful consideration since
they are often affected severely by the seasonal variations. Fresh water streams
discharging into the ocean during times of low run-off can become salty due to sea
water back up. Under these conditions it maybe necessary for the plant to provide
large storage facilities for fresh water to be collected during the season when the
stream becomes salty.
Industries moving into relatively new areas often fail to consider the possibility
of other plants following suit. The quantity of water supply should not only be
adequate for future needs of the proposed plant in question, but also adequate for
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supplying the anticipated needs of the other industries that might move into that
area. It is also desirable to consider the alternate sources of supply that may be
required as the preferred water sources become depleted.
In addition to having the proper quantity of water available, the quality of
water must also be studied. Chemical and bacteriological examination of the water
will indicate the extent of treatment required and aid in the development of water
cost figures for comparison with other locations. Possibility of the contamination of
the water sources by other industries in the area should be anticipated.
Electrical power
When electric power is purchased, the location of incoming power feeders and
the plant sub-station must be determined. Primary voltage must be determined
early in order to start engineering and procurement of the main plant transformer
and switch gear. The preliminary survey should determine the direction from which
the lines will come, whether power is to be overhead or underground, whether
single feeder or multiple feeders are to be provided, whether captive power plant
should be installed or not.
Fuel services
The selection of the type of fuel depends on heating value and selling price and
is closely related to the economics of purchased power. Some of the sources are:
i) natural gas
ii) fuel oils
iii) lpg
iv) coal
v) other solid fuels
vi) plant wastes.
Environmental and ecological considerations
a) Ecologically sensitive area - 25 km away
b) Coastal area – ½ km from high tide line
c) River – ½ km from flood line of the plain
d) Highway and railway – ½ km away
e) Major settlement – 25 km
f) No forest land should be converted
g) No Prime agricultural land should be converted
h) Environment impact assessment essential for major plants
i) Storage, treatment and disposal of wastes
In addition to the above major considerations, the following points should also
be looked at:
1. Proximity to large adaptive labor
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2. Nearness to source of power.

3. Adequate supply of water for processing.
4. Adequate transport and communication facilities.
5. Ability to build and expand plant capacity
6. Adequate fire fighting facilities
7. Adequate waste disposal facility.
8. Government regulations and subsidy.
9. Ready access to repair-shops
10. Nearness to good banking and credit facilities.
11. state of organization and development of learning
1.4 PLANT LAYOUT
Plant layout is the technique of locating machines and equipment, processes
and plant services, within the factory so as to achieve the greatest possible output
of high quality at the lowest possible total cost of manufacturing. Maximum
productivity from plant buildings and equipment can be attained only where the
facilities are so integrated as to provide a smooth flow of materials, parts and
products. Smooth flow is the product of good layout.
Objectives of plant layout
1. Economics in material and product handling.
2. Lower cost of useful areas.
3. Minimizing of production delays.
4. Better production control and supervision.
5. Incorporation of safety into the physical plant.
6. Avoidance of unnecessary and costly changes once a layout is made.
7. Improvements in production processes and methods.
Preparation of the layout
Scale drawings complete with elevation indications can be used for
determining the best location for equipment and facilities. Elementary layouts are
developed first. These show the fundamental relationships between storage space
and operating equipment. The next step requires consideration of the operational
sequence and gives a primary layout based on flow of materials, unit operations,
storage, and future expansion.
Finally, by analyzing all the factors that are involved in plant layout, a detailed
recommendation can be presented, and the drawings and elevations, including
isometric drawings of the piping systems can be prepared.
Templates or small cutouts constructed to a selected scale are useful for
making rapid and accurate layouts, and three-dimensional models are often made.
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During the preparation of a project, after the process flow diagrams are
completed and before detailed piping, structural and electrical diagram begin, the
layout of the process units in a plant and the equipment within these process units
must be planned. This layout can play an important part in determining
construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be planned carefully with
attention being given to future problems that may arise.
Types of layout:
1. Layout by product (line)
2. Layout by process (functional)
Product layout:
Product layout is one in which each machine is located according to the
operation sequence required in producing on product of a group of products.
The advantages of Layout by products:
1. It facilitates the use of materials-handling devices and conservation of
floor space.
2. Internal transportation and back hauling is minimized.
3. Production control is facilitated, because once a product is started along
the line, it is difficult for it to be sidetracked.
4. There is considerable shortening of the manufacturing time from the first
operation to the finished product.
5. There is reduction of the work-in-progress inventory.
6. There is some reduction of finished product inventory.
Disadvantages
1. Decreased flexibility
2. Increased investment in equipment.
3. Greater difficulty in expanding production beyond the capacities of lines in
layout by product than in functional layout.
4. Greater difficulty in securing specialization in supervision.
Layout by process (functional)
Functional layout is one in which machines are grouped according to their
types. The functional layout is characterized by the assembling of similar
operations in one place; for instance, all drilling is performed in a drill press
department. All electric welding is done in the electric welding shop.
Advantages
1. Greater flexibility in that changes in, operations and the sequences of
operations seldom involve a change in layout.
2. Easier adjustment to changes in volume of production, especially when it
is necessary to add equipment.
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3. More ready adoption to special needs arising from certain types of

equipment, such as the protection of workers against exhausting fumes or
the flashing of light in electric welding.
4. More complete utilization of equipment and hence a lower investment in
equipment.
5. Better utilization of the skills of the workers by following the principle of
specialization.
6. More effective use of the specialized abilities of the supervisors.
Disadvantages
1. Greater difficulty in automatic material handling and need for more floor
space for the same volume of production.
2. Excessive back-hauling of materials in process
3. More time required to make the same product.
4. Greater difficulty in production control.
5. Excessive- work- in- progress inventory.
6. Tendency to increase the finished product inventory.
It is seldom that an industrial enterprise of any magnitude is laid solely on
either a product or a functional basis. Many organizations, however, are
predominantly of one type or the other.
In chemical process industries, the utilities are arranges on the functional
basis and most of the production operations are arranged on the product basis.
Some of the operations, which require adequate safety precautions, are also
arranged functionally.
Safety considerations
1. Location of unit - hazardous units should be situated such that in the
event of disturbances the consequences should be localized.
2. Accessibility – multiple accessibility should be provided. Units should be
separated by compound roads. Attention should be given to maintenance.
3. Storage and handling of large quantities of inflammable liquids and
gases- safe distance from open fire, potential ignition sources such as
flares, boiler houses, switching stations.
4. Storage tanks containing inflammable and/ or toxic or corrosive
substances should be placed in not more than two rows to facilitate fire
fighting.
5. Segregation of high risk equipment
6. Fire fighting – multiple access roads, location of multiple fire fighting
materials, equipment and ambulance
7. Fire exit – 30 m gap ; for major hazardous conditions – 22.5 m
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8. Process materials:
a) Physical properties
b) Chemical properties
c) Toxicological properties
1. Process conditions
a) Normal process conditions – reactions, static and dynamic process
conditions
b) Abnormal conditions – maintenance, faulty action, fouling, fire in the
neighborhood, meteorological effects, static electricity, failing of equipment
c) Critical situations – fire, health and explosion hazards, detection systems.
2. Equipment
a) Choice of material based on corrosion, erosion, chemical effects,
temperature and pressure.
b) Construction – stresses such as self load, wind velocity, snow and wind
load, and vibrations.
c) Safety aspects – explosion, ignition sources, leakage, provision of flame
and spark arresters.
Economic considerations
a) Maximum economy in pipe work and supporting steel.
b) Compact layout with all equipment at ground level as the first priority- if
access and safety are important.
c) High elevation should be considered only when ground space is limited or
where gravity flow of materials is essential.
d) Optimization of supporting structures- more than one function.
Constructional considerations
a) Adequate accessibility available to lift large items of equipment.
b) If close to boundary, erection must take place from outside the limits.
Operational considerations
a) Thought should be given to the location of equipment requiring frequent
attendance by operating personal and the relative position of the control
room.
b) Valves should be placed so that they are easily accessible.
c) Indicators should be placed at a height so that they are easily readable.
d) Ergonomics – study of man in relation to his working environment;
adaptation of machines and general conditions to fit the individual so that
he may work at maximum efficiency. Ventilation - light-surroundings.
Appearance
a) Equipment in rows.
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b) Preference for single pipe-way with minimum side branches.

c) Tanks and vertical vessels- common centre of line if same size. For
different diameters common face.
Future expansion
a) Enough space for future expansion.
b) On main pipe rows leave 30 % extra space.
c) Leave at least 30 m distance from a flame proof plant area for safe welding.
The entire effort of the design and construction organization must be
scheduled so that all work will be coordinated. Information, equipment and
materials must flow so that no group will be delayed. This goal will be realized only
if the people doing the scheduling have full knowledge of the sequence of plant
design, procurement and construction operations as well as the time consumed by
each.
Plant layout for safety
Plant layout is often a compromise between a number of factors such as:
 The need to keep distances for transfer of materials between plant/
storage units to a minimum to reduce costs and risks;
 The geographical limitations of the site;
 Interaction with existing or planned facilities on site such as existing
roadways, drainage and utilities routings;
 Interaction with other plants on site;
 The need for plant operability and maintainability;
 The need to locate hazardous materials facilities as far as possible from
site boundaries and people living in the local neighbourhood;
 The need to prevent confinement where release of flammable
substances may occur;
 The need to provide access for emergency services;
 The need to provide emergency escape routes for on-site personnel;
 The need to provide acceptable working conditions for operators.
The most important factors of plant layout as far as safety aspects are
concerned are those to:
 Prevent, limit and/or mitigate escalation of adjacent events (domino);
 Ensure safety within on-site occupied buildings;
 Control access of unauthorised personnel;
 Facilitate access for emergency services.
In determining plant layout designers should consider the factors in outlined
in the following sections.
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Inherent safety
The major principle in Inherent Safety is to remove the hazard altogether. The
best method to achieve this is to reduce the inventory of hazardous substances
such that a major hazard is no longer presented. However, this is not often readily
achievable. Other possible methods to achieve an Inherently Safer design are:
 Intensification to reduce inventories;
 Substitution of hazardous substances by less hazardous alternatives;
 Attention to reduce hazardous process conditions i.e. temperature,
pressure;
 Simpler systems/processes to reduce potential loss of containment or
possibility of errors causing a hazardous event;
 Fail-safe design e.g. valve position on failure.
Plant layout considerations to achieve inherent safety are mainly those
concerned with domino effects
The Dow / Mond Indices
These hazard indices are useful for evaluating processes or projects, ranking
them against existing facilities, and assigning incident classifications. They
provides a comparative measure of the overall risk of fire and explosion of a process,
and are useful tools in the plant layout development stage since they enable
objective spacing distances to be taken into account at all stages.
The methodology for undertaking a rapid ranking method that is based on the
Dow/Mond index is detailed in ILO, PIACT, Major Hazard Control: A practical
manual, 1988.
Although these are useful rule-of thumb methodologies for first consideration
of plant layout, they do not replace risk assessment. The distances derived between
plant units using these systems are based upon engineering judgement and some
degree of experience rather than any detailed analysis.
Domino may be by fire, explosion (pressure wave and missiles) or toxic gas
cloud causing loss of control of operations in another location.
Fire
Hazard assessment of site layout is critical to ensure consequences of loss of
containment and chances of escalation are minimised. Domino may be by fire,
explosion (pressure wave and missiles) or toxic gas cloud causing loss of control of
operations in another location.
Protection against domino effects by convection, conduction and radiation can
be achieved by inherent safety principles i.e. ensuring that the distances between
plant items are sufficient to prevent overheating of adjacent plants compromising
safety of those plants also. Where this is not possible due to other restrictions,
other methods such as fire walls, active or passive fire protection may be
considered.
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Explosion propagation may be directly by pressure waves or indirectly by

missiles. As for fires, inherently safe methods that should be considered are:
 arranging separation distances such that damage to adjacent plants
will not occur even in the worst case;
 provision of barriers e.g. blast walls, location in strong buildings;
 protecting plant against damage e.g. provision of thicker walls on
vessels;
 directing explosion relief vents away from vulnerable areas e.g. other
plants or buildings, roadways near site boundaries.
Toxic gas releases
Toxic gas releases may cause domino effects by rendering adjacent plants
inoperable and injuring operators. Prevention/mitigation of such effects may be
affected by provision of automatic control systems using inherently safer principles
and a suitable control room (see section below on Occupied Buildings).
Plant Layout design techniques applicable to the reduction of the risks from
release of flammable or toxic materials include:
 Locating all high-volume storage of flammable / toxic material well
outside process areas;
 Locating hazardous plant away from main roadways through the site;
 Fitting remote-actuated isolation valves where high inventories of
hazardous materials may be released into vulnerable areas;
 Provision of ditches, dykes, embankments, sloping terrain to contain
and control releases and limit the safety and environmental effects;
 Siting of plants within buildings as secondary containment;
 Siting of plants in the open air to ensure rapid dispersion of minor
releases of flammable gases and vapours and thus prevent
concentrations building up which may lead to flash fires and explosions;
 Hazardous area classification for flammable gases, vapours and dusts
to designate areas where ignition sources should be eliminated.
Positioning of occupied buildings
The distance between occupied buildings and plant buildings will be governed
by the need to reduce the dangers of explosion, fire and toxicity. In particular,
evacuation routes should not be blocked by poor plant layout, and personnel with
more general site responsibilities should usually be housed in buildings sited in a
non-hazard area near the main entrance. Consideration should be given to siting of
occupied buildings outside the main fence. In all cases occupied buildings should
not be sited downwind of hazardous plant areas. Further guidance is available in
standard references.
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Aggregation / trapping of flammable vapours

To avoid aggregation and trapping of flammable / toxic vapours which could
lead to a hazardous event, buildings should be designed so that all parts of the
building are well ventilated by natural or forced ventilation. Flammable storages
should be sited in the open air so that minor leaks or thermal outbreathing can be
dissipated by natural ventilation. Maintenance procedures should include the
displacement of vapours from hazardous areas before work begins
1.5 PLANT DESIGN
Sequence of operations in plant design and construction are:
1. Process design and process flow diagram preparation
2. Preparation of engineering flow diagrams and preliminary plot plans.
3. Partial vessel design
4. Specification of mechanical equipment including electrical and steam
drivers, pumps, compressors, material handling equipment, and other
equipment which may be procured without the preparation of complete
drawings.
5. Specification of instruments.
6. Design of major switch gears, main plant and substation transformers and
smaller electrical gears such as motor starters.
7. Design and specification of heat exchangers, direct fired heaters,
miscellaneous heaters, and steam generating equipment.
8. Preparation of piping specifications including valve specifications and
valve item number lists.
9. Finalizing general plot plan.
10. Planning piping arrangements and listing of materials for underground
piping.
11. Foundation design for vessels and other equipments. Preliminary
construction operations are some times started at this point.
12. Structural steel design or design of other structures required for process
operation.
13. Electrical conduit arrangement.
14. Foundation design for electrical equipment.
15. Receipt of certified dimension drawings on items 3 to 7.
16. Completion of piping arrangements, sufficiently to determine and fix vessel
nozzle orientations.
17. Release of vessels for fabrication.
18. Release of foundation drawings to construction forces.
19. Release of structural steel drawings for procurement and fabrication.
20. Construction start: clear site, preliminary grading and foundation
excavations.
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21. Completion of preliminary piping material listing including valves.

22. Listing of all items for field construction of pipe supports.
23. Start of instrument installation drawings.
24. Completion of piping design and release of piping for fabrication.
25. Completion of material listing for buildings.
26. Completion of electrical drawings and material listing for buildings.
27. Completion of procurement of all major equipment.
28. Delivery of items under 4 through 8.
29. Completion of underground installation.
30. Completion of foundations.
31. Delivery of major items, and start of above ground erection.
32. Installation of piping.
33. Installation of electrical.
34. Installation of instrumentation.
35. Testing.
36. Insulation installation.
37. Clean-up
38. Operation start-up procedures.
39. Acceptance of plant by customer.
1.6 INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
The purpose of industrial lighting is to provide energy efficient illumination in
quality and quantity sufficient for safety and to enhance visibility and productivity
within a pleasant environment. Visual tasks in industries may be extremely small
or very large; dark or light; opaque, transparent or translucent; on specular or
diffuse surfaces and may involve flat or contoured shapes. Lighting must be
suitable for adequate visibility and productivity in developing raw materials into
finished products. Physical hazards exist in manufacturing processes and,
therefore, lighting must contribute to the utmost as a safety factor in preventing
accidents. The speed of operations may be such as to allow only minimum time for
visual perception and, therefore, lighting must be a compensating factor to increase
the speed of vision. Lighting must serve not only as a production tool and as a
safety factor, but should also contribute to the overall environmental conditions of
the work space. The lighting system should be part of an overall planned
environment.
General considerations of design for lighting industrial areas
The designer of an industrial lighting system should consider the following
factors:
1. Determine the quantity and quality of illumination desirable for safety of
personnel, the manufacturing processes and the environment.
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2. Select lighting equipment that will provide the quantity and quality
requirements by examining photometric characteristics, and mechanical performance
that will meet installation, operating and actual maintenance conditions.
3. Select and arrange equipment so that it will be easy and practical to
maintain.
4. Balance all of the energy management considerations and economic factors
including initial, operating and maintenance costs, versus the quantity and quality
requirements for optimum visual performance. The choice of the electric
distribution system may affect overall economics.
The use of day-lighting should be considered for area lighting in all industries.
Factors of special consideration
Lighting and Space Conditioning
With the use of higher illuminances, it is often practical to combine the
lighting, heating, cooling and atmospheric control requirements in an integrated
system. The lighting system can often provide most of the energy during the heating
period. When cooling is required much of the lighting heat can be removed by the
air exhaust system.
High Humidity or Corrosive Atmosphere and Classified Location Lighting
Enclosed gasketed luminaires are used in non-classified areas where
atmospheres contain nonflammable dusts and vapors, or excessive dust.
Enclosures protect the interior of the luminaire from conditions prevailing in the
area. Steam processing plating areas, wash and shower rooms, and other areas of
unusually high humidity are typical areas that require enclosed luminaries. Severe
corrosive conditions necessitate knowledge of the atmospheric content to permit
selection of proper material for the luminaire. Classified locations are areas where
atmospheres contain inflammable dusts, vapors or gases in explosive
concentrations.
Abnormal Temperature Conditions
Low ambient temperatures must be recognized as existing in such areas as
unheated heavy industrial plants, frozen food plants and cold storage warehouses.
Equipment should be selected to operate under such conditions and particular
attention should be given to lamp starting and light output characteristics, if
fluorescent equipment is considered. With high intensity discharge equipment,
temperature variation has practically no effect on light output, but the proper
starting characteristics must be provided. With incandescent filament lamp
equipment neither the starting nor the operation is a problem at low temperature.
Abnormally high temperatures may be common in truss heights in foundries,
steel mills, forge shops, etc. Caution should be observed in selecting lighting
equipment for mounting in such locations, it is particularly important to consider
the temperature limitations of fluorescent and high intensity discharge ballasts
under such conditions. Often ballasts should be remotely located at a lower and
16
cooler level or special high temperature equipment should be used. The reduction
in fluorescent lamp output at high operating temperatures should be recognized.
Maintenance
Regular cleaning and prompt replacement of lamp outages is essential in any
well-operated industrial lighting system. It is important for the lighting designer to
analyze luminaire construction and reflector finish and also to make provisions for
maintenance access so the system can be properly serviced. Another point that
should be considered is that it may often be necessary to do the servicing during
the plant operating hours.
Supplementary lighting in Industry
Difficult seeing tasks often require a specific, amount or quality of lighting
which cannot readily be obtained by general lighting methods. To solve such
problems supplementary luminaires often are used to provide higher illuminances
for small or restricted areas. Also, they are used to furnish a certain luminance, or
color, or to permit special aiming or positioning of light sources to produce or avoid
highlights or shadows to best portray the details of the task.
Because supplementary lighting can be specified, it is necessary to recognize
the exact nature of the visual task and to understand its light reflecting or
transmitting characteristics. An improvement in the visibility of the task will
depend upon one or more of the four fundamental visibility factors — luminance,
contrast, size and time. Thus, in analyzing the problem, the designer of the lighting
may find that seeing difficulty is caused by insufficient luminance, poor contrast
(veiling reflections), small size, or that task motion is too fast for existing seeing
conditions.
The planning of supplementary lighting also entails consideration of the visual
comfort of both those workers who benefit directly and those who are in the
immediate area. Supplementary equipment must be carefully shielded to prevent
glare for the user and his associates. Luminance ratios should be carefully
controlled. Ratios between task and immediate surroundings should be limited.
To attain these limits it is necessary to coordinate the design of supplementary
and general lighting.
Creating a good industrial lighting system involves considering numerous
design criteria, while taking into account the visual tasks involved (the work) and
the operating conditions at a facility.
The following steps should be adopted in designing industrial lighting system:
 Determine the quality of illumination needed for a particular
manufacturing process.
 Determine the quantity of illumination required at the task or process.
 Determine the appropriate lighting level required for safety, and ensure
all three of the factors – quality, quantity and safety – are properly
considered in the final design.
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 Select the listed or approved lighting equipment that satisfies all the
requirements, including mechanical performance.
 Prepare a lighting fixture layout that responds to the concerns of
maintainability and safety.
 Review the energy, economic, and operating characteristics of the
lighting system.
The quality factors to consider include:
Luminance and luminance ratios. The ability to see detail depends greatly on
the contrast, or difference in luminance, between the task detail and its
background. The greater the contrast, the easier it is to see the task. However, the
human eye responds better when the luminances (brightness) within the field of
vision is fairly uniform. Thus, all luminances in the field of view should be carefully
controlled.
Glare and visual comfort. Glare is anything that causes annoying discomfort or
loss of visual performance and visibility. It can come directly from the lighting
fixture or lamp, or indirectly from reflections off other surfaces in the area.
Specifically, a person experiences disturbing or disabling glare when the luminance
within the field of view exceeds the level to which the eyes have adapted.
The following steps can help minimize glare-producing conditions:
 Use a greater number of lower wattage lamps to reduce individual lamp
brightness.
 Shield the lighting fixtures or place them at a higher elevation, above
the workers’ usual field of view.
 Direct some light to the ceiling to balance space brightness ratios and
reduce contrast between the ceiling and the fixtures.
 Install computer screens, or other reflective viewing surfaces, facing
away from windows, skylights, or high lumen output fixtures.
Annoying flicker: One problem with any light source that operates on
alternating current is lamp flicker. The problem occurs because the current of the
lighting branch circuit passes through zero twice each cycle. For an incandescent
source, this isn’t a serious concern because the filament doesn’t have time to cool
down enough to noticeably affect light output. However, for both fluorescent and
HID sources, the arc current is extinguished at each zero crossing and recreated
constantly. This causes a 120 cycle-per-second flicker, which is most noticeable in
peripheral vision and considered annoying. However, if someone observes rotating
machinery under arc discharge lighting and the frequency of the lamp flicker
approaches the speed of rotation, then the object appears to be rotating at a very
slow speed. If the frequency and speed are matched, the object, such as a shaft or
an impeller blade, will appear to be stationary. This can pose a danger to workers
who may not recognize the machinery is rotating.
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The problem can be minimized in several ways. When practical, lamps are
mounted in pairs-one with a lagging lamp current and the other with a leading
lamp current. The two waveforms are out of phase with each other. It’s also
possible to connect adjacent fixtures to different phases of a 3-phase power system.
Finally, visible flicker can be virtually eliminated when high frequency electronic
ballasts, rather than core and coil magnetic ballasts, are used.
Color: Accurate color rendering is an important condition in industrial lighting
systems. It can make it possible to conduct inspections for defects in products more
rapidly. Additionally, the ability to see colors correctly is useful for the proper
identification of safety colors used to highlight possible hazardous situations.
The quantity of light needed for the activity is considered after a quality
analysis. The illuminance values (footcandles) for both the horizontal plane and
vertical plane should be calculated. The vertical footcandle level is considered
important today, since a great deal of assembly, fabrication, and processing
involves 3-dimensional materials. In most cases, the general lighting system isn’t
adequate for detailed or close work.
Supplemental task lighting close to the work surface may also be needed
because localized lighting optimizes energy use and gives workers the ability to
adjust/control this lighting to meet their needs.
General lighting equipment: Just as important as the light itself are the pieces
of the system that will create that light.
Luminaire types: Industrial high-intensity-discharge (HID) luminaires are
generally divided into two categories. In a high-bay area, the spacing-to-mounting-
height ratio is 1.0 or less, and the mounting height is not less than 25 feet. In a
low-bay area, the spacing-to-mounting-height ratio is more than 1.0 and the
mounting height is less than 25 feet. The light distribution of high-bay HID fixtures
is usually symmetrical, and is often adjusted to produce narrow to medium wide
(44° to 60°) distribution with spacing criteria values of 1.0 or less. In addition to
HID fixtures, twin-tube, quad-tube, and linear fluorescent fixtures are also widely
specified for manufacturing facilities and warehouses applications, and they can be
placed under the same high-bay and low-bay categories.
In the past, lighting designers usually had to choose between metal-halide (MH)
and high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp, and HPS was frequently selected. Recently,
the advent of pulse-start (high wattage, 175W to 1,000W), low-wattage (35/39W to
150W), and ceramic metal halide lamps has blurred the line between these choices.
Pulse-start MH lamp: Pulse-start ballast/metal halide (PS MH) lamp systems
are proving to be a useful replacement for high-pressure sodium (HPS) systems in
both high-and low-bay applications that require good color rendering
characteristics. A pulse-start MH system can provide efficiencies that approach
those of HPS systems – superior light output, high lumen maintenance, and long
life – but without the yellowish look of the HPS lamp.
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Other advantages of PS MH over conventional MH systems include the

following:
 More lumens per watt. Lumen output increases by 25% to 50%,
depending on lamp wattage and burning cycle.
 Improved lumen maintenance and longer lamp life by as much as 50%.
 Faster warm up and a faster re-strike time if the arc is interrupted
while the lamp is hot.
 Reduced color shift, improved lamp-to-lamp color consistency, and a
color rendering index (CRI) of up to 85, which offers a 30%
improvement over the standard MH lamp.
A high-voltage igniter delivers a high-voltage pulse directly across the PS MH
lamp’s operating electrodes, replacing the standard ballast’s 600V peak voltage and
eliminating the standard MH lamp’s internal starting probe and its protective
switch. Thus, the PS MH ballast’s open-circuit voltage requirement is reduced to
the operating requirements of the lamp. This lower operating circuit voltage creates
lower ballast operating temperatures, resulting in long ballast life, reduced
maintenance/replacement costs, and the possibility of high fixture ambient
temperature ratings.
In many cases, a 320W or 350W PS MH lamp can either replace a standard
400W MH lamp or make it possible to use fewer 400W PS MH fixtures in a lighting
layout.
T8 fluorescent lamp. A number of technology improvements in linear
fluorescent lamps greatly expand the selection for industrial applications. For
example, second generation 800 series F32 T8 lamps (with matching electronic
ballasts) are rated for 24,000 hours with 92% lumen maintenance. In addition, T8
fluorescent lamps keep up to 93% of full efficacy over a five-year average rated life.
Although fluorescents are available with up to 95 CRI, the lumens are much
less than for 85 to 86 CRI fluorescent lamps. Most fluorescent highbay fixtures use
85-86 CRI lamps, which have much better color rendering than all HID, except the
new ceramic pulse-start MH lamps that have 90 to 95 CRI, without sacrificing light
output. For some applications, well-designed linear fluorescent highbays are better
than well-designed HID highbays with regard to glare, contrast ratios, and vertical
footcandles.
Direct/indirect fluorescent lighting provides a comfortable atmosphere for
most industrial laboratories that handle tasks that range from critical research to
routine preparation. This type of system minimizes reflected glare in a space where
material, like glass metal containers, instrumentation and computer screens are
found.
T5 fluorescent lamp. With a nominal 46-inch length, the T5 fluorescent source
provides superior control and optical efficiency for both direct and pendant-
mounted luminaires. A highly specular reflector used in conjunction with this long
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thin lamp can provide a candlepower distribution curve that offers a great deal of
vertical footcandles, which are important in applications like warehouse rack aisles.
A good high-bay fixture with four F54T5HO lamps (234W) can usually replace a
standard 400W MH or a 320W PS MH high-bay fixture. The fixtures can have a
horizontal, triangle, square, or cross configuration, and the reflector can provide
direct, indirect, or direct/indirect distribution.
Compact fluorescent lamps. Improvements in compact fluorescent (CFL) lamp
design, such as new amalgam technology, which provides a stable light output over
a wide temperature range, result in longer life and higher wattage offerings. Ratings
of 70W, 80W, and even 120W and lumen outputs of up to 9,000 lumens, allows
these lamps to be used in high-ceiling or high-light-level applications, again
competing with the MH lamp.
CFL fixtures that use multiple lamps are similar to HID fixtures in size and
have the advantage of offering a tailored light output because of choices in lamp
lumen output and the number of lamps used.
Fixture considerations
Classified areas, where flammable gas or vapors, combustible dust, or easily
ignitable flyings or fibers are or can be present, should be of particular concern.
The designer should check with the insurance carrier for the industrial site to
determine the exact Class and Division for a specific area. Then the correct fixture
can be selected. In an environment where greater protection for airborne particles is
required, fluorescent fixtures are available with dust-tight covers. In damp locations,
diffusers or lenses with vapor-tight gasketing are required.
1.7 INDUSTRIAL VENTILATION
Industrial ventilation is a method of controlling worker exposure to airborne
toxic chemicals or flammable vapors by exhausting contaminated air away from the
work area and replacing it with clean air. When workers are exposed to amounts of
chemicals in the air that exceed permissible limits, the employers should take steps
to reduce their exposure. Ventilation is specifically important in such operations as
spray painting, abrasive blasting, grinding and polishing, welding, use of dip tanks,
and work in confined spaces.
It is one alternative to control employee exposure to air contaminants in the
workplace. Other alternatives include process changes, work practice changes,
substitution with less toxic chemicals, or elimination of the use of toxic
chemicals. Industrial ventilation is typically used to remove welding fumes, solvent
vapors, oil mists or dusts from a work location and exhaust these contaminants
outdoors.
Control of worker exposure by ventilation or other means is required under the
following three conditions:
1. When levels of airborne contaminants (chemicals, dusts, vapors,
fumes) are above their permissible exposure limits,
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2. When the lower explosive limit of flammable vapors is exceeded,

3. When the oxygen level drops below 19.5 % in the air.
Engineering controls, including ventilation must be implemented before
resorting to the use of respirators. Respirators may be used to control worker
exposure only when ventilation is not feasible or when it does not lower the air
contaminant levels below their permissible exposure limits or in emergency
situations. Forced air (mechanical) ventilation is always required when workers
enter confined spaces where there is a potential for exposure to toxic and,
flammable vapors or dust or oxygen deficiency."
Types & Components of Ventilation Systems
There are three types of workplace ventilation:
1. "Indoor air quality ventilation" used primarily to provide fresh, heated or
cooled air to buildings as part of the heating, ventilating and air-
conditioning system,
2. "Dilution ventilation" which dilutes contaminated air in a whole building
or room by blowing in clean air and exhausting some dirty air,
3. "Local exhaust ventilation" which captures contaminate emissions at or
very near the source and exhausts them outside.
Indoor air quality ventilation, used primarily in offices and other non-
industrial buildings, will not be covered here.
There are advantages and disadvantages to the use of either dilution
ventilation or local exhaust ventilation in terms of costs and effectiveness. Table 1
compares the two types.
Table 1
DILUTION VENTILATION LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Usually lower Does not Captures Higher cost for

equipment and completely contaminant at design,
installation costs. remove source and installation and
contaminants. removes it from the equipment.
Annamalai University workplace.
Requires less Cannot be used Only choice for Requires regular

maintenance. for highly toxic highly toxic cleaning,
chemicals. airborne inspection and
chemicals. maintenance.
Effective control for Ineffective for Can handle all

small amounts of dusts or metal sorts of
low toxicity fumes or large contaminants
chemicals. amounts of gases including dusts
or vapors. and metal fumes.
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Effective control for Requires large Requires smaller

flammable or amounts of amount of makeup
combustible gases heated or cooled air since smaller
or vapors. makeup air. amounts of air are
being exhausted.
Best ventilation for Ineffective for Less energy costs

small dispersed handling surges since less makeup
contaminant of gases or air to heat or cool.
sources or mobile vapors or
sources. irregular
emissions.
Dilution Ventilation
Dilution ventilation is usually accomplished with the use of large exhaust fans
in the walls or roof of a building or room. Opening doors or windows can be used as
dilution ventilation, but this is not always a reliable method since air movement is
not controlled. Cooling fans (floor fans) are also sometimes used as a method of
ventilation, but these fans usually just blow the contaminant around the work area
without effectively controlling it. Dilution ventilation can be more effective if the
exhaust fan is located close to exposed workers and the makeup air is located
behind the worker so that contaminated air is drawn away from the worker's
breathing zone.
In cases where the source of contamination is widely scattered or is from a
mobile source, like carbon monoxide from a forklift, large wall or roof exhaust fans
can be effective. Makeup air to replace the air exhausted is necessary for the best
control. Simple openings in walls or doors can be sources of makeup air, or a
second fan can draw makeup air into the building or room. However, makeup air
may require heating in the winter resulting in increased heating bills.
Local Exhaust Ventilation
Local exhaust ventilation is needed when employees are exposed to high
toxicity chemicals, when large amounts of dusts or welding fumes are generated, or
when increased heating costs from ventilation in cold weather are a concern. Local
exhaust ventilation operates on the principle that air moves from an area of high
pressure to an area of low pressure. The difference in low pressure is created by a
fan that draws or sucks air through the ventilation system. Local exhaust systems
are located as close as possible to the source of contamination to capture the
contaminate before it is released into the work area. A local exhaust system
operates in the same manner as a household vacuum cleaner.
A local exhaust system has five basic elements:
1. A "hood" or opening that captures the contaminant at the source,
2. Ducts that transport the airborne chemicals through the system,
3. An air cleaning device (not always required) that removes the
contaminant from the moving air in the system,
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4. A fan that moves the air through the system and discharges (blows) it
outdoors,
5. An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged.
As with dilution ventilation, makeup air must be provided to replace the air
exhausted in order for the system to operate properly. Figure 1 illustrates the basic
parts of a local exhaust system.
Fig. 1. Local exhaust system

Hoods
A hood is designed to confine or capture the contaminant at its source. The air
velocity at the hood opening and inside the hood must be sufficient to capture and
carry the air contaminants. The hood should enclose the source of contaminant as
much as possible or be placed as close to the source as possible.
Air velocity in local exhaust systems is measured in feet per minute (fpm).
Volume of air though a local exhaust system is measured in cubic feet per minute
(cfm) which is simply the air velocity times the area of the hood opening. Sometimes
air velocity is measured indirectly by measuring air pressure in the ductwork of the
system. The pressure inside a local exhaust system is slightly negative compared to
the pressure outside the system and is measured in units called "inches of water".
This negative pressure varies through the system and is usually measured to
determine how well the system is functioning.
Although enclosing hoods provide the best control, they are often not feasible
because they would interfere with the work being done by the employee. In those
cases, a capture exhaust hood can only be located near the source of the
contaminant. These type of hoods "reach out" to capture the contaminant much
like a vacuum cleaner sucking dirt off a floor. However, the distance between the
face of the hood and source must be short to effectively capture the contaminant. A
hood moved from two inches away from a source to four inches away from a source
will require four times the amount of air volume through the system to provide the
same degree of capture. Adding a flange to the edges of the capturing hood provides
24
more efficient capture of contaminants. Wide and flat hoods or hoods with slots do
not have a greater "reach", rather they just spread out the airflow over a wide
distance. Their most common use is along the edge of tanks containing volatile
chemicals.
Canopy hoods are not recommended for use in local exhaust ventilation
because even slight cross-drafts can push contaminants out into the work area and
because they often draw air through the breathing zone of an employee working at
them. Figure 2 illustrates some additional problems with canopy hoods.
Fig. 2 Canopy hoods

Ducts and Ducting
Ducts carry the airborne contaminant through the local exhaust system. To do
this effectively, there should be as little resistance in the form of turbulence or
friction as possible. Air moving too slow through the system will cause settling out
of dusts and eventual clogging of the duct. Air moving too fast is wasteful of power,
can create noise problems and may cause excessive abrasion if dusts are being
exhausted. Smooth, round ducts are recommended for local exhaust systems. Dust
can get trapped in the corners of square ducts, and air turbulence is higher inside
them, reducing air velocity. Even though flexible ducting is sometimes necessary in
some situations, it has a rougher surface than smooth ducting resulting in more
friction and reduced air velocity.
Sharp bends or tees should be avoided in ducts as well as abrupt changes in
diameter. Also, smaller diameter duct will have greater friction than larger diameter
ductwork. Ducting should be straight at least two duct diameters before entering
the fan to maintain smooth airflow into the fan. Duct connections must also be as
tight as possible to prevent a reduction in air velocity at the hood because of leaks
at joints.
Air Cleaners
Air cleaning devices on ventilation systems are sometimes necessary to
capture large amounts of dust. In some instances, they may be required by air
pollution regulations. The type of air cleaner depends on the type of contaminant
25
being removed, its concentration in the air, the amount of contaminant that must
be removed, and other factors. Dust filters are the most common type of air
cleaners found in industry. Other types of air cleaners remove gases and vapors.
Local air pollution regulations dictate the type of air cleaner required. The cost and
extra resistance that these air cleaners add to an exhaust ventilation system must
be considered in the design.
Fans
Fans are the workhorses of exhaust ventilation systems. They must be the
appropriate size and type to make the ventilation system work effectively. They
must provide enough air pressure difference ("suction") to capture contaminants at
the source, draw them through the hood, carry them through the ducting and
exhaust them outdoors. There are two main types of exhaust fans - axial fans and
centrifugal fans. Axial fans, usually resembling propellers, draw air straight
through the fan. Centrifugal fans, resembling squirrel cages, draw air into the
center of the fan and exhaust it at a 90-degree angle
Axial or propeller fans are most commonly used for dilution ventilation or for
cooling. These fans are often mounted in a wall or ceiling. They can move large
amounts of air if there is little resistance, but are not suited for local exhaust
ventilation because they do not provide enough suction to draw air through the
system.
Centrifugal fans can operate at against a high resistance and are typically
used in local exhaust ventilation systems. There are several types of centrifugal
fans. The rugged radial blade centrifugal fans are the best type for exhausting
heavy amounts of dust because they are less likely to become clogged or abraded by
the dust.
Exhaust Stacks
Exhaust stacks also need to be designed and located properly for the most
efficient operation of a local exhaust system. A common mistake is to locate them
too close to building fresh air intakes. Generally they should be located no closer
than 50 feet to prevent re-circulation of contaminants. Stacks work best when they
are tall, usually at least 10 feet above the roof line. Air velocity out of the stack
should be at least 3000 feet per minute to overcome the effects of downdrafts from
wind blowing over the building. Rain caps on stacks should be avoided because
they tend to force contaminants back down to the building where they can be
pulled into the fresh air intakes. They are also not very effective in keeping rain out
of the stack.
Flow charts
On the basis of the laboratory results, the complete process is broken down
into a series of unit operations or processes, and a suitable type of equipment for
each step is tentatively chosen. Having tentatively selected the type of equipment to
be used, the chemical engineer is able to write down all the quantitative data that
will be needed for the design of each equipment. Such data will include, material
26
balance, heat balance, physical, chemical and thermodynamic properties of raw

materials, intermediate compounds and final products, reaction rates, heat and
mass transfer coefficients and other rate parameters, power requirements,
corrosion rates etc. The design data required for each piece of equipment can be
classified under the six heads:
1. Data available from past experience.
2. Data given in the laboratory reports or which can be derived from the
Laboratory results.
3. Data available in the literature.
4. Data which can be approximated sufficiently closely for design purposes
by means of thermodynamic relations, the theorem of corresponding
states, or some of the many empirical or semi empirical correlations that
have appeared in the recent years.
5. Data, which could be obtained by, further research in the laboratory.
6. Other data felt necessary for design purposes. Information falling under
this head can be determined only in a pilot plant.
The new process may be entirely made up of standard unit operations which
are well understood and from which plant can be confidently designed from laborite
data alone. Flow diagrams are prepared showing the material quantities and any
information on heat or power requirements that is available.
Flow charts describe figuratively the sequence of operations taking place in the
process, the equipment used and the process conditions to be maintained. Material
flow diagrams indicate the amount of materials passing through each equipment of
the process and the energy flow diagram describes the energy entering and leaving
each equipment. These diagrams will be of use in energy auditing and in
determining the leakages occurring in industries.
1.8 PILOT PLANT AND SCALE UP
Pilot plant is a small plant used to provide advance information about a future
large-scale plant. It is the large-scale apparatus to which model or element is
geometrically related.
Pilot plant is employed in process industries as a forerunner to a full-sized
production plant that is not yet built. Its principle function is usually to provide
design data for the ultimate large one, although it may also be required to produce
small quantities of a new product for trial.
The pilot plant can be used to study the behavior of an existing plant of which
the small unit is a reproduction. In this case the pilot plan is called a model. Its
function is to exhibit the effects of change in shape or operating conditions more
quickly and economically than would be possible by experiments on the full- sized
prototype.
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If a small sized equipment is used for process development it is called a pilot

plant. If it is used for the process study of the existing plant it is called a model. It
is generally desirable that a pilot plant should be designed with some particular
type and size of large-scale unit in mind, and in this sense the pilot plant may be
regarded as a model of an imaginary prototype.
For purpose of plant design, a pilot plant is properly employed to gain such
information as cannot be obtained by any cheaper or quicker method. In the
development of a new process it is not necessary to reproduce the entire process on
the pilot-plant scale in order to obtain design data. Only those plant items need to
be piloted which cannot be designed sufficiently closely from past experience or
from known principles on the basis of laboratory data.
The new process may be entirely made up of standard unit operations which
are well understood and from which plant can be confidently designed from laborite
data alone. Usually such a procedure, when it is possible, necessitates relatively
large margins of safety and correspondingly costly plant. There is also the risk of
unsatisfactory performance owing to some unexpected scale effect.
One or two critical operations of the new process are selected for study on a
pilot-plant scale. In order to yield the maximum amount of useful information, the
experimental equipment for the critical operations requires to be designed on
correct principles and operated under appropriate conditions.
As the detailed design and construction of the full-scale plant proceed, the
pilot plant is then available to solve last minute problems. In the case of a difficult
or a dangerous process, it can provide training ground for production –plant
operatives. Finally, when the full-scale plant is built and in operation, the pilot
plant becomes a working model in which the characteristic of the process can be
further studied at relatively less cost.
In calculating plant dimensions from laboratory data and theoretical or
empirical design equations, there are possibilities of errors entering from various
sources. These sources are the quantities that enter the rate equation of the
process. They are:
1. Dimensional and time factors
2. Operating variables
3. Physical or chemical properties
4. Numerical factors.
In a correctly planned pilot-plant or model experiment, most of three sources
of error avoided.
Advantages of pilot- plants
It would be technically possible to transfer any new process whatever from the
laboratory directly to large scale production provided that unlimited money were
available, so that huge factors of safety could be allowed. On the other hand, the
performance data obtained from a correctly designed and operated small-scale
28
plant are always more accurate and reliable than data scale-up from the laboratory
or derived by calculation from generalized correlations. Smaller factors of safety can
be allowed in the design of the production plant and yields and efficiencies will
often be better and initial troubles will be fewer.
1. The performance data obtained from a correctly designed and operated
small-scale plants are always more accurate and reliable than data scaled
from the laboratory bench or derived by calculations from generalized
correlations.
2. Smaller factors of safety can be allowed in the design of the production
plant. There will be fewer initial troubles on the large scale.
Scale-up
Scale up is defined as the ‘act of using data obtained on the model for design
of the prototype’.
Almost all the scientific data and experience obtained during the course of a
process development problem are gathered from work on a small apparatus. Before
this information can be used for large scale plant design it must be modified in
some manner which accounts for the change in the size of the apparatus from
small scale to large scale. This modification is termed as scale-up.
Many engineers make a distinction between design and scale-up. Design is
done using well-established correlations and estimated or measured physical
properties. Scale -up is done by modifying a measured result by a factor involving
the ratio of the linear dimensions of model and prototype. The scale-up problem is
to find out this factor.
Scaling up a piece of equipment is an extrapolation into the unknown. The
larger the scale ratio the more dubious the extrapolation is. Larger units tend to be
less efficient than smaller ones. In order to reduce the element of risk in
extrapolation, the scale ratio should be held to a fairly low level and equipment at
several intermediate scales should be built and tested. Thus there are, laboratory
scale, pilot plant scale.
Semi - works scale and plant scale
For a commercial process that is required to earn profits, the decision on
whether to unit the pilot plant stage or not must rest upon economic balance in
which savings in time and development costs are set against higher efficiency and
lower capital and scale up costs. The point of balance will vary with the growth of
theoretical knowledge on the one hand and improvement in experimental methods
on the other.
Pilot plant experiments are particularly costly and time consuming and a
suitable experimental design and statistical analysis of the results can greatly
reduce the number of test runs that would otherwise be required to produce a given
amount of information.
29
Because of the large amount of fundamental investigations being carried out it

is now possible to design large-scale apparatus from tests on small units. Very large
scale - ratios can hence be used.
How the pilot-plant study is carried out?
A pilot plant is unlikely to yield the maximum possible amount of information
unless the critical components at least are designed and operated in accordance
with model theory. The first step is to derive the similarity criteria, which govern the
operations, or the processes to be studied on the small scale. These may be
obtained either by dimensional analysis or from the fundamental differential
equations of the process. A study of the similarity criteria will reveal the conditions
under which the model should be tested in order that the results may simulate
those obtained under given conditions on the large scale. It will also show whether
there are likely to be appreciable scale effects, in which case it will be necessary to
apply corrections to the pilot-plant results before they are used for full-scale design.
Finally such a study will reveal those awkward cases in which two or more
similarity criteria are incompatible. Consequently it may not be possible to simulate
a large-scale results in a small apparatus with any certainty. Even in these cases,
experiments with a small-scale unit over a sufficiently wide range of conditions can
give valuable information for the design of the full sized plant.
Evaluation of scale effects
The scale effects can be evaluated by scale up a process by easy stages
through two ore three pilot plants of increasing size. The effects, if any of change of
scale on rate parameters and yields can then be observed directly and extrapolated
to the full scale. Traditionally graduated succession of the pilot plants is employed
in the process design. It is costly and slow. The principle aim of model theory is to
allow of larger steps in the development and reduce their number and duration.
Similarity
Similarity may be defined as the condition of two or more systems in which
there is constant ratio between corresponding quantities. Similarity may be
geometrical, mechanical, thermal, or chemical according to the properties in respect
of which the symbol are similar. Each of these similarities includes the previous
ones. The principle of similarity is concerned with the relations between physical
systems of different systems of different sizes. It is fundamental to the scaling up or
down of physical and chemical processes.
The principle of similarity is coupled with the method of dimensional analysis.
The principle of similarity is a general principle of nature. Dimensional analysis is
only one of the techniques by which the principle may be applied to the specific
cases. The other technique is the application of generalized equations of motion of
the system.
Principle of similarity
The principle of similarity is concerned with the relations between physical
systems of different sizes. It is fundamental to the scaling up or down of physical
and chemical processes.
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The principle of similarity states that the spatial and temporal configuration of
as physical system is determined by ratios of magnitudes within the system itself
and does not depend upon the size or nature of the units in which these
magnitudes are measured.
The principle of similarity is based on the simple idea that if two pieces of
chemical equipment are built so that they are of similar in shape, and similar
processes are conducted in them in similar ways, similar results will be obtained.
These results will then be related to one another by simple relations containing only
the linear dimensions of the apparatus.
In chemical engineering four different types of similarity are recognized:
geometrical, mechanical, thermal and chemical. Each of these necessitates all the
previous ones. Mechanical similarity requires static similarity, kinematic similarity
and dynamic similarity. In chemical engineering applications the systems which are
in mechanical similitude are subjected to shapes, motions and forces which are
similar. Thermal similarity is concerned with systems in which there is a flow of
heat and temperature is one of the principal concepts.
Geometrical similarity
Two bodies are geometrically similar when to every point in the one body there
exists a corresponding point in the other. Geometric similarity requires that the
systems have the same shape or geometry. In principle, geometric similarity is easy
to achieve by making one system a scale model of the other. In practice, especially if
the scale ratio is high, this is often impossible. Exact geometric similarity is seldom
achieved except over fairly small scale ratios.
Mechanical similarity
Mechanical similarity comprises static, or static-force, similarity, kinematic
similarity and dynamic similarity. Each of these can be regarded as an extension of
the concept of geometric similarity. Stationary or moving systems are subjected to
forces.
Static similarity
Static similarity is concerned with solid bodies or subject to constant stresses.
Geometrically similar bodies are statically similar when under constant stress
their relative deformations are such that they remain geometrically similar.
The ratio of corresponding displacements will then be equal to the linear scale
ratio, and the strains at corresponding points will be the same.
Dynamic similarity
Geometrically similar moving systems are dynamically similar when the ratios
of all corresponding forces are equal. Dynamic similarity is concerned with the
forces which accelerate or retard moving masses in dynamic systems. Forces of the
same kind (gravitational, centrifugal, etc.) which act upon corresponding particles
at corresponding times will be referred to as corresponding forces.
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Dynamic similarity requires that the forces created by, or impressed on, the
fluids in the system shall have a constant ratio to one another at corresponding
points in the system.
Dynamic similarity can be achieved when systems are in geometric and
kinematic similitude and when the ratios of certain forces are equal in both the
systems. Dynamic similarity in many chemical engineering systems will involve
viscous forces, inertial forces, surface tension forces, gravity forces, and in heat
transfer equipment, thermal forces. In fluid systems, the principal forces acting are
pressure, inertial, gravitational, viscous, and interfacial, and its ratios between the
magnitudes of these forces at corresponding points, expressed as dimensionless
groups , which constitute the criteria of dynamic similarity.
In fluid flow systems dynamic similarity is of direct importance where it is
desired to predict pressure drops or power consumption. In heat and mass transfer
or chemical reactions, it is chiefly of indirect importance as a means of establishing
kinematic similarity.
Thermal similarity
Geometrically similar systems are thermally similar when correspond9ing
temperature differences bear a constant ratio to one another and when the system,
if moving, are kinematically similar.
The temperature difference at corresponding times between a given pair of
points in one system and that between the corresponding pair of points in the other
system will be referred to as corresponding temperature differences.
The ratio of corresponding temperature differences might be termed as
temperature scale ratio.
Thermal similarity is concerned with systems in which there is a flow of heat,
and it introduces the dimensions of temperature as well as those of length, force
and time.
For conduction, natural convection and radiation, a temperature difference is
necessary. Other things being equal, the rate of heat flow between any two points
varies with temperature difference between them. For heat transfer by bulk
movement of matter, the heat transfer process depends form of motion or flow
pattern in the system. Hence in moving systems thermal similarity necessitates
kinematic similarity.
Chemical similarity
Geometrically and thermally similar systems are chemically similar when
corresponding concentration differences bear a constant ratio to one another and
when the system, if moving are kinematically similar.
1.9 MACHINE GUARDING
Moving machine parts have the potential to cause severe workplace injuries,
such as crushed fingers or hands, amputations, burns, or blindness. Safeguards
are essential for protecting workers from these preventable injuries. Any machine
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part, function, or process that may cause injury must be safeguarded. If the
operation of a machine or accidental contact can injure the operator or others in
the vicinity, the hazards must be eliminated or controlled.
Machine guarding protects workers from preventable injuries caused by moving
parts in industrial settings. Guard is a barrier that restricts entry of any body part
or object into the point of operation. Machine guards are safety devices that prevent
machine operators from having body parts or other loose objects in the danger zone
during the operation of a machine. They are used at the point of operation, on the
power transmission apparatus and on any other moving parts. A number of
different safety measures are performed by the machine guards. Properly working
safety guards should not allow a worker to get near the moving parts of a machine
while they are in operation, and they should block any objects that might fall in.
They should also be secured to the machine and not easily avoided or removed.
Almost all machines need safety guards. Any type of machine that shears or
impacts, has meshing gears, rotating parts, reciprocating arms, cutting teeth or
moving belts has the potential to be hazardous and should have machine guards.
They are crucial to these types of machines in order to prevent crushed fingers or
hands, blindness, or something worse.
Dangerous moving parts in three basic areas require safeguarding:
1. The point of operation: that point where work is performed on the material,
such as cutting, shaping, boring, or forming of stock.
2. Power transmission apparatus: all components of the mechanical system
which transmit energy to the part of the machine performing the work.
These components include flywheels, pulleys, belts, connecting rods,
couplings, cams, spindles, chains, cranks, and gears.
3. Other moving parts: all parts of the machine which move while the
machine is working. These can include reciprocating, rotating, and
transverse moving parts, as well as feed mechanisms and auxiliary parts
of the machine.
Hazards created by different kinds of motions
A wide variety of mechanical motions and actions may present hazards to the
worker. These can include the movement of rotating members, reciprocating arms,
moving belts, meshing gears, cutting teeth, and any parts that impact or shear.
These different types of hazardous mechanical motions and actions are basic in
varying combinations to nearly all machines, and recognizing them is the first step
toward protecting workers from the danger they present.
The basic types of hazardous mechanical motions and actions are:
Motions: (1) rotating (including in-running nip points) (2) reciprocating and
(3) transversing
Actions: (1) cutting (2) punching (3) shearing and (4) bending
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Motions
Rotating motion can be dangerous; even smooth, slowly rotating shafts can
grip clothing, and through mere skin contact force an arm or hand into a
dangerous position. Injuries due to contact with rotating parts can be severe.
Collars, couplings, cams, clutches, flywheels, shaft ends, spindles, meshing gears,
and horizontal or vertical shafting are some examples of common rotating
mechanisms which may be hazardous. The danger increases when projections such
as set screws, bolts, nicks, abrasions, and projecting keys or set screws are exposed
on rotating parts.
Nip Points – are the points of rotating parts that are either touching or close to
each other. Nip points may cause injury if something is caught in them and the
machine does not stop.
In-running nip point hazards are caused by the rotating parts on machinery.
There are three main types of in-running nips. Parts can rotate in opposite
directions while their axes are parallel to each other. These parts may be in contact
(producing a nip point) or in close proximity. In the latter case the stock fed
between the rolls produces the nip points. This danger is common on machines
with intermeshing gears, rolling mills, and calendars. Nip points are also created
between rotating and tangentially moving parts. Some examples would be: the point
of contact between a power transmission belt and its pulley, a chain and a sprocket,
and a rack and pinion. Nip points can occur between rotating and fixed parts which
create a shearing, crushing, or abrading action. Examples are: spooked hand
wheels or flywheels, screw conveyors, or the periphery of an abrasive wheel and an
incorrectly adjusted work rest.
Reciprocating motions may be hazardous because, during the back-and-forth
or up-and-down motion, a worker may be struck by or caught between a moving
and a stationary part.
Transverse motion (movement in a straight, continuous line) creates a hazard
because a worker may be struck or caught in a pinch or shear point by the moving
part.
Actions
Cutting action may involve rotating, reciprocating, or transverse motion. The
danger of cutting action exists at the point of operation where finger, arm and body
injuries can occur and where flying chips or scrap material can strike the head,
particularly in the area of the eyes or face. Such hazards are present at the point of
operation in cutting wood, metal, or other materials. Examples of mechanisms
involving cutting hazards include bandsaws, circular saws, boring or drilling
machines, turning machines (lathes), or milling machines.
Punching action results when power is applied to a slide (ram) for the purpose
of blanking, drawing, or stamping metal or other materials. The danger of this type
of action occurs at the point of operation where stock is inserted, held, and
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withdrawn by hand. Typical machines used for punching operations are power
presses and iron workers.
Shearing action involves applying power to a slide or knife in order to trim or
shear metal or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of operation where
stock is actually inserted, held, and withdrawn. Examples of machines used for
shearing operations are mechanically, hydraulically, or pneumatically powered
shears.
Bending action results when power is applied to a slide in order to draw or
stamp metal or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of operation where
stock is inserted, held, and withdrawn. Equipment that uses bending action
includes power presses, press brakes, and tubing benders.
Methods of Machine Safeguarding There are many ways to safeguard machines.
The type of operation, the size or shape of stock, the method of handling, the
physical layout of the work area, the type of material, and production requirements
or limitations will help to determine the appropriate safeguarding method for the
individual machine. As a general rule, power transmission apparatus is best
protected by fixed guards that enclose the danger areas. For hazards at the point of
operation, where moving parts actually perform work on stock, several kinds of
safeguarding may be possible. One must always choose the most effective and
practical means available. There are mainly two types of protections available:
guards and devices.
1. Guards
a) Fixed
b) Interlocked
c) Adjustable
d) Self-adjusting
2. Devices
A) Presence Sensing
a) Photoelectrical (optical)
b) Radiofrequency (capacitance)
c) Electromechanical
A) Pullback
B) Restraint
C) Safety Controls
a) Safety trip control
1. Pressure-sensitive body bar
2. Safety tripod
3. Safety tripwire cable
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a) Two-hand control
b) Two-hand trip
Guards
Guards are barriers which prevent access to danger areas. There are four
general types of guards:
Fixed guards
Interlocked guards
Adjustable guards
Self-adjusting
Fixed guards
As its name implies, a fixed guard is a permanent part of the machine. It is not
dependent upon moving parts to perform its intended function. It may be
constructed of sheet metal, screen, wire cloth, bars, plastic, or any other material
that is substantial enough to withstand whatever impact it may receive and to
endure prolonged use. This guard is usually preferable to all other types because of
its relative simplicity and permanence.
Advantages of fixed guards
 Provides a barrier
 Can be constructed to suit many specific applications
 In-plant construction is often possible
 Can provide maximum protection
 Usually requires minimum maintenance
 Can be suitable to high production, repetitive operations
Disadvantages of Advantages of fixed guards:
 May interfere with visibility
 Can be limited to specific operations
 Machine adjustment and repair often require its removal, thereby
necessitating other means of protection for maintenance personnel
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Figure 3 shows a fixed enclosure guard shielding the belt and pulley of a power
transmission unit. An inspection panel is provided on top in order to minimize the
need for removing the guard. To remain effective, the inspection panel cannot be
removed while the mechanism is in operation.
In Figure 4, fixed enclosure guards are shown on a bandsaw. These guards
protect the operator from the turning wheels and moving saw blade. Normally, the
only time for the guards to be opened or removed would be for a blade change or
maintenance. It is very important that they be securely fastened while the saw is in
use.
Fig. 4: Fixed enclosure guards on a bandsaw
Interlocked guards: Interlocked guards automatically stop the parts of the
machine that are moving when they are removed, not allowing workers to enter the
problem area. Interlocked safety guards provide maximum protection. When this
type of guard is opened or removed, the tripping mechanism and/or power
automatically shuts off or disengages, and the machine cannot cycle or be started
until the guard is back in place. An interlocked guard may use electrical,
mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic power or any combination of these. Interlocks
should not prevent "inching" by remote control if required. Replacing the guard
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should not automatically restart the machine. To be effective, all movable guards
should be interlocked to prevent occupational hazards.
Interlocked guards
 Can provide maximum protection
 Allows access to machine for removing jams without time consuming
removal of fixed guards
 Requires careful adjustment and maintenance
 May be easy to disengage jams
Adjustable guards: Adjustable guards are able to work with many different
applications, and can fit with almost any size of stock.
Figure 5 shows a bandsaw with an adjustable guard to protect the operator
from the unused portion of the blade. This guard can be adjusted according to the
size of stock.
Fig. 5: A bandsaw with an adjustable guard
Adjustable guards
1. Provides a barrier that may be adjusted to facilitate a variety of production
operations
2. Can be constructed to suit many specific applications
3. Can be adjusted to admit varying sizes of stock
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4. Hands may enter danger area -- protection may not be complete at all
times
5. May require frequent maintenance and/or adjustment
6. The guard may be made ineffective by the operator
7. May interfere with visibility
Self-adjusting guards
Self-adjusting guards only allow a particular size of stock to go into the
machine before they come back into place to separate the operator from the danger
zone. The openings of the barriers are determined by the movement of the stock. As
the operator moves the stock into the danger area, the guard is pushed away,
providing an opening which is only large enough to admit the stock. After the stock
is removed, the guard returns to the rest position. This guard protects the operator
by placing a barrier between the danger area and the operator. The guards may be
constructed of plastic, metal, or other substantial material. Self-adjusting guards
offer different degrees of protection.
Self-adjusting
1. Provides a barrier that moves according to the size of the stock entering
the danger area
2. Off-the-shelf guards are often commercially available
3. Does not always provide maximum protection
4. May interfere with visibility
5. May require frequent maintenance and adjustment
Requirements for Safeguards
Safeguards must meet these minimum general requirements.
Prevent contact: The safeguard must prevent hands, arms, and any other
part of a worker's body from making contact with dangerous moving parts. A good
safeguarding system eliminates the possibility of the operator or another worker
placing parts of their bodies near hazardous moving parts.
Secure: Workers should not be able to easily remove or tamper with the
safeguard, because a safeguard that can easily be made ineffective is no safeguard
at all. Guards and safety devices should be made of durable material that will
withstand the conditions of normal use. They must be firmly secured to the
machine.
Protect from falling objects: The safeguard should ensure that no objects
can fall into moving parts. A small tool which is dropped into a cycling machine
could easily become a projectile that could strike and injure someone .
Create no new hazards: A safeguard defeats its own purpose if it creates a
hazard of its own such as a shear point, a jagged edge, or an unfinished surface
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which can cause a laceration. The edges of guards, for instance, should be rolled or
bolted in such a way that they eliminate sharp edges.
Create no interference: Any safeguard which impedes a worker from
performing the job quickly and comfortably might soon be overridden or
disregarded. Proper safeguarding can actually enhance efficiency since it can relieve
the worker's apprehensions about injury.
Allow safe lubrication: If possible, one should be able to lubricate the machine
without removing the safeguards. Locating oil reservoirs outside the guard, with a
line leading to the lubrication point, will reduce the need for the operator or
maintenance worker to enter the hazardous area.
Devices
A safety device may perform one of several functions. It may stop the machine
if a hand or any part of the body is inadvertently placed in the danger area; restrain
or withdraw the operator's hands from the danger area during operation; require
the operator to use both hands on machine controls, thus keeping both hands and
body out of danger; or provide a barrier which is synchronized with the operating
cycle of the machine in order to prevent entry to the danger area during the
hazardous part of the cycle.
Photoelectric sensing devices
The photoelectric (optical) presence-sensing device uses a system of light
sources and controls which can interrupt the machine's operating cycle. If the light
field is broken, the machine stops and will not cycle. This device must be used only
on machines which can be stopped before the worker can reach the danger area.
The design and placement of the guard depends upon the time it takes to stop the
mechanism and the speed at which the employee's hand can reach across the
distance from the guard to the danger zone.
Radiofrequency devices
The radiofrequency (capacitance) presence-sending device uses a radio beam
that is part of the machine control circuit. When the capacitance field is broken, the
machine will stop or will not activate. Like the photoelectric device, this device shall
only be used on machines which can be stopped before the worker can reach the
danger area. This requires the machine to have a friction clutch or other reliable
means for stopping.
Electromechanical sensors
The electromechanical sensing device has a probe or contact bar which
descends to a predetermined distance when the operator initiates the machine cycle.
If there is an obstruction preventing it from descending its full predetermined
distance, the control circuit does not actuate the machine cycle.
Pullback
Pullback devices utilize a series of cables attached to the operator's hands,
wrists, and/or arms. This type of device is primarily used on machines with
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stroking action. When the slide/ram is up between cycles, the operator is allowed
access to the point of operation. When the slide/ram begins to cycle by starting its
descent, a mechanical linkage automatically assures withdrawal of the hands from
the point of operation.
Restraint
The restraint (holdout) device utilizes cables or straps that are attached to the
operator's hands at a fixed point. The cables or straps must be adjusted to let the
operator's hands travel within a predetermined safe area. There is no extending or
retracting action involved. Consequently, hand-feeding tools are often necessary if
the operation involves placing material into the danger area.
1.10 HOUSEKEEPING IN INDUSTRY
Elimination of inefficiencies and accident hazards caused by unfavourable
conditions in and about the workplace is essential in getting the job done properly
and safely. The attention to these important details is widely referred to as “good
housekeeping”. Good housekeeping involves every phase of industrial operations
and should apply throughout the entire premises, indoors and out. It is more than
mere cleanliness. It requires orderly conditions, the avoidance of congestion, and
attention to such details as an orderly layout of the whole workplace, the marking
of aisles, adequate storage arrangements, and suitable provision for cleaning and
maintenance.
Good housekeeping helps to create:
 Better working conditions
 Safer workplaces
 Greater efficiency.
A clean, well-ordered, attractive work environment sets the tone of the
establishment. It encourages tidy work habits in employees. It helps reduce fatigue.
It promotes good worker-management relations. It also gives a lift to morale, which
is reflected in the quality of production and overall efficiency. Good housekeeping is
also a good advertisement for the company. Housekeeping makes the plant safer
place to work in.
Good housekeeping is a vital factor in preventing accidents
The great majority of all work accidents are caused during the handling of
goods or materials, and by people falling, being hit by falling objects, or striking
against objects in the workplace. All these causes can be reduced by good
housekeeping practices—in fact, good housekeeping is the only cure for hundreds
of accidents that occur.
Here are some kinds of accidents commonly caused by bad housekeeping:
 Tripping over loose objects on floors, stairs and platforms.
 Articles dropping from above.
 Slipping on greasy, wet or dirty surfaces.
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 Striking against projecting, poorly stacked, or misplaced material.

 Tearing the hands or other parts of the body on projecting nails, wire,
steel strapping on bales or crates, etc.
Typical examples of poor housekeeping that lead to these accidents are:
 Excessive material, waste or chips in the working area.
 Congested aisles.
 Tools left on machines.
 Waste containers overflowing.
 Lockers and workrooms in disorder.
 Acids in open containers.
 Broken glass.
 Electric leads or air lines across aisles.
 Dirty light fittings, windows and skylights.
Where housekeeping is bad, fire is a constant hazard. It can be caused by
many housekeeping problems—such as oil-soaked rags and clothing igniting from
spontaneous combustion; dust collectors not being properly or frequently cleaned;
or piles of paper and other packing materials being allowed to accumulate.
The following are the basic elements of a good housekeeping campaign that
need attention:
Aisles—Wide enough for traffic movements, marked off by floor lines from
work positions and storage areas.
Space—Sufficient room for the individual to work.
Storage—Adequate and convenient space for materials and tools.
Materials Handling—Layout planned for materials flow, with efficient methods
and equipment.
Ventilation—Good general ventilation plus local exhaust ventilation to remove
air contaminants at the source.
Floors and Walls—Of construction and materials that are easy to keep clean
and in good repair.
Lighting—Well-distributed artificial light and effective use of available daylight.
Waste Removal—Adequate facilities to prevent congestion and disorder.
Waste control is one of the basics of housekeeping. Waste materials should
always be collected in appropriate containers and emptied regularly. It’s a common
practice to let the floor catch all the waste and then spend time and energy cleaning
it up. It is obviously better to provide convenient containers for scrap and waste
and educate employees to use them. Safety will benefit, expense will be saved, and
the factory will be a better place in which to work. Oily floors are a common
accident and fire hazard. Splash guards and drip pans should be installed wherever
oil spills or drips may occur. Prevent accidents by keeping oil and grease off the
floor.
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Many industrial operations create dust. The control of dust is also an

important component of housekeeping. Dust provides an excellent fuel because the
finely divided particles are easily ignited and burn rapidly. Dust accumulates on
most surfaces and provides an easy way for fire to spread. The most effective way
of handling dust is to prevent its accumulation with effective dust collection
systems. All sources of dust should be ventilated into a dust collection system. If
they can’t be collected as part of the process (e.g. by enclosure and exhaust
methods) you need a way to clean them up. Vacuum cleaners are suitable for
removing light dust and dirt. Industrial models have special fittings for cleaning
walls, ceilings, ledges, machinery, and other hard-to-reach places where dust and
dirt collect.
If light dust is removed by sweeping, floors should be dampened first rather
than swept dry. Oiling floors occasionally with a light oil helps to lay the dust but
take care that slipping hazards do not occur. It is not only floors that need
sweeping. Dust and grime also collect on ledges, shelves, piping, conduits, lamps,
reflectors, windows, cupboards, lockers, and so on-and all these places need
attention.
Fluid leaks, particularly of flammable or combustible liquids, should be
corrected and cleaned up immediately. Leaks which are of inherent part of the
operation such as hydraulic fluid leaks should be absorbed with an appropriate
material and cleaned up regularly.
Keep aisles clear: Aisle space should be reserved for the movement of
personnel, products and materials. It should be kept clean and clear and should
never be used for “bottleneck” or “overflow’’ storage. This also applies to
passageways and emergency exits. Blind corners should be eliminated or be
adequately protected by warning signs.
Aisle boundary markings should be drawn to show clearly the space which has
been reserved for traffic. Markings should be sufficiently wide (say a minimum of 30
mm) and of a colour to make them clearly visible. Paint or durable plastic strips can
be used.
Improve storage facilities: Tidiness and order are essential in overcoming
storage problems, both in storerooms and in the yard. Good storage utilises air
space instead of floor space, and also saves time-wasting delays. It’s important to
prevent stores and scraps accumulating on the floor and around machines. Never
keep more stores and materials than necessary near machines and provide proper
facilities (such as bins, shelves, boxes, racks, etc.) in which to store them.
Clearances are another consideration in storage areas. Two-foot space should
be maintained between stored materials and walls. This space allows materials that
a water absorbing to expand and provides access for fire fighting. A one-foot
clearance from ceilings should be preserved. If the area has sprinklers stock should
be placed no closer than 18 inches below the sprinklers.
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Keep floors clean: Every year thousands of work injuries are caused by
people falling. Floor conditions are responsible for many of these accidents. When
floors are given the right treatment they are much easier to keep clean and hygienic.
Spilt oil and other liquids should be cleaned up at once. Chips, shavings, dust, and
similar wastes should never be allowed to accumulate. They should be removed
frequently, or better still, be suitably trapped before they reach the floor.
Paint the walls: Paint is one of the cheapest means of renovating walls, and a
fresh coat of paint can give a boost to morale. Light-coloured walls reflect light.
Dirty or dark-coloured walls absorb light.
Dirty walls have a depressing effect and encourage dirty habits and sloppy
attitudes. Choose suitable colours to paint walls, ceilings and working surfaces. See
that the paintwork is cleaned down periodically. Colour can be harnessed to assist
with safety. For example it can be used to warn of physical hazards and to mark
obstructions such as pillars. Painting handrails, machine guards and other safety
equipment renders them distinctive and also prevents rust. Colour can be used to
highlight the hazardous parts of machinery but it can never substitute for a needed
guard.
Maintain the light fittings: Attention to light fittings should be an integral
part of any good housekeeping programme. Dirty lamps and shades, and lamps
whose output has deteriorated with use, deprive employees of essential light. It’s
been found that lighting efficiency may be improved by 20 to 30 percent simply by
cleaning the lamps and reflectors.
Clean the windows: Clean windows let in light; dirty ones keep it out.
Insufficient light causes eye strain and leads to accidents because employees are
unable to see properly. Ensure that windows are not blocked by stacked materials,
equipment or articles on the ledges.
Keep tools tidy: Tool housekeeping is very important, whether in the tool
room, on the rack, out in the yard, or on the bench. Suitable fixtures for tools are
required to provide orderly arrangement, both in the tool room and near the work
bench, and a regular system of inspecting, cleaning, and repairing is an essential
part of any programme.
Look after your first aid gear: First aid facilities and equipment should be
kept under spotlessly clean conditions and fully stocked so that they are always
ready in the event of accidents or illness.
Inspect fire-control equipment: It is essential to ensure that all fire-fighting
equipment such as extinguishers and firehoses is regularly inspected and kept in
good working order. Fireprotection facilities — fire doors and exits, automatic
alarms, etc.— should be in good working order.
Doors and exits should always be kept clear of obstructions.
Attend regularly to maintenance
Perhaps the most important element of good housekeeping is the attention
paid to maintenance of buildings and equipment. If something gets broken or
damaged it should be replaced or fixed as quickly as possible (e.g., defective ladders,
44
broken handrails, steps, etc.). Apart from the possibility of causing accidents, a
workplace can take on a very neglected appearance if broken windows, damaged
doors, defective plumbing, leaking gutters, broken floor surfaces and the like are
allowed to remain in that condition. Employees may take the hint in a neglectful
attitude to their jobs. A good maintenance programme will make provision for the
inspection, lubrication, upkeep and repair of tools, equipment, machines and
processes.
Prepare a check list
Buildings
(1) Walls clean.(2) Windows clean.(3) Walls free of unnecessary hangings. (4)
Proper light provided. (5) Platforms in good condition.(6) Stairs clean and well lit.
Handrails and steps of sound construction and well maintained.
Floors
(1) Good floor surface. (2) Kept clean and free of loose material. Clean in
corners, behind radiators, along walls, and around pillars or columns. (3) Free of oil,
grease, etc. (4) Operating floors, or work positions free of loose scrap, metal or other
materials. (5) Free of unnecessary articles. (6) Bins provided for refuse.
Aisles
(1) Free of obstructions.(2) Safe and free passage to fire-fighting equipment and
fire exits. (3) Safe and free access to work positions. (4) Clearly defined.
Machinery and equipment
(1) Clean and free of unnecessary material.(2) Free of unnecessary dripping of
oil or grease. (3) Area around machines clean and free of rags, paper, etc. (4) Lockers
and cupboards clean and free of unnecessary material both on top and inside.
(5) Benches and seats clean and in good condition.(6) Drinking fountains clean.
(7) Toilet facilities clean and well ventilated.(8) Proper guards provided and in good
condition.(9) First-aid facilities and equipment fully stocked and in clean condition.
Stock and material
(1) Properly piled and arranged. (2) Kept in storage areas.
Tools
(1) Properly arranged in place. (2) Free of oil and grease. (3) Inspected and
maintained in good order. (4) Tool rooms and racks in clean and orderly condition.
Grounds Annamalai University
(1) Yard and building surrounds free of refuse such as fruit peelings, scrap,
wood, Iron, etc. (2) Grounds kept free of weeds and overgrown vegetation.(3) Wastes
and refuse removed frequently.
1.11 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define pilot plant.
2. Define prototype.
3. Discuss the purpose and functions of a pilot plant.
4. Discuss the advantages of pilot- plants.
45
5. What is meant by scale-up?

6. How the pilot-plant study is carried out?
7. How do you evaluate the scale effects?
8. Define similarity.
9. Explain the principle of similarity.
10. Define geometrical similarity.
11. Define static similarity.
12. Define dynamic similarity.
13. Define Thermal similarity.
14. Define Chemical similarity.
15. What is good housekeeping?
16. What are the basic elements of a good housekeeping campaign that
need attention?

46
UNIT – II
FIRE
CONTENT
2.1 Introduction
2.2. Fire
2.3. Fire Hazards
2.4. Fire Protection System
2.5. Five Fighting Systems
2.6. Other Fire Extinguishing System
2.7. Fire Alarm Systems
2.8. Bleve
2.9. Intext Questions
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fire is one of the simplest forms of energy known to man. Invaluable lives are
lost every year due to fire. Property is destroyed by uncontrolled fire incidents. A
number of industrial units suffer huge losses due to it. It is the most common
serious hazard that one faces process industries. Hence it is necessary to
understand the mechanism of fire and methods of prevention of loss from it for the
safe working of any industry.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to understand
 Fire, factors contributing towards fire, Fire-chemistry, types of fire.
 Fire extinguisher types and hardling Fire detection and alarm system
 BLEVE and UVCE
2.2 FIRE
Fire is the release of heat and light from rapid combination of oxygen and
other materials. The chemical combination of oxygen with other materials is called
oxidation. The flame, which gives the light, is composed of glowing particles of
burning material and luminous gases. The flame itself is a mixture of gases
(vaporized fuel, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, and many
other things).
For fire to exist, a combustible substance must be present, the temperature
must be high enough to cause combustion, and enough oxygen must be present to
sustain rapid combustion.
Mechanism of fire: the fire is sustained through a process called chain reaction.
During ignition free radicals are formed of the elements involved in the combustion.
These free radicals carry forward the chain of ignition.
Fuel +Oxygen + Energy Fire (light + heat + products of combustion)
Typically, fire comes from a chemical reaction between oxygen in the
atmosphere and some sort of fuel (wood or petrol, for example). The fuel does not
47
spontaneously catch on fire just because they're surrounded by oxygen. For the
combustion reaction to happen, you have to heat the fuel to its ignition
temperature. A side effect of these chemical reactions is a lot of heat. The most
flammable compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, which recombine with
oxygen relatively easily to form carbon dioxide, water and other gases. The fact that
the chemical reactions in a fire generate a lot of new heat is what sustains the fire.
The chemical equations for the oxidation of carbon and hydrogen are:
C+O2 --> CO2 (This reaction occurs when there is enough oxygen for the
formation of carbon dioxide.)
2C+O2 --> 2CO (This reaction occurs when there is only enough oxygen for the
formation of carbon monoxide.)
2H2 +O2 --> 2H2O
These reactions release the energy you feel as heat and light.
On Earth, gravity determines how the flame burns. All the hot gases in the
flame are much hotter (and less dense) than the surrounding air, so they move
upward toward lower pressure. This is why fire typically spreads upward, and it's
also why flames are always "pointed" at the top. Fire is generally localized. It may
also cause unconfined vapor cloud explosion (UVCE).
Combustion: the oxidation is an exothermic reaction as it evolves heat. Rate of
comstion varies from substance to substance and is described s slow, rapid and
spontaneous. Slow combustion is a chemical reaction accompanied by slow
evolution of heat but not light.
Ex: cotton waste burning in an ill-ventilated place.
Rapid combustion is a chemical reaction accompanied by rapid evolution of
heat and in many cases by an appreciable amount of light.
Ex: petroleum products.
Spontaneous combustion is combustion at atmospheric temperature without
the application of external heat provided supports for combustion are present.
Ex: paints, scraps, coal dust, etc.
Sometimes spontaneous combustion is also due to chemical reaction.
Ex: phosphoric acid in contact with wood, nitric acid in contact with sawdust,
saw dust when exposed to steam pipes.
Stages of fire:
Fire may be categorized into four stages:
Incipient stage - invisible products of combustion giving off no visible smoke,
flame or heat.
Smouldering stage - combustion products visible as smoke. Flame or heat sill
not present.
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Flame stage - flame is present; heat not present in appreciable amount but
follows almost simultaneously. Actual fire now exists.
Heat stage - uncontrolled heat and rapidly expanding fire in space.
Requirements for fire
Three things are needed to create a fire:
 A fuel - some sort of combustible solid, liquid or gas
 Oxygen to react with the fuel
 Heat - There must be enough heat to get the fuel above its flash point. If
there is paper on your desk right now, it is surrounded by oxygen, but it
does not burn unless you get the paper hot enough.
Fuel
Oxygen Heat
These three components fuel, oxygen and source of heat are represented by a
triangle called fire triangle
If we want to put out a fire, we need to remove one of the three elements.
Firefighters generally try to remove fuel or heat. Either they pour water on the fire
to reduce the temperature, or they try to bulldoze strips of bare earth to eliminate
the fuel. A carbon-dioxide fire extinguisher works by eliminating oxygen and
replacing it with carbon dioxide. We could do the same thing with just about any
non-oxidizing gas (nitrogen, for example), but carbon dioxide is inexpensive and
easy to store. Another way to cut off oxygen is to throw a blanket over the fire.
Covering the fire with sand does the same thing. We might have heard that we can
put out a kitchen fire by throwing baking soda or salt on the fire. Throwing sand
would do the same thing.
When the fire is actually taking place there are four components. They are fuel,
oxygen (air), temperature or heat source of ignition and chain reaction or free
radicals. These four components can be own diagrammatically by a tetrahedron
each side representing one of the components. If we remove one of the sides, the
tetrahedron breaks up and termination of fire occurs.
Sources of ignition
Potential sources of ignition are:
1. Electrical
2. Open flames
49
3. Friction
4. Sparks and
5. Self oxidation or spontaneous ignition
Electrical sources may include spark discharge or arcing, electrostatic
discharge or short circuiting. Open flames may be due to matches and lighters,
welding and cutting torches, and lighted cigarettes. Friction may be the source of
ignition due to drive belts and pulleys, poorly lubricated machinery and impact
between hard materials. Sparks may occur in engine exhausts and electrical
systems, tools and shoe nails striking other materials.
2.3 FIRE HAZARDS
Fire is a good servant but a bad master.
INDUSTRYWISE STATISTICS %
Engineering 18
Textile 25
Chemical 28
Petrochemical 05
Others 24
Causes of fire
For the fire to start, it needs a source of ignition.
The sources are:
Sl. No. Type % Source

1 Electrical 23 Spark or arc, electrostatic discharge , short
circuit
2 Open flame 29 Matchers and lighters, pilot lights, welding
and cutting torches, lighted cigarettes
3 Friction 10 Drive belts and pulleys, poorly lubricated
machinery, impact between hard materials
4 Sparks 8 Engine exhausts and electrical systems,
tools shoe nails striking other materials
5 Self oxidation / 28 Oxidation of combustible materials
spontaneous
ignition
6 Miscellaneous 2 Lighting and others
Findings of loss prevention association of India:

(Investigations of fires where loss is more than Rs. 50 lakhs)
Area of occurrence %
Storage area 50
Process area 30
50
Other area s 20
Time of occurrence
Between 6 a.m. and 2 p.m. 31
Between 2 p.m. and 10 p.m. 26
Between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. 50
Occupancy status: Unattended area
Majority of fires occurs in storage area.
Most of the fire takes place late at night, early in the morning or non-working
days when the storage area is unattended.
Poor housekeeping practices in scarcely used area lead to fire.
Not much importance is provided for providing automatic fire detection
systems or fire extinguishing systems.
Fire safety is not in the priority list of the industry.
Characteristics of chemicals involved in fire hazard:
1. Flash point
2. Flammable or explosive range
3. Minimum ignition energy
4. Auto-ignition temperature
Flash point
Flash point is the lowest temperature at 760 mm Hg at which a liquid gives off
flammable vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite when mixed with air at or near the
surface of the liquid on application of a flame or spark. It is customary to give the
method of measurement along with the flash point, the values given in the
literature may differ due to the presence of impurities. When the precise flash point
is needed, it is recommended that actual test be conducted using a technical grade
sample of the product.
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which vapors or gases form on the
surface of the solvent and flash upon the application of an external source of
ignition. The lowest temperature at which combustion can occur is called fire point.
The relative hazard increases as the flash point lowers.
The classification recommended by National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) is
as follows:
Class I: All flammable liquids with flash points below 37.8 C
Class II: Liquids with flash point range 37.8C to 60 C.
Class III: Liquids with flash points higher than 60 C.
Minimum ignition energy
This is the minimum spark energy required to ignite the vapor-air mixture.
The ignition energy for the flammable hydrocarbon solvents vapor- air mixture is in
the range of 0.1 to 1 milli Joules.
51
The minimum amount of energy needed to ignite a combustible air-vapor

mixture of the substance. When this value is less than 0.6 milli Joules, further
information should be given under preventive measures.
Auto ignition temperature
Different flammable fuels catch fire at different temperatures. It takes a certain
amount of heat energy to change any particular material into a gas, and even more
heat energy to trigger the reaction with oxygen. The necessary heat level varies
depending on the nature of the molecules that make up the fuel. A fuel's piloted
ignition temperature is the heat level required to form a gas that will ignite when
exposed to a spark. At the unpiloted ignition temperature, which is much higher,
the fuel ignites without a spark.
This is the temperature at which flammable liquids or gases will be ignited on
its own without the application of external ignition sources. This situation arises
when flammable liquids are allowed to come in to contact with hot uninsulated
surfaces.
The precise definition is that “autoignition temperature” is the lowest
temperature of a glass surface at which droplets of a combustible liquid falling onto
this surface will undergo spontaneous combustion. Due to the catalyzing effects of
metals, contaminants etc., ignition may in practice occur at a lower temperature
than the one given. The autoignition temperature should be taken into
consideration when selecting electrical equipment for area where explosive air-
vapor mixture can form.
Hazardous properties of some selected flammable liquids:
Flash  Explosive Limits Autoignition Minimum

Name Point Lower Upper Temperature ignition
C % % C energy, mj
Acetaldehyde -38 4.1 60 175 0.38

Acetic acid 43 5.4 16 516 -
Acetone -18 2.6 12.8 465 1.15
Ammonia - 16.0 25 651 >100
Benzene Annamalai University
-11 1.3 7.1 562 0.55
n-Butane -60 1.8 8.4 405 0.25
Cyclohexane -20 1.3 7.8 245 0.53
Diesel(light) >38 1.3 6.0 177-329 -
Ethanol 13 3.3 19.0 423 -
Kerosene >38 0.7 6.0 210-300 -
Methanol 11 6.7 36.0 464 0.22
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Petrol -46 1.3 7.6 371 -

Toluene 4 1.2 7.1 536 -
Fire protection is the prevention and reduction of the hazards associated with
fires.
Fire departments have two basic fire-related functions: prevention and
suppression. Fire prevention activities aim to keep fires from starting. Fire
suppression activities seek to put out fires once they have started, to rescue
individuals, and to protect property from the paths of fires.
Goals
Fire protection has three major goals:
 Life safety (minimum standard in fire and building codes)
 Property protection (typically an insurance requirement, or a regulatory
requirement where the protection of building components is necessary
to enable life safety)
 Continuity of operations (typically an insurance requirement or an item
of self-motivation for building owners - not a regulatory issue).
Interruption of operations due to fire damage can be very costly. For
instance, a nuclear reactor may cost about 50 million rupees per day, if
it is not making power that is being sold.
Components
Fire protection is typically achieved via three means:
 Passive fire protection (use of integral, fire-resistance rated wall and
floor assemblies that are used to form fire compartments intended to
limit the spread of fire, or occupancy separations, or firewalls, to keep
fires, high temperatures and flue gases within the fire compartment of
origin, thus enabling firefighting and evacuation)
 Active fire protection (manual and automatic detection and suppression
of fires, as in using and installing a Fire Sprinkler system or finding the
fire (Fire alarm) and/or extinguishing it)
 Education (ensuring that building owners and operators have copies and
a working understanding of the applicable building and fire codes,
having a purpose-designed fire safety plan and ensuring that building
occupants, operators and emergency personnel know the building, its
means of Active fire protection and Passive fire protection, its weak spots
and strengths to ensure the highest possible level of safety)
2.4 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
The fire protection system can be classified into two groups:
1. Passive protection
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2. Active protection
Passive fire protection
Passive protection systems are those which do not fight the fire actively but
prevents the spread of fire, contains the fire in a particular area and allow for fire
fighting. Active systems are those which help in extinguishing the fire directly.
Passive fire protection (PFP) is an integral component of the three components
of structural fire protection and fire safety in a building. PFP attempts to contain
fires or slow the spread, through use of fire resistant walls, floors, and doors
(amongst other examples). All PFP systems, down to the smallest details, are
founded upon, and entirely useless without bounding.
Passive Fire Protection measures are intended to contain a fire in the fire
compartment of origin, thus limiting the spread of fire, excessive heat and corrosive,
re-ignitable and fatal flue gases for a limited period of time, as determined by
testing, which must bound the installed configuration in all respects in order to
comply with the law, which is typically the local building code and the fire code.
Active fire protection
Active fire protection (AFP) is one of three components of structural fire
protection. Active means that items or systems are 'activated', mechanically or
electronically and require a certain amount of motion, activity, electricity and/or
heat in order to function. Typically this refers to systems such as sprinklers, where
the sprinkler bulb which holds back the water breaks and the water moves, as an
example; or fire or smoke detection systems, where smoke or heat are sensed and
the detector or connected alarm system is activated. Within AFP, there are two
branches: Detection of fire (manual or automatic), and suppression of fire (manual
or automatic).
Passive fire protection
Passive fire fighting systems can be grouped under the following headings:
1. Fire proof doors
2. Fire walls
3. Wired glass windows
4. Dampers
5. Protection to the cable wires
6. Fire proofing materials
7. Miscellaneous products
Fire proof doors maintain compartmentalization of the building to contain the
fire to the area of origin. They allow the passage of people or goods between one
compartment to other in fire conditions. They allow smoke free access to escape
routs both vertically and horizontally without loss of fire resistance in the structure
forming the routs namely protected corridors and shafts.
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Passive fire protection (PFP) is an integral component of the three components

of structural fire protection and fire safety in a building. PFP attempts to contain
fires or slow the spread, through use of fire resistant walls, floors, and doors
(amongst other examples). All PFP systems, down to the smallest details, are
founded upon, and entirely useless without bounding.
The aim for passive fire protection systems is typically demonstrate in fire
testing the ability to maintain the item or the side to be protected at or below either
140°C (for walls, floors and electrical circuits required to have a fire-resistance
rating) or ca. 540°C, which is considered the critical temperature for structural
steel, above which, it is in jeopardy of losing its strength, leading to collapse. Fire
testing involves live fire exposures upwards of 1100°C, depending on the fire-
resistance rating and duration one is after. More items than just fire exposures are
typically required to be tested to ensure the survivability of the system under
realistic conditions.
To accomplish these aims, many different types of materials are employed in
the design and construction of systems. For instance, common endothermic
building materials include concrete and gypsum wallboard. During fire testing of
concrete floor slabs, water can be seen to literally boil out of a slab. Gypsum wall
board typically loses all its strength during a fire, underlining the need for stringent
bounding. The use of endothermic materials is established and proven to be sound
engineering practice. The chemically bound water inside these materials sublimes.
During this process, the unexposed side cannot exceed the boiling point of water.
Once the hydrates are spent, the temperature on the unexposed side of an
endothermic fire barrier tends to rise rapidly. Too much water can be a problem,
however. Concrete slabs that are too wet, will literally explode in a fire, which is
why test laboratories insist on measuring water content of concrete and mortar in
fire test specimens, before running any fire tests. PFP measures can also include
intumescents and ablative materials. The point is, however, that whatever the
nature of the materials, they on their own bear no rating. They must be organised
into systems, which bear a rating when installed in accordance with certification
listings or established catalogues.
Passive Fire Protection measures are intended to contain a fire in the fire
compartment of origin, thus limiting the spread of fire, excessive heat and corrosive,
re-ignitable and fatal flue gases for a limited period of time, as determined by
testing, which must bound the installed configuration in all respects in order to
comply with the law, which is typically the local building code and the fire code.
Contrary to active fire protection measures, passive fire protection means do
not typically require electric or electronic activation or a degree of motion.
Exceptions to that particular rule of thumb are fire dampers (fire-resistive closures
within air ducts, excluding grease ducts) and fire door closers, which must move,
open and shut in order to work, as well as all intumescent products, which swell,
thus move, in order to function.
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PFP in a building can be described as a group of systems within systems. An

installed firestop, for instance, is a system that is based upon a product
certification listing. It forms part of a fire-resistance rated wall or floor and this wall
or floor forms part of a fire compartment, which forms an integral part of the overall
fire safety plan of the building, which, as a whole, can also be seen as a system.
Examples
 Fire-resistance rated walls
 Firewalls not only have a rating, they are also designed to sub-divide
buildings such that if collapse occurs on one side, this will not affect the
other side. They can also be used to eliminate the need for sprinklers, as
a trade-off.
 Fire-resistance rated floors
 Occupancy separations (barriers designated to segregate parts of
buildings, where different uses are on each side); For instance,
apartments on one side and stores on the other side of the occupancy
separation.
 Closures (fire dampers, fire-resistance rated windows and fire doors.)
 Fire stops
 Grease ducts (These refer to ducts that lead from commercial cooking
equipment such as ranges, deep fryers and double decker and conveyor
equipped pizza ovens to grease duct fans. In North America, grease ducts
are made of minimum 16 gauge sheet metal, all welded, and certified
openings for cleaning, whereby the ducting is either inherently
manufactured to have a specific fire-resistance rating, OR it is ordinary
16 gauge ductwork with an exterior layer of purpose-made and certified
fireproofing.
 Cable coating (application of fire-retardants, which are either endothermic
or intumescent, to reduce flamespread and smoke development of
combustible cable-jacketing)
 Spray fireproofing (application of intumescent or endothermic paints, or
fibrous or cementitious plasters to keep substrates such as structural
steel, electrical or mechanical services, valves, liquified petroleum gas
(LPG) vessels, vessel skirts, bulkheads or decks below either 140°C for
electrical items or ca. 500°C for structural steel elements to maintain
operability of the item to be protected)
 Fireproofing cladding (boards used for the same purpose and in the same
applications as spray fireproofing) Materials for such cladding include
perlite, vermiculite, calcium silicate, gypsum, intumescent epoxy,
DuraSteel (cellulose-fibre reinforced concrete and punched sheet-metal
bonded composite panels), MicroTherm
56
 Enclosures (boxes or wraps made of fireproofing materials, including fire-

resistive wraps and tapes to protect speciality valves and other items
deemed to require protection against fire and heat - an analogy for this
would be a safe) or the provision of circuit integrity measures to keep
electrical cables operational during an accidental fire.
Regulations
Apart from bounding, the other common thread is that PFP is an integral
component of the two main aims of building and fire codes, which is structural
integrity and fire safety, all with the main aim of life safety, whereas property
protection and continuity of operations tend to be secondary considerations in
codes. Exceptions include nuclear facilities and marine applications, as evacuation
may be more complex or indeed impossible. Nuclear facilities, both buildings and
ships also have an interest in ensuring that the nuclear reactor does not experience
a meltdown. In this case, fixing the reactor may be more important than evacuation
for key safety personnel.
In exterior applications for the offshore and the petroleum sectors, the fire
endurance testing uses a higher temperature and faster heat rise, whereas in
interior applications, such as office buildings, factories and residential, the fire
endurance is based upon experiences gained from burning wood.
Typically, during the construction of buildings, fire protective systems must
conform to the requirements of building code that was in effect on the day that the
building permit was applied for. Enforcement for compliance with building codes is
typically the responsibility of municipal building departments. Once construction is
complete, the building must maintain its design basis by remaining in compliance
with the current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of the
municipal fire department. An up to date fire protection plan, containing a complete
inventory and maintenance details of all fire protection components, including
firestops, fireproofing, fire sprinklers, fire detectors, fire alarm systems, fire
extinguishers, etc. form the legal defence basis of compliance with applicable laws
and regulations.
Generally, all changes to fire protection systems or items affecting the
structural or fire-integrity or use (occupancy) of a building is subject to regulatory
scrutiny, meaning that a contemplated change to a facility requires a building
permit, or, if the change is very minor indeed, a review by the local fire prevention
officer. This has a variety of reasons. For one thing, every municipality aims to have
accurate building records for emergencies, be they for fires, other disasters or law
enforcement. Modern fire departments at times have building plans electronically
transmitted into fire trucks which are enroute to the target building. Similarly, law
enforcement can "wargame" and better execute rescue operations with accurate
building records. Building permit fees cover expenses incurred in the review of
contemplated changes. Large and very common deficiencies in existing buildings
include the disabling of fire door closers through propping the doors open and
57
running rugs through them and perforating fire-resistance rated walls and floors
without proper firestopping.
Active Fire protection systems
1. Portable extinguishers
2. Fixed systems
2.5 FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS
Methods of extinguishing fire
Starvation : Limitation of combusting material
Smothering : Limitation on of oxygen
Cooling : Limitation of temperature
Fixed systems
a) Water hose reels
b) Hydrant systems
c) Sprinkler systems
d) Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems
e) Dry chemical powder systems
f) Foam systems
g) Steam installation
Fire Extinguishing agents
Water
Effectiveness of water as a good extinguishing agent lies in its cooling power
and its applicability in a variety of ways, as solid, steam, and atomized fogs. Use of
different types of nozzles cut down the quantity of water used and minimizes the
wastage of water. It takes away a lot of heat by vaporizing. The enormous increase
in volume of steam generated smothers the fire. More the water is broken down, the
more successful is the absorption of heat. This is achieved by low pressure fog from
hose reels.
APW (air pressurized water) cools burning material by absorbing heat from
burning material. Able to work on the least variety of fires, but has the advantage of
being cheap, harmless, and relatively easy to clean up.
Water Mist uses a misting nozzle to break up a stream of distilled water to the
point of not conducting electricity back to the operator. Class A and C rated.
Dry chemical powder
It is a powder mixture. The principal base chemicals used are sodium
bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate and potassium chloride. Various additives are
mixed with the base chemical to omporve their storage and flow. Commonly used
additives are metallic steearates, tricalcium phosphates or silicones which coat the
particles of dry chemical to make them free flowing and to increase the resistance
to the caking effects of moisture and vibration.
58
 Ammonium phosphate, used on class A, B, and C fires. It receives its

class A rating from the agent's ability to melt and flow at 350 degrees to
smother the fire. More corrosive than other dry chemical agents.
 Sodium bicarbonate, used on class B and C fires. Interrupts the fire's
chemical reaction.
 Potassium bicarbonate, used on class B and C fires. About two times as
effective on class B fires as sodium bicarbonate. The preferred dry
chemical agent of the oil and gas industry. The only dry chemical agent
certified for use in AR-FF by the NFPA.
Halon system
Halons are halogenated hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms
have been replaced by atoms from the halogen series like fluorine, bromine,
chlorine or iodine. They are recently developed as fire extinguishers on the basis of
superb extinguishing properties and relatively low toxicity. These compounds are
represented as halons followed by a figure code consisting of four or five numbers.
These figures indicate the number of various halogen atoms in the compound
molecule.
The extinguishing effect due to cooling, or dilution of oxygen or fuel vapor is
minor. Areas where Halon can be effectively used are:
a) Gaseous and liquid flammable materials
b) Electrical hazards such as transformer oil switches and circuit breakers
and rotating equipment.
c) Engines utilizing gasoline and other flammable materials.
d) Hazardous solids
e) Electrical computers like data processing equipment and control rooms.
f) Ordinary materials such as paper, wood and textiles.
Halon 1301 is referred to as a chain-breaking agent meaning that it reacts to
break the chain reaction of the combustion process.
Inergen system
Inergen is a mixture of three gases namely
a) Argon 40%
b) Nitrogen 52%
c) Carbon dioxide 8%
When released to protected area , it extinguishes fire by diluting the oxygen
present.
Foam systems
Foam is an aggregate of air filled bubbles formed from aqueous solutions. It is
lower in density than the lightest inflammable liquids and covers horizontal
surfaces very well.
59
The foam concentrates are:

a) Protein foam concentrate
b) Fluor protein concentrate
c) Synthetic foam concentrates
d) Chemical foam (mixing solutions of sodium bi carbonate and
aluminium sulphate containing a foam stabilizing agent)
Foam was first used to extinguish flammable liquid fires in the early 1900
and when foam was generated by mixing solutions of sodium bi carbonate and
aluminium sulphate containing a foam stabilizing agent. This was known as
chemical foam. It is still frequently used in fire extinguishers.
The general use of foam began to grow rapidly in the early 1930 with the
development of foaming agents and foam generating systems, which could produce
foam in relatively simple equipment by entering air. The foam so produced is known
as mechanical foam.
Foams
1. AFFF (aqueous film forming foam), used on A and B fires and for vapor
suppression.
2. AR-AFFF (Alcohol-resistant aqueous film forming foams), used on fuel fires
containing alcohol. Forms a membrane between the fuel and the foam
preventing the alcohol from breaking down the foam blanket.
3. FFFP (film forming fluoroprotein) contains naturally occurring proteins to
create a foam blanket that is more heat resistant then the synthetic AFFF
foams.
4. CAFS (compressed air foam system) Any APW style extinguisher that is
charged with a foam solution and pressurized with compressed air.
Generally used to extend a water supply in wildland operations. Used on
class A fires and with very dry foam on class B for vapor suppression.
5. Arctic Fire is a liquid fire extinguishing agent that emulsifies and cools
heated materials quicker than water or ordinary foam. It is used extensivly
in the steel industry. Effective on classes A, B, and D.
6.
FireAde, a foaming agent that emulsifies burning liquids and renders them
non-flammable. It is able to cool heated material and surfaces similar to
CAFS. Used on A and B (said to be effective on some class D hazards).
7. Wet Chemical (potassium acetate) extinguishes the fire by forming a crust
over the burning oil. Generally class A and K only.
Fire extinguisher
A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or
control small fires, often in emergency situations. Typically, a fire extinguisher
consists of a handheld cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be
discharged to extinguish a fire.
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A fire extinguisher
Classification
There are various types of extinguishers, which are used for different types of
fires; using the wrong type can worsen the fire hazard, but using the right one can
better the situation. Internationally there are several accepted classification
methods for hand-held fire extinguishers. Each classification is useful in fighting
fires with a particular group of fuel.
Fire extinguishers are divided into four categories, based on different types of
fires. Each fire extinguisher also has a numerical rating that serves as a guide for
the amount of fire the extinguisher can handle. The higher the number, the more
fire-fighting power. The following is a quick guide to help choose the right type of
extinguisher.
 Class A extinguishers are for ordinary combustible materials such as
paper, wood, cardboard, and most plastics. The numerical rating on
these types of extinguishers indicates the amount of water it holds and
the amount of fire it can extinguish.
 Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline,
kerosene, grease and oil. The numerical rating for class B extinguishers
indicates the approximate number of square feet of fire it can extinguish.
 Class C fires involve electrical equipment, such as appliances, wiring,
circuit breakers and outlets. Never use water to extinguish class C fires -
the risk of electrical shock is far too great! Class C extinguishers do not
have a numerical rating. The C classification means the extinguishing
agent is non-conductive.
 Class D fire extinguishers are commonly found in a chemical laboratory.
They are for fires that involve combustible metals, such as magnesium,
titanium, potassium and sodium. These types of extinguishers also have
no numerical rating, nor are they given a multi-purpose rating - they are
designed for class D fires only.
Some fires may involve a combination of these classifications. Fire
extinguishers should have ABC ratings on them. Many extinguishers available
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today can be used on different types of fires and will be labeled with more than one
designator, e.g. A-B, B-C, or A-B-C. Make sure that if you have a multi-purpose
extinguisher it is properly labeled.
The color of fire extinguishers are typically red. Extinguishers are marked with
pictograms depicting the types of fires that the extinguisher is approved to fight.
Fire Geometric
Pictogram Intended Use
Class Symbol
Green Triangle Garbage can and wood pile Ordinary combustibles

A
burning
Red Square Gasoline can with a burning Flammable liquids

B
puddle
Blue Circle Electric plug with a burning Energized electrical

C
outlet equipment
D Yellow Star Metal Gears and flame Combustible metals
K Black Hexagon Pan burning Cooking oils

Types of extinguishers
Dry Chemical extinguishers are usually rated for multiple purpose use. They
contain an extinguishing agent and use a compressed, non-flammable gas as a
propellant. Fabricators offers dry chemical powder type fire extinguishers with ISI
mark. These dry chemical powder type fire extinguishers are suitable for
extinguishing fire involving chemical liquids, petrol, petroleum products, naphtha,
alcohol, plastics, gases, and electrical fires. Operation is upright. Capacities of dry
chemical powder type fire extinguishers covered are: 1, 2, 5, and 10 kg. Jet ranges
are: 2, 4, and 8 metres. Discharge time is 8 to 30 seconds
Dry chemical extinguishers come in a variety of types and are suitable for a
combination of class A, B and C fires. These are filled with foam or powder and
pressurized with nitrogen.
There are two kinds of dry chemical extinguishers:
Type BC fire extinguishers contain sodium or potassium bicarbonate. Type
ABC fire extinguishers contain ammonium phosphate.
 BC - This is the regular type of dry chemical extinguisher. It is filled with
sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate. The BC variety leaves a
mildly corrosive residue which must be cleaned immediately to prevent
any damage to materials.
 ABC - This is the multipurpose dry chemical extinguisher. The ABC type
is filled with monoammonium phosphate, a yellow powder that leaves a
sticky residue that may be damaging to electrical appliances such as a
computer
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When to use (or not use) Dry Chemical Extinguishers?

Dry chemical extinguishers can be quite corrosive to metals such as aluminum
and are also potentially abrasive. ABC extinguishers are much more corrosive than
BC extinguishers because the ammonium phosphate agent can undergo hydrolysis
to form phosphoric acid and because the molten agent flows into minute cracks.
For this reason, dry chemical ABC extinguishers are not recommended for use
on aircraft or electronics such as computers, MRI scanners, and scientific
instruments. Boeing has stated in a service letter "Dry chemical extinguishers can
cause extensive corrosion damage to airplane structure, electrical systems, and
electronic equipment. Dry chemical fire extinguishers should only be used for
airplane firefighting if there are no other extinguishers available and there is
imminent danger to property or personnel."
Water extinguishers
Water extinguishers are extinguishers that contain water and compressed gas
and should only be used on Class A (ordinary combustibles) fires. They are suitable
for class A (paper, wood etc.) fires, but not for class B, C and D fires such as
burning liquids, electrical fires or reactive metal fires. In these cases, the flames will
be spread or the hazard made greater. Water mist extinguishers are suitable for
class A and C.
Water – mist extinguishers are ideal for Class A fires where a potential Class C
hazard exists. Unlike an ordinary water extinguisher, the misting nozzle provides
safety from electric shock and reduces scattering of burning materials. This is one
of the best choices for protection of hospital environments, books, documents and
clean room facilities. In non-magnetic versions, water mist extinguishers are the
preferred choice for MRI or NMR facilities (see warning box below) or for deployment
on mine sweepers.
Never use a water extinguisher on grease fires, electrical fires or class D fires -
the flames will spread and make the fire bigger! Water extinguishers are filled with
water and pressurized with oxygen. Again - water extinguishers can be very
dangerous in the wrong type of situation. Only fight the fire if you're certain it
contains ordinary combustible materials only.
 APW (air pressurized water) cools burning material by absorbing heat
from burning material. Able to work on the least variety of fires, but has
the advantage of being cheap, harmless, and relatively easy to clean up.
 Water Mist uses a misting nozzle to break up a stream of distilled water
to the point of not conducting electricity back to the operator. Class A
and C rated.
Halon extinguishers
Halon extinguishers contain a gas that interrupts the chemical reaction that
takes place when fuels burn. These types of extinguishers are often used to protect
valuable electrical equipment since them leave no residue to clean up. Halon
extinguishers have a limited range, usually 4 to 6 feet. The initial application of
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Halon should be made at the base of the fire, even after the flames have been
extinguished.
A few other extinguishers worth noting (and also available at Safety Emporium)
are:
 Halotron I extinguishers, like carbon dioxide units, are "clean agents"
that leave no residue after discharge. Halotron I is less damaging to the
Earth's ozone layer than Halon 1211 (which was banned by international
agreements starting in 1994). This "clean agent" discharges as a liquid,
has high visibility during dischage, does not cause thermal or static
shock, leaves no residue and is non-conducting. These properties make it
ideal for computer rooms, clean rooms, telecommunications equipment,
and electronics. These superior properties of Halotron I come at a higher
cost relative to carbon dioxide.
 FE-36TM (Hydrofluorocarbon-236fa or HFC-236fa) is another "clean
agent" replacement for Halon 1211. This DuPont-manufactured
substance is available commercially in Cleanguard® extinguishers. The
FE-36 agent is less toxic than both Halon 1211 and Halotron I. In
addition, FE-36 has zero ozone-depleting potential; FE-36 is not
scheduled for phase-out wheras Halotron I production is slated to cease
in 2015. A 100% non-magnetic CleanGuard model is now available (see
the warning box below).
CO2 extinguishers
CO2 (carbon dioxide) extinguishers are for class B and C fires. They don't
work very well on class A fires because the material usually reignites. CO 2
extinguishers have an advantage over dry chemical in that they leave behind no
harmful residue. That makes carbon dioxide (or Halotron I or FE-36; see below) a
good choice for an electrical fire involving a computer or other delicate instrument.
Note that CO2 is a bad choice for a flammable metal fires such as Grignard reagents,
alkyllithiums and sodium metal because CO2 reacts with these materials. CO2
extinguishers are not approved for class D fires!
Metal/Sand Extinguishers
Metal/Sand Extinguishers are for flammable metals (class D fires) and work by
simply smothering the fire. The most common extinguishing agent in this class is
sodium chloride, but there are a variety of other options.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) works well for metal fires involving
magnesium, sodium (spills and in depth), potassium, sodium/potassium
alloys, uranium and powdered aluminum. Heat from the fire causes the
agent to cake and form a crust that excludes air and dissipates heat.
 Powdered copper metal (Cu metal) is preferred for fires involving
lithium and lithium alloys. It is the only known lithium fire fighting agent
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which will cling to a vertical surface thus making it the preferred agent
on three dimensional and flowing fires.
 Graphite-based powders are also designed for use on lithium fires. This
agent can also be effective on fires involving high-melting metals such as
zirconium and titanium.
 Specially-designed sodium bicarbonate-based dry agents can suppress
fires with most metal alkyls, pyrophoric liquids which ignite on catact
with air, such as triethylaluminum, but do not rely on a standard BC
extinguisher for this purpose.
 Sodium carbonate-based dry powders can be used with most Class D
fires involving sodium, potassium or sodium/potassium alloys. This
agent is recommended where stress corrosion of stainless steel mus be
kept to an absolute minimum.
How to Use a Fire Extinguisher:
Even though extinguishers come in a number of shapes and sizes, they all
operate in a similar manner. The typical steps for operating a fire extinguisher
(described by the acronym "PASS") are the following:
P A S S -- Pull, Aim, Squeeze, and Sweep
Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being
accidentally pressed.
Aim the nozzle toward the base of the fire. Stand approximately 8 feet away
from the fire.
Squeeze the handle to discharge the extinguisher. If you release the handle,
the discharge will stop and
Sweep the nozzle back and forth at the base of the fire. After the fire appears
to be out, watch it carefully since it may re-ignite!
Maintenance
Most countries in the world require regular fire extinguisher maintenance by a
competent person to operate safely and effectively, as part of fire safety legislation.
Lack of maintenance can lead to an extinguisher not discharging when required, or
rupturing when pressurized. Deaths have occurred, even in recent times, from
corroded extinguishers exploding.
Generally, most municipalities require inspections every 30 days to ensure the
unit is pressurized and unobstructed (done by an employee of the facility) and an
annual inspection by a qualified technician.Hydrostatic pressure testing for all
types of extinguishers is also required, generally every five years for water and CO2
models up to every 12 years for dry chemical models.
Three types of maintenance are required:
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 Basic Service: All types of extinguisher require a basic inspection

annually to check weight, correct pressure (using a special tool, not just
looking at the gauge) and for signs of damage or corrosion; (the powder
used in Dry Powder type fire extinguishers tend to settle, the technician
is unable to physical confirm this and is forced to open the extinguisher)
Tests conducted by SABS in South Africa have proven that by adding
"powder indicators" steel balls would give the technician or owner the
opportunity to first shake the dry-powder fire extinguisher to physically
hear/feel the movement of the indicating balls thus confirming the
condition of the powder. These indicators can be further used to test
the different types of powders presently available.
 Extended Service: Water, Wet Chemical, Foam & Powder extinguishers
require every five years a more detailed examination including a test
discharge of the extinguisher and recharging if unsatisfactory;
 Overhaul: CO2 extinguishers, due to their high operating pressure, are
subject to pressure vessel safety legislation and must be hydraulic
pressure tested and date stamped every 10 years.
At least once a month (more often in severe environments) you should inspect
your extinguisher. Ensure that:
 The extinguisher is not blocked by equipment, coats or other objects

that could interfere with access in an emergency.
 The pressure is at the recommended level. On extinguishers equipped
with a gauge (such as that shown on the right) that means the needle
should be in the green zone - not too high and not too low.
 The nozzle or other parts are not obstructed.
 The pin and tamper seal (if it has one) are intact.
 There are no dents, leaks, rust, chemical deposits and other signs of
abuse/wear. Wipe off any corrosive chemicals, oil, gunk etc. that may
have landed on the extinguisher.
 Some manufacturers recommend shaking your dry chemical
extinguishers once a month to prevent the powder from
settling/packing. We are dubious this has any value but you are going
to pick it up to inspect it anyway, so why not give it a good shake?
 Fire extinguishers should be pressure tested (a process called
hydrostatic testing) after a number of years to ensure that the cylinder
is safe to use. Consult your owner's manual, extinguisher label or the
manufacturer to see when yours may need such testing.
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If the extinguisher is damaged or needs recharging, get it replaced immediately.

Recharge all extinguishers immediately after use regardless of how much they
were used.
Using fire extinguishers
Attempt to use an extinguisher only if ALL of the following apply:
 The building is being evacuated (fire alarm is pulled)
 The fire department is being called.
 The fire is small, contained and not spreading beyond its starting point.
 The exit is clear, there is no imminent peril and you can fight the fire
with your back to the exit.
 You can stay low and avoid smoke.
 The proper extinguisher is immediately at hand.
1. If any of these conditions have not been met, don't fight the fire yourself.
Call for help, pull the fire alarm and leave the area.
2. Whenever possible, use the "Buddy System" to have someone back you
up when using a fire extinguisher. If you have any doubt about your
personal safety, or if you can not extinguish a fire, leave immediately
and close off the area (close the doors, but DO NOT lock them). Leave
the building but contact a firefighter to relay whatever information you
have about the fire.
3. Pull the pin on the fire extinguisher.
4. Stand several feet from the fire, depress the handle and sweep back and
forth towards the fire. Note:
 Do not walk on an area that you have "extinguished" in case the
fire reignites or the extinguisher runs out! Remember: you usually
can't expect more than 10 full seconds of extinguishing power on a
typical unit and this could be significantly less if the extinguisher
was not properly maintained or partially discharged.
 The metal parts of CO2 extinguishers tend to get dangerously cold -
- practice using one beforehand or have someone show you the
proper way to hold one.
5. Direct the extinguisher at the base of the flames until the fire is
completely out.
6. Recharge any discharged extinguisher immediately after use. If you
discharge an extinguisher (even just a tiny bit) or pull the pin for any
reason, call your campus or corporate Fire Marshal's office to arrange a
replacement.
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2.6 FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

Fire fighting systems in chemical and petrochemical industries:
Some of the common systems are:
1. Hydrant system
2. Sprinkler system
3. Foam system
4. High velocity water spray system
5. Medium velocity water spray system
6. Halon system
7. Inergen system
8. Carbon dioxide system
9. Fire alarm system
Hydrant system
A hydrant system is a network of pipes distributed throughout the protected
area and charged with water. This enables the fire fighting men to start the
operations quickly as it reduces the burden of searching for a water source and
branching.
Fire hydrant
A fire hydrant is an active fireprotection measure, and a source of water
provided in most urban, suburban and rural areas with municipal water service to
enable fire fighters to tap into the municipal water supply to assist in extinguishing
a fire.
A fire hydrant is an above-ground connection that provides access to a water
supply for the purpose of fighting fires. The water supply may be pressurized, as in
the case of hydrants connected to water mains buried in the street, or
unpressurized, as in the case of hydrants connected to nearby ponds or cisterns.
Every hydrant has one or more outlets to which a fire hose may be connected. If the
water supply is pressurized, the hydrant will also have one or more valves to
regulate the water flow. In order to provide sufficient water for firefighting, hydrants
are sized to provide a minimum flow rate of about 250 gallons per minute (945
liters per minute), although most hydrants can provide much more.
There are two types of pressurized fire hydrants: wet-barrel and dry-barrel. In
a wet-barrel design, the hydrant is connected directly to the pressurized water
source. The upper section, or barrel, of the hydrant is always filled with water, and
each outlet has its own valve with a stem that sticks out the side of the barrel. In a
dry-barrel design, the hydrant is separated from the pressurized water source by a
main valve in the lower section of the hydrant below ground. The upper section
remains dry until the main valve is opened by means of a long stem that extends up
through the top, or bonnet, of the hydrant. There are no valves on the outlets. Dry-
barrel hydrants are usually used where winter temperatures fall below 32° F (0° C)
to prevent the hydrant from freezing.
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Unpressurized hydrants are always a dry barrel design. The upper section
does not fill with water until the fire pumper applies a vacuum.
A dry hydrant allows water to be pumped by a fire engine from the lake.In
rural areas where municipal water systems are not available, dry hydrants are used
to supply water for fighting fires. A dry hydrant is similar to a stand pipe. A dry
hydrant is usually a unpressurized permanently installed pipe that has one end
below the water level of a lake or pond. This end usually has a strainer to prevent
debris from entering the pipe. The other end is above ground and has a standard
fire hose connector. When needed, a pumper fire engine will pump water from the
lake or pond using suction.
The components of a hydrant system are:

a) Reliable water source
b) Pump set
c) Pipe network
d) Hydrant valve
e) Hoses
f) Branch pipe
Once the fire is detected the fire fighting men can start to fight the fire by
connecting the hoses to the hydrant valve and directing the jet of water towards the
fire.
Construction
In areas subject to freezing temperatures, only a portion of the hydrant is
above ground. The valve is located below the frost line and connected via a riser to
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the above-ground portion. A valve rod extends from the valve itself up through a
seal at the top of the hydrant, where it can be operated with the proper wrench.
This design is known as a "dry barrel" hydrant, in that the barrel, or vertical body of
the hydrant, is normally dry. A drain valve underground opens when the water
valve is completely closed; this allows all water to drain from the hydrant body to
prevent the hydrant from freezing.In warm areas, hydrants are used with one or
more valves in the above-ground portion. Unlike cold-weather hydrants, it is
possible to turn the water supply on and off to each port. This style is known as a
"wet barrel" hydrant.
Operation
A hose is attached to the fire hydrant, then the valve is opened to provide a
powerful source of water, 350 kPa (50 lbf/in²) in some areas (possibly more in
others), depending on various factors including the size and location of the attached
water main. This hose can be further attached to a fire engine, which can then use
a powerful pump to boost the watwer pressure and possibly split it into multiple
streams. The hose may be connected with a threaded connection or a Storz
connector. Care should be taken not to open or close a fire hydrant too quickly, as
this can create a water hammer which can damage nearby pipes and equipment.
The high water pressure inside the hose causes it to be very heavy, stiff, and unable
to make a tight turn while pressurized. When a fire hydrant is unobstructed, this is
not a problem, as there is enough room to adequately position the hose.
Most fire hydrant valves are not designed to throttle the water flow; they are
designed to be operated full-on or full-off. The valving arrangement of most dry-
barrel hydrants is for the drain valve to be open at anything other than full
operation. Usage at partial-opening can consequently result in considerable flow
directly into the soil surrounding the hydrant, which, over time, can cause severe
scouring. A hose with a closed nozzle valve, or fire truck connection, or closed gate
valve is always attached to the hydrant prior to opening the hydrant's main valve.
When a fire fighter is operating a hydrant, appropriate personal protective
equipment, such as gloves and a helmet with face shield, are typically worn. High
pressure water coursing through a potentially aging and corroding hydrant could
cause a failure, injuring the firefighter operating the hydrant or bystanders.
Inspection and maintenance
In most areas fire hydrants require annual inspections and maintenance.
Private hydrants are usually located on larger properties to adequately protect large
buildings in case of a fire and in order to comply with the fire code. Some
companies are contracted out to inspect private fire hydrants unless the
municipality has undertaken that task.
Fire Hydrant manufacturers recommend lubricating the head mechanism and
restoring the head gaskets and o-rings annually in order that the fire hydrant
perform the service expected of them. Lubrication is generally done with a food
grade non-petroleum lubricant to avoid contamination of the distribution system.
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Occasionally a stone or foreign object will mar the seat gasket. In this case,
most hydrants have a special seat wrench that allows removal of the seat to replace
the gasket or other broken parts without removing the hydrant from the ground.
Hydrants extensions are also available for raising a hydrant if the grade around the
hydrant changes. Without extending the height, the wrenches to remove caps would
not clear and the break flanges for traffic models would not be located correctly in
case they were hit. Hydrant repair kits are also available to repair sacrificial parts
designed to break when hit by a vehicle.
Many departments use the hydrants for flushing out water line sediments.
When doing so, they often use a hydrant diffuser, which is a device that diffuses the
water so that it doesn't damage property and is less dangerous to bystanders than
a solid stream. Some diffusers also dechlorinate the water to avoid ground
contamination. Hydrants are also sometimes used as entry or exit points for pipe
cleaning pigs..
HYDRANT DESIGN
The hydrant design selected must be based on a number of operational
elements. Some issues to consider include:
 How much water (GPM or L/min) is needed for fire fighting?
 How many and what size hose connections are required?
 The established hose sizes and coupling threads in the region.
 Current (and future) configuration of fire apparatus.
 Issues of clearance and visibility.
 Operating characteristics of the hydrants.
 Amount of head (static pressure) that is present in the system.
 Climatic conditions in the area.
Generally speaking, water supply systems in residential areas should be
designed to deliver no less than 1000 GPM (3785 L/min) at each individual hydrant.
In commercial and multi-story apartment zones, this volume should increase based
on the required fire flows of the buildings being protected. If the required fire flows
are several thousand GPM, the required flow will usually have to be met by two or
more hydrants flowing simultaneously.
In the event of a major emergency, fire companies may be requested from
multiple jurisdictions. Hydrant outlet threads should meet the regional standard for
compatibility among all fire engines, regardless of origin. If no large diameter outlet
size and thread has been established, we recommend the 5" Storz configuration.
Hydrants need to be readily recognizable and accessible. Placement and
installation considerations should take into account the shape of the hydrant as
well as the positions of valves and outlets. Specific suggestions regarding hydrant
placement are presented later in this feature.
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Hydrants must be simple and reliable to connect to and to operate. Operating

nuts should be pentagonal or triangular in design to reduce tampering by
unauthorized persons. Discharge valves should be specified to open by turning
counter-clockwise and close clockwise. (Underground valves on water mains and on
the hydrant branch line should operate according to local or regional standards.)
Hydrant designs must be appropriate for the amount of head (static pressure)
that is applied to them. The minimum working pressure rating of any fire hydrant
should be 150 psi. Hydrants installed in higher pressure installations should be
rated appropriately. All fire hydrants should be static tested at twice the rated
working pressure.
In temperate climates where hard freezing is not an issue, the most efficient
hydrant design is the "wet barrel" hydrant where valves are located above ground
and can be independently controlled. In colder climates, dry barrel hydrants will be
required which use a single operating valve that is located below ground in the base
of the riser and which charge all outlets simultaneously when turned on.
"Standard" Hydrant Spacing:
Hydrant spacing not to exceed 30 meters
Monitor spacing not to exceed 30 meters
Distance of hydrant from the risk area 2-5 meters
Distance from storage tank 15 – 22.5 meters
Distance of water throw:
Hydrant 15 meters
Monitor 45 meters
Standard practice involving hydrant placement is to install hydrants every 500
ft. For practical application, this standard is a guideline and minor deviations in
this spacing may be appropriate. When determining locations to place fire hydrants,
consideration should be given to accessibility, obstructions, proximity to structures
protected, driveway entrances and other circumstances where adjustments to a
specific hydrant's location would be warranted.
In jurisdictions where all fire engines are equipped with 4 in. (100mm) or
greater large diameter hose (LDH), the maximum spacing between hydrants can be
equal to the smallest in-service compliment of LDH carried. For example, if the
smallest compliment of LDH carried on any engine is 900 ft., it is acceptable to
increase hydrant spacing, where necessary, to 900 ft. This allowance may provide
considerable cost savings.
In a circumstance where the most practical locations to place hydrants may be
800 ft. apart, The LDH allowance precludes the need to place three hydrants 400 ft
apart in order to stay within the 500 ft. rule. If the fire agency carries at least 800
Ft. of LDH on every engine, two hydrants spaced 800 ft. apart would be considered
adequate.
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For reasons of public safety, it should not be the objective of hydrant system
engineers to attempt to maximize the spacing between fire hydrants. Especially in
locations where structures are set back from public roadways, some consideration
should be given to ensure that all structures are within "reach" of appropriate
hydrants utilizing standard hose lays. To so do may require hydrants to be
strategically placed at driveway entrances or that laterals be run from street mains
into complexes so that hydrants will be in reasonable proximity to the structures
being protected.
"Risk Based" and Practical Hydrant Placement
There also needs to be a sufficient number of hydrants to provide the required
fire flow for large or high hazard structures. The combined flows of two or more
hydrants may be required to meet these fire flows and each of these hydrants must
be within 500 ft. or LDH hose lay distance of the structure, whichever is greater.
Another consideration is preservation of vehicle access. If possible, hydrants
should be placed in locations where engines and hose lays connected to them will
not block critical access ways.
Preservation of hydrant access is an important issue. A hydrant isn't useful if
when the project is completed, it is isolated by a fence, gate or other obstruction
which makes it impractical to utilize to protect one or more of the structures for
which it was intended. Walls, gates, fences and other obstructions should appear
on preliminary development plans and if these improvements affect the use of
proposed hydrants, adjustments to the hydrant locations or placement of additional
hydrants should be considered.
Finally, whenever possible hydrants should not be placed so close to
structures that they cannot be used if the structures are heavily involved with fire.
In circumstances where structures are built right next to the roadway, the 500 ft.
rule should be employed since a hydrant located a safe distance from the involved
structure may have to be utilized.
Before plotting the specific locations for new fire hydrants, the fire chief or
his/her designate must be consulted to ensure that all of the operational and
practical issues have been considered prior to final placement of hydrants. It is
illegal to park a car within a certain distance of a fire hydrant. In North America the
distances are commonly 3 to 5 m or 10 to 15 ft, often indicated by yellow or red
paint on the curb. Hydrants need to be visible and accessible in an emergency.
Other guidelines
To prevent casual use or misuse, the hydrant requires special tools to be
opened, usually a large wrench with a pentagon-shaped socket.
As a general rule, no equipment or facilities should be within 3 ft. (1m) of the
hydrant body nor be placed in front of any hydrant outlet, nor be placed between
the hydrant and the roadway. Those persons who are landscaping near hydrants
should be apprised of these conditions as walls, plants and other landscape
materials must be kept outside the hydrant's clearance space.
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The center of a hose outlet shall be not less than 18 in. (457 mm) above final
grade, or when located in a hose house, 12 in. (305 mm) above the floor.
Hydrants shall be protected if subject to mechanical damage. The means of
protection shall be arranged in a manner that will not interfere with the connection
to, or operation of, hydrants.
Hydrants shall be provided and spaced in accordance with the requirements of
the authority having jurisdiction. Hydrants shall be placed a minimum of 40 ft
(12.2 m) from the buildings protected.
Sprinkler system
A sprinkler system is a fire protection system which self activates itself under a
fire like situation and sprays water on the fire. It is an active fire protection
measure, consisting of a water supply, providing adequate pressure and flowrate to
a water distribution piping system, onto which fire sprinklers are connected.
Although historically only used in factories and large commercial buildings, home
and small building systems are now available at a relatively cost-effective price.
A sprinkler head will spray water into the room if sufficient heat reaches the
bulb and causes it to shatter. Sprinkler heads operate individually. Note the red
liquid in the glass bulb.
Temperature Colour of liquid

°C °F inside bulb
57 135 Orange
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79
155
174
Red
Yellow
93 200 Green
141 286 Blue
182 360 Mauve

227 440
Black
260 500
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A sprinkler system is a heat sensitive device which senses fire like situation
and allows water to flow out of the sprinkler heads when a certain temperature is
exceeded in the surrounding environment.
a) Conventional sprinklers- spray water in only one direction.
b) Spray type sprinkler-sprays water both upwards and downward.
c) Side wall sprinklers—attached to the side walls.
High velocity water spray system
Installed to extinguish fires involving liquids with flashpoints of 65 C or higher.
It is employed to convert the inflammable liquid temporarily into an emulsion which
cannot burn. The rapid movement of the stream of water is suddenly arrested at
the surface and the impact causes the oil to be broken into tiny globules to form
emulsion which cannot burn.
Medium velocity water spray system
Has been developed and installed for the following applications:
a) Fire risks involving light oils, liquefied gases and other flammable gases,
and other flammable liquids where it may not be possible or desirable to
extinguish the fire completely.
b) For the protection of vessels, plant and structures exposed to heat and
surrounding fires
For use in conjunction with sprinklers
Sprinklers have been in use since 1874, and were used in factory applications
where fires at the turn of the century were often catastrophic in terms of both
human and property losses. Sprinklers are today required in all new high rise and
underground buildings generally 75 feet (23 m) above or below fire department
access, where the ability of firefighters to provide adequate hose streams to fires is
limited. Sprinklers may also be required in hazardous storage spaces by building
codes, or may be required by insurance companies where liability due to potential
property losses or business interruptions can be reduced by adequate automatic
fire protection. A newer, special class of fire sprinklers, ESFR sprinklers, has been
developed to fight, and subsequently suppress high challenge type fires.
Operation
Each closed-head sprinkler is held closed by a heat-sensitive device called a
fusible link. The link applies pressure to a seal which prevents water from flowing
until the ambient temperature around the sprinkler reaches the design temperature
of the individual sprinkler head. Each sprinkler activates independently when the
predetermined heat level is reached. The design intention is to limit the number of
sprinklers that operate to only those above the fire, thereby concentrating the
available water from the water source over the point of fire origin.
A sprinkler activation will do less damage than a fire department hose stream,
which provide approximately 250 US gallons/min.(900 liters/min.) whereas an
activated sprinkler head generally discharges about 23 US gallons/min.(90
75
liters/min.). In addition, a sprinkler will activate almost immediately, whereas a fire

appliance takes an average of eight minutes, after receiving an alarm, to reach an
incident. This delay can result in substantial fire damage before the appliance
arrives and a much larger fire requiring much more water to achieve extinguishment
Types
Wet pipe systems
By a wide margin, wet pipe sprinkler systems are installed more often than all
other types of fire sprinkler systems. They also are the most reliable, because they
are simple, with the only operating components being the automatic sprinklers and
(commonly, but not always) the automatic alarm check valve . An automatic water
supply provides water under pressure to the system piping. All of the piping is filled
with water. Until sufficient heat is applied, causing one or more sprinklers to fuse
(open), the automatic sprinklers prevent the water from being discharged.
Operation - When an automatic sprinkler is exposed to sufficient heat, the
heat sensitive element (fusible link) releases, allowing water to flow from that
sprinkler. Sprinklers are manufactured to react to a range of temperatures. Only
sprinklers subjected to a temperature at or above their specific temperature rating
will operate.
Dry pipe systems
Dry pipe systems can only be used (by regulation[3]) in spaces in which the
ambient temperature may be cold enough to freeze the water in a wet pipe system,
rendering the system inoperable. Dry pipe systems are most often used in unheated
buildings, in outside canopies attached to heated buildings (in which a wet pipe
system would be provided), or in refrigerated coolers. Dry pipe systems are the
second most common sprinkler system type.
Water is not present in the piping until the system operates. The piping is
pressurized with air, at a "maintenance" pressure which is relatively low compared
with the water supply pressure. To prevent the larger water supply pressure from
forcing water into the piping, the design of the dry pipe valve (a specialized type of
check valve) intentionally includes a larger valve clapper area exposed to the
maintenance air pressure, as compared to the water pressure.
Operation - When one or more of the automatic sprinklers is exposed to
sufficient heat, it operates, allowing the maintenance air to vent from that sprinkler.
Each sprinkler operates individually. As the air pressure in the piping drops, the
pressure differential across the dry pipe valve changes, allowing water to enter the
piping system. Water flow from sprinklers needed to control the fire is delayed until
the air is vented from the sprinklers. For this reason, dry pipe systems are usually
not as effective as wet pipe systems in fire control during the initial stages of the
fire.
Pre-Action Systems
Pre-action sprinkler systems are specialized for use in locations where
accidental activation is undesired, such as in museums with rare art works,
manuscripts, or books.
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Pre-action systems are hybrids of wet, dry, and deluge systems, depending on
the exact system goal. There are two sub-types of pre-action systems: single
interlock, and double interlock. The operation of single interlock systems are
similar to dry systems except that these systems require that a “preceding” and
supervised event (typically the activation of a heat or smoke detector) takes place
prior to the “action” of water introduction into the system’s piping due to opening of
the pre-action valve (which is a mechanically latched valve). Once the fire is
detected by the fire alarm system, the system is essentially converted from a dry
system into a wet system. Or, if an automatic sprinkler operated prior to the fire
being detected by the fire alarm system, water will be allowed into the piping, and
will discharge water from the sprinkler.
The operation of double interlock systems are similar to deluge systems except
that automatic sprinklers are used. These systems require that both a “preceding”
and supervised event (typically the activation of a heat or smoke detector), and an
automatic sprinkler activation take place prior to the “action” of water introduction
into the system’s piping. There is also a little used variation known as Non-
Interlock.
Foam water sprinkler systems
A foam water fire sprinkler system is a special application system, discharging
a mixture of water and low expansion foam concentrate, resulting in a foam spray
from the sprinkler. These systems are usually used with special hazards
occupancies associated with high challenge fires, such as flammable liquids, and
airport hangars. Operation is as decribed above, depending on the system type into
which the foam is injected.
Water spray
"Water spray" systems are operationally identical to a deluge system, but the
piping and discharge nozzle spray patterns are designed to protect a uniquely
configured hazard, usually being three dimensional components or equipment (i.e.,
as opposed to a deluge system, which is designed to cover the horizontal floor area
of a room). The nozzles used may not be listed fire sprinklers, and are usually
selected for a specific spray pattern to conform to the three dimensional nature of
the hazard (e.g., typical spray patterns being oval, fan, full circle, narrow jet).
Examples of hazards protected by water spray systems are electrical transformers
containing a flammable liquid as a cooling oil, or tanks containing a flammable gas
such as hydrogen.
Deluge Systems
Deluge systems are named from the 'deluge' of water they provide when
activated. The most basic deluge system consists of only three parts: deluge control
valve, distribution pipework and deluge nozzles.
Deluge Systems are normally considered the main fire fighting system for
industrial installations and two very important forms of protection are provided -
fire (flame) extinguishment and cooling.
77
Foaming agents - against hydrocarbon pool fires

Foaming agents can be added to the water, such as AFFF (Aqueous Film
Forming Foam), which is very effective against hydrocarbon (oil, gasoline, etc) pool
fires.
Cooling is used to protect structural members and equipment from heat
radiation, due to an ongoing fire, so that major damages and fire propagation is
avoided.
The deluge nozzles are evenly spaced above the floor area they protect (i.e.
total flooding) and are fitted to the distribution pipe work (grid), which in turn is fed
from the fire mains via the deluge control valve. Alternatively the nozzles may be
positioned around specific equipment, such as transformers, pressure vessels or
valves / flanges, to provide dedicated protection.
Deluge control valve
The Inbal deluge valve has a three-layer rubber sleeve, the only valve on the
market to have that feature, incorporating a kevlar / nylon reinforcement sleeve.
The Inbal valve is much more resistant to severe surge pressures than any other
deluge control valve on the market, including other rubber sleeve valves. Pressures
up to and exceeding 50bar (for a 6in valve) has routinely been mastered without
any defects.
The Inbal valve is constantly being developed and random sample valves, out
of each production series, is tested extensively for wear and mechanical failure. The
valve is, for instance, run through 10,000 opening and closing cycles, which has to
be completed without any sign of leakage or malfunction. In extreme cases sample
valves has performed more than 18,0000 such cycles, with 100% satisfactory
function. The Inbal valve has no moving mechanical parts, and maintenance is
therefore kept at an absolute minimum.
Active pressure pulse compensator
The Active Pressure Pulse Compensator (APPC) senses the sudden decrease in
water pressure and immediately starts to inject air into the upper part of the
firewater piping system, at a pre-defined pressure (normally 1bar - 2bar). This will
prevent the formation of vacuum and when the system pressure increases (i.e. the
FP delivers more water than what is consumed), the air cushion established by the
APPC will prevent water hammer in the firewater piping system.
2.7 FIRE ALARM SYSTEM
It is a network of certain components which sense fire in the areas installed at
the earliest stage and give alarm so that remedial action can be immediately taken.
Fire detectors are classified as:
1. Smoke
2. Heat
3. Flame
4. Multicriteria
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5. Special design
Smoke detectors are further classfied as:
Point detectors:
1. Ionization chamber detectors
2. Light scatter detectors
Line detectors:
1. Light obstruction dtectors
Heat detectors are classified as:
Point detectors:
1. fixed temperature detectors
2. rate of rise of temperature detectors
Line detectors:
1. analog detectors
2. digital detectors
Flame detectors are classified as:
1. UV detectors
2. IR detectors
Fire detectors
The prime function of a fire detector is to detect one or more changes in the
environment that occur due to fire. They are usually mounted on ceilings, air ducts,
covered cables etc. They are activated mainly by smoke, radiation or heat.
These conditions can be identified with important stages in the development of
a fire:
a) After ignition has occurred and invisible products of combustion are
being released.
b) When visible smoke is being produced.
c) When the fire is producing flame and a degree of illumination.
d)
When the temperature in the vicinity of the fire rises rapidly or reaches a
predetermined value.
The types of detectors designed to operate at one of these particular stages are:
1. Ionisation detector
2. Optical detector
3. Radiation detector
4. Heat detector
5. Laser beam detector
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Ionisation detector
It senses both visible and invisible products of combustion suspended in the
air. The system consists of a chamber with positive and negative plates and a
minute amount of radioactive material that ionizes in the chamber. The potential
between the two plates causes ions to move across the chamber setting up a small
current.
In a fire condition, smoke particles entering the chamber, which contains the
radioactive source and the electrodes, electrostatically attach themselves to the ions
and thus slow their movements. When the current falls below a predetermined level,
the amplifier senses it and initiates an alarm.
The various types of ionization detectors are:
1. Single chamber ionization detector
2. Dual chamber ionization detector
3. Low voltage ionization detector
Ionization detectors sense fire at the earliest practical detection stage. They are
the best method for detecting slow, incipient fires in commercial occupancies.
A single smoke detector can protect an area of 200 to 1000 sq,ft.
Optical detector: Optical detectors are smoke detectors.
1. Light scatter type
2. Obscuration type
Radiation detectors
Radiation detectors are flame detectors. A flame detector senses light from
flames. To avoid false alarms from ambient light sources, it is set to detect the
typical flicker of a flame, perhaps 5 to 30Hz. The different types are:
1. Infrared detector
2. Ultraviolet detector
IR detectors sense a portion of the radiant IR energy of flames. It is often used
in operations requiring extremely fast response (where flammable liquids are stored
or used). Flame may not be the only producer of IR radiation in the protected area.
But flame has a distinctive flicker, normally in the frequency range of 4Hz-15Hz.
The function of the filter/amplifier in the circuit is to filter out signals not in this
range and to amplify the remaining. Signals in this range are then fed to the
integrator/timer which will activate the alarm circuit only if the signals persists for
a pre-set period (normally 2-15 seconds). This delay keeps false alarm to a
minimum.
UV detectors react only to actual flames. They do not respond to glowing
embers or incandescent radiation. As legitimate sources of UV raidation are very
limited, flicker discrimination is not needed. Radiation detectors have a quick
response capability and as they are not dependent on combustion products actually
80
reaching the detector head, they can be used out of doors. They do need a clear
view of the protected area.
IR radiations can penetrate smoke better than UV detectors and thus are
preferable to UV detectors in smoky fires.
Heat detector
They are used to detect fire in its most advanced stage when the temperature
in the protected area starts to rise. The effects of heat which provide the basic
operating principles for detectors are:
1. Melting (or fusion) in metals
2. Expansion in solids, liquids and gases
3. Electrical effect
Detectors using fusible alloys
Certain metals (normally alloys are used) melt at relatively low temperatures.
The general available extends from about 55 C to 180  C as the pre-determined
temperature is reached the metal alloy will fuse and the alarm will sound. Once the
fusible link detector has operated, the link or the alloy needs replacing. Till then the
detector is ineffective.
Heat detector using the principle of expansion
A fixed temperature detector is one that responds only when a predetermined
temperature is reached. A rate of rise detector is one that responds when the
temperature rise is abnormally rapid. Where rapid rise in temperature is a normal
result of the work processes being carried out, the fixed temperature is to be
preferred to the rate of rise type.
The main advantage of metal expansion type detectors is that they suffer no
damage from operation and are self resetting.
1. Expansion of single metal strip
2. Expansion of bimetal strip
Expansion of liquids
The liquid filled quartzoid bulbs used in sprinkler systems are probably the
most common form of heat detector operating on the principle of liquid expansion.
When heated, the liquid in the bulb expands until it shatters the glass and allows
water to spray over the protected area. This is probably the best known and most
widely used method of fire detection. The bulbs are obtainable in the operating
temperature range from 57 deg C to 260deg C.
Combustion gas detector: this is the closest to general - purpose detector. It
dramatically reduces the time of alarm. The combustion gas detector does not only
rely on heat; it, in effect, smells a potential fire by measuring the percent of gas
present and does not wait until the dangerous conditions of flame occur. Most fires
detected by combustion gas detectors can be extinguished by workers on the site.
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Smoke detector
A smoke detector or smoke alarm is a device that detects smoke and issues
an alarm to alert nearby people that there is a potential fire. A household smoke
detector will typically be mounted in a disk shaped plastic enclosure about 150mm
in diameter and 25mm thick, but the shape can vary by manufacturer.
Because smoke rises, most detectors are mounted on the ceiling or on a wall
near the ceiling. To avoid the nuisance of false alarms, most smoke detectors are
mounted away from kitchens. To increase the chances of waking sleeping
occupants, most homes have at least one smoke detector near any bedrooms;
ideally in a hallway as well as in the bedroom itself.
Smoke detectors are usually powered by one or more batteries but some can
be connected directly to household wiring. Often the smoke detectors that are
directly connected to household wiring also have a battery as a power supply
backup in case the household wiring goes out. It is usually necessary to replace the
batteries once a year to ensure appropriate protection.
Most smoke detectors work either by optical detection or by ionization, but
some of them use both detection methods to increase sensitivity to smoke. Smoke
detectors may operate alone, be interconnected to cause all detectors in an area to
sound an alarm if one is triggered, or be integrated into a fire alarm or security
system. Smoke detectors with flashing lights are available for the deaf or hearing
impaired. A smoke detector cannot detect carbon monoxide to prevent carbon
monoxide poisoning unless it has an integrated carbon monoxide detector
Optical detector
Optical Smoke Detector
1: optical chamber
2: cover
3: case moulding
4: photodiode (detector)
5: infra-red LED
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An optical detector is a light sensor. When used as a smoke detector it

includes a light source (infra-red LED), a lens to collimate the light into a beam,
and a photodiode or other photoelectric sensor at right-angles to the beam as a
light detector. In the absence of smoke, the light passes in front of the detector in a
straight line. When smoke enters the optical chamber into the path of the light
beam, some light is scattered by the smoke particles, and some of the scattered
light is detected by the sensor. An increased input of light into the sensor sets off
the alarm.
Another type of optical detector works by using a straight line infra-red beam
from the sender to the receiver. When smoke enters the beam, some light is
scattered which results in less light detected by the receiver. A decreased input of
light into the receiver sets off the alarm.
Also seen in large rooms, such as a gymnasium or an auditorium, are
projected beam detectors. A unit on the wall sends out a beam, which is either
received by a receiver, or reflected back via a mirror. When the beam is less visible
to the "eye" of the sensor, it sends an alarm signal to the Fire alarm control panel.
Optical smoke detectors are quick in detecting slow burning, smoky fires. They
are less sensitive to false alarming from cooking and bathroom steam than are
ionization smoke alarms.
Photoelectric Detectors
Occasionally, you will walk into a store and a bell will go off as you cross the
threshold. If you look, you will often notice that a photo beam detector is being
used. Near the door on one side of the store is a light (either a white light and a lens
or a low-power laser), and on the other side is a photodetector that can "see" the
light.
When you cross the beam of light, you block it. The photodetector senses the
lack of light and triggers a bell. You can imagine how this same type of sensor could
act as a smoke detector. If it ever got smoky enough in the store to block the light
beam sufficiently, the bell would go off. But there are two problems here:
 It's a pretty big smoke detector.
 It is not very sensitive.
There would have to be a LOT of smoke before the alarm would go off -- the
smoke would have to be thick enough to completely block out the light. It takes
quite a bit of smoke to do that.
Photoelectric smoke detectors therefore use light in a different way. Inside the
smoke detector there is a light and a sensor, but they are positioned at 90-degree
angles to one another.
83
The sensor then sets off the horn in the smoke detector.
Photoelectric detectors are better at sensing smoky fires, such as a smoldering
mattress.
Ionization Detectors
This type of detector is cheaper than the optical detector, however it is
sometimes rejected for environmental reasons. It can detect particles of smoke that
are too small to be visible. It includes a tiny mass of radioactive americium-241,
which is a source of alpha radiation. The radiation passes through an ionization
chamber, which is an air-filled space between two electrodes, and permits a small,
constant current to flow between the electrodes. Any smoke that enters the
chamber absorbs the alpha particles, which reduces the ionization and interrupts
this flow of current, setting off the alarm.
In the normal case, the light from the light source on the left shoots straight
across and misses the sensor. When smoke enters the chamber, however, the
smoke particles scatter the light and some amount of light hits the sensor:
Ionization smoke detectors use an ionization chamber and a source of
ionizing radiation to detect smoke. This type of smoke detector is more common
because it is inexpensive and better at detecting the smaller amounts of smoke
produced by flaming fires. Inside an ionization detector is a small amount (perhaps
1/5000th of a gram) of americium-241. The radioactive element americium has a
half-life of 432 years, and is a good source of alpha particles.
Another way to talk about the amount of americium in the detector is to say
that a typical detector contains 0.9 microcurie of americium-241. A curie is a unit
of measure for nuclear material. If you are holding a curie of something in your
84
hand, you are holding an amount of material that undergoes 37,000,000,000

nuclear transformations per second. Generally, that means that 37 billion atoms in
the sample are decaying and emitting a particle of nuclear radiation (such as an
alpha particle) per second. One gram of of the element radium generates
approximately 1 curie of activity (Marie Curie, the woman after whom the curie is
named, did much of her research using radium).
Ionization Detectors: Ionization Chamber
An ionization chamber is very simple. It consists of two plates with a voltage
across them, along with a radioactive source of ionizing radiation, like this:
The alpha particles generated by the americium have the following property:
They ionize the oxygen and nitrogen atoms of the air in the chamber. To "ionize"
means to "knock an electron off of." When you knock an electron off of an atom,
you end up with a free electron (with a negative charge) and an atom missing one
electron (with a positive charge). The negative electron is attracted to the plate with
a positive voltage, and the positive atom is attracted to the plate with a negative
voltage (opposites attract, just like with magnets). The electronics in the smoke
detector sense the small amount of electrical current that these electrons and ions
moving toward the plates represent.
When smoke enters the ionization chamber, it disrupts this current -- the
smoke particles attach to the ions and neutralize them. The smoke detector senses
the drop in current between the plates and sets off the horn.
The amount of radiation in a smoke detector is extremely small. It is also
predominantly alpha radiation. Alpha radiation cannot penetrate a sheet of paper,
and it is blocked by several centimeters of air. The americium in the smoke detector
could only pose a danger if you were to inhale it.
Inside an Ionization Smoke Detector
Here's what the outside of a typical smoke detector looks like.
85
When you take off the cover, you find that a smoke detector is pretty simple.
This one consists of a printed circuit board (see the article Inside a Remote
Control for an explanation of printed circuit boards), an ionization chamber (the
silver cylinder toward the top right in the following picture) and an electronic horn
(the brass cylinder toward the bottom right in the following picture):
The ionization chamber is an aluminum can containing the ionization source.
You can see that the can has slots in it to allow air flow. The can itself acts as the
negative plate of the ionization chamber.
Underneath the can is a ceramic holder that contains the positive plate of the
ionization chamber. Under that plate is the ionization source, which you want to
be sure not to disturb.
Batteries
Most residential smoke detectors run on 9 volt alkaline batteries. If these
batteries run out, the smoke detector will become inactive.Some detectors are also
being sold with a lithium battery that can run for about 7 to 10 years, though this
might actually make it less likely for people to change batteries since their
replacement is needed so infrequently. By that time, the whole detector should be
replaced. Though relatively expensive, user-replaceable 9 volt lithium batteries (in
the same configuration as the common alkaline ones) are also available. They
should only be used in a fairly new detector.
In new construction, most building codes today require smoke detectors that
are wired to the main electricity flow of buildings. Many of these units also include
a battery backup to ensure operation during a power outage. Rechargeable
batteries should never be used in smoke detectors, since common NiMH and NiCd
rechargeable batteries have a short life in between charges—in other words, they
86
self-discharge relatively quickly. This is true even though they may provide much
more power than alkaline batteries if used soon after charging (such as in a
Walkman stereo). Also, a problem particularly prevalent in older technology
rechargables is a rapid voltage drop at the end of their useful charge. This is
concerning in devices like smoke detectors since the battery may transition from
"charged" to "dead" so quickly that the low battery warning from the detector is
either very brief, or may not occur at all.
A quality alkaline battery should be installed and replaced every six months or
so. The used battery will still probably have the majority of its charge, and can be
reused in less critical applications such as a backup for a digital alarm clock. The
alarm may chirp at intervals if the battery is low, though if there is more than one
unit within earshot, it can be hard to locate.
Testing
Virtually all modern smoke alarm units come equipped with a "test" button.
Alternatively, artificial smoke can be purchased, which has the advantage of also
testing the detection mechanism itself. Many people simply wave a lit match
underneath the detector to test it, however this is dangerous as it can set the
smoke alarm and the rest of the house on fire. A better way is to blow out a match
or candle and wave the smoke under the detector.
Smoke detector batteries every six months and to replace the entire smoke
detector after ten years of use.
Installation and placement
All smoke detectors must be hooked directly to the electrical wiring, be
interconnected and have a battery backup. In addition, smoke detectors are
required either inside or outside every workplace, depending on local codes.
Detectors on the ceiling should be placed several inches away from any wall. If
the ceiling is not flat, the detector should be placed at or near the highest point. If
the highest point is a small recess, then the detector should be placed at the next
highest level. Detectors placed on the wall should be several inches, but no more
than a foot, from the top. Detectors should not be placed on a wall if the ceiling has
a deep recess or if the ceiling slopes steeply or for a long distance. Detectors should
be several horizontal feet away from a heating or cooling register, window, corner,
the edge of a ceiling fan's sweep and doors. They should be placed as far as possible
away from combustion sources, like oil and gas-fired furnaces, space heaters,
clothes dryers and water heaters, without compromising coverage or safety. Smoke
detectors in a basement should be placed at the bottom of the stairs and an
additional detector should be placed in or near sleeping areas in the basement.
87
2.8 BLEVE
A BLEVE erupting from a tanker

BLEVE, is an acronym for "boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion". This
is a type of explosion that can occur when a vessel containing a pressurized liquid
is ruptured. Such explosions can be extremely hazardous. When the liquid is water,
the explosion is usually called a steam explosion. A BLEVE can occur in a vessel
that stores a substance that is usually a gas at atmospheric pressure but is a liquid
when pressurized (for example, liquefied petroleum gas). The substance will be
stored partly in liquid form, with a gaseous vapour above the liquid filling the
remainder of the container.
If the vessel is ruptured — for example, due to corrosion, or failure under
pressure — the vapour portion may rapidly leak, dropping the pressure inside the
container and releasing a wave of overpressure from the point of rupture. This
sudden drop in pressure inside the container causes violent boiling of the liquid,
which rapidly liberates large amounts of vapour in the process. The pressure of this
vapour can be extremely high, causing a second, much more significant wave of
overpressure (i.e., an explosion) which may completely destroy the storage vessel
and project fragments over the surrounding area. BLEVEs can also be caused by an
external fire nearby the storage vessel causing heating of the contents and pressure
build-up.
Under rapid heating (for example, from a pool fire engulfing the tank), a tank
containing pressurized liquid may fail suddenly producing an explosive effect. The
liquid in the tank absorbs energy from the surrounding fire and heats up
rapidly. The resulting increased rate of vaporization produced increases the ullage
pressure. When this pressure exceeds a certain limit (characteristic of the material
properties of the tank wall, wall thickness and temperature), the tank fails. The
liquid released from the tank boils rapidly and expands. The resulting explosion
may fragment the tank into pieces and propel them over large distances. If the
hazmat is flammable, it may ignite and form a fireball posing additional
hazard. This phenomenon is called a BLEVE or Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor
Explosion.
88
A BLEVE does not require a flammable substance to occur, and therefore is

not usually considered a type of chemical explosion. However, if the substance
involved is flammable, it is likely that the resulting cloud of the substance will
ignite after the BLEVE has occurred, forming a fireball and possibly a fuel-air
explosion, also termed a vapor cloud explosion (VCE). If the materials are toxic, a
large area will be contaminated.
If a gas cylinder is venting, a BLEVE can be avoided by cooling the cylinder
involved with water or foam, taking care not to extinguish the flame, until the
cylinder is empty, or the leak is plugged.
BLEVE accounts for the following key coupled processes:
 heat transfer:
 from flame to tank
 from tank walls to the liquid and vapor phases
 between liquid and vapor phases
 thermodynamic transformations within the tank and pressure buildup
 activation of pressure relief valve (or PRV) and venting
 wall stresses and material property degradation
 tank failure
 depressurization of liquid upon tank failure with concomitant thermodynamic
transformations
1. Write a note on Chemistry of Fire.
2. Describe different sources of ignition.
3. What is Plant Point?
4. What is Fire Point?
5. Describe different types of Fire Protection System Currently used in
industries.
6. Describe different types of Fire Risks.
7.
Describe different Fire Extinguishing agents used in Chemical
Industries.
8. Write a note on Fire alarm System and its types.
9. Describe BLEVE.
10. Describe UVCE.

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UNIT – III
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

CONTENT
3.1 Introduction
3.2. Personal Protective Equipment
3.3. Classification
3.4. Head Protection
3.5. Ear Protection
3.6. Eye Protection
3.7. Body Protection
3.8. Arm and Hand Protection
3.9. Foot Protection
3.10 Respiratory Protection
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Workers in a wide range of occupations are exposed to significant risk of death
or injury by being exposed to hazardous substances, air contaminants, moving
equipment, sharp tools, flying materials and heavy objects. Many injuries, illnesses,
and fatalities can be prevented or reduced in severity when exposed workers wear
appropriate protective equipment.
Where these hazardous situations are identified, it is the employer's responsibility to:
 Select and provide PPE that provides the maximum level of protection;
 Ensure that it fits properly, is maintained in sanitary and reliable
condition, and that workers use it whenever necessary; and
 Train all workers who will wear the protective equipment, prior to the start
of the job.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to understand
 Annamalai University
The need selection, applicable standard, supply use care and maintenance
of Personal Protective Equipments.
 Types of Personal Protective Equipments, respiratory and Non-respiratory
Personal Protective Equipments.
3.2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) includes all clothing and work
accessories designed to protect employees from workplace hazards. It refers to
protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other gear designed to protect the wearer's
body from injury by electrical hazards, heat, chemicals, and infection, for job-
related occupational safety and health purposes. PPE can also be used to protect
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the working environment from pollution or infection from the worker. Examples of
PPE include safety goggles, blast shields, hard hats, hearing protectors, gloves,
respirators, aprons, and work boots.
PPE is a second line of defense for employee protection. The firs line of defense
is to eliminate accident causing situations. The primary methods for preventing
employee exposure to hazardous materials are engineering and administrative
controls. Where these control methods are not appropriate or sufficient to control
the hazard, personal protective equipment (PPE) is required. Employees must wear
protective equipment as required and when instructed by a supervisor.
PPE should not be used as a substitute for engineering, work practice, and/or
administrative controls to prevent exposure to hazardous chemicals. For example, a
respirator is not meant to be worn by an assembly line worker during his/her entire
work shift; other methods such as a ventilation system or replacement of hazardous
substances/processes should be utilized. However, PPE can work in conjunction
with such preventative measures or when such controls are not possible
PPE protects only the user - it does nothing to remove the hazard from the
workplace. For example, a respirator may help protect the wearer from toxic fumes,
but does nothing to protect others in the vicinity.
3.3 CLASSIFICATION
Personal protective equipment may be classified into two broad categories:
1. Non-respiratory protective equipments
2. Respiratory protective equipments
More importance is given to respiratory protection because even a small failure
or violation in the use of respiratory protective equipment will affect the entire body
system and will lead to unconsciousness, or fatal injury. The non-respiratory
protection equipment can be further classified according to the part of the body to
be protected. A general classification is given below:
Non-respiratory protective devices:
a) Head protectors
b) Eye protectors
c) Hand and arm protectors
d) Foot and leg protectors
e) Body protectors
f) Skin protectors
Respiratory protective equipments:
a) Short distance fresh air breathing apparatus
b) Compressed air line breathing apparatus
c) Self contained breathing apparatus
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1. Regenerative oxygen types

2. Open circuit compressed air type
3. Open circuit oxygen type
3.4 HEAD PROTECTION
An injury to the head can pose serious threat to the brain. Since the brain is
housed in the head it is at most important to protect is against all injuries and
accidents. The skull with its covering of scalp and hair acts as a natural helmet,
cushioning the brain against minor bumps and knocks. However, this is no
protection against the serious hazards one may encounter at construction sites,
mines, factories and during maintenance work. Head protection is necessary if you
work where there is a risk of injury from moving, falling, or flying objects or if you
work near high-voltage equipment.
Head injuries are usually caused by the impact and penetration of falling or
flying objects, bumping against a fixed object, or contacting exposed electrical
conductors. Head protection, in the form of a protective helmet, must do two things:
resist penetration and absorb the shock of a blow. These are achieved by making
the helmet's shell of material hard enough to resist a blow or penetrating object and
by creating a shock-absorbing lining made of a headband and crown straps to keep
the shell away from the wearer's skull. This system spreads the force of impact over
a wider area of the head.
Safety hats
Accidents that cause head injuries are difficult to anticipate or control. Safety
hats protect the head from impact, penetration, and electrical shock. A hard hat is
a type of helmet predominantly used in workplace environments, such as
construction sites, to protect the head from injury such as from falling objects,
debris and bad weather. They are typically required personal protective equipment
where heavy labor is being performed. They used to be made out of metal, but since
the 1940s they went from fiberglass then around the 1950's and onward they were
molded from rigid plastic which is now the most common material.Hardhats may
also be fitted with a visor, ear protectors, or a helmet light light mount.
On construction sites different hard hat colors can signify different roles. For
instance: white for supervisors, blue for technical advisor's, red for safety
inspectors and yellow for workmen. Hard hats should be water resistant, flame
resistant, and adjustable. Wear one of the following hard hats as appropriate for
your work situation:
 Class A - General service, limited voltage protection
 Class B - Utility service, high-voltage protection
 Class C - Special service, no voltage protection
The hardhat, a basic piece of safety equipment used in any work operations,
must meet specifications for protection. Manufacturers have adapted hardhats so
that ear protection and face shields may be easily attached. Hardhats are
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adjustable so a liner can be worn during cold weather. A chin strap is

advantageous when work involves bending and ducking. It also helps secure the
hardhat to the head when full face masks are worn.
Follow these guidelines for head safety:

 Check the shell and suspension of your headware for damage before each
use. Look for cracks, dents, gouges, chalky appearance, and torn or
broken suspension threads. Discard damaged hats or replace broken parts
with replacements from the original manufacturer.
 Discard any hat that has been struck or dropped from a great height, even
if there is no apparent damage.
 Do not wear a hard hat backwards, unless this is necessary to
accommodate other protective equipment (e.g., welders face shield).
 Do not paint the plastic shell of a hard hat or alter it in any way.
Helmets
Safety helmet is a basic device for the protection of head. Safety helmets
provide protection to the head from injury by the falling bodies, flying objects,
overhead spills of hot and corrosive chemicals, electric shock etc.
Safety helmet Safety helmet with visor

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The hard shell of the safety helmet is designed to protect the head against
impact. It deflect sand distributes the force of the impact over the whole head,
diffusing the gravity of the flow. The brim which is a narrow rim surrounding the
helmet not only protects the head but also the neck, face and back by deflecting
the objects away from the head. Chin and nape straps may be necessary to keep
the helmet firmly on the head. The chin strap holds the helmet securely in place
while ventilation holes in the shell allow circulation of air inside the hard hat. The
straps should break, however, at a reasonably low force to prevent a strangulation
hazard.
Industrial safety helmets injected from HDP/ABS fitted with a snap on
polyethylene harness and a head band. Head bands are available in two sizes to
suit head sizes from 540mm to 590mm and 580mm to 640mm. These helmets are
made to Bureau of Indian Specifications made to IS 2925 standards.
Helmets are made out of materials such as fibre –glass reinforced plastic,
HDPE, aluminium alloy etc. for protection against falling bodies, the FRP or HDPE
helmets are preferable because of their superior impact resistance. These are also
suitable against chemical spills. Helmets are designed to withstand an impact load
of 4 pounds.
Colours: White, Yellow, Blue
To provide the best protection, a safety helmet must fit properly. The
headband should be adjustable in at least 1/8 hat-size increments. Adjust so there
is adequate clearance between the shell and the headband and space to allow
ventilation.
Care and maintenance
 Clean the shell with a mild detergent and rinse with clear water. Inspect
for signs of cracks, penetration, or other damage caused by rough
treatment or wear. It's a good idea to inspect the helmet daily, or prior to
each use. If the helmet is damaged, it should not be worn.
 Consult the manufacturer before painting a helmet shell or using a solvent
to clean it. Some paints and solvents may damage the shell and reduce its
protective level.
 Holes should never be drilled or punched in a helmet shell for ventilation.
This reduces the helmet's ability to sustain impact. Class E helmets must
never have holes drilled in the shell or any accessory that contains metal.
 Do not store a safety helmet on the rear window shelf of a vehicle.
Overexposure to ultraviolet light such as sunlight and extreme heat may
cause the shell to deteriorate.
Dirt and moisture must be removed after use. Helmet must be cleaned at least
once in a month in warm water or recommended cleanser and air dried. Helmets
must be checked regularly for cracks or other damages. Damaged, worn-out or
those that have taken hard knock must be replaced. The harness must be changed
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at least once in a year. The helmet must be protected from exposure to sunlight and
extremes of heat and cold, chemicals, etc. PVC helmets are not suitable in very hot
locations as they are likely to soften.
Other head/neck protection devices are throat guard, Head guard, Boxing
headgear, Mouth guard, Mouthpiece, Armored/insulated hood and Tin-foil hat.
3.5 EAR PROTECTION
High noise levels, a common problem in most industrial settings, carry a very
serious health hazard, permanent irreversible hearing loss. Hearing loss has an
impact on a person's quality of life. A worker who doesn't hear well has a difficult
time communicating with others and may feel isolated. Hearing loss can also affect
job safety when a worker doesn't hear a shouted warning or a back-up alarm signal.
Because of the hazards associated with high noise levels, all workers who are
exposed to 85 decibels or more for an eight-hour period must be placed in a hearing
conservation program and provided with hearing protection.
People working in a high noise area, must wear hearing protection. Most
hearing protection devices have an assigned rating that indicates the amount of
protection provided. An earplug is a device that is meant to be inserted in the ear
canal to protect the wearer's hearing from loud noises or the intrusion of water,
foreign bodies, dust or excessive wind. Ear plugs or muffs should be issued when
noise may be a problem, such as around heavy machinery and impact tools.
Most earplugs are made of foam that is typically rolled into a tightly
compressed cylinder by the wearer's fingers and then inserted in the ear canal.
Once released, the earplug expands until it seals the canal, blocking the sound
vibrations that reach the eardrum. Other plugs simply push into the ear canal
without being rolled first.
This kind of earplug protection is often worn by industrial workers who work
within hearing distance of loud machinery for long periods of time. Earplugs are
rated with "Noise Reduction Ratings" or NRRs (Single Number Ratings, or SNR, in
the European Union), which provide a guide to the noise protection, in decibels,
afforded by the device. Ratings usually spread between 26 to 33 decibels.
Current earplug material was discovered in 1967, at National Research in the
USA, by Ross Gardner and his team. As part of of a project on sealing joints, they
developed a resin with energy absorption properties. This E-A-R material was later
developed into commercial memory foam earplugs.
Earplugs may be better in hot, humid, or confined work areas. They may also
be better for employees who wear other PPE, such as safety glasses or hats.
Earmuffs, on the other hand, may be better for employees who move in and out of
noisy areas, because the muffs are easier to remove. Before resorting to hearing
protection, attempt to control noise levels through engineering or operational
changes.
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Depending on the level of exposure, we may choose from:

 Disposable earplugs
 Reusable earplugs
 Headband plugs
 Sealed earmuffs
To avoid contamination, we should follow these
guidelines:
 Wash your hands before inserting earplugs.
 Replace disposable earplugs after each use.
 Clean reusable earplugs after each use.
Disposable ear plugs are designed for one-time use. They
are made of formable material and designed to insert into a
person's ear canal. Once inside the ear canal, they will expand
and conform to the shape of the ear canal. Ear plugs must fit
snugly inside the ear canal to reduce the noise level. This type
of hearing protection may need to be shaped before use.
Reusable ear plugs usually are premolded and made of
silicone, plastic, or rubber. They are available in different sizes
and fit into the ear canal the same way as disposable plugs.
Reusable plugs are joined by a string for easy removal and reinsertion, and to
prevent the plugs from getting lost.
 Wash hands and inspect plugs before insertion.
 Wash reusable plugs daily and store them in a clean case.
 Replace plugs that are hard or discolored.
 If ear plugs are working properly, the wearer's voice will sound louder to
him/her.
Headband plugs
Headband plugs can be worn comfortably with safety glasses or protective
helmets. These plugs are on a flexible plastic band that is worn under the chin
while the protectors are in the ears. Headband plugs should be kept clean by
wiping with a clean damp cloth and care must be taken not to bend or twist the
band.
Ear muffs
Ear muffs have cups and cushions that fit securely around the ears, covering
them completely, and are held in place by a headband. Long hair, sideburns, or
facial movements such as chewing gum can interfere with a proper fit and reduce
the protection level. In extremely loud situations, wear ear plugs and ear muffs.
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Ear muff Helmet mounted ear muff

 Inspect cushions before wearing and wipe them with a damp cloth after
each use. Replace the cushion when it loses its resilience.
 Check headband tension to ensure a good fit by holding the band at the
top of the arc. The ear muffs should almost touch at the bottom. This will
provide enough pressure to give a tight seal around the ears.
 Muffs should fit firmly and comfortably--loose muffs will not reduce the
noise.
Eye and Face Protection
Eyes are vulnerable to various kinds of hazards in the work places.
These hazards may be classified as: (1) mechanical hazard, (2) chemical
hazard and (3) thermal hazard.
In machining, grinding, buffing, welding, chipping, cutting, handling molten
metals or pouring chemicals, there is great risk of flying particles, dusts, chips,
sparks and splashes getting into the eyes and injuring them. Handling chemical in
factories pose the threat of chemical splashes, fumes dusts and burns. Eyes must
also be protected against thermal and radiation hazards such as heat, glares,
ultraviolet rays and infrared rays. These hazards occur during welding and some
other similar processes.
Safety glasses with side shields provide protection against impact and splashes,
but safety goggles provide protection against impact, splashes, and hazardous
atmospheres. In risky situations chemical face shields should be used. Chemical
splash hoods are sometimes used for short duration jobs n handling chemicals.
3.6 EYE PROTECTION
(Welding, glassblowing, gas welding, oxygen cutting, torch brazing, laser use,
etc.)
The radiation produced by welding covers a broad range of the spectrum of
light. Exposure to ultraviolet light (UV-B) from welding operations can cause
"welders flash", a painful inflammable of the outer layer of the cornea. Arc welding
or arc cutting operations, including submerged arc welding, require the use of
welding helmets with an appropriate filter lens. Goggles with filter plates or tinted
glass are available for glassblowing and other operations where intense light
sources are encountered, including but not limited to, gas welding or oxygen
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cutting operations.. Spectacles with suitable filter lenses may be appropriate for
light gas welding operations, torch brazing, or inspection.. Users and visitors to
Laser use areas (the laser nominal hazard zone) must be protected with suitable
laser protection eye wear. Workers shall wear the appropriate eye and face
protection when involved in activities where there is the potential for eye and face
injury from:
 Handling of hot solids, liquids, or molten metals
 Flying particles from chiseling, milling, sawing, turning, shaping, cutting,
etc.
 Heat treatment, tempering, or kiln firing of any metal or other materials
 Intense light radiation from gas or electric arc welding, glassblowing, torch
brazing, oxygen cutting, laser use, etc.
 Repair or servicing of any vehicle
 Handling of chemicals and gases
Eye protection choices include the following: (1)Safety glasses, (2) goggles and
(3) face shields
Safety Glasses
Safety glasses are the most commonly used form of eye protection. They are
designed primarily to provide protection from flying particles that may strike the
eyes from the front. Side shields, either built into the frame or detachable, and full
(cup) shields provide additional protection. A professional who can adjust the
glasses should fit prescription safety glasses.
Ordinary prescription glasses do not provide adequate protection. Eye
protection must conform to the standard. Prescription safety glasses are
recommended for employees who must routinely wear safety glasses in lieu of
fitting safety glasses over their personal glasses. All safety glasses should have side
shields.
Goggles
Goggles and safety glasses are forms of protection wears that usually enclose
or protect the eye area in order to prevent particulates or chemicals from striking
the eyes.Goggles are often worn when using power tools such as drills or chainsaws
to prevent flying particles from damaging the eyes. Many types of goggles are
available as prescription goggles for those with vision problems. Goggles are
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intended for use when protection is needed against chemicals or particles. Impact
protection goggles which contain perforations on the sides of goggle are not to be
used for chemical splash protection, therefore are not recommended. Splash
goggles which contain shielded vents at the top of the goggle are appropriate for
chemical splash protection, and also provide limited eye impact protection. Goggles
only protect the eyes, offering no protection for the face and neck. They are
available with a variety of lenses and often have ventilation openings for air to
circulate through the cup to prevent fogging. Goggles must be fitted close to the
eyes to achieve the widest field of vision and a tight facial seal, but the eyelashes
should not touch the lenses.
Whenever protection against splashing is a concern, "Chemical Splash

Goggles" must be worn. Goggles and other eye protectors are made of heat treated
or chemically treated glass, plastic, light-filtering glass or wire screens. Goggles
with soft vinyl or rubber frames protect against corrosive chemicals. Goggles must
be fitted close to the eyes to achieve the widest field of vision and a tight facial seal,
but the eyelashes should not touch the lenses
Face Shields
Full-face shields provide the face and throat and partial protection from flying
particles and liquid splash. For maximum protection against chemical splash, a full
face shield should be used in combination with chemical splash goggles. Face
shields are appropriate as secondary protection when implosion (e.g vacuum
applications) or explosion hazards are present. Face shields which are contoured to
protect the sides of the neck as well as frontal protection are preferred.
Faceshields that attach to hardhats provide added protection. A combination
that leaves no gap between the shield and the brim of the cap is best because it
prevents overhead splashes from running down inside the face shield. The face
shield must meet specifications.
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Face shields attached to hardhats Welding shields
Hand held face shields
Types of eye protectors, their characteristics and their applications are given in
the following table:
Type Characteristics Protects against

Spectacle type Plain, shatter proof, toughened glass or Flying bodies
goggles plastic lenses. (dusts, metal chips
With or without side shields etc.)
Metal or heat resistant frames
Panorama Light in weight, non-fogging cellulose, Oil and paint
goggles clear visor. splashes,
Ventilation holes on either side.
Soft pliable plastic frame wide enough to
Dust and chip
exposure.
wear over prescription glasses.
Leather –mask Sweat lining along the edges, ventilation Smoke, dust,
goggles holes with baffles for light and dust. foreign bodies
Shatter proof lenses
Chemical goggles Acid/alkali resistant rubber frame with Chemicals and
clean lenses and shielded ventilating toxic dusts.
ports
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Gas-tight goggles Air tight fitting without ventilating ports Irritating fumes,
vapour or gases
Welding goggles Similar to panorama goggles with filter Gas welding /
glass of suitable grade and indirect cutting, flames,
ventilation ports. and sparks
Welding shields Fibre or fibre glass shield, hand held or Arc
suspended form helmet, with window for welding/cutting,
filter glass flames and sparks
Maintenance
Goggles are cleaned with soap and warm water to remove oil or grease. They
can be kept in hot water or exposed to steam for 5 minutes. If bacterial
contamination is a problem, they can be exposed to formaldehyde vapors or
immersed in
1. Formalin (1 part of 40% formaldehyde solution in 9 parts of water), or
2. A solution of 1 part of sodium hypochlorite in 10 parts of warm water.
Under ordinary conditions goggles can be washed in cold water and dried in
clean area.
Precautions
1. Solvents such as petrol, thinners etc. should not be used for cleaning
2. Avoid very high temperature of water.
3. Manufacturer’s instructions should be followed.
4. Cleaned goggles should be placed in plastic bags with a tag indicating
the date of cleaning and disinfecting.
The eye protectors should be standard safety gear when the respiratory
protection is a half-face mask with no face shield. Both safety glasses/goggles and a
face shield are advisable as long as they do not impair visibility.
Important points to be considered
 Do not wear contact lenses in the laboratory or other areas where
hazardous atmospheres may be present. Contact lenses do not provide eye
protection and may reduce the effectiveness of an emergency eyewash.
If you wear prescription glasses, wear goggles or other safety protection
over the glasses.
 Safety glasses with side shields provide primary protection to eyes and are
four times as resistant as prescription glasses to impact injuries.
 Goggles protect against impacts, sparks, chemical splashes, dust, and
irritating mist. Wear full goggles, not just safety glasses, when working
with chemicals.
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 Eyecup welding goggles with filter lenses give protection from glare and
sparks.
 A welding helmet protects from flash burn due to welding, soldering, or
brazing, but does not provide primary eye protection; safety glasses or
goggles should be worn with the helmet.
 A face shield is designed to protect the face from some splashes or
projectiles, but does not eliminate exposure to vapors. A face shield should
be worn with goggles or safety glasses.
 Sunglasses are useful to prevent eyestrain from glare and to minimize
ultraviolet light exposure.
 The employer shall ensure that each employee uses appropriate eye or face
protection when exposed to eye or face hazards from flying particles,
molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases
or vapors, or potentially injurious light radiation.
Employees must wear protection if hazards exist that could cause eye or face
injury. Eye and face protection should be used in conjunction with equipment
guards, engineering controls, and safe practices. Always wear adequate eye and
face protection when performing tasks such as grinding, buffing, welding, chipping,
cutting, or pouring chemicals.
Eye and Face Protection
Inspect protective eye equipment prior to each use. Pitted or scratched lenses
may reduce vision and compromise the level of protection, and so they should not
be worn. Equipment with broken parts or distorted by heat needs to be repaired or
discarded.
 Have the frame adjusted periodically to prevent glasses from sliding down
the nose and to keep the lenses directly in front of the eyes.
 Always put safety glasses on and remove them with both hands. Using one
hand can loosen the frames, which could impair vision over time.
 Keep the lenses clean. Before cleaning, flush them with water. This
removes dirt or grit that could be ground into the lens and result in a
scratch when the lens is wiped. When facilities are not available to flush
lenses, blow on the surface to remove dirt prior to wiping.
 Where goggles are used extensively, clean them often with a disinfectant or
mild soap and water, and use a defogging solution.
 Regularly check lenses, frames, and headbands of all eyewear for wear or
damage. Promptly replace any device that doesn't fit properly or is
scratched, bent, or broken.
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3.7 BODY PROTECTION

To protect the body from hazards like falling of hot chips, slag, heat radiation,
ionizing radiation, splashing of chemicals and others, the body must be protected
by protective suits or aprons.
Protective suit is an umbrella term for any suit or clothing which protects the
wearer. Any specific design of suit may offer protection against biological and
chemical chemical agents, particle radiation (alpha) and/or radiation (delta and
gamma), and may offer flash protection in the case of bomb disposal suits. Most
forms of industrial clothing are protective clothing. Personal protective equipment
includes:-
A variety of protective clothing, including laboratory coats, long pants, rubber
aprons, coveralls, and disposable body suits are available for specific work
conditions.
 Rubber, neoprene, and plastic clothing protect employees from most acids
and chemical splashes.
 Laboratory coats, coveralls, and disposable body suits protect employees
and everyday clothing from contamination.
 Welding aprons provide protection from sparks.
Launder reusable protective clothing separate from other clothing. Cotton lab
coats (preferable to rayon or polyester coats) should be worn to protect your
clothing from becoming soiled and to provide limited protection against minor
splashes of chemicals and radioactive materials. Assure that hazardous chemicals,
radioactive materials, or toxic dusts are not carried home with you on your street
clothes by using lab coats, disposable protective clothing, or work clothes which
remain at the workplace. Tyvek coveralls can be used over street clothes for
protection against particles and low hazard liquids, but do not provide complete
protection against liquids. Lab coats will also not resist liquid penetration, and if
splashed with chemicals, should be removed immediately.
Vinyl or rubber aprons and sleeves should be used when dispensing corrosive
liquids (e.g. hydrofluoric acid, phenol, etc). Where metal organic liquids or other
materials which may self ignite on contact with air are used, Nomex lab coats are
recommended, along with face shields. Where contact with hazardous materials
with your protective clothing is likely, such as during spill cleanup or pesticide
application, polyethylene- coated Tyvek or similar clothing should be used to
provide additional protection. The limitations of the protective clothing must always
be understood, particularly in situations where contact with the material is likely.
Clothing to protect the body against hazardous liquids, gases, or vapors is
available in a variety of styles and materials.
Depending upon applications, different kinds of suits are offered.
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Pvc suits Aluminised glass fibre suits: Aprons
PVC SUITS are made of leak proof heavy duty laminated/non-laminated bright
yellow colour PVC material. They are acid/alkali proof and are ideal against
chemical splashes. Suits may consist of hood with replaceable visor, free size pant
and coat, duly ventilated with either zip or button.
ASBESTOS SUITS are made of asbestos fabric with heavy duty flannel pasted
with synthetic solution. It consists of one piece overall, Hood, Pair of Hand gloves &
Boots.
ALUMINISED GLASS FIBRE SUITS: Fire approach Suit consisting of Hood,
One piece Overall, gloves and Boots, These suits can be provided with/without
Pouch to accommodate B. A. Set.
APRONS with/without sleeve are made from rubber
sheeting, PVC, Asbestos, Leather, Drill Canvas, fire retardant
material .
VESTS: Reflective Vest - Nylon Vest with flourescent
blaze reflective tapes both front and back. Provides
maximum visibility for safety, Lightweight & durable, retains
its colour under toughest weather. Good for construction
workers, street workers, public utility, safety patrol and
policemen.
If the hazard present is known to be minor or simply a nuisance, minimal
protection is warranted. This may be in the form of garments of Tyvek which are
disposable or Nomex which are durable. Both are available as coveralls suitable for
field use. As the hazards to the body increase, so does the level of protection needed.
A splash suit made of PVC is suitable for a liquid such as an acid or base or when
there will be minimal contact with organic materials. Some are inexpensive enough
to be disposable.
If the material is more toxic, then more protection must be utilized. Splash
suits similar in design to the PVC splash suits are good barriers against toxic
hazards. These are made of neoprene and butyl rubber.
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Toxic vapor/gases require the most complete protection, the best being fully
encapsulating suits. The suit must not allow any penetration or permeation.
Zippers must be properly sealed and seams properly connected and sealed to
protect against vapors. Fully encapsulating suits also require the basic safety items
such as safety boots and hardhat, along with a source of breathing air.
Wearing protective clothing creates some problems, the main one being that
the body is shielded from normal circulation of air. Perspiration does not evaporate,
thus eliminating the body's main mechanism for cooling. A cool towel on the nape
(back of the neck) will effectively cause the hypothalamus (the body's thermostat to
reduce the body's temperature immediately by 2 - 4 degrees in a heat stress
situation. With that gone, the body is prone to heat stress, including heat stroke,
which can be fatal. Heat related problems are very common when temperature rises
above 75 degrees F. Work schedules for persons wearing fully encapsulating
clothing must be closely and conservatively regulated lest heat stress becomes more
of a threat than the chemical hazard itself.
The best way to combat heat stress is to allow the body to cool normally. The
most efficient body cooling process is by evaporation. Someone wearing protective
clothing that has no ventilation perspires profusely. If the perspiration remains in
contact with the skin, it has a better chance of evaporating and cooling the body
surface. If the perspiration is allowed to run off the body quickly, less evaporation
occurs. This happens when shorts are worn under a fully encapsulating suit.
Suit material can become very hot and cause severe burns if it contacts the
wearer's bare skin. Long cotton underwear is a good solution to this problem. It
clings to the body when soaked with perspiration, thus allowing the greatest
amount of cooling by evaporation and also protects the body from burns caused by
the suit itself.
During extended periods of work in fully encapsulating suits, some sort of
"cooling" must be provided to the wearer. The best method is to schedule frequent
rest periods. If this is not adequate, a cooling device should be employed. Effective
cooling units are available for use with supplied-air units. A vortex tube separates
the air into cool and warm components, releasing the warm air outside the suit.
When self-contained air is used for breathing, the cooling device must also be self-
contained. For example, vests have been designed to carry ice packs. There are
other commercial devices available to combat heat generated by fully encapsulating
suits.
Performance requirements
The selection of appropriate protective gear is based on the hazards
anticipated or recognized. Protective clothing protects primarily because of the
material from which it is made.
In selecting the protective material, the following should be considered:
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a) Chemical resistance, which is the most important. When clothing

contacts a hazardous material, it must maintain its structural integrity
and protective qualities.
b) Strength, which is based on resistance to tears, punctures, and
abrasions, as well as tensile strength.
c) Flexibility, clothing easy to move in and work in. Flexibility is especially
important in glove materials.
d) Thermal limits affect the ability of clothing to maintain its protective
capacity in temperature extremes. Thermal limits also affect mobility in
cold weather and transfer of heat to the wearer in hot weather.
e) Cleanability, difficult and expensive if protective clothing is not
cleanable. Some materials are nearly impossible to clean adequately
under any circumstances. Disposable clothing is sometimes used.
f) Lifespan, which is the ability to resist aging, especially in severe
conditions over time. This should be balanced against the initial cost of
the garment.
Chemical Resistance
Protective material must be able to resist degradation, penetration, and
permeation by the contaminant. Any of these actions may result upon contact,
depending on factors such as concentration and contact time.
Degradation
Degradation is the result of a chemical reaction between the contaminant and
the protective material. Damage to the material may be slight or as severe as
complete deterioration. The reaction may cause the material to shrink or swell,
become brittle or very soft, or completely change its chemical and physical
structure. Changes such as these may enhance or restrict permeation or allow
penetration by the contaminant.
Penetrability
A chemical penetrates a protective garment because of its design and
construction imperfections, not because of the inherent material from which it is
made. Stitched seams, button holes, porous fabric, and zippers can provide an
avenue for the contaminant to penetrate the garment. A well designed and
constructed protective suit with self-sealing zippers and lapped seams made of a
nonporous degradation-resistant material prevents penetration, but as soon as the
suit is ripped or punctured it loses its ability to prevent penetration. A material may
also be easily penetrated once degraded.
Permeability
The ability of a protective material to resist permeation is an inherent
property. A contaminant in contact with the protective material establishes a
concentration gradient. The concentration is high on the contact surface and low
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inside. Because the tendency is to establish equilibrium, diffusion and other

molecular forces "drive" the contaminant into the material.
When the contaminant passes through the material to the inside surface, it
condenses there. The process of permeation continues as long as the concentration
remains greater at the contact surface. The permeation rate is based on several
factors. Rate is inversely proportional to the thickness of the material and directly
proportional to the concentration of the contaminant.
The amount or degree of permeation is related to the exposure conditions,
especially contact time, which ultimately dictates how much of the contaminant
permeates the protective material. Thus a conscious effort should be made to avoid
prolonged exposure or contact with any hazardous contaminant, even when
wearing protective clothing.
No material resists permeation by all agents.
Decontamination
Once a contaminant contacts a protective material, the garment must be
decontaminated. With many materials, it is impossible to completely remove all
contamination. Materials such as butyl rubber and Viton, which can be effectively
decontaminated and cleaned, are also expensive. In some situations disposable
clothing may be advantageous.
Most widely used materials for aprons and suits are:
(1) Polyvinyl chloride (2) Butyl rubber (3) Neoprene (4) Natural rubber
Hazards that threaten the torso tend to threaten the entire body. Employees
working around hazard materials or machinery shall not wear loose clothing (e.g.
saris, dangling neckties, necklaces) or unrestrained long hair. Loose clothing,
jewelry, and unrestrained long hair can become ensnared in moving parts of
machinery or contact chemicals. Finger rings can damage gloves and trap
chemicals against the skin. Employees should know the appropriate techniques for
removing protective apparel, especially any that has become contaminated. Special
procedures may need to be followed for cleaning and/or discarding contaminated
apparel. Chemical spills on leather clothing accessories (watchbands, shoes, belts
and such) can be especially hazardous because many chemicals can be absorbed in
the leather and then held close to the skin for long periods. Such items must be
removed promptly and typically be discarded to prevent the possibility of chemical
burns.
3.8 ARM AND HAND PROTECTION
Our hands are the most convenient tools we have for accomplishing a wide
variety of jobs. Because hands, fingers, and thumbs are so essential to daily
activities, both on and off the job, keeping them strong and healthy is important.
Arms and hands are vulnerable to cuts, burns, bruises, electrical shock, chemical
spills, and amputation. The protective devices available for arm and hand
protection are gloves, gantlets, hand pads, thumb and finger guards and sleeves.
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Gloves are the most common type of complete hand protection. They are relied
on to prevent cuts, abrasions, burns, and skin contact with chemicals capable of
causing local or systemic effects following exposure. No type of glove can protect
from all hazards. Gloves need to be selected based on the protection they provide
for each particular job hazard.
The following forms of hand protection are available for employees:
 Disposable gloves
 Rubber gloves
 Nitrile gloves
 Neoprene gloves
 Leather gloves
 Nonasbestos heat-resistant gloves
 Metal-mesh gloves for meat cutters
 Cotton gloves
Other arm/shoulder protection equipments available are: Shoulder
pads ,Hand guard , Forearm guard , Fist guard , Knuckle guard , Wrist guard
(Wrist guards) , Elbow guard (Elbow guards) and Elbow pads (Elbow pad)
Hand pads protect workers from splinters and abrasive materials as well as
heavy jobs. Forearm cuffs of cloth, alumnised fabric etc. protect the forearm from
heat. Fabric or metal thumb guards and tapes offer protection against pinched
fingers.
Gloves
Employers shall select and require employees to use appropriate hand
protection when employees' hands are exposed to hazards such as those from skin
absorption of harmful substances; severe cuts or lacerations; severe abrasions;
punctures; chemicals; burns; thermal burns; and harmful temperature extremes.
Gloves are available to protect against:-
 Chemicals, contamination and infection (e.g. disposable latex/vinyl/nitrile
gloves)


Extremes of temperature (e.g. oven gloves, welder’s gloves)
Mechanical hazards (e.g. rigger gloves, chainmail gloves)
 Lacerations and other wounds from sharp objects
Employees shall use hand protection when exposed to hazards including:
 Skin absorption of harmful substances
 Lacerations
 Severe cuts
 Severe abrasions
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 Punctures
 Chemical burns
 Thermal burns
 Harmful temperature extremes
Materials for gloves
 Asbestos – gives protection from heat and fire hazards.
 Butyl- offers highest penetration resistance to most acids, gases and
water vapors. (Ammonium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid,
sulfuric acid)
 Neoprene – provides excellent tensile strength, heat resistance, withstand
most acids, caustics and remains flexible at low temperatures.
 Nitrile- offers superior chemical and abrasion resistance
The hazards and the appropriate gloves to be used are given below:
Sustained heat - asbestos gloves, asbestos reinforced with leather,
aluminized fabric.
Sparks - asbestos gloves, fire resistant, duck leather, glass
fibre.
Dust - fabric coated plastic, natural rubber gloves
Hot metal splash - leather gloves, glass fibre
Chips and abrasion - fabric, leather wetted fabric, leather reinforced with
cuts steal metal mesh.
Electricity - rubber gloves.
Acids, alkalies and other chemicals - natural rubber, neoprene, PVC
X-rays - rubber, leather, plastic with lead lining.
Wear proper hand protection whenever the potential for contact with chemicals,
sharp objects, or very hot or cold materials exists. Select gloves based on the
properties of the material in use, the degree of protection needed, and the nature of
the work ( direct contact necessary, dexterity needed, etc). Leather gloves may be
used for protection against sharp edged objects, such as when picking up broken
glassware or inserting glass tubes into stoppers. When working at temperature
extremes, use insulated gloves. Materials such as Nomex and Kevlar may be used
briefly up to 1000 F. Do not use gloves containing asbestos. Asbestos is regulated
as a carcinogen under OSHA. When considering chemical gloves, note that glove
materials will be permeated (pass through) by chemicals. The permeation rate
varies depending on the chemical, glove material, and thickness. Double gloving is
recommended when handling highly toxic or carcinogenic materials. Before each
use, inspect the gloves for discoloration, punctures and tears. Before removal, wash
gloves if the glove material is impermeable to water. Observe any changes in glove
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color and texture, including hardening or softening, which may be indications of

glove degradation.
The hands are as susceptible to contamination as the feet. Gloves must resist
puncturing and tearing as well as provide the necessary chemical resistance. Heavy
leather gloves may be worn over chemical protective gloves when doing heavy work.
If they become contaminated, they should be discarded because leather is difficult
to decontaminate.
Jacket cuffs should be worn over glove cuffs to prevent any
liquid from spilling into the gloves. If hands are elevated above the
head during work, the gloves should be sealed with tape to the
coveralls or splashsuit. When selecting gloves consider thickness
and cuff length. The thicker and longer the glove the greater the
protection. However, the material should not be so thick that it
interferes with the necessary dexterity.
Nitrile glove
Two pair of gloves should also be considered for extra protection of the hands
if the outer glove is torn or permeated. A pair of inner gloves also adds an extra
layer of protection for the hands during the removal of outer gloves and other
chemically protective items.
Always wear the appropriate hand and arm protection. Double your hand
protection by wearing multiple gloves when necessary (e.g., two pairs of disposable
gloves for work involving biological hazards). For arm protection, wear a long-
sleeved shirt, a laboratory coat, chemical-resistant sleeves, or gauntlet-length
gloves.
Follow these guidelines to ensure arm and hand safety:
 Inspect and test new gloves for defects.
 Always wash your hands before and after using gloves. Wash chemical-
protective gloves with soap and water before removing them.
 Do not wear gloves near moving machinery; the gloves may become caught.
 Do not wear gloves with metal parts near electrical equipment
Make sure gloves fit properly--a small glove tires and constricts the hand and
a large one is clumsy to work with. Also, gloves that are too large, stiff, or bulky
decrease dexterity and the ability to sense objects. A fit test to ensure the right
glove for the job includes:
 Tactility: The wearer should be able to identify objects by touch without
looking at them.
 Dexterity: The wearer should be able to pick up small objects successfully.
 Grip: The wearer should be able to hold heavy objects while moving the
arm in different positions.
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Whenever gloves are worn, it is necessary to wash the hands often. This
prevents the build-up of sweat and dirt, which may cause skin irritation. Cover all
cuts to the hands before gloves are put on. Change gloves often and keep a spare
pair on hand while the other pair dries.
Check gloves for cracks and holes, especially at the tips and between the
fingers. Damaged gloves do not provide adequate protection. Replace worn or
damaged gloves promptly.
Keep gloves clean and dry. Workers should know how long gloves can be worn
and whether or not they can be reused.
Leg/hip protection
 Foot guard; Hip pads (Hip pad) ;Knee pads; Instep guard/instep protector
 Shin guard (shin guards) ; Combined knee-shin guards ; Padded shorts
and
 Bouldering mat
Chaps are individual pant leggings made of leather and worn by farriers,
cowboys, and rodeo contestants to protect the legs from contact with hooves,
thorny undergrowth, and other such work hazards. May also be made of other
materials for leg protection against other hazards, such as "rain chaps" of
waterproof materials, or "saw chaps" of Kevlar for chainsaw workers.
3.9 FOOT PROTECTION
The toes, ankles, and feet are exposed to a wide range of on-the-job injuries.
Safety shoes and boots provide impact and compression protection for workers who
handle heavy materials or work in areas where materials could fall or roll onto their
feet.To protect feet and legs from falling objects, moving machinery, sharp objects,
hot materials, chemicals, or slippery surfaces, employees should wear closed-toed
shoes, boots, footguards, leggings, or safety shoes as appropriate. Safety shoes are
designed to protect people from the most common causes of foot injuries — impact,
compression, and puncture.
Puncture-resistant footwear incorporates a steel insole to provide protection
where sharp objects are present that could be stepped on. Conductive footwear
minimizes electrical hazards by preventing the accumulation of static electricity,
and electrical hazard footwear reduces the hazards from contact with electrically
energized equipment.
Wear proper shoes, not sandals or open toed shoes, in work areas where
chemicals are used or stored. Perforated shoes, sandals or cloth sneakers should
not be worn in areas where mechanical work is being done.
Safety shoes are required for protection against injury from heavy falling
objects (handling of objects weighing more than fifteen pounds which, if dropped,
would likely result in a foot injury), against crushing by rolling objects (warehouse,
loading docks, etc), and against laceration or penetration by sharp objects.
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Pullovers, worn over regular shoes, are available for protection against certain
chemicals. These boots are made of a stretchable rubber compound and are well
suited for cleaning up chemical spills. Special foot protection is also available for
protection against static electricity, sparks, live electricity, corrosive materials, and
slipping.
Foot Protection : Boots Safety Shoes / Boots - Made of heavy duty soft and
thick penu leather upper in black/brown colour, with cushion padded ISI Steel tow
cap and soles in anti-skid design.
Asbestos/Aluminised glass fibre safety shoes also available for heat resistant
utility, Sizes available 5 to 11.
Gumboots - Made from Acid/Alkali proof PVC or Rubber, with / without fabric
lining, in half or full size size anti-skid soles.
Rubber gumboots can be available with steel Toe Cap also. Sizes available 5 to
11.
Industrial Safety Shoes & Gum Boots
Applications
The gum boots and safety boots have immense applications industries such as
Construction, Fire Fighting, Oil Industries, Sewer & Garbage, Mines, Electricity
Department
Leg Guards are made of soft and even thickness leather with Velco fastening
for Protection against sparks during welding or in machine shop. For protection
against heat or hot metal, Asbestos leg guards are used. Sizes available 12" to 20"
long.
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Leg Guards
No matter which type of protective footwear is worn, the most important
element is how well it fits the wearer.
 Select and try on safety shoes or boots at the end of the day, when the
feet are slightly swollen.
 Wear the same type of socks that will be normally worn on the job.
 Have both feet measured. The best fit will be the length of the longer foot
and the width of the wider one.
Caring for safety shoes and boots will add to their effective life. Inspect
regularly for cracks and remove any embedded objects from the soles. Replace or
professionally repair worn or damaged shoes.
Air out shoes and boots when they are not being worn and dry them
thoroughly if they get wet on the inside. If your feet tend to perspire, change into
clean dry socks halfway through the workday.
Caring for safety shoes and boots will add to their effective life. Inspect
regularly for cracks and remove any embedded objects from the soles.
3.10 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
Respiratory hazards can include airborne contaminants such as dusts, mists,
fumes, and gases, or oxygen-deficient atmospheres. Well designed and maintained
engineering controls are the preferred methods of controlling worker exposure to
hazardous contaminants in the air. These control methods include:
 Mechanical ventilation
 Enclosure or isolation of the process or work equipment
 Proper control and use of process equipment, and
 Process modifications including substitution of less hazardous materials
where possible.
Administrative controls may be used in addition to engineering controls.
Administrative controls limit workers' exposures by scheduling reduced work times
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in contaminant areas or by implementing other such work rules. These control

measures have many limitations because the hazard is not removed. Administrative
controls are not generally favoured because they can be difficult to implement,
maintain and are not reliable.
Industries are expected to use engineering, administrative, and procedural
controls to protect people from dangerous atmospheres, including harmful mists,
smoke, vapors, and oxygen-deficient atmospheres. When these controls cannot
provide adequate protection against harmful atmospheres, respiratory protection is
necessary. Engineering and work practice controls are generally regarded as the
most effective methods to control exposures to airborne hazardous substances. The
use of respirators to be the least satisfactory approach to exposure control.
Respirators provide adequate protection only if employers ensure, on a constant
basis, that they are properly fitted and worn. Respirators protect only the
employees who are wearing them from a hazard, rather than reducing or
eliminating the hazard from the workplace as a whole (which is what engineering
and work practice controls do). Respirators are uncomfortable to wear, cumbersome
to use, and interfere with communication in the workplace, which can often be
critical to maintaining safety and health. The costs of operating a functional
respiratory protection program are substantial — including regular medical
examinations, fit testing, training, and the purchasing of equipment.
A respirator is a protective facepiece, hood or helmet that is designed to protect
the wearer against a variety of harmful airborne agents. Respirators are used to
protect employees from breathing contaminated and/or oxygen-deficient air when
effective engineering controls are not feasible, or while they are being instituted.
Types of Respirators
There are many types of respirators and each type protects against different
hazards. Respirators are classified according to these factors:
 Air source: supplied air or ambient air
 Pressure: positive or negative
 Mask configuration
The two main types of respirators are air-purifying respirators (APRs) and
supplied-air respirators (SARs).
Air-purifying respirators can remove contaminants in the air that we breathe
by filtering out particulates (e.g., dusts, metal fumes, mists, etc.). Other APRs
purify air by adsorbing gases or vapours on a sorbent (adsorbing material) in a
cartridge or cannister. They are tight-fitting and are available in several forms:
 Mouth bit respirator (fits in the mouth and comes with a nose clip to hold
nostrils closed - for escape purposes only)
 Quarter-mask (covering the nose and mouth),
 Half-face mask (covering the face from the nose to below the chin), or
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 Full facepiece (covering the face from above the eyes to below the chin).
Respirators with a full facepiece also protect the eyes from exposure to
irritating chemicals.
Supplied-air respirators (SARs) supply clean air from a compressed air tank or
through an air line. This air is not from the work room area. The air supplied in
tanks or from compressors must meet certain standards for purity and moisture
content. Supplied-air respirators may have either tight-fitting or loose-fitting
respiratory inlets. Respirators with tight-fitting respiratory inlets have half or full
facepieces. Types with loose-fitting respiratory inlets can be hoods or helmets that
cover the head and neck, or loose-fitting facepieces with rubber or fabric side
shields. These are supplied with air through airlines.
Air-purifying respirators (APRs) can further be classified as:
 particulate respirators (previously called dust, fume, and mist respirators
or masks),
 chemical cartridge respirators that can have a combination of chemical
cartridges, along with a dust prefilter: this combination provides
protection against different kinds of contaminants in the air
 gas masks (contain more adsorbent than cartridge-type respirators and
can provide a higher level of protection than chemical cartridge respirators)
 powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs).
Supplied-air respirators (SARs) can further be classified as:
 self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA),
 airline supplied-air respirators,
 protective suits that totally encapsulate the wearer's body and incorporate
a life-support system.
There are some combinations of airline respirators and SCBAs that allow
workers to work for extended periods in oxygen-deficient areas or where there are
airborne toxic contaminants. The auxiliary or backup SCBA source allows the
worker to escape with an emergency source of air if the airline source fails.
There are also combination air-purifying and atmosphere supplying respirators.
These will offer worker protection if the supplied-air system fails, if the appropriate
air-purifier units are selected. These cannot be used in oxygen-deficient areas or
where the air concentration of a contaminant exceeds the IDLH level (i.e.,
immediately dangerous to life or health).
Pressure: positive or negative
Positive Pressure Respirator: A respirator in which the pressure inside the
respiratory inlet covering exceeds the ambient air pressure outside the respirator.
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Negative Pressure Respirator (Tight Fitting): A respirator in which the air

pressure inside the facepiece is negative during inhalation with respect to the
ambient air pressure outside the respirator.
Mask Types
Fullface mask covers the face from the hairline to below the chin. This type of
mask] provides eye protection. Half-face mask covers the face from above the nose
to below the chin.
Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators
Air-Supplied Respirators
These respirators make use of a hose to deliver clean,
safe air from a stationary source of compressed air. They
provide clean air for long periods of time and are light weight
for the user. They limit the range of user-mobility and may
fail due to hose damage. They are also called airline
respirators. Air-supplied respirators are normally used when
there are extended work periods required in atmospheres
that are not immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH)
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
SCBA consists of a wearable, clean-air supply pack. It
does not restrict movement with a hose connection.
The closed-circuit type can provide air up to 4 hours
and the open-circuit type only provide air for 30 - 60
minutes. They are normally used when there is a short-time
need to enter and escape from atmospheres which are or
may be immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH)
Combination Respirators
They have an auxiliary self-contained air supply that
can be used if the primary supply fails. The self-contained
portion can be small since it only needs to supply enough
air for escape. They can be used for entry into confined
spaces. They are normally used when there are extended
work periods required in atmospheres that are or may
be immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH)
Employers are required to provide employees using
atmosphere-supplying respirators (supplied air and self
contained breathing apparatus) with breathing gases of high purity, and shall
ensure that compressed air, compressed oxygen, liquid air, and liquid oxygen used
for respiration is in accordance with the specifications of OSHA Standard
1910.134(i).
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Air-purifying Respirators
Air-Purifying Respirator is a respirator with an
air-purifying filter, cartridge, or canister that removes
specific air contaminants by passing ambient air
through the air-purifying element before it reaches the
user. Cartridge respirators purify the air – they do not
supply air and may not be used in an oxygen deficient
atmosphere.
Cartridge respirators are designed to filter
dangerous gases, vapors or particles from the air before inhalation. It is imperative
to have the correct cartridge for protection against a given type of hazard. The
cartridges attach directly to the face piece of a respirator. Half-mask face pieces
protect against substances that will not irritate the eyes and cannot be absorbed
through the skin. Full face piece masks include protection for the eyes.
Air purifying respirators use ambient air and cannot be used in oxygen
deficient atmospheres, IDLH atmospheres, or areas where the identity or
concentration of a contaminant is unknown. Ambient air is purified by a chemical
cartridge, canister, or particulate filter.
Filter or Air-Purifying Element is a component used in respirators to remove
solid or liquid aerosols from the inspired air. Canister or Cartridge is a container
with a filter, sorbent, or catalyst, or combination of these items, which removes
specific contaminants from the air passed through the container. Users must select
the proper cartridge/canister/filter. Cartridges and canisters must be replaced if
the user notices an odor, taste, or throat irritation. Wet, damaged, and grossly
contaminated cartridges/canisters must also be replaced. The right type of
canister/cartridges depends on the likely toxic gas/vapor present in the work
atmosphere.
Gas color of the canister
Ammonia green
Chlorine yellow
Universal red
Carbon monoxide blue
Hydrogen sulphide orange
Sulphur-di-oxide white
Respirators should always be assigned to individual users unless a central
disinfecting and cleaning service is used to sanitize the masks. A medical
evaluation and a fit test are required prior to issuing a respirator. It is important
that a respirator fit correctly. A beard or dentures can affect how it protects the
user, so care must be taken to fit everyone using a respirator to assure the proper
size is assigned. Before using a cartridge respirator, make sure the same company
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manufactures the cartridge and face piece. It is recommended strongly that you
don’t mix brands.
Powered Air-Purifying Respirator (PAPR): An air-purifying respirator that
uses a blower to force the ambient air through air-purifying elements to the inlet
covering.
Powered air- purifying respirators use filtered ambient air in a positive-
pressure continuous flow mode. Disposable or single-use respirators are made of
cloth or paper and are primarily used for nuisance
dusts.
Particulate Respirators
Particulate Respirators capture particles in the air,
such as dusts, mists, and fumes. They do not protect
against gases or vapors. They generally become more
effective as particles accumulate on the filter and plug
spaces between the fibers. The filters should be replaced
when user finds it difficult to breath through them
Gas and Vapor respirators
Gas and Vapor respirators are normally used when there are only hazardous
gases and vapors in the air. They use chemical filters (called cartridges or canisters)
to remove dangerous gases or vapors. They do not protect against airborne particles.
They are made to protect against specific gases or vapors. They provide protection
only as long as the filter's absorbing capacity is not depleted the service life of the
filter depends upon many factors and can be estimated in various ways
Combination Respirators
They are normally used in atmospheres that contain hazards of both
particulates and gases. They have both particulate filters and gas/vapor filters.
They may be heavier.
Disposable Respirators
Disposable respirator is a respirator that is discarded after the end of its
recommended period of use, after excessive resistance or physical damage, or when
odor break though or other warning indicators render the respirator unsuitable for
further use. Disposable respirators cannot be disinfected, and are therefore
assigned to only one person. Disposable respirators must be discarded if they are
soiled, physically damaged, or reach the end of their service life. Replaceable filter
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respirators may be shared, but must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected after
each use before being worn by a different person.
Respirators with replaceable filters are reusable, and a respirator classified as
disposable may be reused by the same worker as long as it functions properly. All
filters must be replaced whenever they are damaged, soiled, or causing noticeably
increased breathing resistance (e.g., causing discomfort to the wearer). Before each
use, the outside of the filter material should be inspected. If the filter material is
physically damaged or soiled, the filter should be changed (in the case of respirators
with replaceable filters) or the respirator discarded (in the case of disposable
respirators).
Single-Use Dust or Dust and Mist Respirators: Respirators approved for use
against dusts or mists that may cause pneumoconiosis and fibrosis.
Escape Only Respirator: Respiratory devices that are designed for use only
during escape from hazardous atmospheres.
The following table highlights various respirators and their ability to protect
different hazards:
RESPIRATOR TYPE PROTECTION NO PROTECTION
 Dust
 Fumes
 Chemical vapors
Filter Respirator  Smoke
or gases
(HEPA cartridge)  Mist
 Oxygen deficiency
 Microorganisms
 Asbestos
 Certain gases and

Chemical Cartridge/Canister vapors up to a  Oxygen deficiency
Respirators particular  Particulate matter
concentration
Depending on type:
 Particulates
Air Supply Respirator  Chemical vapors and
gases
 Oxygen deficiency
Self-contained breathing apparatus

A self contained breathing apparatus, or SCBA is a device worn by rescue
workers, firefighters, and others to provide breathable air in a hostile environment.
When not used underwater, they are sometimes called industrial breathing sets.
The term "self-contained" differentiates SCBA from other apparatus connected to a
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remote supply by a long hose. If designed for use under water, it is called SCUBA,
or self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.
Self contained breathing type
These sets basically consist of face pieces, regulating valve, connecting hose,
pressure reducing valve and compressed air or compressed oxygen on the back of
the user. There are two types:
1. Demand type
2. Continuous flow type
The advantages of a self contained breathing apparatus are:
1. No limitation on the concentration of the contaminants in the work
atmosphere
2. Oxygen deficiency in the work atmosphere does not affect the performance
type.
The apparatus may be oxygen recirculating type or regenerating circulating
Oxygen recirculation type

The exhaled breath is passed into a canister containing chemicals. The
chemicals absorb carbon dioxide and moisture from the exhaled breath. The
balance oxygen is passed into the breathing bag through a cooler. The breathing
bag is connected to supply cylinder. Due to continuous inhalation, when the
volume of the gas in the breathing bag falls below, the valve opens to admit more
oxygen from the cylinder into the bag.
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Regenerating recirculating oxygen type

The moisture content from the wearer’s exhaled breath reacts with the
chemical in the canister resulting in the liberation of oxygen. The carbon dioxide in
the exhaled gas is absorbed.
An SCBA typically has three main components: a high-pressure tank (e.g.,
2200 psi to 4500 psi), a pressure regulator, and an inhalation connection
(mouthpiece, mouth mask or face mask), connected together and mounted to a
carrying frame.
There are two kinds of SCBA: Open circuit and Closed circuit
Closed-circuit SCBAs
The closed-circuit type filters, supplements, and recirculates exhaled gas: It is
used when a longer-duration supply of breathing gas is needed, such as in mine
rescue and in long tunnels, and going through passages too narrow for a big
open-circuit air cylinder. Before open-circuit SCBA's were developed, most
industrial breathing sets were rebreathers.
Examples of modern rebreather SCBAs are
Open-circuit
Open-circuit industrial breathing sets are filled with filtered, compressed air,
the same air we breathe normally. The compressed air passes through a regulator,
is inhaled by the user, then exhaled out of the system, quickly depleting the supply
of air. Most modern SCBAs are open-circuit.
An open-circuit rescue or firefighter SCBA has a full-face mask, regulator, air
cylinder, cylinder pressure gauge, and a harness with adjustable shoulder straps
and waist belt which lets it be worn on the back. The air cylinder usually comes in
one of three standard sizes: 30, 45 or 60 minutes. The relative fitness, and
especially the level of exertion of the wearer, often results in variations of the actual
usable time that the SCBA can provide air, often reducing the working time by 25%
to 50%.
Air cylinders are made of aluminum, steel, or of a composite construction

(usually Carbon-Fiber wrapped.) The composite cylinders are the lightest in weight
and are therefore preferred by fire departments, but they also have the shortest
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lifespan and must be taken out of service after 15 years. Air cylinders must be
hydrostatically tested every 3 years for composite cylinders, and every 5 years for
metal cylinders. During extended operations, empty air cylinders can be quickly
replaced with fresh ones and then refilled from larger tanks in a cascade system or
from an air compressor brought to the scene.
Commonly an SCBA will be of the "positive pressure" type, which supplies a
slight steady stream of air to stop toxic fumes or smoke from leaking into the mask.
Not all SCBAs are positive pressure; others are of the "demand" type, which only
supply air on demand (i.e., when the regulator senses the user inhaling). Some fire
departments and those working in toxic environments use the positive pressure
SCBA for safety reasons.
All filters (HEPA, dust pads, and disposable respirators) must be replaced if
any of the following conditions occur:
- Breathing becomes difficult
- Filter or dust respirator becomes damaged, visibly dirty, wet, or contaminated
on the inside.
Employers must develop standard operating procedures for storing, reusing,
and disposing of respirators that have been designated as disposable and for
disposing of replaceable filter elements.
Recommended Exposure Limit (REL): An 8- or 10-hour time-weighted
average (TWA) or ceiling (C) exposure concentration recommended by NIOSH that is
based on an evaluation of the health effects data.
Service Life: The length of time required for an air-purifying element to reach
a specific effluent concentration. Service life is determined by the type of substance
being removed, the concentration of the substance, the ambient temperature, the
specific element being tested (cartridge or canister), the flow rate resistance, and
the selected breakthrough value. The service life for a self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA) is the period of time, as determined by the NIOSH certification
tests, in which adequate breathing gas is supplied.
Selection of Personal Protection Equipment
The selection of appropriate protective gear is based on the hazards
anticipated or recognized. Complete protection calls for assembling a set of gear
including respirator, hardhat, safety glasses or faceshield (preferably both), body
covering (coveralls, pants and jacket), gloves and safety boots/shoes (steel toe and
shank). Omitting one item may compromise the individual's safety.
Some pieces of protective equipment, such as hardhats and boots, have
specific standards for manufacture and only those items meeting these standards
should be used. However, there are no such standards for chemical protective
clothing. Selections must be based upon judgment.
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In order to select an appropriate respirator you must

 Conduct an exposure assessment to determine the type and amount of
hazardous exposure
 Take into account the factors that can influence respirator selection
such as job-site and worker characteristics
 Understand the assigned protection factors
 Know the various kinds of respirators and their relevant characteristics.
 Know when employees notice symptoms (e.g., irritation, odor) or
complain of respiratory health effects.
 Know when the workplace contains visible emissions (e.g., fumes, dust,
aerosols)
The answers for the following questions should also be known:
 What is the identity and nature of the airborne contaminant?
Specific characteristics of the airborne hazard must be established in
order to select an appropriate respirator.
 Is the airborne contaminant a particulate (dust, fumes, mist, aerosol)
or a gas/vapor?
 Is the airborne contaminant a chemical and are material safety data
sheets available?
 Is the airborne contaminant a biological (bacteria, mold, spores, fungi,
virus)?
 Are there any mandatory or recommended occupational exposure
levels for the contaminant?
The Physical Configuration of the Jobsite: Tightly constrained areas may
not permit the use of self-contained breathing apparatuses even though they might
be an acceptable choice otherwise. Likewise, working around obstructions or
moving machinery that can snag hoses may limit the use of airline respirators.
Worker Medical Condition: Wearing respiratory protection poses a physical
burden on the wearer. When a worker's medical condition would prohibit restrictive
breathing conditions, negative pressure respirators would not be an appropriate
choice.
Worker Comfort: Worker preferences should be a consideration during the
respirator selection process. Among air purifying respirators, powered air purifying
helmets have been subjectively rated the best for breathing ease, skin comfort, and
in-mask temperature and humidity while filtering facepieces rated high for
lightness and convenience. Each, however, has its own drawbacks, and all these
factors should be taken into account during selection.
Qualitative Fit Test (QLFT): A pass/fail fit test to assess the adequacy of
respirator fit that relies on the individual's response to the test agent.
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Quantitative Fit Test (QNFT): Means an assessment of the adequacy of

respirator fit by numerically measuring the amount of leakage into the respirator.
Respirators shall be selected on the basis of hazards to which the worker is
exposed (i.e., particulates, vapors, oxygen-deficiency, or combination). Proper
respirator size is determined through a fit test. Employees using negative or positive
pressure tight-fitting facepiece respirators must pass an appropriate fit test using
the procedures detailed in OSHA's respirator standard.
People who use respiratory protection must be physically capable of using and
wearing the equipment. In some cases, a physician must determine if an employee
is healthy enough to use a respirator. In addition, all people required to wear
respirators must be formally trained and instructed in proper equipment usage.
This training should include instruction on common respiratory hazards and
symptoms of exposure.
Employees using tight-fitting facepiece respirators are required to perform a
user seal check each time they put on the respirator. A fit test is a method used to
select the right size respirator for the user. A user seal check is a method to verify
that the user has correctly put on the respirator and adjusted it to fit properly, as
illustrated below.
User Seal Check: worker covering inlet and inhaling

(negative pressure check)
Fit testing of all negative or positive pressure tight-fitting facepiece respirators
is required prior to initial use, whenever a different respirator facepiece is used, and
at least annually thereafter. An additional fit test is required whenever there are
changes in the user's physical condition that could affect respirator fit (e.g., facial
scarring, dental changes, cosmetic surgery, or an obvious change in body weight).
The employer must be fit tested with the same make, model, style, and size of
respirator that will be used.
Selecting a Respirator
Choosing a respirator is a complicated matter. Experienced safety professionals
or occupational hygienists, who are familiar with the actual workplace environment,
are the staff who should select the proper respirator. They can choose a suitable
respirator only after they have evaluated all relevant factors. Before the proper
respirator can be selected for a job, be sure you have already that you have
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identified the respiratory hazard, evaluated the hazard and considered whether
engineering controls are feasible.
The following questions represent part of "decision logic" that a safety
professional or occupational hygienist can use when selecting a respirator:
 Is it to be used in firefighting or emergencies?
 Is it to be used in oxygen-deficient atmospheres (less than 18% oxygen
in air; some jurisdictions say below 19.5%)?
 What is the nature of the hazard (chemical properties, concentration in
the air, warning properties)?
 Is the airborne contaminant a gas, vapor or particulate (mist, dust or
fume)?
 Are the airborne levels below or above the exposure limit, or are they
above levels that could be immediately dangerous to life or health?
 What are the health effects of the airborne contaminant (carcinogenic,
potentially lethal, irritating to eyes, absorbed through the skin)?
 What are the characteristics of the operation or the process (e.g., hot
temperature, confined space)?
 What activities will the worker be doing while wearing the respirator
(e.g., strenuous work)?
 How long will the worker need to wear the respirator?
 Does the selected respirator fit the worker properly?
 Where is the nearest safe area that has respirable air?
When selecting a respirator, consider the following factors:
 Type of hazards
 Identity and concentration of the contaminant
 Time constraints
 Activity of the person wearing the respirator
 Degree of protection provided by each type of respirator
 Follow these guidelines for selecting the correct respirator:


Use a HEPA filtered respirator:
If the contaminant is a biological hazard
 Use a supply air respirator:
 If the identity and/or concentration of the contaminant is not known
 If an oxygen deficient atmosphere is known or suspected
 If an IDLH condition exists
Use a SCBA instead of an airline respirator if an airline respirator could be
damaged by work or conditions within the area
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Tight-fitting facepiece respirators must not be worn by employees who have

facial hair that comes between the sealing surface of the facepiece and the face or
that interferes with valve function. Respirators that do not rely on a tight face seal,
such as hoods or helmets, may be used by bearded individuals.
Can employees wear glasses while wearing a respirator?
Yes, but if an employee wears corrective glasses or goggles or other personal
protective equipment, the employer must ensure that such equipment is worn in a
manner that does not interfere with the seal of the facepiece to the face of the user.
Kits are available from all respirator manufacturers that allow the mounting of
prescription lenses inside the respirator.
Contact lenses can be worn with any type of respirator, but their use is not
recommended in dusty atmospheres while wearing a half-mask facepiece.
Users might have an allergy or sensitivity to the latex or its additives used in
the manufacture of some respirators. Changing to a respirator using a silicone-
based compound for the face seal, or a respirator that doesn't have a face seal (like
a hooded PAPR) may solve the problem. Employers must help employees find a
respirator that does not cause this problem.
Assigned Protection Factors
The minimum anticipated protection provided by a properly functioning
respirator or class of respirators to a given percentage of properly fitted and trained
users.
The assigned protection factor (APF) of a respirator reflects the level of
protection that a properly functioning respirator would be expected to provide to a
population of properly fitted and trained users. For example, an APF of 10 for a
respirator means that a user could expect to inhale no more than one tenth of the
airborne contaminant present.
Table of APFs for various types of Respirators
Respirator Class and Type OSHA Cadmium Std. NIOSH
Air Purifying
Filtering Facepiece 10 10
Half-Mask 10 10
Full-Facepiece
Powered Air Purifying
50 50
Half-Mask 50 50
Full-Facepiece 250 50
Loose Fitting Facepiece 25 25
Hood or Helmet 25 25
Supplied Air
Half-Mask-Demand 10 10
Half-Mask-Continuous 50 50
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Half-Mask-Pressure Demand 1000 1000

Full-Facepiece Demand 50 50
Full-Facepiece Continuous Flow 250 50
Full-Facepiece Pressure Demand 1000 2000
Loose Fitting Facepiece 25 25
Hood or Helmet 25 25
Self Contained Brathing Apparatus (SCBA)
Demand 50 50
Pressure Demand >1000 10,000
Guidelines for using Respirators Safely
Follow these guidelines to ensure safe respirator usage:
 Make sure you have the correct respirator for the job.
 Inspect respirators before each use.
 Shave facial hair and put in dentures (if applicable) to ensure a good seal
with the facemask.
 If you are working in a dangerous area, have another person present.
 Remember that contaminants can harm the body as well as the
respiratory tract; wear protective clothing as appropriate.
 Return to fresh air and remove the respirator in the following conditions:
You feel nauseous, dizzy, or ill.
 You have difficulty breathing.
 The canister, cartridge, or filter needs to be replaced.
 Properly clean and store all reusable respirators.
In addition to the guidelines above, follow these instructions for respirator
usage:
 Does not use a respirator unless you have been formally trained and have
fit tested the respirator you plan on using.
 Do not mistakenly use a filter respirator for protection against gases or
vapors.Annamalai University
 Never remove a respirator in a contaminated atmosphere.
 Do not talk unnecessarily or chew gum while wearing a respirator.
 Do not wear contact lenses while wearing a respirator.
 Do not allow your hair or eyeglass frames to interfere with the face mask
seal.
Respirators must be stored to protect them from damage, contamination, dust,
sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and damaging chemicals. They
must also be packed or stored to prevent deformation of the facepiece and
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exhalation valve. A good method is to place them in individual storage bins. Keep in
mind that respirator facepieces will become distorted and the straps will lose their
elasticity if hung on a peg for a long time. Check for these problems before each use.
Storing the respirator in a plastic sealable bag after use is not considered a
good practice. The respirator may be damp after use and sealing prevents drying
and encourages microbial growth. If plastic bags are used, respirators must be
allowed to dry before storage.
The employer must provide a medical evaluation to determine the employee's
ability to use a respirator before the employee is fit tested or required to use the
respirator in the workplace. Not all workers must be examined by a doctor. A
physician or other licensed health care professional must perform the medical
evaluation.
Employers should have a written respirator program that describes the proper
procedures for selecting and operating respiratory protective equipment. The
correct use of a respirator is just as important as selecting the proper respirator.
Parts of the respirator program deal with finding out what hazards are present and
how much protection that the workers will need. Other parts should describe how
to wear and look after the respirator.
Without a complete respiratory protection program, people will probably not
receive the best protection from a respirator even if it is the correct choice for a
specific job.
A respiratory protection program includes several components such as:
 Hazard identification and control
 Exposure assessment
 Respirator selection
 Respirator fit-testing
 Training program
 Inspection and record keeping
 Cleaning and sanitizing respirators
 Repairing and maintaining respirators
 Annamalai University
Proper storage of respirators
 Health surveillance
 Standard operating procedures (available in written form)
 Program evaluation.
A physician should examine the medical and psychological fitness of workers.
This should be done before they are assigned to work in areas where respirators
may be required. The workers must be physically fit to carry out the work while
wearing respiratory equipment. They must also be psychologically comfortable (e.g.,
not claustrophobic) about wearing respirators.
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Workers with beards, long sideburns, or even a two-day stubble may not wear
respirators because the hair breaks the seal between the skin and the respirator
mask. Wearing eyeglasses would also break the respirator seal. This means that the
respirator mask will "leak" and will not provide the needed respiratory protection.
Also, if a worker has facial scars or an acne problem, the facial skin may not be
able to form a good seal with a respirator mask.
Training
It is very important for workers who need protection to practice wearing the
equipment that will shield them from job hazards. Merely showing the equipment is
no guarantee that, when they need the protection, they will know how to determine
its adequacy and be able to wear and remove it properly. Training must be provided
to employees who are required to use personal protective equipments. The training
must be comprehensive, understandable, and recur annually, and more often if
necessary. Employees must receive training which includes the proper PPE for their
job, when this PPE must be worn, how to wear, adjust, maintain, and discard this
equipment, and the limitations of the PPE. All training must be documented.
PPE training must include demonstrations and practical exercises in the
following:
 When PPE is necessary.
 What PPE is necessary.
 Limitations and capabilities of the PPE
 How to properly put on, remove, and wear PPE.
 How to correctly adjust the equipment to get the best fit and afford the
greatest protection
 Effective use in emergency situations
 The proper care, maintenance, useful life and disposal of the PPE.
 How improper fit, use, or maintenance can compromise its protective effect
 How to inspect, put on and remove, use and check the seals
 How to check for wear or damaged parts that could compromise the
protective qualities of the equipment.
Recognition of medical signs and symptoms that may limit or prevent
effective use
 General requirements of PPE standards.
When PPE training covers all the angles, workers will have a better
understanding of their protective equipment and the important role it plays in
keeping them safe, both on the job and off. It really is their personal "shield of
protection."
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1. Explain the need of Personal Protective Equipment?
2. Describe different types of Personal Protective Equipment?
3. Write a note on classification of PPE?
4. What are the Essential requirement of PFE?
5. Write in detail about Maintenance Procedure and Precautions in handling
PPE?
6. Discuss in detail about Non-Respiratory PPE?
7. Discuss in detail about Respiratory PPE?

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UNIT – IV
MAJOR ACCIDENT HAZARDS

CONTENT
4.1 Major Accident Hazards
4.2 Consequences of Major Accidents, Role of Management and Public
4.3 Onsite Emergency Management Plants Offsite Emergency Management
4.4 Structure of Disaster Management System Constitution of Disaster
Management Glows Control of Emergencies
4.5 Revision Points
4.7 Summary
4.8 Keywords
MAJOR ACCIDENT HAZARDS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This lesson gives an idea about various industrial accidents and causes of
accidents. This also details about major accident hazards.
OBJECTIVE
 To impart knowledge of causes of accidents and major accident hazards
associated with accidents. This includes Explosion hazard, Chemical
hazard, Civil hazard, Mechanical hazard, Electrical hazard, Radiation
hazard, Noise hazard, High pressure hazards
4.1.1 Industrial Accidents
Accident in industry, its causes, impact and measures to prevent same.
Definition of Accident: Any thing that happens by chance. Unplanned
activity that happens all of a sudden and it is beyond the control of the victim and
is not predictable.
 Plane crashes, Train derailments, Road deaths, Fires, etc.
 Accident that happens in our houses.
 Accident that happens in Industry
 The magnitude of Industrial accidents is very much greater than the
magnitude of home accidents.
4.1.2 Causes of Accidents
Faults of persons are inherited or acquired from the environment.
Causes for Faults
The four ultimate causes for the faults of persons may be detailed under:
a) Anatomical or Physiological Unsuitability.
b) Improper attitude (Psychological)
c) Improper mechanical or physical environment.
 One follows blindly another
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 Knowledge of the factors

 Most suitable control measures.
 By Experience
 A person having inherited or acquired faults may not act unsafely or
permit a mechanical hazard to exist.
 Unsafe action
 Unsafe mechanical or physical conditions are immediate causes of
accidents.
 Supervision and management can control the employed persons.
d) Overload of workers beyond limit/continuous working environment without
rest
Personal and Situational factors.
- Personal factor
- Hazard factor
- Unsafe actional factor
- Proximate casual factor.
Personal factor
- Physical and mental conditions
- House problems – wife, Children.
Proximate casual factor
- Failure of a brake
Unsafe actions
i) Operating without authority, failure to secure or warn.
ii) Operating or working at unsafe speed.
iii) Making safety devices inoperative.
iv) Using unsafe equipment, hands instead of equipment or equipment
unsafely.
v) Unsafe loading, placing, mixing, combing etc.
vi) Taking unsafe position or posture.
vii) Working on moving or dangerous equipments.
viii) Distracting, teasing, abusing, starling etc.
ix) Failure to use safe at fire or personal protective devices.
4.1.3 Major Accident Hazards
i) Fire / Explosion Hazard:
Any one of the following activity may cause serious fire or explosion hazard :
- Due to trapped hydrocarbon underlining, Gas backing up from sewage manholes,
drains.
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Welding snags falling in trenches, pits, pyrophoric iron left to dry.

- Due to overloading of welding cables, inflammable scaffolding, tarpauline.
- Due to backfiring of burner, improper Draught, condensate in flue gas, vapor
locking in pumps.
The various hazardous gases / emissions which are likely to form explosive
mixture are detailed in Table 4.1 along with lower and upper explosive limits.
TABLE 4.1 Lower and upper explosive limit of hazardous gases
Limits of flammability % fuel / air by volume
Gas lower limit upper limit
H2 4.1 74
CO 12.5 74.2
CH4 5.0 15
Butane 1.5 9
Ethylene 2.7 28.6
Acetylene 2.5 80
ii) ELECTRIC HAZARDS
Defective tools, absence of earthing leak protection control (ELPC) and cutting
of unguarded cables are the major causes for the Electrical hazard. The effect of
current on human body is given in Table 4.2.
TABLE 4.2 Effect of current on human body
Class Current Intensity Effect
milli amperes
A 1 to 8 Shock sensation
B 8 to 15 Painful shock painful shock with control of
adjacent muscle lost
C 15 to 20 Individual cant let go
D 20 to 50 Painful shock with severe muscular
contraction and Difficulty in breathing
E 50 or more May be fatal
iii) HAZARD DUE TO OBJECTS FALLING FROM OVERHEAD
Hoisting of materials with ropes , work in progress at different elevations , Non
use of safety helmets, hitting against Scaffoldings, Non use of safety belts, Improper
scaffolding, Improper Cordoning are the hazards associated with the objects falling
from overhead.
iv) ASPHYXIATION HAZARD
Asphyxiation hazard may be due to the presence of high Inert Gas, low oxygen
content, high Humidity, high Dust etc.
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v) MECHANICAL HAZARDS
Industrial workers move in the plant, consisting of several mechanical
equipment, mechanise, auxiliary systems, material handling and transportation
equipment, high equipment, etc.
Some workers work with machines having rotating, sliding, reciprocating parts
with sharp edges, hard surfaces, mating surfaces, gears, chain drives etc. Some
workers operate with plants having high pressure pneumatic, hydraulic systems
consisting of pipes, pressure vessels. Some workers work with high temperature
and pressure steam systems and boilers.
Transportation and handling equipment also move in the busy gang-ways.
Some works move under the overhead carne carrying heavy material with thin
slings.
Factory areas are with several unsafe conditions with reference to Mechanical
Hazards.
Mechanical Hazards involve possibility of physical injury to human body due
to moving objects, flying objects/snapped objects from broken machines and plants.
Mechanical hazards also involve personal injury to workers due to falling
objects, hitting objects, fall of workers etc.
Compressed air/fluids/steam contain stored energy. Bursting of compressed
fluid vessels or pipes or enclosures send out flying pieces in various directions
causing extensive damage. Components under high mechanical stress may fail
resulting in serious accidents.
Mechanical hazards are most common in industry. The result is injury,
disability and possible death of workers. Some injuries damage body parts such as
hands, legs, eyes, nose, face head, tongue. Some mechanical accidents result in
disability, whereas some are fatal.
The safety management aims at zero mechanical accidents.
Mechanical hazards can mainly stem from
1. Failure of components of a mechanical system due to faulty design,
faulty assembly lack of repair and maintenance.
2. Inadequate safeguards on the machines.
3. Annamalai University
Laxity in the use of personal protective equipments.
4. In advertence and complacency on the parts of workers at point of
operation.
The chief sources of mechanical hazards originate from flywheels, protruding
parts of a moving machinery, presses, pressure vessels, all sorts of drives mainly
belt, chain and sprocket, conveyors, lifts, hoisting tackles, shafts, hand tools, power
tools etc. The operations which make conveyors, lifts, hoisting tackles, shafts,
hand tools, power tools etc. The operations which make the workers vulnerable to
injuries are chiefly cutting, shearing, breaking, tearing, crushing, hoisting, hauling,
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pressing etc. As a consequence of these operations, the workers can injure

themselves like cutting the finger tips, crushing of limb, injure themselves like
cutting the finger tips, rushing of limb, injury due to flying splinters, fall from great
heights, tangling by rapidly rotating machine parts.
vi) CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Industrial processes involve use of chemical and hazardous materials, for
which safety considerations and controls are highly warranted. The raw material
used in industry could be hazardous due to toxicity inherent in materials. The
products, intermediate and finished, bye products (including industrial wastes), can
cause serious problems of chemical safety. The storage, handling, manufacture and
use of chemicals call for strict surveillance on the part of managers, supervisors
and employees.
Chemical hazards can be probably grouped as:
1. Solids, comprising of combustible/ flammable solids, toxic and corrosive
solids (including radioactive substances), solids causing spontaneous
ignition or violent reactions (in water or air), explosive solids or
detonators.
2. Liquids comprising of combustible/flammable liquids, toxic and
corrosive causing explosions.
3. Gases comprising combustible/flammable gases, toxic and corrosive
gases, explosive or a mixture of gases.
The various chemical hazards and their effects are given in Table 4.3
TABLE 4.3 Chemical hazards
Name of hazardous
Examples Remarks / Effects
substance
SOLIDS
Combustible/flammable Wood, wool, paper etc. Catch fire easily and burn.
Certain compounds of Lead poisoning, manages
lead, manganese, poisoning,
chromium, mercury, chromium poisoning,
TOXIC solids arsenic, cadmium. mercury poisoning,
Annamalai University arsenic poisoning,
cadmium poisoning.
Caustic soda, caustic Cause blisters or burns.
Corrosive solids
potash
Uranium, plutonium, Cause radiation hazards.
Radioactive materials
thorium
Spontaneous ignition or Sodium, lithium, Cause accident.
violent reactions phosphorus.
Explosives Gunpowder, coaldust Causes explosions.
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LIQUIDS
Combustible/flammable Petrol, kerosene, methyl Catch for easily and burn
liquids alcohol
Nitric acid, sulphuric Cause burn or blisters.
Corrosive liquids
acid
Methyl alcohol, benzene, Cause poisoning.
Toxic liquids carbon tetrachloride,
carbon disulphide
Nitroglycerine, Tri Nitro Cause explosion
Explosive (Liquid)
Toluene (.N.T.)
GASES
Combustible/Flammable Oxygen, hydrogen, Catch fire easily/burn
gases acetylene
Corrosive gases Sulphur dioxide, chlorine Cause discomfort,
corrosion, irritation.
Toxic gases Carbon monoxide, Fatal in nature and cause
methyl isocyanate, death.
phosgene
Explosives or form Hydrogen, propane Cause explosion.
explosive mixtures with air
VII) ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

Plants and equipments with higher emission levels are no more permitted.
They are either to be replaced or retrofitted with modern emission controlled plants
and equipments. They are also advised to modify their process conditions/
processes in order to minimize their pollution load. During 1980-2000, the Energy
Technologies, Process Design, Equipment Design, Operation and Maintenance
aspects are in the process of improvements to achieve the rigid stipulations of
Environmental Standards.
Air, water and surroundings are polluted by various man made energy
conversion plants and also by some natural causes of emission. We need clean air,
water, atmosphere and surroundings for good health and better quality of living.
Energy conversion processes without pollution control provisions affects the
environment adversely. Every man-made energy conversion has certain degrading
effect on the environment. The task is to convert energy without exceeding the
limits of pollution.
The large-scale emission of CO2, CO, NOX, SOX, hydrocarbons, particulate
matter, heat etc. by fossil fuel power plants into the atmosphere results in local
pollution and global environmental degradation effects such as:
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 Adverse effects on human health, respiratory illness, cancer.

 Acid rains harming the agriculture, forests, animals, human health,
aquatic life, drinking water in the lakes, etc.
 Global warming, melting of polar snow caps, increased level of ocean,
environmental disturbance, etc.
The respective central and state governments have to take strict measures for
controlling air,water,solid and noise pollutions through their pollution control
boards.
VIII) RADIATION EXPOSURE HAZARDS
The uncontrolled entry of radioactivity into the body to produce harmful effects
may be inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin. The potential hazard
depends on
1. The magnitude of the radian energy
2. The type of radiation.
3. The half-life of the radioactive source.
4. The quantity of radioactive material taken in by the body, and the
rate of elimination.
5. The selectivity of the radioactive substance for sites in the body.
a) The rate of exposure – usually expressed in terms of
milliroentgens for hour (relatively larger amounts of radiation
exposure may be tolerated for short periods of time on occasion).
b) The distance from the radiation source – radiation intensity
decreases inversely as the square of the distance (10 feet from a
radiation source, its intensity will be reduced to one hundredth
of what it is at 1 foot).
c) Shielding-the attenuation or blocking or radiation by shielding
material, depending for effectiveness upon the physical
properties of the barrier material and the characteristics of the
radiation.
Barriers for shielding against harmful radiation are constructed of materials
that absorb either partially or entirely the radiation energies, making them
ineffective biologically. Depending upon the penetrating effect of the radiation to be
consumed, the shielding may utilize space to supplement the means for reducing
the intensity of the source with respect to a work area.
Material of construction for shields are chosen according to their effectiveness
for stopping the types of radiations under consideration. Often the existence of
many different radiations and radiation energies, such as would be present in a
nuclear reactor, may necessitate a shield composed of several materials. A
principal factor in shielding is the weight of the barrier. Cost is another
consideration.
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The installation of shields requires that care be taken to protect anyone who
might be above, to the side, or below the source.
Controlling radioisotope hazards
The growing use of radioisotope in production and other applications presents
a special safety problem that the safety specialist will be asked to help control.
Before a radioisotope application is used, various government regulations must be
complied with. In order to be sure of compliance, it is advisable to obtain the
advice of a qualified health physicist.
Safety specialist should, if possible, observe the preliminary radiation surveys
and any design changes in shielding, ventilation, and soon which may occur during
and shortly after installation.
Safety specialists should be present at all pre-installation briefings, and know
what supervisors or workers have been told by the design engineers or health
physicist about the possible external or internal radiation hazards.
The seriousness and type of hazard in any facility using radioisotopes depends
primarily upon the amount of the isotope present; its state (whether it is solid,
powdered, liquid, or gas), and its biological effects. With very small tracer amounts
for laboratory, quality control, fieldwork, the external hazard is usually small, but
the contamination problem might be significant. Here also, just as in the case of
external radiation hazards, controls may need to be established limiting the access
of the personnel to the sensitive areas.
Noise Hazard
Noise is an unwanted sound. Noise pollution causes significant health problem
related to hearing damage and variances in earlier human behaviour. The problem
of noise and hearing damage is brought by an annoying degree of perplexity.
Individual susceptibility to hearing loss varies. Some of the illness in old age may
be responsible for hearing loss. It is essential to recognize the degree and origin of
the deafness.
Effects of noise on the auditory system
There are two types of hearing loss caused by noise. One is acoustic trauma
that consists of instantaneous damage to the ear from a sharply rising wave front,
such as occurs in an explosion, and may produce rupture of the ear drum,
dislodgement of the middle ear ossicles and injury to the inner ear’s organ of corti.
The second type, noise induced hearing loss, is more common. It results from
long-term exposure to intense sound which usually occurs slowly. Its severity
depends on the intensity, frequency, and duration of noise exposure.
Hearing impairment due to intense sound exposures usually affects a hearing
range around 4,000 Hz. As the exposure continues, the frequency range and
magnitude of the loss increase.
Criteria for hearing damage
Noise regulations are administered by Occupation Safety and Health Act
(OSHA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Department of Transportation
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(DOT) in USA. Hearing damage risk criteria for exposure to noise are found in
OSHA Rules and Regulations. It’s unit is decibel and is expressed as ratio of two
sound intensity levels. Table 4.4 illustrates the hearing damage risk criteria for
exposure to noise.
TABLE 4.4 Hearing damage risk criteria for exposure to noise
Duration per Day (Hours) Sound Level, dB(A) Slow Response

8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1½ 102
1 105
½ 110
¼ or less 115
Noise Abatement
Noise abatement can be effectively done by the use of:
a) Enclosures
b) Barriers
c) Functional sound absorbers.
Enclosures
Noise producing machines may be enclosed by sheet material lined with an
acoustical material. Perforated metal hoods can be used as enclosures. The barrier
wall may be absorbers may be placed close to each other and suspended from
ceiling near machine.
Administrative controls essentially reduce the workers exposure by rotating
them to quite job when the daily permissible noise exposure is reached. Highly
variable noise is difficult to assess with a conventional sound level meter.
Shielding
Shielding refers to enclosing the conductors of apparatus in enclosure almost
completely. Shielding reduces the capacitance between the circuit and outside
space. The most effective shield is continuous metalized plastic solid shielding
which is more effective than braided shielding. Effectiveness of shielding increases
with the thickness of the shield and conductivity. Solid copper or silver or
aluminium or similar non-magnetic material is effective against electrostatic and
electromagnetic interference. The shield should be insulated from the equipment
and equipped with a drain wire for single point grounding.
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Group several signal conductors within one shield is permissible, if all the
signals have same ground point and capacitance between them is acceptable.
When several shielded conductors are combined in a cable, each should be covered
with insulation.
HIGH PRESSURE HAZARDS
Safety rules
1. High pressure zones should be clearly marked.
2. All necessary fire fighting equipments are kept.
3. Unauthorized is prevented
4. Single man working in an high pressure area is prevented. At least two
men are essential.
5. Too many persons also should be avoided.
6. Safety valves exhaust to let a height and place it will cause much of
pollution.
7. Sand dikes and sand floors are arranged for highly inflammable liquid
Storage system like petroleum products.
8. Two safety valves must be provided in storage vessels. One operating at
lower pressures. One operating at higher pressures.
9. High pressure equipments should be confined to a special room (Thick
Walled)
10. High pressure tubings should be anchored securely at frequent intervals
to prevent accidents.
11. Proper layout is essential. Arrangement of facilities, equipments,
materials, manpower and administration.
Suppose 0.5 m3 air is under pressure of 1000 psia then WTNT = 0.497 X 0.5 =
0.25 kg. Pressure vessels are designed, fabricated and inspected as per the code
(ASME). Some other Codes adopted in India are Indian Boiler vessels Code. Forging,
rolling, drawing and other mechanical deformation processes should not exceed the
limitations of allowable stress for the material.
From safety angle, standard operating procedure for each of the high pressure
systems should be evolved and strictly followed. Safety devices such as relief valves,
interlocks, should be incorporated in the equipments gases especially fuel gases
expand and mix with air detonates releasing enormous energy that may destroy
nearly equipments or cause damage to the systems. The energy released is
approximated by the eqn.
E= P2V1 ( P1 / P2)1/ γ [ (P1/ P2)- 1/ γ [ (P1 / P2) / γ –1 + 1] - γ / γTM – 1 ]
E – Energy released by expansion is equivalent to a certain weight of explosive
such as TNT.
For purposes of damage assessment.
TNT releases 4253 KJ / Kg
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For a gas that forms a explosive mixture with air

WTNT = 2.83 X 10-5 P1V1 / T1 X Q
WTNT – Weight equivalent of TNT
Q – kg of gas
T1 – Initial Temp of gas and air
P1 – Initial Pressure of gas and air
V1 – Initial Volume of gas and air
P2 – Final pressure or pressure before energy release.
For air at 1000 psia the specific TNT equivalent is 0.497 kg/m3.
H2 – Causes decarburization of steels at high temps and partial pressures
N2 – attacks steel at high temps.
(At Pressure 3000 atms & above
H2 & N2 attack steel even at low temp)
Alloy steels with 1.5 to 6% Cr, V, Ni, Mo and W are resistant to Hydrogen
attack.
Addition of Chromium gives increased resistance to corrosion except from HCl.
High tensile strength of steel can be developed by heat treatment methods also.
High ultimate strength as high as 2000 kg/cm2 can be incorporated by heat
treatment methods. Cladding, lining by corrosion resistant alloys are made for steel
surfaces to have both strength and corrosion resistance. Strength of materials lie
perfectly well with the elastic region – stress – strain plot is linear. Pressure applied
must be within this limit.
Also mechanical transformation characteristic like refining grain size orientation
segregation of phases, impurity distribution dislocation etc causes improvement in
strength.
High-pressure materials selection
1. Working pressure
2. Working temperature
3. Size of the vessel
4. Nature of the process – corrosion aspect
5. Stress condition –static – dynamic
Properties of materials to be considered for selection
1. Yield strength
2. Plastic deformation and ductility
3. Fracture strength or toughness
4. High temperature strength
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5. Environmental effect on the strength of material.

Selection has to be alone with prior study of the material exposed to real
conditions using test samples.
Steel – most commonly used. It must be free of cracks and undue segregation.
Iron – Temp>500oC – Iron is alloyed with chromium and nickel.
Plain carbon steels – For high pressure at temperature below 400oC.
Low alloy steels with 0.3 to 0.4 % C, 1 to 2% Cr & 0.2% V – For high pressure
reaction vessels – has good yield strength
Another alloy - C – 0.25%, Si – 0.15%, Mn – 0.6%, Cr – 0.6 – 0.7%.
- Ni – 2.5%, Mo – 0.6% and rest iron
- has high ultimate strength.
4.2 CONSEQUENCES OF MAJOR HAZARD ACCIDENTS, ROLE OF MANAGEMENT
AND PUBLIC
INTRODUCTION
This lesson illustrates the accident analysis due to major hazards and their
consequences. The role of management and public for safe operation and
maintenance and for a healthy environment is outlined
OBJECTIVE
This gives an idea about the accident analysis, the cost of accident and the
consequences of major hazard accidents. This also discusses about role of
management and public for a safe industrial atmosphere.
4.2.1 Consequences of Major Hazard Accidents
 Unplanned and unexpected event which causes or likely to cause injury
and loss of man / material.
 The damage may be temporary or permanent.
 Extreme cases – fatality.
 Everyone’s responsibility is to get educated themselves and educate others
to lead an accident-free life.
 The need and importance of accident can never be understated.
 Advancement in Science & Technology has a great deal in providing better

and safer working place. Full proof preventive conditions in work places.
Automatic devices such as interlocking gears, Switches and controls are
provided.
4.2.2 Accident Consequence Analysis
The adequate reporting and recording of accidents is essential for the good
safety performance Accident records have two primary purposes
1. To furnish the information necessary for the compensation of the
injured person
2. To serve as a guide for the accident prevention efforts
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The information required for the purposes of compensation is determined by

the requirements of the works men compensation act
Frequency Rate (F.R)
It gives us an idea to the frequency of accidents in any industry
F.R = No of Disabling injuries/ Total man hours worked
Severity Rate (S.R)
The extent of severity of Accidental injury provides an additional method of
measurement. It is expressed as the days lost per 1,000,000 man hours worked
S.R = Man days lost * 106 / Total man hours worked
Conducting an analysis of the consequences that a potential major accident
could have on the plant, employees, neighbourhood and environment completes the
hazard assessment. The accident consequence analysis should include:
 Description of the accident (pump failure, tank or pipe rupture, valve
failure);
 Quantity of material (toxic, flammable, explosive) likely to be released;
 Dispersion pattern of the material released (if gas or evaporating liquid)
(This involves mathematical modelling);
 Physical impact/effects (toxic, heat radiation, blast w ave, contamination)
(This involves using models to determine impacts).
The results of the accident consequence analysis are used to determine and
provide protective measures such as alarm systems, pressure relief systems, fire-
fighting systems and formulate emergency response procedures.
Quantitative risk assessment studies of accident scenarios usually involve
estimating the number of fatalities that can be expected. The number of people
injured, however, is seldom evaluated because it implies significant additional effort
and often the information required to perform this evaluation is not available.
However, the number of injured people can be very important for emergency
planning, especially in relatively large accidents.
In quantitative risk assessment (QRA) of accident scenarios involving
hazardous materials, rough hypotheses are often used to evaluate the magnitude of
the consequences. These hypotheses are sometimes essential in order to draw iso-
risk curves, as they complement the physical effect and vulnerability calculations.
For instance, if more precise data are not available, it is widely accepted that - the
indoor mortality rate in the case of toxic exposure is 10% of the corresponding
outdoor rate; - for blasts (vapour cloud explosions), the fraction of people that die
outdoors and indoors is 100% if _P > 0.3 bar. If 0.3 bar >_P > 0.1 bar, nobody dies
outdoors and 2.5% die indoors; - about 10% of the houses outside the cloud and
inside the _P = 0.1 bar contour are severely damaged and about one in eight people
in a severely damaged house is killed. These hypotheses, which are mostly rules of
thumb based on experience, do not necessarily agree with real data from actual
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cases, although they are normally of the same order of magnitude. Moreover, they
save a lot of effort and reduce the time needed to carry out QRA. Risk analysts,
especially when major accident scenarios are concerned, seek to estimate/predict
the overall number of people affected, i.e. fatalities, injuries and possibly evacuees.
Standard QRA focuses mainly on calculating the number of fatal victims, as well as
calculating the distances that define the areas to be evacuated. The number of
injured people is seldom evaluated, as it would involve significant additional effort
and in most cases little or no information is available.
4.2.3 Accident Costs
Accident costs to management can be divided in two distinct parts
1. Direct cost: Costs of a workers injury as a result of an accident, medical
and compensation payment.
2. Indirect Cost (Hidden Accident cost): Costs of the repairs, replacement of
machinery equipment, materials , manpower, production time lost. It is many times
more than the direct cost
Factors of Hidden Accident cost:
1. Cost of lost time of injured employee
2. Cost of lost time by other employees who stop work
3. Cost of time lost by supervisor or other executives in assisting injured
employee/ investigating the cause of accident / arranging replacement for injured
employee for the job/ training new employee for the job/ investigation of accident/
preparing the accident report.
4. Cost of time spent by medical department
5. Cost due to damage to machine, tools or other properties
6. Incidental cost due to failure in production.
7. Loss of production
4.2.4 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC
Role of management
It should be the policy of the management that every reasonable effort should
be made to provide and maintain safe and healthy working conditions, equipment
and system of work for all employees. The management should be endevour of the
corporation establishments to ensure that the surrounding environment is not
adversely affected by the work activity. The prevention of accidents or accident
hazards leading to personal injury or damage of equipment/ property is recognized
as essential and integral part of efficient operations. Every employee shall follow
safety rules / regulations / operating procedures / safe work methods designed to
protect people and equipment from risk of injury or damage to property. The
management should endavour to adequately train all employees, suitably equip
them and instruct them to perform their duties in safe and effective way. Every
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employee should discharge his personal responsibility and should cooperate and
actively participate in maintaining and improving safety standards.
Management control
 The factory should be closed immediately
 There may be loss of life to human and animals
 Environment gets affected and has become unsuitable for living
 Plants and plant growth get affected
 The affected people to be treated properly in hospitals
 The company has to provide suitable compensation for the employees and
the public who got affected in hazard accidents.
 The company should conduct a thorough enquiry about the pitfalls of the
major accident and make a suitable documentation
 They should carryout remedial measures for training their personals and
provide suitable alternatives by installing proper equipments to prevent
the hazards.
 Suitable alarm systems should be installed
 The government should conduct a thorough enquiry about the accident
which took place.
 Government should recommend suitable compensation for the employees
and public
 Government should install proper monitoring stations for monitoring
water pollution, air pollution and land pollution.
 The government should direct the respective pollution control board to
take necessary action against the company and instruct them properly to
make inspection frequently and regularly. Before starting the industry the
Pollution Control Board should take necessary action to check whether all
the instruments are in good condition and to check proper remedial
action has been carried out.
 The government also should warn all other neighboring industries to
check their emissions properly and install equipments for preventing a
major hazard.
 The company as well as government should organize several programmes
on sight and off sight emergency plan regularly.
 The company and government should jointly take necessary step in
renovating the environment and providing alternative jobs to the people
affected.
 Public should be aware of company alarms for different hazard accidents
and should try to safeguard themselves and in adopting safety procedures.
They should also know how to help each other in case of emergency.
 Energy conservation
 Awards for best performance
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 Announcing awards for no accidents

 Declaring accident prone zones
 Observing accident free week
CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
This section is intended to show how the existing legislation applies, and
demonstrates the link between the existing requirements and the proposed
government Regulation.
The chemical management framework shows the three groups of hazardous
materials that may exist at workplaces and industrial sites and the various types of
controls necessary to manage the risks arising from the hazards. The Fig 4.1
illustrates that, as the quantity of materials present at the site increases, the level
of hazard also increases to the point where the risk of a major accident may have
catastrophic consequences for the workers and the surrounding community,
justifying the additional safety and security measures. These additional measures
are set out in the proposed Goverment regulations.
FIG 4.1 CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
Role of Management
These duties include:
 following the operator’s procedures in the event of a major accident
 informing the operator of any circumstance that may lead to a major
accident
 taking corrective actions provided in the operator’s procedures without
placing the employee or other persons at risk.
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Recording major accidents, near misses and security breaches

The operator must record and investigate any accident, near miss or security
breach and
Investigate the cause and record the outcome of the investigation.
Security risk assessments
The operator must identify any foreseeable hazards arising from the operation
of the MHF and identify hazards that may be caused by a breach of security at the
facility.
Security access
The operator must establish and maintain a system to control access to the
facility.
Informing, instructing and training employees
The operator must ensure that employees are provided with adequate
information, training and instruction to enable them to work safely at the MHF and
to meet their obligations for safety. Training records must be kept for at least 5
years.
Non-employees at the facility
The operator must ensure that persons other than employees who enter the
facilities are provided with information and instruction.
Recordkeeping
Records required by this chapter must be retained for at least 15 years unless
otherwise specified.
“An accident is an unplanned and uncontrolled event in which the action or
reaction of object, substance, person results in a personal injury”
Principles of accident prevention
Industrial accidents are caused by negligence of employer, the worker or both
The basic reasons for preventing industrial accidents are human and economic.
The most important of these should be to avoid human suffering. When safety
engineering and safety conscious management improve the lot of men and women
in industry, the lives of dependent of workers are improved too. Pain, suffering and
wrecked lives are not be the byproducts of any industry.
Accidents are economic losses and this is a challenge reason for accident
prevention Employers effort to reduce the accidents are generally motivated by four
considerations
1. To lessen human suffering
2. To prevent damage to plant and machinery
3. To reduce the amount of time lost as a result of accident
4. To hold the expenses of workman compensation to minimum
Accident Factors
1. A personal injury occurs as a result of an accident
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2. An accident occurs due to unsafe act/unsafe condition.( personal/

Mechanical Hazard)
3. Unsafe Act / Unsafe condition exists due to fault of persons
Principal causes of accidents:
1. Rules and instructions not observed:
For smooth working and safe operations, proper rules and instructions are
essential. Many accidents happen because the employees sometime deviate from
the established rules and procedure.
2. Improper tools and devices
Know your tools and use proper tool for the job
3. Method used not suitable
A safe workman know the correct method of performing his job
4. Protective device not used:
Every employee is expected to use all safeguards, safety appliances or devices
furnished for his protection
1. Lack of proper inspection and maintenance.
2. Machinery tools and all equipments should be regularly inspected and
maintained by those using them Defects if any should immediately be
reported and rectified.
3. Loose clothing.
4. Loose clothing must not be worn this is the cause of many accidents
particularly around moving machinery.
5. Working without an authority
6. Short Cut.
7. Do not follow, Shortcuts. Use proper roads/pathways wherever
provided . Shortcut may results in slips and falls.
8. Poor Judgment.
9. Safety is a matter of common sense which must be used.
10. Horse play.
11. Horse play is not allowed in the refinery as it constitutes a contributory
factor for the accidents.
4.2.5 Accident Reporting Procedure
1. As soon as an accident occurs to any employee on duty the concerned
supervisor will intimate Fire station control room an hospital
2. The concerned supervisor will immediately fill up the accident form No.
A1 in triplicate and send two copies to fire station and hospital
respectively
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3. Supervisor concerned will full up the supervisor investigation form No.

A-5 and will ensure that it reaches fire station within 48 hours.
Duties of Supervisors in promoting safety Regulations:
1. Each supervisor shall exercise close supervision over these employees
who report or those who are assigned to him. He shall ensure that
persons working under him are competent to perform their work safely
2. Supervisors must take immediate corrective action whenever unsafe
conditions /practices are discovered
3. The supervisor shall explain in detail the particular hazards where the
employee is working and the precautions to be taken to ensure his
employees
4. Supervisor shall ensure that the safety regulations are understood, that
all hazards are eliminated wherever possible and all means of egress
exists, stairways and similar means of escape are clear, workable and
thoroughly known to all his men
5. Supervisor must set a good example in knowing and observing all safety
rules and precautions
6. Supervisors are requested to make a contact with persons in working in
isolated places.
7. Supervisor shall report and investigate the root cause of all accidents
that takes place in their areas of responsibilities on such forms as may
be prescribed by the company and immediately take / suggest such
action so that similar accidents do not recure
8. By regular and systematic inspection supervise shall ensure that all
tools, equipments, machineries and premises are in safe and operative
condition
9. Supervisor must take corrective action whenever rules are not observed
and even a single violation may become a cause of major accident and
may put the safety of an individual or a group in jeopardy.
10. The management should invariably display all possible safety slogans in
different parts of the industry in addition to safety training and safety
education through press and multimedia.
Some safety slogans are given here.
1. Safety first and Duty Next
2. Fire Starts where safety ends
3. Your safety means safety of your family
4. Accidents brings tears and safety brings cheers
5. Hazard for himself hazard for others also
6. Production must safety first
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7. Regular housekeeping prevents accidents

8. Take care of you there is no spare for you.
9. Stop a fire before it is a fire
10. Don’t trust in luck, trust in safety
11. “Prevention is better than Cure”
Prevention of accidents is better than offering the medical attention or
treatment.
4.3 ON-SITE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT PLAN, OFF-SITE EMERGENCY
MANAGEMENT PLAN
INTRODUCTION
This lesson is aimed to provide various emergency management systems
followed in industries.
OBJECTIVE
 To provide complete picture of on – site emergency system and off – site
emergency system.
EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
1. Emergency Management System should be formulated for each plant for
quickly and effectively dealing with probable emergencies with the following
objectives:
a) To improve state of preparedness to meet any emergency.
b) To protect plant personnel inside and public outside the plant.
c) To reduce response time in organizing the assistance.
d) To identify major resources, manpower, material and equipment
needed to make the plan operational.
e) To bring the situation under control and thereafter the normalcy in
minimum time.
2. The Emergency Management System should cover:
a) On-Site Emergency Management Plan
b) Off-Site Emergency Management Plan
c) Crisis and Disaster Management Plan.
4.3.1 ON-SITE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT PLAN
1. The occupier of each plant should prepare and keep up-to-date On-site
Emergency Management Plan to deal with all probable emergencies which can
occur at the premises such as:
e) Fire in coal handling/conveyor system.
f) Toxic gas dispersion caused by uncontrolled chlorine and ammonia
leakage.
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g) Major leakage in Natural Gas pipeline (e.g. full bore rupture of gas
pipeline) resulting in unconfined natural gas leakage leading to
vapour cloud explosion and fire.
h) Major Hydrogen gas leakage.
i) Pressure vessel burst.
j) Implosion/explosion of boiler furnace.
k) Major fire in cable gallery.
l) Major fire in transformer yard.
i) Large scale fire in fuel oil area, coal storage, naphtha/LNG storage area.
1. The plan should also include the procedures for responding to off-site
emergencies and emergencies created due to crisis and disasters in
accordance with the Plans prepared by appropriate authorities.
2. The On-site Emergency Management Plan should include the names of the
persons who are responsible for safety on the site and the names of those
who are authorized to take action in accordance with the plan during
emergency.
3. The occupier should ensure that the emergency plan prepared takes into
account any modification made in the industrial activity and that every
person on the site who is likely to be affected by the plan is informed of its
relevant provisions.
4. The occupier should ensure that a mock drill of the On-site Emergency
Management Plan is conducted every six months.
5. Element of the On-site Emergency Management Plan should include the
following:
a) Name and address of the Chief Incident Controller.
b) Alarm System and method of Reporting/declaring emergency.
c) Emergency Response Procedure including response to Off-Site
Emergency Management Plan and Crisis and disaster Management
Plan.
d)
Details of the key personnel of the emergency team and their
responsibilities.
e) Outside organizations (including local administration, police,
hospitals, organizations located nearby) involved in assisting during
emergency with their role and contact numbers.
f) Risk assessment information giving possible nature of
incidents/events giving rise to emergency conditions, risk analysis
and impact assessment.
g) Details about the site:
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1. Locations where emergency can arise.

2. Emergency control room/alternate Emergency Control Room.
3. Demarcation of safe assembly zone relevant to each type of emergency
condition.
a) Description of hazardous chemicals and fuels at plant site:
1. Chemicals (Quantities and toxicological data) & industrial emissions data
2. Fuels (Quantities and storage type)
3. Material Safety Data Sheets(MSDS)
4. Internal and external communication plan during emergency.
5. Details of fire fighting and other facilities available to deal with emergency
conditions.
6. Details of first Aid and Hospital services available and its adequacy.
7. Post emergency activities:
8. Collection of records.
9. Conducting enquiries and concluding preventive measures.
10. Making insurance claims.
11. Preparation of enquiry report and suggestion scheme.
12. Implementation of enquiry report recommendations.
13. Rehabilitation of affected persons within plant.
14. To re-start the plant.
ON-SITE EMERGENCY PLAN
CHECKLIST FOR ASSESSMENT OF PREPAREDNESS
1. GENERAL
1. Name and address of the Factory
2. Industrial Activity
a) Main products manufactured
b) Hazardous materials stored on the premises and the quantities in
metric tonnes.
c) Hazardous processes conducted on the premises
d) Nature of identified hazards.
(i) Fire (ii) Explosion (iii) Release of toxic vapour (iv) Release of Toxic/Corrosive/
Flammable/Dangerous Liquid
1. Total number of workers
a) Employed in a day
b) Present during the visit.
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1. Number of entry and exit points of the factory.

2. Number of Shifts.
3. Condition of approach roads.
a) to the factory
b) to the plant inside the factory.
4. a) Number of Safety Officers
b) Name and address of Chief Safety Officer.
5. Whether adequate safety equipment available.
6. Fire Fighting facility certified by
7. Whether adequate emergency equipment available
8. Whether adequate first-aid and medical facilities available.
9. Type of training given to:-
- First Aider
- Fire Fighter
- Essential Persons
- Key persons
- General Public.
10. Techniques adopted to assess the hazards.
11. Provision for emergency power supply for essential services.
12. Whether mutual aid scheme exists.
13. Number of factors included in mutual aid scheme.
a) Fire fighting
b) First aid & Medical Management
14. Does the emergency plan incorporate a directory of external technical
support.
II ALARM SYSTEM
a) Type – Electrical/ Mechanical / Manual
b) Total number of Alarms installed
c) Alarm signals for General public.
d) Whether distinct alarm signals adopted for different types of emergencies.
e) Are all the alarms in good working conditions.
III CONTROL ROOM AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
a) Whether control Room exists
b) Number of Control Rooms and their sizes.
c) Is the control room(s) in Minimum risk area
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d) Facilities available in the control room.

Telephone, Public Address System, Vehicles, Clear access, wireless sets, list of
important phone numbers, plan of the area, Hotline to public control room, Hotline
to Emergency / Casualty ward of the Hospitals, Hotline to fire brigade, Non stop
power supply, Meteorological information.
IV ASSEMBLY POINTS AT THE TIME OF EMERGENCY
a) Assembly point details
b) Whether is any board display to indicate the point of assembly?
c) Is it a safe place?
d) Whether the place is under the charge of a person
e) Whether roll-call arrangement exits.
f) Arrangement of keeping details of visitors at site.
V EMERGENCY SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE
a) Does the emergency plan provide for the emergency shutdown of
operating system.
b) Have specific individuals been designated to be responsible for
shutdown implementation.
c) Have procedure checklists been developed for each individual
operations, equipment or area.
VI ALL CLEAR SIGNAL
a) Is the code for giving ‘all clear signal’ established.
b) The person responsible for giving “all clear signal”.
VII RECOMMISSIONING
a) Whether proper assessment is made for safe operation of the plant
before recommissioning after the incident.
b) Whether start up procedure in clear terms established.
VIII REHERARSAL OF EMGENCY FIRE EXPLOSION TOXIC GAS RELEASE
A. INFORMATION GIVEN TO: Name & Telephone Number
- Officers of the Factory Department
- Pollution Control Board, - Police
- District Medical Authority / Local hospital
- Fire Brigade
- Civil Defence
- District Emergency Authority.
B. ALARM SYSTEM
a) Was alarm audible in all work area.
b) Confusion, if any, noticed.
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C. CONTROL ROOM AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

a) Were the Communication System and their maintenance adequate.
b) Communication System available in the cause of power failure including
the name of Messenger.
D. WIND DIRECTION INDICATOR
Whether the indicator for wind direction visible from all places in the plant.
E. ASSEMBLY POINTS
a) Whether people assembled in the designated area.
b) Whether roll-call taken.
c) Whether evacuation procedure followed.
F. REPORTING OF KEY PERSONS
a) Incident Controller at site.
b) Site Controller at control room.
c) Communication Officer at control room.
d) Other key persons at control room.
i) Transport
ii) Medical
iii) Safety
iv) Security
v) Fire fighting
e) Assisting teams at the control room
f) e.g. Electrical/Mechanical crew, salvage team, Drivers, Riggers, runners,
volunteers, Home Guards etc.
g) Were the Site Controller and Incident Controller in Distinct clothes,
helmet or colored apron.
h) Number of mutual and factories participated in rehearsal
 Fire fighting
 First Aid & Medical Management.
Any external technical support utilized during rehearsal
The details required about fire brigade, police and ambulance / transport are
given in Table 4.4
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TABLE 4.4 Details of fire brigade, police and ambulance / transport

g) Fire Brigade
Name Name of Distance

Person Time of First
Sl.No. of Fire Fire from Contact Person
contacted Information
Brigade Station Plant
Name Tel.Ph
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
i) Internal
ii) Under Mutual Aid Scheme
ii) External team.
Reporting time at the Whether equipment If not, reasons

incident site worked
9 10 11
I) Police
Tel. No. Person Distance in Time of First Reporting time

contacted Kms Information
1 2 3 4 5
J) Ambulance / transport:
S. Name of Contact Person Person Distance in Time of First Reporting
No. Organisation contacted Kms. information time at
accident
site
Name Tel.Ph
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1.3.2 Off-Site Emergency Management Plan

1. District Collector or district Emergency Authority designated by the State
Government, in whose area plant exists, should prepare and keep up-to-
date off-site Emergency Management Plan detailing how emergencies
occur in the vicinity of the premises due to incidents such as fire,
explosion, toxic release etc. within plant will be dealt with and in
preparing that plan the concerned authority should consult the occupier,
the Chief inspector of factories and such other persons as necessary.
2. The occupier of the plant should provide all the necessary information
relating to industrial activities under his control, including the nature,
extent and likely effects of possible major accidents as well as any
additional information the concerned authority may require in this regard.
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3. The authority should provide the occupier with any information from the
off-site emergency plan, which relates to his duties in the event of off-site
emergency. The authority should ensure that a rehearsal of the Off-Site
Emergency Management Plan is conducted at least once in a calendar year.
4. The occupier should take appropriate steps to inform persons outside the
site who are likely to be in area which might be affected by a major
accident in the plant about:
a) The nature of major accident hazard.
b) And the safety measures and the correct behavior that should be
adopted in the event of a major accident.
5. The occupier shall furnish the following minimum information to the
concerned authority to facilitate preparation of the plan:
a) Name and address of the person furnishing the information.
b) Details of the key personnel of the emergency team and their
responsibilities.
c) Emergency Response Procedure.
d) Neighborhood organizations including key personnel, responsibilities
and liaison arrangements between them (Mutual Aid Response Group
with Mutual Aid Policy).
e) Risk assessment information giving possible nature of incidents/
events giving rise to emergency conditions in the vicinity of the
premises, risk analysis and impact assessment.
f) Description of hazardous chemicals and fuels at plant site:
i) Chemicals (Quantities and toxicological data)
ii) Fuels (Quantities and storage type)
iii) Material Safety data Sheets.
a) Internal and external communication plan during emergency.
b) Identify the facilities :
i) Fire fighting equipments
ii) Annamalai University
Details of D.G. Sets and dewatering facilities available
iii) Rescue equipment available
iv) Medical resources available
v) Type of vehicle/mobile crane/dumper etc.
vi) List of contractors with resources available with them
vii) List of private caterers to canteen
viii) List of emergency material suppliers like tent/pumps/DG Sets/
Tarpaulins etc.
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ix) Water resources available.

x) Procedure for notification to public.
xi) Evacuation arrangements.
NEED FOR OFF – SITE EMERGECY PLAN
A major emergency may affect areas outside the works. In our case the most
significant risk to outside areas is that associated with a large release of gases like
ammonia.
All emergency plans should consider the possible effects of incidents on the
neighboring population and the remedial measures should be devised in
consultation with the local authority and emergency services.
The main purposes of the off-site Emergency Plan are:
1. To provide the local/district authorities, police, fire brigades, doctors,
surrounding industries about the basic information of risk and
environmental impact assessment and to appraise them of the
consequences and the protection/prevention measures and control plans
and to seek their help to communicate with the public in case of a major
emergency.
This information from every industry enables the district authorities to
educate the public about to danger, the measures taken to prevent such danger
and to train them for their individual role in case of emergency.
1. To assist the district authorities for preparing the off-site emergency
(contingent) plan for the district of particular area and to organise
rehearsals from time to time and initiate corrective actions based on the
experience.
2. The Chief Emergency Controller (Unit Head/Fert.) will keep liaison, for this
purpose, with the District Authorities through the corporate emergency
controller.
SCOPE OF OFF-SITE EMERGENCY PLAN
The scope of the off-site emergency plan is given below:
1. To immediately warn the population around the factory and in the
adjacent areas about the emergency by operating the off-site emergency
siren. Annamalai University
2. Controlling the road and rail traffic.
3. Avoiding panic among the public.
4. Evacuation of people from danger areas to safe areas.
5. Protecting/safeguarding the properties and belonging of the evacuated
sections until their return.
6. Arranging shelters for the evacuated public.
7. Ensuring subsistence during their stay in the shelters.
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8. Rendering medical help to them.

9. Taking adequate measures for their rehabilitation.
10. Action will be taken by IC to arrest the leak. Mutual aid scheme will be
followed. Additional water supply for diluting the any gas leak, will be
taken from the neighbouring areas.
OFF-SITE EMERGENCY ORGANISATION
Key Personnel in the Factory
a) The Chief Emergency Controller (CEC) (Unit Head) mentioned in the on-
site emergency plan will be a key person for off-site emergency plan also.
he will have the authority and accountability to intimate the
local/district/state authorities regarding off-site emergency.
b) The Incident Controller (IC) mentioned in the on-site emergency plan will
be a key person for off-site emergency plan also. he will be responsible to
contain the emergency situation inside the concerned plant and give
relevant information to cec regarding prevailing emergency condition in
the plan which will in turn help cec to contact district authorities as per
priority.
The list of key personnel and their details should be provided as given in Table 4.5
TABLE 4.5 List of key personal
Designation,
Sl. No. Key personal address
phone No.
1. Collector of District Chairman (District Emergency Member
controller)
2. Deputy Chief Inspector of Factories (Cuddalore) Member
3. Supdt. of Police Member
4. District Health Officer Member
5. District Medical Officer Member
6. Pollution Control Chief Member
7. District Environmental Officer Member
8. Regional Transport Officer Member
9
District Fire Officer Member
10. Corporate level Chief Emergency Co-Ordinator Member
11. Chemical Engineering expert Member
12. Panchayat President Member
13. Trade union leader Member
14. Factory safety officers Member
15. Press reporters Member
16. Bank officers Member
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District Emergency Orgainsation

In case of an off-site emergency due to heavy gas leakage, CEC will
immediately intimate the matter to the collector of District who is the Head of the
District Emergency Organisation and is designated as the District Emergency
Controller. The structure of the District Emergency Organisation is given in Fig.4.2.
NOTIFICATION OF THE OFF-SITE EMERGENCY
The Chief Emergency Controller where emergency has occurred shall inform
District Collector of the District (or) D.R.O about the offsite Emergency through hot-
line followed by a message through special messenger. As soon as the off-site
Emergency has been declared he will also inform the Addl. Supdt. of Police and the
Superintendent of Police. The information given to them should include the nature
and extent of emergency with probable affected/likely to be affected areas.
District Collector should in turn, on receipt of the emergency information, alert
the members of District Emergency Organization and the Service Group members
and initiate action in accordance with Action Plan.
Emergency Message
The District collector on receiving emergency message will give instructions to
the Superintendent of Police (or) Addl. Superintendent of Police to arrange for
immediate announcement through Public Address system to alert the public in the
neighbouring villages within 20 kms. Range.
In The meantime public is cautioned to take the following precautionary
measures:
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FIG 4.2 ORGANASATION CHART FOR AN OFF-SITE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
CEC CORPORATE
CEC DISTRICT
CMD
DIRECTOR
COLLECTOR
DIST. ENVIR.
SUPERINTED DIVISIONAL ENGINEER DY. CHIEF
STATE INSPECTOR OF
ENT OF FIRE POLLUTION FACTORIES
POLICE OFFICER CONTROL
BOARD
REGIONAL
TRANSPORT DIST. HEALTH DIST. MEDICAL DISTRICT
OFFICER OFFICER OFFICER REVENUE
OFFICER
SUPDTING SUPDTING DIVISIONAL

ENGINEER ENGINEERWATER MANAGER
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY&DRAINA TRANSPORT DIST. SUPPLY
GE BOARD OFFICER
BOARD CORPORATION
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1. Don’t Get panic.

2. For protecting eyes and respiratory system use wet cloths on eyes and
nose.
3. Stay indoor. Keep the doors and windows closed.
4. Don’t try to come out of the house if you find irritating smell. Outside gas
concentration may be much more.
5. Run and take shelter in a house if you are in the open.
6. Run crosswind if you are in the open field and try to take shelter in a
house.
7. If necessary we may evacuate you to the nearest evacuation centre. Buses
will come and pick up. Police will guard your house and belongings.
Announcement should be made by the police in mother tongue. Termination of
the emergency should also be announced similarly.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE KEY PERSONNEL
Responsibilities of CEC
The responsibilities of CEC in case of off-site emergency area:
a) Find out the severity of gas leak.
b) If the leak is continuous, declare off-site emergency.
c) Inform to public by siren and mike system.
d) To contact immediately the district Collector and appraise the off-site
emergency with the following points.
1. Wind direction.
2. Wind speed.
3. Quantity of Ammonia Release.
4. Concentration.
5. Evacuation areas.
6. Emergency shelter.
a) To contact immediately the Addl. Supdt. of Police, and appraise him of
b)
the off-site emergency.
To inform the Service Groups such as Fire Service, Medical Services etc.
and to seek their help.
c) To inform key District/Local authorities.
d) To inform the nearby Factories, township and schools which are likely to
be affected.
e) To inform the CMD, Directors and other Chief Executives of the company.
f) To inform the District Collector regarding the surrounding areas likely to
be affected.
g) To inform Factory Inspectorate and Pollution Control Board.
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h) To instruct IC to give “All Clear Signal” on termination of off-site

emergency.
Responsibilities of IC
a) To intimate CEC with latest information regarding the emergency
condition within the plant from time to time/as often as possible.
b) To contain the emergency situation with the help of emergency crews and
other resources available with him.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF DISTRICT EMERGENCY ORGANISATION
The District Emergency Organisation is responsible for carrying out the
following emergency functions:
a) Co-ordinating the implementation of the following off-site emergency
counter measures as and when emergency arises
- Provision of immediate medical aid and health facilities to the affected
persons.
- Evacuation
- Sheltering
- Distribution of food packets to evacuated persons
- Rehabilitation
a) Arranging for the safety and security of the affected public and
their property during the period of their absence following
evacuation.
b) Providing assistance to designated personnel for carrying out
environmental monitoring work.
c) Liaisoning with agencies such as Military, Civil Defence, Police,
Home Guards, Public Health and Medical etc. for necessary
assistance to cope up with emergency situation.
d) Giving information to the media.
RESPONSIBILITY OF INDIVIDUAL DISTRICT OFFICIALS DURING OFF-SITE
EMERGENCY
i) District Collector
 To inform Public about the off-site emergency – namely ammonia leak in
Neyveli.
 Persons who will be affected.
 Name of villages (Panchayats that will be affected)
 Symptoms to determine Ammonia leak irritation in skin, eyes.
 Precaution to be observed:
 Use of Wet cloth – padding in seemingly affected portions of human body.
 To keep and mobilise the Medial Team ready with the requisite medicines.
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 Keeping them in readiness for eventual evacuation – Preference Pregnant

women, Children, Disabled and Old persons – however the whole family
will be considered as a unit wherever necessary – as if family members
are separated any delay in subsequent reunion, will cause anxiety among
the affected persons.
 To identify shelter where evacuated persons to be accommodated.
 To inform the superintendent of police to maintain law and order to
prevent theft by unscrupulous element using the emergency conditions to
commit theft.
District Revenue officer
To prepare emergency budget for the following:
1. Cost of providing food – number of persons to be provided.
2. Village Administrative officers- panchayat presidents to apprised of
the need for providing food – To arrange food from the panchayat
resources to be reimbursed after production of necessary documents.
3. To provide fuel for transport vehicles needed for evacuation.
4. To arrange for emergency medicines.
5. To mobilise Non-Government organisations service wherever needed.
4.4 STRUCTURE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, CONSTITUTION OF
DISASTER MANAGEMENT GROUPS, CONTROL OF EMERGENCIES
INTRODUCTION
This lesson describes about structure of disaster management and its constitution
OBJECTIVE
 To explain about the details of structure of disaster management system,
formation of disaster management group and control during emergency
period.
4.4.2 Disaster Management
Introduction
Disaster is a situation in which the normal pattern of life within a community
gets suddenly disrupted due to some act of nature, and this puts the affected
people into great suffering and helplessness. There is heavy destruction of property
and life. If affected people are not given urgent attention in the form of food, shelter,
clothing, medical attention, protection and other life sustaining requirement,
situation may worsen further resulting into epidemic situation. Natural disasters
are wind related-storm, cyclone, hurricane, storm surge, floods, cloud burst,
drought, earthquake, landslide, avalanche, volcano eruption, etc. disaster is
defined as an overwhelming ecological disruption, which exceeds the capacity of
community to adjust and consequently requires assistance from outside.
Nature has its own principle and law. Their violation by humans results into
natural disasters whose consequences are severe. If man follows and respects the
principles of sustainable development, then to some extent the natural disasters
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could be reduced. However the complete prevention and mitigation of disasters is

beyond human control. Natural disasters destroy life and property, physical and
social infrastructure, thus disrupting the entire set of normal activities. Thousands
of people look for help for their survival. The situation gets worsened by further
damage caused to human beings in the form of spread of diseases, incapacitation of
affected persons to perform their duties and work, helplessness situation and
miseries. It is estimated that economic losses due to natural phenomenon are
increasing at an alarming rate.
Nature disasters are global phenomena, which may occur anywhere at any
time. These adversely affect the lives of the people and cause considerable damage
to property, environment and infrastructure worldwide. Natural disasters are
impediments to the attainment of sustainable development. Seismic action,
tropical cyclones and floods cause heavy loss of life and property. Besides their risk
of earthquakes, cyclones and floods, the kutcha houses built from clay-mud,
unburnt bricks and blocks, and random stone in mud, mortar and burnt brick
built in mud mortar are liable to damage and destruction under sustained heavy
rains. In an earthquake, 80% of the deaths are due to collapsing buildings. Bricks
and stone buildings without proper reinforcing tiled/wooden roofs, built without
proper foundations and bracing without proper reinforcing tiled/wooden roofs, built
without proper foundations and bracing are liable to collapse. Driven by
unemployment and poverty, million of people are occupying disaster-prone ground
in or just outside the cities, without any protection in case of disaster. Thus
construction of suitable houses and buildings keeping these aspects in view
deserves proper attention.
Disaster Management Plan
Disaster Management Plan encompasses technical, administrative, financial,
social and legal actions relating to disasters such as, landslides, earthquakes,
cyclones, storms, floods, fires, droughts, etc. It comprises of developing appropriate
policies and institutional organisation in the following areas:
1. Development of data base and early warning communication system.
2. Disaster preparedness including social preparedness, response,
rescue and relief.
3. Disaster Mitigation.
4. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction.
The objective is to strengthen the capacity of the agencies involved in warning
and alarm, rescue and evacuation operation, transport and communications,
resettlement, provision of medical aid, etc. As such, the assessment of damage
caused by natural calamities and to create organizations for rehabilitation and
reconstruction and income generating programmes together with establishment of
emergency supplies are essential pre-requisites of disaster management. The
medium and long-term interventions should be based on the “Five-R Strategy” of
rescue, relief, restoration, rehabilitation and reconstruction. Disaster Prevention
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and Management should be a key determinant for planning, design, and

development of human settlements. Planning and development control measures
should include foolproof warning/advice enabling inhabitants to move to safe
places before disaster, planning and development of shelters where victims can be
shifted during emergency, and rehabilitation of people who suffer due to disaster.
Emphasis hold be given to create awareness among the people, especially in rural
and semi-urban areas, about the basic requirements of hazard resistant design of
structures.
Natural disaster management is defined as pre-disaster preparedness and post
disaster response at both the primary and secondary levels in terms of prevention,
warning, threat, assessment, rescue, immediate action, initial recovery, long term
rehabilitation. Primary level refers to target area community and secondary level
refers to institutions and other agencies. All these agencies need appropriate
physical infrastructure, well structured organizations, sound and up-to-date
knowledge date base, economic institution, proper training and research facilities,
etc. A comprehensive planning is required by adopting comprehensive land use
policies at all levels starting from national level to regional/state/macro/micro and
appropriate building codes. The appropriate education and training of the whole
community in this regard is essential.
The four elements of disaster management which need to be incorporated in
the development plans at community. Regional, state and national levels are:
i) Prevention
ii) Mitigation
iii) Preparedness
iv) Relief.
The four objectives of national disaster management are
i) Reduce and avoid physical and economical losses.
ii) Reduce personal sufferings by removing affected persons to safer
place and providing them food, shelter and medicines.
iii) Faster recovery process.
iv)
Provide emergency supports.
Planning for meeting all these objectives is very crucial. It is probably one of
the most efficient tool to deal with the disasters. It is generally seen that help
arrives from several quarters of world but same does not reach the affected persons
in time and in adequate measure. Total preparedness and planning to handle such
unforeseen situations plays a key role in successful handling of disaster situations.
Natural disaster management involves management of following
i) Volunteers, workers, agencies, institutions, administration, etc.
ii) Affected people and their relatives,
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iii) Infrastructure comprising of lifelines and other services.

4.4.1 Crisis and Disaster Management Plan
1. District Collector or District Emergency Authority designated by the State
Government, in whose area plant exists, should prepare and keep up to
date Crisis and Disaster Management Plan detailing how the contingencies
due to natural calamities (such as earthquake, floods, cyclones, storms
etc.) and due to man-made disasters (such as major accident, terrorist
activities, sabotage, warfare, air crash, riots etc.) will be dealt with be
dealt with and in preparing that plan the concerned authority should
consult the occupier, the State Government and such other persons as
necessary.
2. The occupier of the plant should provide all the necessary information
relating to industrial activities under his control, as well as any additional
information the concerned authority may require in this regard.
3. The authority should provide the occupier with any information from the
Crisis and
4. Disaster Management Plan, which relates to his duties in the event of any
crisis or disaster.
5. The authority should ensure that a rehearsal of the Crisis and Disaster
management.
6. Plan is conducted at least once in a calendar year.
7. The occupier should furnish the following minimum information to the
concerned
Authority to facilitate preparation of the plan:
a) Name and address of the person furnishing the information.
b) Details of the key personnel of the emergency team and their
responsibilities.
c) Emergency Response Procedure
d) Neighborhood organizations including key personnel, responsibilities
and liaison arrangements between them (Mutual aid Response
e)
Group with Mutual Aid Policy).
Description of hazardous chemicals and fuels at plant site:
i) Chemicals (Quantities and toxicological data).
ii) Fuels (Quantities and storage type).
iii) Material Safety Data Sheets.
a) Internal and external communication plan during emergency.
b) Identify the facilities.
i) Fire fighting equipments
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ii) Details of D.G. Sets and dewatering facilities available

iii) Rescue equipment available
iv) Medical resources available
v) Type of vehicles/mobile crane/dumper etc.
vi) List of contractors with resources available with them
vii) List of contractors with resources available with them
viii) List of private caterers/canteen
ix) List of emergency material suppliers like tent/pumps/DG Sets/Tarpaulins
etc.
x) Water resources available
xi) Construction material inventory (cement, galvanized sheets, asbestos
sheets etc.)
xii) Cables inventory.
xiii) Procedure for notification to public.
xiv) Evacuation arrangements.
Objectives and scope of disaster management plan
Disaster management encompasses the activities that enable the various
agencies to plan for, quickly respond to and to recover from unexpected events and
situations. Disaster Management Plan is a tool to provide necessary guidelines for
assistance to concerned organizations for ensuring safety of people, protection of
environment, protection of plants. It has the following objectives:
i) To improve state of preparedness to meet any contingency
ii) To reduce response time in organizing the assistance.
iii) To identify major resources, man power, material and equipment
needed to make the plan operational.
iv) Making optimum use of the combined resources
1. Exchange of information in terms of event description, its severity and
action plan.
2. Identification of resources needed and their deployment viz. technical
experts, manpower, equipment and other material.
3. Early restoration and to facilitate re-inspection as needed.
4. Field/Site surveys, damage assessment
5. Post event investigation and analysis, and strategy for the future.
4.4.3 STRUCTURE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A 4-tier structure is preferred, viz. – central level, regional level, state level and
local unit level with intervention and response depending on the severity of the
disaster/calamity. Natural calamities may be broadly grouped into major and
minor types depending upon their potential to cause damage to human life and
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property. While the central and regional level interventions are necessitated for
major calamities, the state and, local agencies should respond to minor incidents.
A well-defined and comprehensive disaster management plan should typically
involve the following three types of response elements;
1. Operational response- to get the disruption under control as quickly as
possible so that normal operation is resumed.
2. Management response- to allocate resources and making critical
decisions needed to resolve the situation.
3. Communication response- to communicate with employees, their families,
officials, other agencies and media.
4.4.4 CONSTITUTION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT GROUPS
Though the prime focus of activities would be at the actual installations that
are affected due to impending or actual event, it is envisaged to have a
comprehensive disaster management system in place with initiatives/support at
regional and central level especially in case of major disaster affecting to the plant,
installation or site. The national level “Disaster Management Group” (DMG) is set
up in Ministry of agriculture to handle natural calamities. This Group takes policy
decisions and gives administrative response to major disasters occurring anywhere
in the country. The responsibilities of groups at various levels are described below:
 To facilitate development of comprehensive disaster management plan and
Policy formulations.
 To interact with the national disaster Management Group.
 To facilitate support from other national and state level agencies.
 To coordinate for any assistance in terms of men and materials at national
level.
 To act as information source desk for all related developments in the event
of a disaster.
Regional level coordination group
 To provide inter-state emergency and start up electrical power supply
 To coordinate early restoration of electricity.
 Annamalai University
To participate in damage assessment.
 To facilitate resource movement to affected state(s) from other
regional states.
State level support group
 To mobilize resources for restoration
 To ensure that disaster management plans are in place.
 To mobilize financial resources.
 To facilitate inter-agency support.
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 To coordinate information.
 To facilitate damage assessment
Plant / district / local level emergency management group
 To direct actions within the affected area taking into consideration the
priorities for safety of plant personnel, minimize damage to plant,
property and the environment.
 To direct fire and security personnel for immediate action.
 To ensure that all non-essential workers/staff in the affected area are
evacuated to safer places.
 Set up communication points
 Report all developments and requirements/assistance needed.
 Preserve all evidences so as to facilitate any inquiry into the cause and
circumstances which caused or escalated the emergency
 To coordinate with District Administration for necessary finance, medical,
law and order etc.
Emergency management group
This group should prepare itself for following:
1. Safety data pertaining to all hazardous materials likely to cause
emergency.
2. Procedure of major and special fire fighting, rescue operations, first aid etc.
3. Procedures for tackling harmful gases and other chemical leakages.
4. Emergency call out list of persons earmarked for emergency control, key
personnel for Fire safety, First aid, Medical, Security, Police and district
Administration Authorities.
5. Emergency manuals, Blown up area maps, district Phone directory, Public
address system,, Emergency lights etc.
6. Identification of personnel for Mock drills and training
Needs and resources to tackle disaster
After a disaster, the immediate needs of the affected population are likely to
include the following:
1. Protection from violence or harassment
Consider the effects of refugee camp location and layout, access roads,
provision of services access to water and fuel.
2. Provision of shelter
Consider the provision of blankets, plastic sheeting for shelters, tents, building
materials, tools.
170
3. Food and fuel

How is the food going to reach the camp ? Vehicles required ? Access by road-
river crossing ? Food distribution, feeding centres? Is there adequate fuel ? How
can it be transported to the people in need ? have they got matches ?
4. Water and sanitation
Have people enough safe water to drink, cook, wash? What sort of latrine
facilities are needed? What about soap? Hygiene promotion?
5. Medical care
Clinical care for injuries, acute illnesses, community care for diarrhoeas-
education, oral rehydration therapy ? Vaccinations ?
6. Social services
Tracing of relatives, support for rape victims, care of unaccompanied children.
Various phases of disaster management for which full preparedness and
action team are required are
i) Prediction/forecasting and warning in the form of precautionary
measures.
ii) Threat, emergency action, and survival methods.
iii) Environmental, social and economical impact.
iv) Taking stock of situation, resources, decision on actions.
v) Rescue operation for survival of maximum victims.
vi) Ensuing timely relief, medical and security measures to victims.
vii) Rehabilitation, recovery, relocation and reconstruction.
The professionals involved in various phases of disaster are engineers,
architects, planners, agronomists, physicians, social workers, meteorologists,
irrigation experts, nutritionists, contractors etc. A well thought of coordination
among various professionals to meet the phases of prevention, mitigation,
preparedness, emergency are essential for successfully talking of situation. Co-
ordination with the administrative authorities and the different interest groups also
yields high dividends. An accurate and meticulous planning, clearly difining the
responsibilities, action plan, complete coordination between parties involved on the
basis of resources available are essential to focus on successful handling of disaster
situations.
A methodology can be developed based on learning from each disaster. Major
lessons learnt from part experience will help to take concrete steps to tackle the
situation in future. All such actions need to be within legal framework under the
supervision of experts. It will also act as strong data base for further research and
study and also help the policy and decision makers to formulate plan of action.
Pre-disaster Preparedness
The rescue operation for any disaster has to start right from the warning
received from the Intelligence, meteorological organizations or any other
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state/Central governmental agency. The rescue operation should concentrate on

life safety as the prime objective followed by attending to the injured and stopping
the disaster from spreading further.
Pre-disaster actions This stage occurs when the prior information is
available about a situation that may lead to a disaster in near future. The
emergency Management Group, depending upon the nature of emergency should be
put on high alert. The following actions are required to be taken.
i) Pre-Alert Notification: This type of notification is mainly used for
disseminating an important piece of information concerning slowly
developing emergencies which can either be rectified or would take
some time before they turn into a crisis/disaster.
ii) Alert Notification: An alert notification implies that although a
crisis/disaster is not imminent, aggravation of the situation could
lead to crisis unless conditions improve. Emergency management
group and local officials should be alerted that an unsafe situation is
developing.
iii) Warning notification: A warning notification implies that a
crisis/disaster is imminent, an advance action may be initiated for
minimizing the damages/rescue operations. The warning notification,
indicating the magnitude of crisis/disaster should be communicated
to all concerned in the region.
Advance Preparedness: For effective preparedness to face the disasters and to
avoid last minute arrangements in panic conditions, the following aspects should
be covered as an organizational practice:
i) Well-documented emergency plans.
ii) Data on availability of resources and buffer stocks of restoration
materials.
iii) Identification of key personnel: with their skills and experience on the
disaster management.
iv) Allocation of budget for emergencies.
v) “Delegation of Power” at various levels for disaster conditions.
vi)
Mutual assistance agreements signed by all plants/factories for
sharing men and material/resources on demand.
POST DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY STAGE
Following features need to be kept in mind for efficient recovery system:
1. Clear hierarchy of command system.
2. Mobilization of damage assessment teams.
3. Mobilization of teams for establishment of base camps/infrastructure.
4. Officer for communication with the outside environment/press etc.
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5. Predefined staff for co-ordination with other agencies on restoration

front.
6. Management of funds and resources at the disaster front.
Well documented steps and codes of instructions are required to be created for
Pre-disaster preparedness stage, Response and recovery stage.
Approved financial resources, tools and equipment, communication system
and infrastructure facilities etc. are to be provided for field personnel. The same
are to be immediately mobilized thereby avoiding the delays and additional
coordination constraints.
Damage assessments: Immediately following a crisis/disaster, an initial
damage assessment must be performed by the plant level emergency management
group to assess the impact of disaster. The assessment should provide a rough
estimate of the type and the extent of damages, including probable cost and the
need for financial assistance. When the information has been collected it should be
transmitted to the State and the Central Government. Once the State has received
the preliminary incident damage assessment information, the State and the Central
Government teams have to initiate a joint damage assessment.
CONTROL OF EMERGENCIES
Anticipating emergencies and planning how to meet them is a certain and
logical procedure for surviving all kinds of emergencies.
The typical attitude is to give thought to the possibility of danger when the
threat is immediate. It would appear that there is a general concept that “accidents”
happen only to others. A great deal of knowledge on the control of hazards has been
accumulated. Yet surveys by professional safety specialists indicate that many of
the most basic control measures are not regularly used until serious injuries or
fatalities have occurred.
In order to prevent the occurrence of an accident or reduce its effect, it is
necessary to realize that unless a job or operation has been studied for hazards and
the necessary controls applied, or until an emergency control procedure has been
established to provide for the possible severe emergency, there is no reason to
believe that a reliable measure of safety exists.
Certain industries have inherently severe operational hazards which are
obvious and which for the reasons of economic necessity generally are well
controlled. Some industries are relatively free of the possibility of a crippling
catastrophe.
The fact is that any building housing a number of people may become a site
for disaster in the event of some unforeseen panic-producing emergency; any plant
equipped with a fired or unfired pressure vessel may be suddenly a scene of
disaster if the container explodes. While boiler explosions occur less frequently than
they did before the establishment of recognized codes, their occurrence is still
frequently than they did before the establishment of recognized codes, their
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occurrence is still frequent enough to be a reality, and when a boiler does explode,
the explosive forces released are often great enough to cripple a plant’s operations
for a considerable period of time.
Several decades of safety engineering experience have demonstrated that
hazards can be controlled by effectively organizing to apply the known injury-
prevention procedures. Regardless of whether industry is confronted with an
inimical action, or whether disaster may result from such causes as flood, fire, or
structural collapse, the same basic control measures for possible emergency
conditions will generally apply. Understanding the threatening dangers and
knowing how to reduce or control them, before the emergency happens, can reduce
their effect, but in to circumstance can the results of an emergency control effort be
any better than its preparation.
Control implies planning, organization, coordinating, and otherwise applying
the principles of managing to stem possible threats to the mission and maximize its
accomplishment. Crises usually leave little or no time to consider how to react or
what steps would provide the best order of responses. Intuitive reactions rarely
produce optimum results in such situations.
The awesome effects of the three events viz, Three Mile Island, Bhopal (India)
and Chernobyl (USSR) occurrences have demonstrated again that critical
emergencies happen even though they may have seemed unlikely and these have
promoted to prepare for emergencies and mitigate their consequences with
appropriate plans and procedures.
Emergency phase includes the following actions:
i) Maintenance of law and order;
ii) Evacuation of people;
iii) Recovery of dead bodies and their disposal;
iv) Medical care for the injured;
v) Supply of food and water and restoration of water supply lines;
vi) Temporary shelters like tents, metal sheds;
vii) Restoring lines of communication and information;
viii)
ix)
Restoring transport routes;
Quick assessment of damage and demarcation of damage areas
according to grade of damage ;
x) Cordoning off severely damaged structures liable to collapse during
aftershocks.
xi) Temporary shoring of certain precariously standing buildings to avoid
collapse and damage to other adjoining buildings;
xii) Immediate actions to prevent certain chain-reactions from developing;
such as release of water from the reservoir behind a damaged dam to
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avoid flooding of the areas if the dam fails, emptying of containers of

toxic or inflammable liquids and gases, treatment of environment for
preventing spread of diseases, etc.;
xiii) Collection of scientific data from field observations as well as from
instrumentation specially deployed in the affected area to monitor the
aftershocks; and
xiv) Preparation of proposals about the reconstruction requirements and
strategy to be adopted and whether reconstruction opportunity could
also be utilized for affecting socio-economic development of the
damaged area.
Preparation for control: Control implies planning, organization, coordinating
and applying the principles for managing the possible threats. Preparation for
control has two facets; one is the specific disaster control organization, plans, and
training that have been provided; the other is the fundamental organization
structure, operation relationships, leadership, morale and discipline, and quality o
the physical facilities of the concern, as established for general operations apart
from emergencies.
When a disaster occurs, the special control organization should go into
operation immediately, and then, gradually, the regular administrators take over in
accordance with the nature of their responsibilities. The director of disaster control
should give the orders necessary to adjust to the immediate shock of the emergency
and to provide for control operations directly required by the nature of the disaster.
The provision of special facilities, the practicability and necessity for these
depend on the size of the business unit concerned, the kind of extreme blow with
which it is reasonably possible the company might be struck, and the degree of
probability of such an occurrence.
4.5 REVISION POINTS
Fire – explosion hazards – explosive limit of industrial hazardous chemicals-
electrical hazards- mechanical hazards – Radiation hazards – Fire hazard – Noise
hazard – Chemical hazard – Environmental hazard - High Pressure hazard –
accident consequence analysis – accident cause – principle of accident prevention –
accident reporting procedure – on-site emergency plan - off-site emergency plan -
disaster management system
1. Explain the causes for major accidents in industries?
2. Discuss about various types of major accident hazards?
3. Explain about the consequences of major hazard accidents?
4. Discuss about the role of management and public in preventing major
accidents?
5. Explain the on - site emergency plan in detail?
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6. Explain the off - site emergency plan in detail?

7. Explain about the structure and constitution of disaster management
system?
8. Discuss about the control of emergency plan?
4.7 SUMMARY
This unit covers a brief introduction about industrial accidents, their causes
and various major hazards which may lead to accidents. This also covers various
consequences of major hazard accidents. It also explains about role of
management and public for safe up keeping and normal running of plant. It also
provides guidelines for preventing major hazard accidents. This also explains about
on-site emergency plan and off-site emergency plan. This gives a complete picture
about disaster management system.
REFERENCE
1. Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff, Madelyn Graffia, Safety Management Practices
for hazardous materials, Book Base publishers, Mumbai.
2. R.K.Jain, Sunil S.Rao, Industrial safety, health and environment
management systems., 1st edition, 2006, Kanna Publishers, New Delhi.
4.8 KEY WORDS
Industrial accidents, Major Hazards, Electrical – Mechanical – Civil – Radiation
– Fire – Noise – Chemical – Environmental - High Pressure. Frequency rate severity
rate, Accident cost, Role of Management, Accident prevention, Accident reporting,
Safety slogans, On-site emergency plan, Off-site emergency plan, Disaster
management control.

.
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UNIT – V
MAINTENANCE OF MACHINES AND EQUIPMENTS

CONTENT
5.1. Maintenance of Machines and Equipments
5.2. Work Permit System
5.3. Clearance Procedure for Safety
5.4. Revision Points
5.5. Intext Question
5.6. Summary
5.7. Keywords
INTRODUTION
This lesson discusses about maintenance of equipments, various types of
maintenance procedure followed in industries and accidents related to maintenance.
OBJECTIVE
 This lesson illustrates about maintenance of machines, types of
maintenance like breakdown maintenance, preventive maintenance.
Electrical maintenance, civil maintenance, shutdown procedure adopted in
industries, and accidents involved during maintenance.
MAINTENANCE OF MACHINES AND EQUIPMENTS
Introduction
In Chemical process industries, a great deal of emphasis is laid on effective
maintenance, prime objective of which being maximisation of on-stream efficiency
for optimum capacity utilisation.
OBJECTIVE
Objectives of maintenance functions have been derived from Mission and
objectives of the refineries and pipelines division keeping in view its mission
execution, profitability/efficiency, growth, image and vitality.
 To ensure optimum availability and reliability of equipment /instruments
for operation.
 To provide services for ensuring pleasant environment and improving

ecological balance.
To create safety consciousness in maintenance work and to develop
effective plans for handling emergencies and other contingencies.
 To modernise maintenance systems and practices.
 To forecast timely repair / replacement of equipment.
 To ensure right quality of material for a given service condition.
Types of Maintenance
Maintenance covers a wide range of activities aimed at keeping the equipments
in perfect working condition for performing function as per assigned duties. The
choice of activities and schedule depends upon local requirements.
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Maintenance includes several activities aimed at safe and reliable operation of

plant and equipment with maximum safety to life and property and long service life.
Maintenance is classified in two categories as follows:
 Breakdown or corrective maintenance
 Preventive maintenance
1. The breakdown or Corrective Maintenance activities are undertaken after
failure of an equipment. Such maintenance results in outage of circuit
and supply. In general, it consists of locating the trouble, repair and
recommissioning.
2. The Peventive Maintenance is undertake to ensure smooth and efficient
working of a system equipment. Preventive maintenance is undertaken as
per schedule before breakdown of system or machine takes place.
Preventive Maintenance: Electrical preventive maintenance includes routine
inspection, servicing, examination, overhaul. Preventive maintenance reduces
equipment failure, down time, breakdown and accidents. For example, a crane
without maintenance may operate badly and may become unsafe. A transformer
without maintenance may fail due to poor oil. The activities in preventive
maintenance include the following.
The service continuity is improved and economic benefits are enhanced.
1. Inspection. This refers to the maintenance activity which comprises
careful observation/scrutiny of the equipment without dismantling it.
It usually includes visual and operational checks, minor corrective actions.
2. Servicing. This refers to cleaning, adjustment, lubrication, tightnings and
other maintenance functions without dismantling the equipment.
3. Examination. This refers to inspection with necessary dismantling,
measurements ad non-destructive tests to obtain data regarding the
condition of components/subassemblies.
4. Overhaul. This refers to the work done with the objective of
repairing/replacing worn-out parts and defective parts. The equipment,
sub-assemblies are dismantled partly or completely. The condition of
components is inspected. Dimensions of worn-out components measured.
The components worn-out beyond acceptable limit are replaced. The
assembly is followed by functional checks and measurements to ensure
satisfactory performance.
Electrical Maintenance
Electrical equipment deteriorates with time and various stresses. The process
of deterioration begins as soon as the equipment is installed. The deterioration is
due to ageing of insulation, thermal stresses, environmental stresses, oxidation of
material, mechanical stresses etc.
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Without maintenance equipment failure may occur earlier than expected life
time. Without maintenance, equipment may become unsafe to operate. With
preventive maintenance, following distinct advantages are accrued.
1. Reduction in accidents, saving of life and property. Higher safety.
2. Costly breakdowns and unplanned shut downs are eliminated/minimised.
Strategies
To meet the obligations and challenges in the next few years and taking into
account the SWOT analysis, R & P division has broadly outlined its strategies.
Strategies involving maintenance and inspection functions are as under:
Civil
Civil maintenance organisational set-up is headed by Sr. Maintenance
manager. His area of responsibility is divided into two sections:
- Civil maintenance within factory area and head works.
- Township maintenance, water supply, sanitation and horticultural.
The organisational set up is shown at exhibit ‘C’
Instrumentation
Instrumentation maintenance organisation is headed by Sr. Manager and
accountable for his sphere of responsibilities to Civil Maintenance manager.
Details of the organogram are given at exhibit ‘D’
Action plan and action area
It is imperative that each strategy is translated into detailed action plan. This
would facilitate the successful implementation of the strategies.
To improve on-stream factors / reduce unit down time.
 Continuous analysis of causes of failures and recommending remedial
actions.
 Proper preventive maintenance planning with the help of computers so
that breakdown maintenance / crisis maintenance is minimised.
 Continuous monitoring of health of equipment by use of improved
inspection / predictive maintenance techniques.
 Continuous monitoring of corrosion prone equipment with the help of
corrosion probes, corrosimeter etc.
 Continuous updating of metallurgy of equipment, part / component of
machinery.
 Continuous updating and records of various equipments.
 Standardisation of vendors based on their reliability, improve inventory
control of spares part of equipment.
 Updating of turnaround job list for each plant for all disciplines well in
advance, planning scheduling of shutdowns, undertaking prefabrication of
jobs to the extent possible before shutdown.
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 Proper scheduling of hot jobs during shutdowns.

 Proper planning of skilled manpower materials and contracts.
 Monitoring of work progress through PERT/’S’ curve to arrest slippages by
remobiliszing resources.
To improve operational readiness of product handling and material handling
facilities.
 To conduct regular services/repair of loading arms as per schedule.
 To carry out regular services and preventive maintenance of locos, fork
lifts, cranes and vehicles.
To improve productivity and cost effectiveness.
 To review turnaround planning/scheduling and integrated PERT NET
WORK and improve planning effectiveness.
 To review utilisation of maintenance resources like skill, materials and
money with a view to optimising the same.
 To monitor and control maintenance expenditure against budget.
 To review and analyse incidences of overtime and control the same against
budget.
 To arrest cost and time over run in Action Plan jobs.
To improve plant and personnel safety.
 To review implementation status of safety recommendations and safety
audit recommendations.
 To implement various expert committee recommendations of safety.
 To test lifting tools and tackles and cranes annually to ensure reliability of
the equipment.
 To educate personnel on safe practices.
 To conduct regular shop safety meeting to review incidences of accidents
and unsafe practices.
To modernise maintenance system and practices.

To increase the areas of application of computers in maintenance.
Planning and scheduling, Maintenance Information Sheet and for creating
effective data base.
 To install mechanical seals in old process pumps in place of gland
packings.
 To upgrade skill of maintenance personnel by exposing them in latest
main. Practices/systems.
 To introduce Micro-Processor based process control system.
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To develop effective maintenance documentation.

 To update maintenance manuals
 To develop inter changability manuals for mechanical seals, bearings and
couplings.
 To update and improve turnaround manuals.
To help development of indigenous manufactures for spare parts and speciality
materials.
 Identification of items needing development.
 To prove practical support to Tech. Services for development of drawing.
 To provide technical guidelines to vendors during development.
To provide pleasant environment and ecological balance.
 To plant and maintain trees and bushes.
 To provide landscapes in open and waste land.
 To maintain gardens and plant in residential and public places.
 To ensure good sanitation and hygiene.
Maintenance system & practices
With a view to discharge functional responsibilities over a period the
maintenance systems and practices are streamlined to a great extent and the
Maintenance practices can be classified as under.
 Turnaround maintenance
 Preventive and scheduled maintenance
 Predictive maintenance
 Breakdown maintenance
Turnaround maintenance
The objective in a turnaround is to restore all major equipments within battery
area limits or equipment directly associated with the plant to an acceptable
standard of reliability and availability for a specified period of uninterrupted
operation.
To reduce downtime in a turnaround, the work is divided in three main
categories
 Preparation and pre-turnaround
 Execution during turnaround
 Post turnaround analysis
During preparation and pre-turnaround, following activities are carried out:
 Identification and finalisation of shutdown job list.
 Assessment of manpower requirement of various skills.
 Arrangement of all materials, tools and tackles.
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 Finalisation of contracts.
 Preparation of PERT net work for shutdown.
During turnaround vigorous efforts is made to execute the jobs as per plan
and progress is monitored through PERT net work, resources are deployed and
redeployed for corrective actions to arrest slippages and to remove constraints ‘S’
curve monitoring techniques are used for mid-course corrections.
Post Turnaround analysis
As soon as possible (within four weeks) a post turnaround meeting is convened
by chief maintenance manager, which is attended by concerned heads of
departments/functional heads of production, technical services, inspection, process
to discuss shutdown reports and inspection reports for corrective actions in next
turnaround.
Preventive maintenance
This relates to maintenance actions on rotary equipment that can be carried
out before failure occurs. Preventive maintenance programme in industry is based
on manufactures recommendations, past behaviour pattern and experience gained
on reliability of the equipment.
Generally the preventive maintenance programmes are based on the following
schedules :
Schedule A – Routine check – After 2000 Hrs of run.
Schedule C – Capital Repair – After 2000 hrs of run.
Yearly slate of preventive maintenance programme is made for all rotary
equipment and executed through weekly plans. Schedule C in case of pumps,
turbines centrifugal compressors are dove-tailed with predictive maintenance
observation.
Predictive maintenance
Vibration and noise have been accepted as effective measurement of
machinery condition. Our predictive maintenance is based on on-stream condition
monitoring through vibration and noise data for corrective actions before
breakdown occurs. This programme is already implemented in all the areas.
Communications
Production maintenance Interface
At industrial operation and maintenance. Interaction takes place at the
various forum:
General
 Daily core group meeting area wise.
 Daily review meeting of all the maintenance.
 Daily meeting of core group members by SMNM-II
 Weekly maintenance. Planning review by SMNM-II
 Weekly CMNM/CPNM’s Co-ordination meeting
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Maintenance – Materials interface

At G.R. Maintenance and materials interaction takes place at various stages.
New spares
After the installation of any new equipment in the refinery, a comprehensive
list of spares is being finalised. Subsequently spares are codified if required and
material master statement is being prepared and sent to MT Deptt. For further
action.
Incoming materials
Materials are being inspected and accepted at GR stores and also in some
cases it is being inspected at supplier’s works.
Shortage of materials
In case of stock out, of inventory control item, a statement is being sent to
materials department for immediate action. This is being sent by respective zonal
incharge.
Shutdown materials
A comprehensive list of materials required for any unit shutdown is being
prepared by maintenance Planning. The same list is reviewed periodically for follow
up purpose.
A materials follow up system using personal computer has been developed for
monitoring of materials required for forthcoming unit shutdowns.
A.F. Items
To monitor the procurement of A.F. items, material follow system using
personal computer has been developed.
Overall review
During weekly CMNM/CPNM’s Co-ordination meeting non-available material
cases are being reviewed.
MIS (Maintenance information sheet) system
Various reports/returns are prepared for maintenance planning/scheduling
and, for performance monitoring. Some of the important ones are given below:
 Daily maintenance information sheet generated by planning cell for
monitoring breakdowns by CMNM.


Weekly equipment breakdown status report telex/TPM for Headquarters.
Job proposal card generated by zones for zones for weekly scheduling at
planning cell.
 Weekly plant maintenance schedule prepared by planning for execution
by zones and for monitoring progress. For vibration monitoring etc.
return from zones to planning for monitoring abnormal conditions.
 Daily maintenance information return for vehicles, Fork lifts and locos.
 Monthly breakdown report.
 Monthly overtime reports.
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These reports and returns are aimed at monitoring abnormalities, work

progress with a view to taking corrective measures.
Turnaround maintenance
 Pre turnaround phase, where certain definite activities are to be carried
out like.
 Compilation of job lists.
 Pre shutdown meeting to finalise job lists.
 Issue of minutes of pre-shutdown meeting.
 Preparation of pre-shutdown action plan.
 Preparation of pert net work.
 Preparation of schedule programme.
 Review of manpower requirement.
 Follow-up engg. Drawings, materials process scheme.
 Identification of jobs to be given to contractor.
 Ling up of out side agencies for various jobs.
During Turnaround
 Preparation of daily execution progress sheets
 Daily review of progress by CMNM along with function heads.
 Follow-up of jobs, keeping close eye on critical jobs.
 Rescheduling of jobs if required.
Post turn-around
 Post shutdown meeting and issue of minutes.
 Procurement of material required for next shutdown.
 Preparation of post shutdown report.
Maintenance Information System (MIS)
 Daily maintenance information
 Weekly equipment break-down report
 Weekly review of work order, preventive and predictive maintenance
effectives.
 Daily maintenance information of vehicles forklifts and locos.
 Monthly preventive, predicative and work order planning effectiveness.
 Failure analysis report.
 Monthly overtime report.
 Availability of critical equipment.
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SHUT DOWN MAINTENANCE

SHUT DOWN PLANNING AND EXECUTION
1. Material Procurement
2. Pre shut down activities
3. Shutdown activity
4. Post shut Down activity
MATERIAL PROCUREMENT
1. Indenting on the basis of inspection recommended
2. Technical recommendations of the offer received
3. Material coordination meeting
4. Inspection Committee material list
5. Final material acceptance at store
PRE SHUT DOWN ACTIVITIES
 Pre shutdown meeting for unit turnaround job finalisation.
 Pre-shutdown review meetings for follow up actions.
1. Shut down coordinator is to be nominated.
2. Discipline wise shutdown jobs lists to be prepared, Include approved jobs
of suggestion scheme, epm recommendation , safety audit
recommendation ,process modifications.
3. Jobs lists of production Inpection electrical civil Inspection to be compiled
by p&c and m/m.
4. Pre fabrication jobs to be identified & to be informed to p&c in advance.
5. Shut down planning meeting and discussion to be held with produ/maint
/Insp.etc to finalise handling over schedule.
6. Circuit wise flushing schemes along with blinds/w.o and activites involved
to be handledover to p&c.
7. Modification jobs drawings along with bills of materials to be given to p&c.
8. Detailed engineering drawings of modification where required to be
prepared by engineering services.
9.
Bar charts to be prepared for shutdown, handling over equipments,
engineering days, taking over and start up.
10. All safety appliances to be kept ready.
11. All flusing schemes and modification jobs, not jobs should be explained to
produce , mach, int, persons.
12. Separate lists of steam leaks, hydrocarbon leaks from flange joints, valve
glands to be prepared.
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13. Work requests are to be prepared as per the sequence of jobs to be handed
over.
14. Hot job permits, vessel entry permits are to be prepared indicating the
precautions to be taken.
15. Give requirement of sand bags, asbestos cloth to cover drains OWS
funnels for executing hot jobs.
16. Address small gathering of contract labourers to be employed in
shutdown jobs regarding safety procedures, precautions, hazards before
commencement of shutdown.
17. Identify the preshutdown jobs and complete them
18. All modification and replacement jobs must have engineering drawings
19. Shutdown engineer prepares and displays PERT network identifying all
major jobs center.
20. OWS- Oily water sewage
EXECUTION
 Morning progress review meeting and co-ordination meeting in after noon
during shutdown
Shutdown (S/D) Procedure
1. Inform all concerned before starting of a/d supplier of utilities, supplier of
feed, products receiving section, processing section, fire and safety section,
maintenance etc.
2. Reduce through put. Effect of(S/D) to be gradual to shift the loads.
3. Reduce the temperature.
4. Stop production.
5. Cutout the feed and put the unit on hot circulation.
6. Pump out Unit Holdup to minimum and dilute.
7. Depressurize the unit of fuel gas system / flare
8. Bring down the temperature and pump out the unit holdup to minimum
and drain equipments to main drain
9. Annamalai University
Steam out furnace coils
10. Put off burners ,purge fire box, blind fuel gas lines.
11. Blind battery limits
12. Prepare furnace for passivation, Decoking.
13. Steam out columns for positive isolations, hot water wash, for
maintenance jobs, non entry etc.
14. Handover equipments a per schedule after steaming , blinding, water
washing.
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15. Issue work permit, Fire permit, Man entry permits.

16. Keep the record of work permit issued, jobs completed, blinds inserted,
blinds removed
17. Keep record of inspection recommendations , issue work permit for
execution.
18. Ensure tag jobs, steam leaks are attended
19. Keep open ends blended when safety valves are removed
POST SHUT DOWN ACTIVITIES
1. Preparing post S/D report
2. Getting inspection recommendations
3. Discussion on highlights in post S/D meeting
4. Sharing of experience and constraints
5. Fixing the responsibilities on post S/D points Followup
Conclusion
The foregoing discussions are intended to give a clear picture of maintenance
functions and organisational set-up required to discharge these functions.
In the context of any industry smooth, safe and profitable plant operations
depend to a large measure, an efficient and timely quality maintenance of
equipment and facilities.
MACHINE GUARDING
Basic requirements of guards
Prevent all access to the danger zone during operation.
Offer maximum protection to the operator.
No discomfort or inconvenience to the operator.
No interference with production or during operation.
Operate automatically or with minimum effort.
Be suitable for the job and machine and built in construction.
Provide for oiling, inspection, minor repair and adjustment.
Require minimum maintenance.
Made or good material to resist normal wear and tear.
Should be fire and corrosion resistant.
No creation of new hazard (by sharp corners, rough edge).
No weakening the structure of machine and low cost.
Benefits of good guarding system:
1. Due to guarding of machines, once the fear has been removed, the
operator can concentrate on the work and often permit operation at higher
speed, the production will automatically be more with better products.
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2. Whenever the moving parts are exposed objects may fall and get caught
into them and damage the machine result in expensive shut downs. A
good guarding system avoids this.
3. A well designed and carefully maintained guards assure a good relation
between worker and management since he feels that the management is
really interested on his welfare by preventing the accident.
4. A good guarding programme increase the morale of the employees.
5. A reason commonly given that guarding interferes with production is
erroneous since after getting familiar with that, the production rate picks
up though there may be a slight reduction at the initial stage.
6. Though the initial investment seems to be high it will became a profitable
investment after sometime. Therefore, the installation of guard is a
positive permanent gain.
Types of Guards
The different types of guars are.
1. Fixed guard
2. Interlock guard
3. Automatic guard
4. Trip guard
5. Election eye
6. Positional Control guard
7. Distance guard
8. Fencing
1. Fixed guard
The fixed guard is considered to be the best and should be used common. The
fixed guard at all times prevents access to the dangerous zone of the machine.
This provides for the permanent exclusion of the operators hands from the
tools and there by ensures safe operation. This can be used when there is no
necessity to change the job quite often. They must be built sturdy, fixed in position
properly and must prevent access to dangerous parts. Since they are stationary
without any moving parts, there is very little maintenance.
The points to be borne in mind in designing such a guard are:
a) Sound in construction
b) Should be securely and firmly fixed in position.
c) Must be prevent access to dangerous part.
d) The guard should be so shaped that the top portion of it is not used
for storing materials or tools.
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e) The guard should only face the dangerous parts and not the entire
machinery.
Advantages of fixed guards are:
i) They are stationary
ii) There are no moving parts
iii) Very little maintenance is required.
iv) At all times it prevents access to the dangerous parts of the machine.
Applications
1. Power press
2. Sheet straightening or flattering machine
3. Milling machine
4. Speed reducers
5. Guilloting cutters
2. Inter-lock guard
Where a fixed guard cannot be used, an interlocking guard should be fitted
into machine as the first alternative. This kind of guards are useful in power
presses where in the guard is interlocked with the power drive of the machinery.
Interlocking guards may be mechanical, electrical, pneumatic or a combined type.
The purpose of this guard is to ensure that the control that sets the machine
in motion is operated only after the guard is moved into the position so that the
operator’s hand does not reach the point of operation or the point of danger. When
the guard is open, permitting, access to dangerous parts the starting mechanism, is
locked to prevent accidental starting and a locking pin or other basic mechanism
from operating. When the machine is in motion, the guard cannot be opened. It can
be opened only when the machine has come to rest or has reached a fixed position
on its travel.
To be effective an interlocking guard must satisfy requirements.
1. It must guard the dangerous parts before the machine can be operated.
2. It must stay closed until the dangerous part is at least rest.
3. It must prevent operation of the machine if the interlocking device fails.
Application
Power Press.
3. Automatic Guard
This works on the principle of mechanical removal of the operator of his hand
away from the dangerous parts of the machinery. If when the machine is working
and the operator had not removed his hand from the dangerous position, the guard
will push or pull his hand away to safe position. This is useful where the machinery
has very long and slow strokes.
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There are two types.

1. Sweep away device
2. Pull away device.
An automatic guard functions independently of the operator and its action is
repeated as long as the machine is in motion. It ensures that the operator’s hands,
arms, and body have been removed from the danger zone, tripping or functioning of
machine can occur.
Applications
Power Press.
4. Trip Guard
This is a device by which the power is cut off whenever the guard is disturbed
from its usual position. The usual position of the guard should be adjusted, when
the operator’s hand is nearing the dangerous part or position of the machinery, his
hand will disturb the guard from its normal position.
In this case, the guard must be sensitive, i.o., must be of a quick-acting nature
without imposing resistance to the operator’s hand. This sensitive character
disconnect the power supply quickly. This is easily adopted in individual cases.
5. Electron eye
A photocell arrangement is provided in front of the danger zone, which emits
the electron beams. When the bands of the operator moves in or across near the
danger zone, the beam of light is intercepted which in turn stops the machine by
sswitching of main power supply. This in turn stops the operation or movement of
the machine completely.
6. Positional Control Guard (2-hand control)
Two-handed controls are those which work on a principle of providing multiple
controls such as twin push buttons or levers. This enables both hands of the
operator to get engaged and thus kept away from the dangerous operation zone.
7. Distance Guard
In this a bar or bars (sometimes tubular structures) are so placed at different
levels to prevent the fingers of the operators reaching the nip points. The distance
or gap between the danger point and the guard has to be varied according to the
dimensions of the operator.
8. Fencing
Areas which have potential fire hazards and also other hazardous areas should
be fenced properly all around and a warning sign may be displayed.
ACCIDENTS DURING MAINTENANCE
1. No work should be carried out on live electrical equipment/circuit to avoid
electrical shock.
2. If live line maintenance is essential, it should be done by trained team
with special tools.
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3. Injury during transport and handling of equipment and spares must be

avoided.
4. Safety facilities like rubber shoes, hard hats , rubber gloves, insulated
tools, blanket, floor mats must be used.
5. Switches circuit breakers and isolators must be locked open and safety
key must be kept with supervisor.
6. Effective work permit system and safety tag system must be enforced
during maintenance.
7. Grounding devices must be switched on all incomers, outgoers and
intermediate point of work zone to avoid accidents of maintenance
personal.
8. No accident should occur due to test current or test voltage.
9. Special care must be taken during temperature rise test and drying out to
ensure temperature rise within safe limit
Precautions in the maintenance work
Many fatal accidents have occurred through maintenance men being struck by
moving cranes. Men working in noisy shop can’t be expected to hear an
approaching crane and the driver’s attention is often concentrated on the load he is
carrying. Therefore effective measures have to be taken to prevent the crane from
approaching the area where men are working.
Maintenance work sometimes has to be done in confined spaces such as
chambers, tanks, vats, flues etc., where there is a risk of workmen being confronted
by fumes or by lack of oxygen for respiration. Where such conditions are liable to
be present then the following precautions should be taken: (i) Adequate means of
moving out through bigger manholes, (ii) Provision of breathing apparatus for
persons entering unsafe spaces with a safety belt and line held by a person keeping
watch outside (iii), Deposits likely to give off fume should be removed if space has
been blocked off from the source of fume, (iv) No work in the furnace of flues be
allowed until the space is sufficiently cool to work safely.
Another frequent source of accidents is explosion during hot repairs of the fuel
tanks. Therefore, no welding should be allowed on tanks that have carried
inflammable liquid or gas until all substance and fumes are removed to make it
non-explosive.
The employer must provide suitable goggles or screens to workers employed on
following processes.
a) Dry grinding of metal by hand or a revolving wheel or disc.
b) Dry turning of cast-iron or non-ferrous metal.
c) Welding or cutting of metals by electric, oxy-acetylene or similar processes.
Use of hand tools in turning, fettling of casting, cuttings of cold rivets on
boilers or other plant, breaking of slag, concrete or stone.
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WORK PERMIT SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
This lesson describes about work permit system and significance of safety
documentation
OBJECTIVE
 This lesson is aimed to explain about work permit system and types of
work that requires permit. It also explains about importance of safety
documentation system.
WORK PERMIT SYSTEM
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This is also known as Safety Permit system which enables to perform jobs of
maintenance in the factory premises in an efficient and safe manner after obtaining
authoritative instructions in writing. Safe work practices should provide for
safe conduct of operating, maintenance and modification activities. Work Permit
System is an element of safe work practices.
The human element of the system is one of the major factors either in causing
or preventing a major incident. Safe job performance by operators, maintenance
personnel and contractors has a tremendous positive impact on safety.
The objectives of the Work Permit System are to exercise control over the
maintenance activities by assigning responsibilities, ensuring communication
between interested functions and requiring that proper consideration be given to
the job, its hazards and the precautions required. It ensures that the work is
properly defined, authorised, operating personnel are aware what is going on,
precautions to be taken are specified and the persons executing the job understand
the nature and extent of hazards involved.
5.2 HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION ( CHEMICAL PLANTS IS 5571)
ZONE 0
Explosive gas is always present. Most dangerous, LPG, Reactors, Storage etc.
No electrical equipments are permitted. The equipment may be permitted only if it
is intrically safe and it does not produce any spark.
ZONE 1
Area in which explosive gas is present during normal operation of the plant.
Flame proof equipments may be located in which outside gas and spark can not
enter from outside.
ZONE 2
Area in which explosive atmosphere normally does not occur during normal
operation or may occur in case of abnormal operation. These areas are flame proof
and air conditioned. High safety and non sparking equipments and oil immersed
starters are housed in this area.
For performing any work in the plant/facility by any person other than the
operating personnel of that area, a duly authorised written permit should be
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obtained by the person/agency executing the work before commencement of the

work. Separate permit should be obtained for each activity.
TYPES OF WORK REQUIRES PERMIT
Work Permit System is required for the following jobs.
1. Work on pipe line opening involving hazardous chemicals.
2. Work involving entry into tank, vessels, reaction vessels, confined
spaces.
3. Work involving hot jobs like welding, gas cutting, lighting, burning etc,
required to be alone in hazardous areas of the plant.
4. When it is required to work near or adjacent to tanks / vessels
containing inflammable material.
5. Work involving electrical hazards from starting up of equipments.
6. When work is done by the contractor in the plant.
7. When work is done on / in the roof of the building.
8. Work involving excavation and digging jobs in factory premises.
Procedure for obtaining permit
1. A written request clearly detailing work to be done should be sent to
the concerned department.
2. Safety permit is issued in the prescribed form. The permit is to be
filled in detail by the issuing authority.
3. The shift-in-charge will normally initiate the permit based on written
requisition from the concerned department.
4. Permit should not be issued in the contractor’s name. It is issued
only in the name of the company’s supervisor who is supervising the
job.
5. Safety department will authorize the permit in case of vessel entry
and hot jobs involving
a) Explosive and hazardous gases
b) Hazardous chemicals
c) Fuel oil storages and pipeline
d) Cooling towers, chimneys and tall structures.
Initial inert gas testing etc will be carried by the process/ safety department
supervision. The clearance is given after counter checking the same independently.
Vessel entry permit will be signed by Manager and officer of Safety department.
1. The responsibility of getting the Safety Permit signed lies with the
Department initiating the request for safety permit.
2. Safety department will countercheck all the safety precautions to complete
the proposed job with the assistant of Department staff.
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3. The Safety Permit in triplicate will be in different colours to enable to

identify who is the permitted, one copy with the safety department and one
copy with the issuing department. White, Yellow and Red colours are
usually used.
Permit issuing authority should satisfy himself that permit conditions are met
before issuing permit. It is also to be ensured that permit conditions are maintained
in course of execution of the job. After completion of the job, permits should be
returned to the originating department. Records are to be maintained for a month.
Permits should be in printed forms in triplicate, serially numbered and
different colour code may be adopted for different types of permits. One should
collect them for their use in the plant. White copy will be retained by the issuing
department. Yellow copy will be issued to concerned department and returned to
safety department.
Red copy will be issued after completion of job signed by the concerned
department and returned to the issued department.
TABLE 5.1 Example of Permit to Work (PRW)
OFFICE OF XX ORGANISATION, XXX PLANT XXX (PLACE)

PTW NO.________________Date________________Key No.__________________
PERMIT TO WORK
Permission is hereby given to:_____________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________________________________
Organisation:__________________________________________________________
For Working On:
Plant : _______________________________________________________________
Zone: ________________________________________________________________
Equipment : ___________________________________________________________
Purpose: _____________________________________________________________
On Date: ___________________From Time_____________________________Hrs
Onwards Till: Date _____________________________________________________
The equipment has been isolated, made dead earthed and can be worked upon
safely.
Safety Key No. ______________________________is being issued to above person.
Above persons should return the safety key and this work permit after completion of
work.
Signature
(Authorising Party)
CC = Manager (Operation) ___________________Dt.________________________________
Acknowledgment: Name/Sign_________________Dt.________________________________
Received PTW No. Organisation ________________________________________________
5.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF SAFETY DOCUMENTATION AND WORK PERMIT SYSTEMS

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5.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF SAFETY DOCUMENTATION AND WORK PERMIT SYSTEMS

Industrial plants and substation has several kinds of risks, several high risk
zones and several high risk activities. Persons working in the plant during
construction/operation and maintenance stages are exposed to risks.
Basic risks in industrial plant include:
 Risks of to Electrical shock, flashovers.
 Risks of fires in electrical equipment due to short circuits, overloads,
temperature rise.
 Risks of fires and explosions in flammable solid/liquid/gaseous materials.
 Risks of accidents due to falling objects/parts, falling of persons, collapse
of construction work.
 Risks due to accidents with operating mechanisms, objects in motion,
vehicles in motion, cranes etc.
Accidents are caused by Lapse of Management in formulating and implementing
safety procedures and by negligence/ignorance of persons.
Safety is ensured by following certain well defined policies and methods during
the construction/operation and maintenance stages. Certain built in safety systems
are incorporated with the plant equipment. These safety systems must be in alert
state to ensure prompt and reliable operation when called for. The object of Safety
Documentation Systems is to ensure that written instructions and guidelines are
available and are followed. Safety Documentation system is an essential part of
Safety Management system. By following basic safety rules, procedures and
precautions, safety is ensured. These rules, procedures and precautions are
documented and the documents are issued by the Plant Manager/Safety Manager
with strict instructions for follow up at appropriate stage (Construction, Operation,
Maintenance).
The Safety Rules and regulations by Electrical Inspectorate, Safety Authorities
etc. are included in the safety documentation system.
Safety documentation system is in three parts as shown in FIG 5.1
Safety Documentation System
Safety Plant Equipment

Documents Documents Docuemnts
FIG, 5.1 SAFETY DOCUMENTATION SYSTEM

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Electricity travels at the speed of light from generating end to various points
along the conducting path. Persons engaged in electrical work (repair, erection,
testing, commissioning, maintenance) should be safe-guarded from electric shocks
caused by high voltage circuits. Persons switching-on the high voltage circuit may
be far away from the persons engaged in electrical work. By switching in one
circuit, electricity travels along several paths and several equipments are energized
by high voltage.
Fire are caused by loose connections, overloads, sparks, short-circuits,
negligence. Several flammable solid, liquid, gaseous media are used in Electric
Power Plants and Equipment resulting in high risks.
Work Permit Systems are adopted in electrical plants, electrical transmission/
distribution/utilization systems to ensure that the plant/equipment/circuit is
switched off and is dead earthed before commencing the work.
The work permit is withdrawn and cancelled after the completion of work. The
circuit breaker is switched on and supply restored only after cancellation of the
work permit. The list of safety documents in industrial works are given in Table 5.3
TABLE 5.4 LIST OF SAFETY DOCUMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL WORKS
Title and Description Issue By /When ? To whok

1. Safety clearance Notice Site Manager Before Contractors
(SCN) before energizing energizing a plant/circuit
2. Permit To Work (PTW) Site Manager Before Persons who will
carrying out electrical work/Supervisor
work:
Repair/Maintenance
3. Limited Work Permit Site Manager/ Station Persons who will
(LWP) work Incharge before work/supervisor
limited test/repair
4. Permission For Test Site Manager/Station Testing Engineer
(PFT) Incharge before test
5. Handing Over Manager Civil Manager Manager Erection

Document (HOD)
Erection Manager Testing
Site Incharge
Manager Testing
Manager Commissioning
Owner’s Plant Manager
6. Safety Documents for Manager Safety or Site All Concerned
Site Work Manager
Special Work Permit and Safely Procedures are issued for “Live Line Maintenance
Work”.
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5.3 CLEARANCE PROCEDURES FOR SAFETY

INTRODUCTION
This lesson gives about various clearance procedures to be followed for safety
of the plant and working personal. This also explains about permit to work system
OBJECTIVE
 This lesson gives the latest information about clearance procedures to be
followed for work permit system and also explains about permission to
test.
Clearance procedure is used for electrical and mechanical processes to assure
their safety during operation and maintenance.
The clearance procedure in general is intended to meet the following principle
requirements in relation to potentially dangerous jobs:
a) Protection of men at work.
b) Protection of equipment.
c) Designation of abnormal conditions.
The above requirements can be achieved by providing safe working conditions,
essential information and guidance to the men at work, checking arrangements to
ensure reliability of the highest order, etc. through the use of the following:
a) Permit- to -work;
b) Sanction-for test;
c) Station guarantee;
d) Self-protection tag; and
e) Danger notices;
A responsible person needs to be designated for controlling the issue and
cancellation of clearances under various conditions and safe and expeditions
execution of works there under.
The authorised person may further authorise assistants for issuing and
cancelling clearances (e.g., operator for (i)making and cancelling of permits-to-work,
sanction-for-test, plant guarantee ; (ii) authorizing work under self protection tag
and Danger notice subject to such conditions as may be necessary to ensure
reliability and security of the highest order.
When work is to be done on any electric apparatus which can be made live
from more than one stations or sections thereof, clearances should be obtained
from the senior authorised Persons of each of the stations/section involved before
commencing work. Before issuing clearance each of the operators concerned should
check up with his counterparts in other stations/sections concerned that all
precautions have been taken.
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When more than one clearance are to be issued to one particular person, or
more than one clearance covering any electrical apparatus, or mechanical
equipment are to be issued, the Senior authorised Person shall ensure that.
 The work to be carried out under subsequent clearance does not in any
way endanger the holder of the clearance already issued;
 two sanctions for-tests or a permit-to-work and sanction –for-test are not
issued on the same electrical apparatus or mechanical equipment at the
same time;
 The clearances are give suitable identification marks and include special
instructions, if any, in the interests of safety.
 For switching operations on electrical apparatus the following conditions
should be observed:
 Switches used in isolating apparatus for giving clearance should have
contacts that are visible or the positions of which can be positively
determined by inspection. All phases of such switches, irrespective of the
type should be inspected to make sure that they are all open.
 If electrically operated or remote mechanically operated switches are used,
they should be locked or blocked open or a portion of the mechanism
should be removed to prevent accidental closure.
 Switching operations in unattended stations and line sectionalising points
for purposes of clearance should be done by persons specifically
authorised for this purpose.
 Particulars of all switching operations and transactions connected
therewith should be recorded in the station log or the registers
maintained for this purpose.
For isolation of mechanical equipment such as prime-movers, steam, air, gas
and oil pipes, penstocks, boilers and receivers for containing gases and liquids the
operations should include closing suitable valves, gates, stop logs or such other
protective devices as may be necessary in the interests of safety.
Persons issuing clearances should ensure that:
a) Clearance is issued only for the actual work on electrical apparatus of
mechanical equipment;
b) Annamalai University
Clearance is issued in the name of the person under whose supervision
the work is intended to be carried out. In case the nature ot the work
requires personal supervision of the Senior authorized Person, he should
issue the clearance to himself;
c) Before issuing a clearance, the electrical apparatus or mechanical
equipment, as the case may be is made entirely safe for working on and
Danger notices attached at appropriate places and in a conspicuous
manner.
d) The person taking clearance understands the particulars of the work to be
done, particulars of the operations carried out(including those of earthing
198
arrangements) to make the working safe and the extent of the area safe for
working;
e) The electrical apparatus or mechanical equipment covered by a clearance
remains safe for working until the clearance has been duly surrendered
and cancelled;
f) Particulars of clearance (e.g., type, serial No., time of issue and
cancellation are recorded in a register to be kept for this purpose.
g) Before going off duty they formally handover records relating to clearance
issued by them, indicating clearly the clearances remaining
unsurrendered. The Senior authorised Person and the operator taking over
should correspondingly acknowledge the records and the information as
above and make sure that they have a clear understanding of the situation
in each case.
Person taking clearances should ensure that;
a) All electrical apparatus are treated as alive by the persons under his
charge until a specific clearance has been issued;
b) The area covered by the clearance is made safe for working and proper
Danger notices have been placed on switches and/or the controlling points
concerned.
c) Where a possibility of hazards exists in the vicinity of the work site, the
boundaries of the area safe for working are clearly marked and persons
other than the members of the working party or those specifically
authorised by the senior authorised person are not allowed to enter
hazardous position of work site.
d) All persons under his control who are to work on the electrical apparatus
or mechanical equipment covered by the clearance understand the extent
of the area safe for working.
e) In cases where the work involves hazards in the vicinity of the work site,
one of the members of his party is appointed as a safety man and it shall
be his duty to maintain a continuous watch over the workmen and to
issue warnings of any unsafe conditions which he observes.
f) Before starting work the person in charge of the working party should
check, in the presence of another person, by means of approved devices or
visual inspection whether the line or equipment concerned is de-energised
and effectively earthed.
g) The safety measures, as above, continue to be in force until the work is
completed or suspended (e.g., earthing arrangements shall not be
removed).
h) On completion of the work the (i) material, tools, etc. and (ii) persons
under this control are immediately removed and made clear of the
equipment under clearance.
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i) The clearance is surrendered for cancellation to the issuing officer

immediately after the above action is completed.
j) Where any changes which may affect the operation of the equipment or
the line has been made, this should be clearly brought to the notice of the
officer issuing the clearance while surrendering the clearance.
k) If due to any circumstances the clearance cannot be surrendered by its
holder within the period originally estimated, the fact should be
immediately brought to the notice of the officer issuing the clearance.
l) Where possible the person returning the clearance should initial the log
entry.
When it is necessary to transfer a clearance from one authorised person to
another authorised person, the original clearance should be duly surrendered and
cancelled and a new clearance given to the authorised person taking over charge of
the work.
The Senior Authorised Person may, in the event of unforeseen circumstances,
require the Authorised Person to surrender the clearance. If the equipment is
unsafe for use, or the work has so advanced that the equipment cannot be made
available for service immediately, the Authorised Person should apprise him of the
position for the reconsideration of the order.
5.4 REQUEST FOR CLEARANCE
Before undertaking any construction, repair, testing or maintenance jobs,
the person in charge of the work should intimate the Senior authorised Person the
particulars of the work, time during which the work is intended to be carried out,
precautions, if any, required to be taken (e.g., isolation of circuits to be deadened or
earthing to be applied, additional apparatus to be covered for working space,
suggestions for safeguards from neighbouring live apparatus) and request for
appropriate clearance as follows.
a) In the case of jobs to be undertaken under a permit-to-work or sanction
for-test or station guarantee, the request should be made in writing by an
authorised person.
b) In the case of jobs to be undertaken under ‘Danger Notice’ or ‘Self-
protection Tag’, when advance intimation is not practicable, the request
may be made verbally by the person in charge of the work.
The Senior authorised Person should satisfy him-self regarding correctness
and completeness of the information furnished by the applicant and, if necessary,
should obtain by enquiry or, when feasible and desirable, by visits of inspection all
the information which is necessary to enable to him to determine whether or not
the clearance can be issued in conformity with rules, requirements of service, safety
etc.
In case of approval of the details given in the request for clearances, the Senior
authorised Person shall arrange to;
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a) provide alternative feeds to consumers and others wherever practicable;

b) Notify the persons whose services will be interfered with; and
c) Issue the requisite clearance with such instructions as may be necessary
and instruct the operator and/or any other persons that may be
concerned in the operations required to be carried out.
In case an application for clearance is not approved, the Senior authorised
Person should record and order stating reasons thereof and return the same to the
applicant.
In case of refusal or verbal and/or telephonic requests for clearance,
particulars of the requests and the reasons for refusal should be recorded in the
station log or the register maintained for this purpose and the same read out to the
applicant to confirm that the applicant has understood it.
In case the applicant is not able to do the work according to the original
application for clearance or he wishes to cancel the same, he should inform the
senior authorised Person immediately, who in turn, should record a suitable order
and inform the persons concerned.
All applications for clearance should be dealt with promptly and decision
communicated to the applicant and any other persons that may be concerned
immediately.
Records of the requests for clearance should be maintained as follows:
a) Applications rejected – with the authorised Persons concerned.
b) Applications approved – with the Senior authorised Person concerned.
5.5 PERMIT-TO-WORK
Permit-to-work is a means to make known to a person undertaking
construction, repair or maintenance job exactly what electrical apparatus or
mechanical equipment have been made safe to work on, description of the job,
special precautions, in any, for safety to workmen on the job, etc. It ensures safe
working conditions until it is surrendered.
No Construction, repair or maintenance work on or in the proximity of HT or
EHT apparatus or mechanical equipment where technical knowledge or experience
is retired to avoid danger, should be carried out unless a permit-to-work on the
prescribed forms has been issued by the senior authorised Person to the authorised
Person.
In case where (i) the work is to be carried on major units of plant and
equipment, or (ii) the work requires extraordinary care in supervision of the work,
the permit should be issued with the approval of the Station Superintendent.
The person issuing a permit-to-work should ensure that the apparatus/
equipment is made perfectly safe to work on as follows:
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a) In the case of electrical apparatus the isolation is complete, the metal

parts adequately earthed and caution notices attached at appropriate
places.
b) In the case of mechanical equipment, the isolation is complete and
condition rendered safe (e.g., by opening proper valves, gates etc., to
reduce the equipment to atmospheric pressure, removal of poisonous,
suffocating or explosive gases; application of brakes and blocks; allowing
temperatures to come down; as the case may be), and caution notices
applied at appropriate places.
c) Maintenance of above conditions until the permit is surrendered and
cancelled.
Permits should be prepared in duplicate. The original copy of the permit
should be handed over to the person in-charge of the work (also known as permit
holder) and the carbon copy should be retained by or forwarded to the operator or
any other person in-charge of operations. Permit Books should be treated as
important records. The sheet and the books themselves should be serially
numbered. No page should be detached or used for any but bonofide work.. If any
paper is inadvertently detached, a dated and initialled statement should be there
and then recorded in the book by the person concerned.
The permit holder is responsible for identifying the isolated and de-energised
circuits in the case of work on multicircuit lines or on single circuit lines situated
close together.
After surrender of the permit to the person issuing the permit, the original
copy, duly completed, should be forwarded by him to the Station Superintendent
for information and record and the carbon copy should be retained in the records of
the Senior authorised Person.
Sanction-for-test: Sanction-for-test is means to make known to a person
under taking tests on electrical apparatus or mechanical equipment exactly what
apparatus is to be tested and the conditions under which the testing is to be
carried out. It guarantees safe working conditions until it is surrendered and
cancelled.
No tests on High or Extra High Voltage apparatus or any electrical apparatus
or mechanical equipment where technical knowledge is required to avoid danger
shall be carried out unless a sanction-for-test on the prescribed form has been
issued by a Senior authorised Person to an authorised Person.
Sanction-for-test may include provisions for carrying out certain works. Wild
under no circumstances can any of the apparatus covered by a permit-to-work be
made alive till the permit is surrendered, the apparatus isolated and earthed for
testing under the terms of sanction-for-test comes under the temporary control of
the sanction holder. He may, without further reference to the person issuing the
sanction-for-test operate the apparatus, i.e., remove the temporary earths and
202
make it live from a testing supply either by himself or through the station operator.
Sanction holder shall be responsible for co-ordinating all such operation on the
isolated equipment and for ensuring safety during the tests.
The following limitations shall apply to the work under sanction-for-test:
(a) Two sanction-for-test or a sanction-for-test and a permit-to-work shall not
be issued simultaneously on the same electrical apparatus or mechanical
equipment.
(b) The apparatus under test or work shall not be allowed to become connected
to, or in any way involved with, other apparatus not covered under the sanction.
Self-Protection Tag: Self-protection tag is a prescribed form of notice to be
put up by the competent person working on an electrical apparatus or mechanical
equipment and on the equipment supply to which is controlled by that apparatus to
ensure that the same shall not be handled or interfered with by any other person,
while it is under the tag.
Self-protection tags shall be used only by competent persons doing the work
by themselves and under the following conditions:
a) For work on low or medium voltage equipment and station auxiliaries
of minor importance.
b) For work on equipment in unattended station.
c) For work on distribution systems fed from unattended stations.
Provided that self-protection tag shall not be used as a substitute for the
‘permit-to-work’, ‘Sanction-for-test’ or ‘Station-Guarantee’, unless in emergency
conditions requiring immediate action to effect repairs or to establish service and
when it is not possible for the employees to establish contact with the Senior
authorised Person within reasonable time.
Self-protection tag shall be utilised only be competent persons capable of
taking responsibility for the following;
a) Identification, isolation, de-energisation, etc., of all apparatus
necessary for ensuring safety on the job;
b) Application of temporary earths, as may be necessary, for ensuring
c)
safety on the job;
Execution of the job in a proper manner.
When more than one competent person working in an area require self-
protection, each person in charge of the work shall place self-protection tag on the
disconnecting device and the equipment concerned.
When the work is finished, the using the self-protection tag shall-
a) Get all men clear of the apparatus and/or the equipment concerned;
b) Remove all de-energising devices;
c) Remove the self-protection tags placed by him;
203
d) Restore normal working conditions (if there is no other self-protection tag

thereon);
e) Complete the relevant particulars in the self-protection tag and forward
the same to the senior authorised person.
The senior authorised person shall maintain a register and enter particulars of
the self protection tags utilised within his jurisdiction every day.
Danger Notice: Danger notice is notice on a prescribed from to be applied to
be electrical apparatus or mechanical equipment to indicate abnormal condition on
dead or live apparatus.
No construction, repair or maintenance work on medium or low voltage
apparatus, controlled from an attended station, shall be carried out unless the
circuit is made safe to work upon and Danger Notice applied on control switches.
A danger notice shall be applied under the instructions of the senior
authroised person or as a pre-requisite of safety of works under a permit-to-work,
sanction-for-test or station guarantee, or on the request of workmen who are
competent to carry out certain minor works under their own responsibility, to
indicate;
a) Isolation of equipment or danger or interfering therewith; and
b) That men are working near live circuit and that in event of its switches
tripping, the same shall not be reclosed without consulting the person
incharge of the working party.
Before applying a Danger Notice the operator shall ensure that:
a. Automatic opening device of the circuit breaker is in working order;
b. The automatic enclosure feature of the circuit breaker, if any, has
been made inoperative.
c. No other person has already been issued ‘Danger notice’ on the same
equipment; and
d. In case of tie lines, Danger Notices are put on both controlling ends
simultaneously.
The Danger Notice shall be removed only either by the person applying the
same or under instruction from the person responsible for its application. Before
removing Danger Notices applied for work on low and medium voltage apparatus-
a)
Person working on the apparatus tools, materials, etc., shall be made clear
of the apparatus; and
b) The temporary earths and short circuiting devices applied at the site of
work shall be removed.
c) A Danger notice may incorporate such particulars as may be necessary to
meet the requirements of an undertaking, i.e., intention of the Notice,
particulars of the apparatus, timings, and persons concerned. Where the
intention is to signify danger from live apparatus the Notice shall
incorporate word DANGER in hold letters in Hindi and the language of the
204
local area. The control room shall enter particulars of the Notices used on
the station log or on a register to be maintained for this purpose.
Limited work permit (LWP)
LWP is issued under following situations:
 When repair work is carried out on particular equipment in a particular
zone of the plant (and overall plant need not be shut-down)
 When a particular equipment/zone is to be tested, and other plant need
not be shut down.
 When maintenance is to be done on particular section of the total plant.
LWC such as table is issued by the Site Manager (Incharge) to the Responsible
Person who is permitted to do the limited work. The person signs the copy of the
LWP and returns it as the Acknowledgement of Receipt of the LWP.
LWP is returned after completion of the work and thereafter the LWP is
cancelled.
TABLE 5.2 Example of a Limited Work Permit (LWP) Format
XXX-PLANT
LWP No. _____________________ Date:______________

LIMITED WORK PERMIT
Permission is given to carry out following work in specified zone on specified date and time:
Name:
_________________________________________________________________________________
Plant: ______________________________________Zone:
______________________________________
Equipment:__________________________________________________________________________
___
___________________________________________________________________________________
___
No other equipments are covered in this permit to work
Nature of Work :
________________________________________________________________________
(Repair/ Maintenance/Testing/________________)
Date of Work: Annamalai University

__________________________________________________________________________
Tim: (From)_________________________________________Hrs.
To:_____________________________
(Confirmed) (Tentative)
Safety precautions to be
taken:______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___
______________________________________________________________________
To:________________________________(Sign)_____________Dt:____________________________
___
(Name Organisation) (Site Manager/Incharge)
CC: Manager-operation Issuing Authority
Received LWP No.________________________
Date___________
Dt:___________
Safety keys are kept with me. I take safety responsibilities
To: Site Manager (Name)
205
PERMISSION TO TEST (PTT)

Testing is generally necessary after major repair/maintenance or modification
or modification in the plant.
“Permission To Test” is issued to Testing Engineer by the Site Manager.
During the testing of the equipment/plant, the normal operations are withdrawn.
Tests are conducted in particular sequence in accordance with “Test Protocol”.
During the testing, additional precautions are necessary (similar to those during
energizing). TABLE 5.3 gives example of “Permit to Test”.
The Testing Engineer gives Acknowledgment by signing on the copy of PTT.
The PTT is cancelled after return of the PTT by Test Engineer.
TABLE 5.3 Example of a ‘Permit to Test’ Format
XXX PLANT
PTT No.:__________ Date:_______
PERMIT TO TEST
Permission is hereby given to test following:
Plant:________________________________
Zone:___________________________________
Equipment :____________________________
Name of Test:_____________________________
Following plant will be withdrawn
From normal operations for facilitating above test :
__________________________________________________________________________
Test Schedule :
Start of Test (Confirmed):___________________________________________
Planned Date of Completion :__________________________________________
Safety Precautions:___________________________________________________
To:___________________________________
(Name)/(Organisation)
(Name)/(Sign)
Site Incharge
Acknowledgment:
Received PTT No:____________________ Dt:_____________
(Name) (Organisation)
206
5.6 REVISION POINTS

Maintenance of machine and equipment – Types of maintenance – Electrical
maintenance – Turnaround maintenance – preventive maintenance – predictive
maintenance – MIS System – Shutdown procedure – Work permit system – Safety
documentation.
1. Describe about various types of maintenance and equipments.
2. What is turn around maintenance . Explain them in detail.
3. Discuss about breakdown maintenance and preventive maintenance.
Compare their merits and demerits.
4. Discuss about accidents related with maintenance and precautions to be
observed during maintenance.
5. Explain the work permit system in detail.
6. Describe the clearance procedures to be followed in work permit system.
7. Write short notes on
a) Significance of safety documentation.
b) Permit to test
c) Hazardous area classification (chemical plants IS 5571)
5.8 SUMMARY
This unit covers various types of maintenance procedures normally adopted in
industries and also gives most recent technological developments about machine
and equipment maintenance and their advantages. This also explain about work
permit system, types of job requiring work permit, clearance procedure and safety
documentation
REFERENCE
R.K. Jain, Sunil S.Rao, Industrial safety, health and environment management
systems. ,I edition, 2006, Kanna Publishers, New Delhi.
5.10 KEY WORDS
Types of Maintenance – Preventive- Break down – Turnaround. MIS system,
Types of guard – Machine guarding accident during Maintenance – work permit
system – Job requires work permit – permit to work permit to test safety documents
clearance procedures


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i

Diploma in Industrial Safety

SAFETY IN PROCESS PLANTS

DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

Units Title Page No.

III Personal Protective Equipment 89

IV Major Accident Hazards 130

V Maintenance of Machines and Equipments 176

housekeeping. Social environment can be maintained at a highest level by properly

extraordinarily hazardous or subject to fires. The effect of wind direction on storage

2. Nearness to source of power.

3. More ready adoption to special needs arising from certain types of

b) Preference for single pipe-way with minimum side branches.

Explosion propagation may be directly by pressure waves or indirectly by

Aggregation / trapping of flammable vapours

21. Completion of preliminary piping material listing including valves.

Other advantages of PS MH over conventional MH systems include the

2. When the lower explosive limit of flammable vapors is exceeded,

DILUTION VENTILATION LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

Usually lower Does not Captures Higher cost for

Requires less Cannot be used Only choice for Requires regular

Effective control for Ineffective for Can handle all

Effective control for Requires large Requires smaller

Best ventilation for Ineffective for Less energy costs

Fig. 1. Local exhaust system

Fig. 2 Canopy hoods

balance, heat balance, physical, chemical and thermodynamic properties of raw

If a small sized equipment is used for process development it is called a pilot

Because of the large amount of fundamental investigations being carried out it

 Striking against projecting, poorly stacked, or misplaced material.

Many industrial operations create dust. The control of dust is also an

5. What is meant by scale-up?

Sl. No. Type % Source

Findings of loss prevention association of India:

The minimum amount of energy needed to ignite a combustible air-vapor

Flash  Explosive Limits Autoignition Minimum

Acetaldehyde -38 4.1 60 175 0.38

Petrol -46 1.3 7.6 371 -

Passive fire protection (PFP) is an integral component of the three components

PFP in a building can be described as a group of systems within systems. An

 Enclosures (boxes or wraps made of fireproofing materials, including fire-

 Ammonium phosphate, used on class A, B, and C fires. It receives its

The foam concentrates are:

Green Triangle Garbage can and wood pile Ordinary combustibles

Red Square Gasoline can with a burning Flammable liquids

Blue Circle Electric plug with a burning Energized electrical

D Yellow Star Metal Gears and flame Combustible metals

K Black Hexagon Pan burning Cooking oils

When to use (or not use) Dry Chemical Extinguishers?

 Basic Service: All types of extinguisher require a basic inspection

 The extinguisher is not blocked by equipment, coats or other objects

If the extinguisher is damaged or needs recharging, get it replaced immediately.

2.6 FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

The components of a hydrant system are:

Hydrants must be simple and reliable to connect to and to operate. Operating

Temperature Colour of liquid

182 360 Mauve

liters/min.). In addition, a sprinkler will activate almost immediately, whereas a fire

Foaming agents - against hydrocarbon pool fires

An optical detector is a light sensor. When used as a smoke detector it

hand, you are holding an amount of material that undergoes 37,000,000,000

A BLEVE erupting from a tanker