‘Final Year project report’

‘DISTRIBUTED GENERATION AND INTEGRATION WITH

NATIONAL GRID’

GROUP MEMBERS:

Syed Faizan Ali EE-040

Syed Ibtihaj EE-057
Dareer Bin Khalid EE-061
Muhammad Ali Siddiqui EE-062
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At first, we like to thank our Almighty Allah, and the prayers of our parents that we were able
to complete our task within the prescribed time. After that, we highly appreciate the untiring
efforts of the following individuals, that their guidance shed the light in the dark.

Foremost, Miss Samiya Zafar, our internal, was just like an ‘oasis in desert’ for us. Whose
motivation, let us to continue our project, whose guidance, let us to solve all the problems we
encountered, whose appreciation, motivated us to work more. In a nutshell, without her
assistance, the project would not have been possible.

We appreciate all the efforts by Mr. Mujtaba Hasan, Engineer at K-Electric, who taught us
the things we couldn’t understand, by staying late hours in lab and guided us with all the
possible outcomes and solution.

At last, we also appreciate the assistance of the lab attendants of the project lab, while we
worked at the late hours.

ii
 Abstract

With the rapid increase in the industries the demand of power is also increasing
exponentially. Although the utility supplies are trying their efforts to overcome this demand,
but this is not enough. Besides this the consumers are generating their own energy. The
energy they can use to overcome their expenses, to relief the utility source and also to sell the
excess power to the grid. As a result of these, the idea of renewable resource is catching
everyone’s interest. The aim of our project is the integration of the distributed generation or
the renewable resources to the grid and the efficient control of the power flow between the
utility source, the distributed generation and the loads. When the renewable resource produce
the exact amount of power required by load, then total power is drawn by the renewable
source and no power is drawn from the grid. When the renewable resource is producing n
power, the total power required by load should be provided by load. When renewable source
generates power but not enough, the remaining power should by drawn from the grid and
when the renewable resource produces excess power, the excess power should be sent back to
the grid. This cannot be done by just hooking up three phases on to the power lines of the
area. The grid being a large power bank and our system in comparison to it being very small,
the power will flow from high to low and hence will damage our system. For this proper
controlling is needed to be done. The thing is that we need to control the load angle and then
power can be transferred in any direction. But controlling the load angle has a proper
mechanism. Our project revolves around the simulation/design of prototype of such system.

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Table of Contents
‘DISTRIBUTED GENERATION AND INTEGRATION WITH NATIONAL GRID’ .................................................... I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................................................................... II
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................................... IV
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................................................. VI
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1: INTRODUCTION: ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1: RENEWABLE ENERGY:................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2: WHY RENEWABLE ENERGY?.......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2: FUNCTION OF OUR PROJECT ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3: SCOPE OF PROJECT: ................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1: BENEFIT FOR COMING DECADES: ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2: BENEFIT AT CONSUMER END: ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.3.3: POLLUTION FREE WORLD: ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.4: COST: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4: PROBLEMS THAT MAY ARISE: ................................................................................................................................. 3
1.4.1: INITIAL COST ................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.4.2 INTEGRATION ISSUES: .................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2.1: Control:............................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2.2: Harmonics........................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5: POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS: ............................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5.1: INITIAL COST: ............................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5.2: HARMONICS REDUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.6: SYSTEM/SOFTWARE: .................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.6.1:IEEE 9 BUS .................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.6.2MATLAB- SIMULINK: ................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.6.2: WHY MATLAB-SIMULINK? ........................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1: WHAT IS A MICROGRID? ........................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2: SOLAR PANEL: .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.1: BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.1: DEFINITION .................................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.2: MODEL OF SOLAR PANEL ............................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3: CUK CONVERTER ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1: DEFINITION .................................................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3.2: WORKING OF CUK CONVERTER ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.4: DC TO AC INVERTER ................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.2 TYPES OF INVERTER ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.3: CONTROL OF INVERTER ................................................................................................................................................ 9
2.4.4: PULSE WIDTH MODULATION SCHEME ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.5: SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION ................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.6: PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION INVERTERS ...................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.7: AMPLITUDE MODULATION RATIO ............................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.7: FREQUENCY MODULATION RATIO .............................................................................................................................. 12
2.5: PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMER (PST).............................................................................................................. 13

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CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 THE GRID: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15
3.1.1 GENERATING SOURCES: ............................................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.2 BUSES: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
3.1.3 TRANSFORMERS: ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1.4 LOADS:........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
3.1.5 THREE PHASE TRANSMISSION LINES: ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 THE PV ARRAY: ............................................................................................................................................................ 18
3.2.1 OBSERVATION: ............................................................................................................................................................ 20
3.3 ĆUK CONVERTER: ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
3.3.1 VARYING THE DUTY CYCLE OF ĆUK CONVERTER: ....................................................................................................... 23
3.4 SIMULATION OF PV ARRAY WITH ĆUK CONVERTER: .................................................................................... 25
3.4.1: OBSERVATION: ........................................................................................................................................................... 25
3.5 THREE PHASE INVERTER: ........................................................................................................................................ 26
3.5.1 THE SPWM MODULATOR: .......................................................................................................................................... 27
3.5.2 THE SWITCHING CIRCUITRY: ....................................................................................................................................... 29
3.5.3 BAND PASS FILTER: ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.6 PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMER: ........................................................................................................................ 32
3.6.1: RATINGS: ................................................................................................................................................................... 33
3.6.2 OBSERVATION TABLE: ................................................................................................................................................. 34
3.7: INTEGRATING THE DISTRIBUTED GENERATION TO THE UTILITY GRID THROUGH PHASE
SHIFTING TRANSFORMER .............................................................................................................................................. 34
3.7.1: OBSERVATION: ........................................................................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................................................................................... 37
4.1: CONCLUSION: .............................................................................................................................................................. 37
4.1.1 EFFECT ON THE SOCIETY: ............................................................................................................................................. 37
4.1.2 MODULE 1: .................................................................................................................................................................. 37
4.1.3 MODULE 2: .................................................................................................................................................................. 37
4.1.4 MODULE 3: .................................................................................................................................................................. 37
4.2 SUGGESTIONS: ............................................................................................................................................................. 38
4.2.1 TIME DELAY LOGIC: ..................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.2 EXTENDED POWER: ...................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.3 FUTURE WORK:............................................................................................................................................................ 38
4.3.1 DISPLAY OF REAL TIME VALUES: .................................................................................................................................. 38
4.3.2 CLOSE LOOP SYSTEM: .................................................................................................................................................. 38
4.3.3 USE OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT): ................................................................................................... 39
4.3.4 POWER FACTOR CONTROL: ........................................................................................................................................... 39
4.3.4 HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM (HES): ................................................................................................................................. 39
4.3.5 INTEGRATING SYSTEM WITH A COMPUTER: ................................................................................................................... 39
APPENDIX A ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................................... 42

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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Figure 1.2: Block Diagram of our Project............................................................................................... 2
Figure 1.3: Comparative Cost Analysis of different DG ........................................................................ 3
Figure 1.4: PV Module Price per Watt ................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2.1: Microgrid .............................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2.2: Block Parameter of PV Array............................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.3: Circuit of CUK converter ..................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.1: SPWM Model Circuit ......................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.2: Generation of SPWM by comparison of sine and triangular wave .................................... 11
Figure 2.3: General circuit of Inverter in our simulation, Switches S1-S6 are operated using PWM. . 12
Figure 2.4: Phase Shift Transformer ..................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.5 .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 3.1: The 9 Bus Utility Grid ........................................................................................................ 16
Figure 3.2: The 3 Generating Sources .................................................................................................. 16
Figure 3.2: The Three 3phase Transformers ......................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.4: The 3phase Load ................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 3.5: The 3Ø Transmission Line ................................................................................................. 18
Figure 3.6: The PV Array ..................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 3.7: The Single Module containing 6 Solar Cells ...................................................................... 19
Figure 3.8: The Sun’s Input Irradiation Pattern to Solar Cells ............................................................. 20
Figure 3.9: The Output Current, Voltage and Power Delivered by the PV Array for the given Input
Irradiation.............................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 3.10: The Standard Ćuk Converter Model with Variable Duty Cycle MOS ............................. 22
Figure 3.11: The PWM generating Variable Duty Cycle ..................................................................... 23
Figure 3.12: Varying the Slider Gain (above), Varies the Duty Cycle (below) with inverse relation .. 24
Figure 3.13: The Ćuk Converter with Variable Duty Cycle enclosed in separated blocks ................... 24
Figure 3.14: Connecting the PV Array With the Ćuk’s Converter ....................................................... 25
Figure 3.15: Variation in the output voltage with the variation of sun’s radiation. .............................. 26
Figure 3.16: The first look to 3phase Inverter Circuitry ....................................................................... 27
Figure 3.17: The SPWM Modulator generating 6 shifted PWM Logical Outputs ............................... 28
Figure 3.18: The 6 shifted PWM Logical Outputs produced by the SPWM Modulator ...................... 28
Figure 3.19: The Switching Circuitry of 3phase Inverter ..................................................................... 29
Figure 3.20: The Bode plot of 50Hz Band pass filter ........................................................................... 30
Figure 3.21: The 3phase Inverter with Inputs and Outputs Mentioned ................................................ 30
Figure 3.22: The DC Input to Inverter Circuitry from Ćuk converter (above), the 3phase 50Hz output
generated by Inverter Circuitry (below)................................................................................................ 31
Figure 3.23: The Phase Shifting Transformer as Combination of 3phase 12 terminals series
Transformer and a 3phase Shunt Transformer ...................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.24: The Simulation of Phase Shifted Transformer, taking the Grid and the Solar Panel as
Two different Generating Sources ........................................................................................................ 33
Figure 3.25: The Final Integration of Distributed Generation to the Utility Grid ................................ 35
Figure 3.26: Graph Showing the Power contribution of Distributed Generation to 1kW Load .......... 36
Figure 4.1: Hybrid Energy System ....................................................................................................... 39

List of Tables:
Table 1 3.1 Power contribution to load between two ideal sources through Phase Shifting ... 34

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 CHAPTER 1

1.1: Introduction:
Wouldn’t it be great to have a system, which will not only make you independent in power
generation, and to power your own domestic loads but also let you sell the Electric power
when you have it in excess. Such system would not only make our grids smarter, efficient and
secure but will offer solutions to many problems.

1.1.1: Renewable energy:

Renewable energy is any natural source which can replenish itself naturally over a short
amount of duration. Renewable energy comes from many commonly known sources such as
solar power, wind, hydro power, Fuel cells etc as shown in fig 1.1.

Figure 1 1.1

1.1.2: Why renewable energy?

It may not be wrong to say that Renewable energy is playing significant part in fulfilling
world’s energy requirement. According to International energy agency, until 2013, renewable
accounted for almost 22% of global electricity generation, a 5% increase from year 2012.[i]

It is expected that more than 60% of all our energy will come from renewable energy by the
end of year 2070. The World Solar Summit, World Solar Decade and the World Bank have
allocated over two billion dollar for dealing with renewable energy.[ii]

1
1.2: Function of our Project
Power sharing is the main theme of our project. Multiple Renewable energy sources can be
integrated with the main grid (National grid) to share the total load (at least) to some extent.
Fig 1.2 displays that Our idea is not only limited to integrating the distributed generation to
grid but also fulfilling the domestic energy requirements, and to get paid for providing the
excess electricity to grid.

Figure 2 1.2: Block Diagram of our Project

Another1major1feature1of1the1smart1grid1is1increasing1consumer1participation1by1
encouraging1greater1distributed1energy1resource.Distributed1energy1resources1refers1to
small1scale1power1generation1by1the1consumer1using1renewable1energy1resources1such1
as,microturbines,1fuel1cell1etc.1which1are1connected1to1the1grid.This1allows1individuals
to1meet1most1of1their1load1through1their1owngeneration1making1them1independent
of1failures1on1grid.1It1also1allows1consumers1to1sell1excess1power1back1to1the1grid
for1which1they1will1be1paid1(net metering).

Such idea can lead to a practical solution of the energy crisis and can lead to the secure future

1.3: Scope of project:

1.3.1: Benefit for coming decades:
During these days’ energy crises is the main issue of almost every country. With the use of
distributed generation we would not only decrease the problems of energy crises but also give
ease to generation utilities.

2
1.3.2: Benefit at consumer end:
On the consumer hand they will get benefit of continuous electricity. Even this idea of
distributed generation can work as small business in which we can sell electricity to utilities.

1.3.3: Pollution free world:

Since no use of fossil fuel is there in system there it automatically provide clean environment
to human.

1.3.4: Cost:
The use of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biomass, geothermal and
hydropower are growing rapidly not only because of being environment friendly but also
because their cost is continuously decreasing. The graph below shows the cost comparison of
some renewable energy resources with the conventional resources.As it can be seen on
Figure-1.3, the price of electricity from wind, solar are greater than that from natural gas or
coal but it is expected to decrease.

Figure 3 1.3: Comparative Cost Analysis of different DG

Also concepts like ‘net metering’ and ‘feed-in tariffs’ supported by smart grid proponents
have further attracted consumers to adapt renewable energy resources.

1.4: Problems that may arise:

1.4.1: Initial cost
The main issue with the distributed generation is the initial cost of the system. Though, huge
amount of research work is going on increase the efficiency and the initial cost of the system.

According to current price (as of July 2012), a 24 panel 786 kWh grid tie system would be
approximately $8,630 excluding taxes. This price does not take the cost of installation into

3
consideration. Comparing worldwide prices (2009 data), the average cost per watt installed of
a 2-5kW residential solar power system was $4.70 in Japan, $7.70 in Germany and from $5-
$11 in the United States based on a report by Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews.[iii]

1.4.2 Integration issues:

More issues related to the distributed generation integration are:

1.4.2.1: Control:
Distributed generation output is varied according to the connected load, but distributed
generation is limited power as It depend upon the solar or wind there it adversely affect the
voltage level.

1.4.2.2: Harmonics
The integration of distributed generation may introduce current harmonies in the system,
depending upon the impedance at the connecting point and the topology of the system.

1.5: Possible Solutions:

1.5.1: Initial cost:
Solar panels are quite expensive before 2008, solar energy cost remarkably high than
conventional source but in 2008, China started to invest in solar cell production and the cost
dropped by10 times in a few years. From 2006 to 2014, an eight year span, worldwide
average module prices have dropped about 78% from $3.25 per watt to about $.72 per watt,
an incredible drop. In this decade, solar energy has become cost-effective as compare to most
other energy sources.[iv]

Figure 4 1.4: PV Module Price per Watt

4
1.5.2: Harmonics reduction
There are multiple ways to reduce harmonics, i.e. reduce the current harmonics produce by
load or modify the frequency response of system by using filters, inductors or capacitors.

1.6: System/software:
1.6.1:IEEE 9 Bus
Starting with the utility grid, which is the primary major source in our simulation and
supplies power to all other load. There were number of choices of bus systems for the utility
grid to be designed like 4bus system, 9 bus system, 14 bus system and even bigger. Among
these the standard IEEE 9 bus system is selected in our project to work on. The reason for
selecting IEEE 9bus system was, so as to not go for very complex yet to get the better
overview of power sharing.

1.6.2MATLAB- Simulink:
MATLAB is the high level language which gives an easy and smart environment for
development of different scheme and computation related with it. The Simulink part
integrated with it provides the opportunity to simulate circuits and analyze them.

1.6.2: Why Matlab-Simulink?

Simulink® is an integrated part of Matlab which provides a block diagram environment for
simulation and Model-Based Design. It supports simulation, automatic code generation, and
continuous test and verification of embedded systems. Simulink provides a graphical editor,
customizable block libraries, and solvers for modeling and simulating dynamic systems. It
enables us to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models for further analysis.

5
 Chapter 2

2.1: What is a MICROGRID?

It is an efficient and smart electric grid which also enables renewable resources to integrate
with the grid, and to be able to share the common electric load. It is called as micro grid as it
can be disconnected from the traditional grid and operates autonomously.[v]

Figure 5 2.1: Microgrid

Before going into the working and simulation of the project some important background of
each of the component is discussed as follows.

2.2: Solar Panel:

2.2.1: Background
The major theme of the project is all about utilizing the renewable energy and reducing the
use of fossil fuels and eventually having so many benefits such as less fuel import bill, less
pollution and more importantly reduce transmission costs.

Solar panel is the source of electricity of our project. It’s not the basic component of our
project but it’s the starting point of the chain of components connected in serious that make
up our project. Solar panel is that device which converts light into electricity. Scientists call
them “Photovoltaics” which means light-electricity. [vi]

2.2.1: Definition
A solar panel is a module made up of many small solar cells. A large number of cells spread
over a respective area can produce enough electricity to fulfill the desired requirement. Solar
cells are the building block of Solar Panels. These solar cells operate on the principle of
Photoelectric effect i.e. their voltage current characteristics vary in accordance with the light.

The Model of PV array (Solar Panel) that is used in our simulation is specified as follows:

6
2.2.2: Model of Solar Panel
The PV array consists of Npar strings of modules connected in parallel, each string consisting
of Nser modules connected in series.

The four PV model parameters (photo-generated current Iph, diode saturation current Isat,
parallel resistance Rp and series resistance Rs) are adjusted to fit the following four module
characteristics measured under standard test conditions (STC : irradiance 1000 W/m^2, cell
temperature=25 deg. C) and assuming a given "diode quality factor" (Qd) for the
semiconductor:

Voc = open circuit voltage

Isc = short-circuit current

Vmp,Imp = voltage and current at maximum power point

Figure 6 2.2: Block Parameter of PV Array

7
 2.3: CUK Converter
2.3.1: Definition
CUK converter (pronounced as chook converter) is converter that transforms DC voltage at
the input to a DC voltage at output but with a reversed polarity and required magnitude.
When compared to Buck Boost converters, CUK converter uses an additional inductor and
capacitor to store energy.

Figure 7 2.3: Circuit of CUK converter

2.3.2: Working of CUK Converter

Consider the following sequence of the MOSFET conduction state:

 1. On-state: The current through the inductor L1 increases linearly and the diode blocks.

 2. Off-state: Since the current through the inductor L1 cannot abruptly change the diode must
carry the current so it commutates and begins conducting. Energy is transferred from the
inductor L1 to the middle capacitor C2 resulting in a decreasing inductor current.

 3. On-state: The current through the inductor L1 again increases linearly and the diode
blocks. The middle capacitor discharges and supplies the RC load through the inductor L2.
The induced voltage across the resistor R has the opposite polarity of the input voltage.

The circuit has two limits of operation. For a PWM duty cycle D ➝ 0 the output voltage

equals zero, and for D ➝ 1 the output voltage grows toward negative infinity. In between

those limits the output voltage in continuous conduction mode is given by: Vout = -D/(1-
D) · Vin. The combination of inductors and capacitors acts as a second order low pass filter
which reduces the voltage ripples at the output as were in the case of Buck Boost.[vii]

8
2.4: DC to AC Inverter
2.4.1: INTRODUCTION
Three-phase inverters have various applications. The major application is for variable-
frequency drive applications and for HVDC Transmission which comes under the field of
high power applications. A three-phase inverter circuit is basically designed with three
single-phase inverter switches each of which are connected to one of the three load terminals.
In the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is synchronized so that
one switch operates at each 60 degree differenceaccording to the fundamental output
waveform.[viii]

2.4.2 Types of Inverter

Inverters can be classified into two types depending upon the input andoutput; (a)Voltage
Source Inverter (VSI) & (b) Current Source Inverter (CSI).

(a) Voltage Source Inverter (VSI):

Input voltage is maintained constant in this type of inverter and the amplitude of output
voltage does not depend on the load. However, load current waveform as well as its quantity
depends upon the character of the load impedance.

(b) Current Source Inverter (CSI):

Input current is constant in this type of inverter but it is adjustable. On difference from VSI is
that the amplitude of output current from CSI is independent of load. However the magnitude
of output voltage and its output wave form from CSI is dependent upon the character of load
impedance. One more difference is that CSI does not require any feedback diodes unlike VSI
where these are required.

2.4.3: Control of Inverter

The output voltage from an inverter can be controlled by exercising a controlling scheme
within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by pulse-width
modulation scheme.

2.4.4: Pulse Width Modulation Scheme

PWM is the controlling scheme used extensively as a means of powering alternating current
(AC) devices with an available direct current (DC) source or for advanced DC/AC
conversion. Variation of duty cycle in the PWM signal to provide a DC voltage across the
load in a specific pattern will appear to the load as an AC signal, or can control the speed of
motors that would otherwise run only at full speed or off. This is further explained in this

9
section. The pattern at which the duty cycle of a PWM signal varies can be created through
simple analog components, a digital microcontroller, or specific PWM integrated
circuits.

The advantages1possessed by PWM1technique are as under1:

(i) The output voltage control with1this method can be obtained without any additional
components.

(ii) With1this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along
with its output voltage1control. As higher order harmonics can be filtered1easily, the filtering
requirements are minimized.[ix]

Different PWM techniques are as under:

(a) Single-pulse modulation

(b) Multiple-pulse modulation

(c) Selected harmonic elimination (SHE) PWM

(d) Minimum ripple current PWM

(e) Sinusoidal-pulse PWM (SPWM)

(f) Space vector-pulse PWM (SVPWM)

“SPWM Technique is used in our project.”

2.4.5: Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

Sinusoidal pulse-width-modulation (SPWM) technique is the most common and popular
technique for the generationof pure-sine wave. The SPWM technique involves generation of
a digital waveform, in which the duty-cycle is1modulated1such1that the1average voltage of
the waveform 1corresponds to a pure sine wave.

The most simplest way of creating the SPWM signal is through comparison of a low-
power reference sine wave (Vr) with a high frequency triangle wave (Vc) as shown in the
circuit in figure 2.1. Using these two signals as input to a comparator, the output will be a 2-
level SPWM signal. The intersection of Vr&Vc waves determines the switching instants and
commutation of the modulated pulse. In figure 2.2 Vc is the peak value of triangular
carrier wave and Vr that of the reference or modulated signal.

10
 Figure 8 2.1: SPWM Model Circuit

Figure 9 2.2: Generation of SPWM by comparison of sine and triangular wave

2.4.6: Pulse-width modulation inverters

A DC voltage is given at the input of the Pulse-width modulation inverters. The inverter uses
pulse-width modulation using its switches (Figure 2.3), there are various methods for doing
the pulse-width modulation in an inverter beneficial to frame the output ac voltages nearly
similar to sine wave.

11
 Figure 10 2.3: General circuit of Inverter in our simulation, Switches S1-S6 are operated using PWM.

2.4.7: Amplitude Modulation Ratio

The Amplitude Modulation Ratio or Modulation Index (MI) controls the harmonic content of
the output voltage waveform. The amplitude of fundamental component of output voltage is
proportional to modulation ratio, but the modulation ration cannot be more than unity. Thus
the output voltage is controlled by varying MI. Amplitude modulation ration is given by
equation 2.1.

(Eq. 2.1)

2.4.7: Frequency Modulation Ratio

It is the ratio between the frequencies of the carrier signal known as carrier switching
frequency and the modulating frequency. And is given by the equation 2.2

(Eq. 2.2)

12
2.5: Phase Shifting Transformer (PST)
A device for controlling the power flow through specific lines in a power transmission
network is known as Phase-Shifting Transformer. It is also known as Quadrature Booster.

Figure 11 2.4: Phase Shift Transformer

This is a specialized form of transformer used to control the flow of real power on three-
phase electricity transmission networks. The Phase shift transformer basically works on the
following equation 2.3 to control the flow of active power.

|𝑉𝑠 ||𝑉𝑅 |
𝑃= 𝑠𝑖𝑛δ (Eq. 2.3)
𝑋𝐿

Reactive power as a function of load angle is also given by equation 2.4;

|𝑉𝑠 ||𝑉𝑅 | VR
𝑄= (𝑐𝑜𝑠δ − ) (Eq. 2.4)
𝑋𝐿 VS

Graphically demonstrated in Fig 2.5;

Figure 12 2.5

13
Taking the other parameters to be constant, it is clear that active power flow is proportional to
the sine of the difference of the angle between sending and receiving voltage which is also
the load angle.

The load angle can be changed by changing the tap settings of the Phase shift transformer.
Therefore the control of active power flow is discrete rather than continuous.

Phase Shift transformer basically is composed of two separate three phase transformer
typically known as series unit and shunt unit as shown in Figure 2.4.

The shunt unit has its windings connected across the phases, so it produces output voltages
shifted by 90° with respect to the supply. Its output is then applied as input to the series unit
and since the secondary winding of series transformer is in series with the main circuit, this
adds the phase-shifted component. The overall output voltage is hence the vector sum of the
supply voltage and the 90° quadrature component.

Tap connections on the shunt unit allow the magnitude of the quadrature component to be
controlled, and thus the magnitude of the phase shift across the phase shift transformer. The
flow of power on the circuit containing the phase shift transformer may be increased (boost
tapping) or reduced (buck tapping). Subject to system conditions, the flow may even be
bucked enough to completely reverse from its neutral-tap direction.

Purpose of Using Phase Shift Transformers:

 To control the power flow between two large independent power systems
 To change the phase angle between the sending end voltage and the receiving end
voltage of a transmission line, thus controlling the amount of active power that can
flow in the line.
 To balance the loading when power systems are connected together in more than one
point so that loops exist and the impedances in parallel paths results in undesired
distribution of power flow in the paths.
 To protect from thermal overload and to improve transmission system stability.[x]

14
 Chapter 3

To achieve the goals of the project, following working and simulations has been done. As
discussed before, the goal of this project is the power sharing between the Renewable
resource at the consumer end and the utility grid. And to make the renewable resource able to
synchronize its level with grid, many intermediate components between the renewable
resource and the grids are required. In this chapter, we shall start discussing the working of
each component individually and sequentially and later we shall integrate all the components
to get the final and ultimate view and working of our idea.

3.1 The Grid:

The modeled IEEE standard 9 bus system is shown in Figure 3.1 (present on next page).

The IEEE Standard 9 bus includes 9 buses, three 3Ø generating source, transmission lines
and three loads. Also, each generating source has its own 3Ø transformers. According to the
IEEE 9bus system, Following are mentioned the standard specifications of each element.

15
 Figure 13 3.1: The 9 Bus Utility Grid

3.1.1 Generating Sources:

As shown in Fig 3.2, Generator 1 is rated at 192MVA and 18KV, Generator 2 at 128MVA
and13.8KV while the Third Generator is set as the swing generator at 247.5MVA at 16.5KV
capacity. All the Sources are designed at 50Hz frequency.

Figure 14 3.2: The 3 Generating Sources

16
3.1.2 Buses:
Buses at the generation side are rated at generation voltage whereas buses at transmission
side are rated at transmission voltage i.e. 230 KV.

3.1.3 Transformers:
All the 3Ø transformers are rated at 50Hz. The Primary of each transformer is set according
the level of their corresponding generating source, i.e. the primary of Transformer 1 is rated
at 18kV with pu impedance of 6.25% while of Transformer 2 and Transformer 3 at 13.8KV
and 16.5KV with pu impedance of 5.86% and 5.76% respectively. All the three transformers
are Y grounded both side and are stepped up at 230KV for transmission as shown in Fig 3.3.

Figure 15 3.2: The Three 3phase Transformers

3.1.4 Loads:
Loads are drawn from the bus 5, 6 and 8 as 90MVA 30MVAR and 125MVA 50MVAR,
100MVA 35MVAR respectively. For example,one load from bus 8 is shown in Fig 3.4.

Figure 16 3.4: The 3phase Load

3.1.5 Three phase Transmission Lines:

3Ø pi-section line is used to represent the long transmission lines, the model consists of one
set of RL series elements connected between input and output terminals and two sets of shunt

17
capacitances lumped at both ends of the line. For example,Fig 3.5 shows line 7-8 represent
transmission between buses 7 to bus 8.

Figure 17 3.5: The 3Ø Transmission Line

3.2 The PV Array:

After the successful design of the utility grid (IEEE 9 bus system), the next step was to design
the one more generating source at consumer end. It would be the source that can be installed
at consumer end at individual level and can provide cheap electricity to consumer. The Solar
Panel PV Array has been designed for this purpose.

Figure 18 3.6: The PV Array

The PV array, as shown in Figure 3.6, is made up of a 72 Solar Cells module that takes Sun’s
Irradiation as input and provides the electric voltage at its output terminals.

For Simple understanding of working of PV array, the 72 cell Modules is divided into the
smaller number 6 cells per module that are finally added up in series to form a 72 cells
module PV Array. The Figure 3.7 shows the 6 cells per module.

18
 Figure 19 3.7: The Single Module containing 6 Solar Cells

As shown in Fig 3.7, the sun’s Irradiation falls on each of the individual solar cell, The
parameters of the individual solar cell is set such that for Irradiance of 1000 W/m2, it
provides an open circuit voltage of 0.6Volts and short circuit current of 4.75Amperes.

Each cell is having internal series resistance of about 5mΩ. So when input irradiance of 1000
W/m^2 falls on PV array, a single cell provides voltage at its terminal of about 0.33 Volts,
and the whole 72 cell modules provides a total output voltage of around 24 volts on its

19
terminals. The selection of 24 volts is made so that they can be stored on the 24Volts
rechargeable battery.

3.2.1 Observation:
Just for example, the random pattern for input irradiation has been taken as shown in Fig3.8

Figure 20 3.8: The Sun’s Input Irradiation Pattern to Solar Cells

The Output current, voltage and power scope as connected in Fig 3.7, is observed in Fig 3.9
(on next page)

20
 Figure 21 3.9: The Output Current, Voltage and Power Delivered by the PV Array for the given Input Irradiation

Aswe have observed, due to the variance in input irradiations, output voltage is also varying
in same proportion.The problem is that, Sun’s Irradiation isn’t constant in their magnitude.
Practically, their intensity keeps on varying around 1000 W/m^2. Therefore the output
voltage is also not constant, and keeps varying around 24volts.

This output voltage is needed to be stabilized at constant 24 volt. So that it can be stored on
battery and also for inverting it into A.C at constant peaks.

Definitely, some kind of step up and step down converter that can maintain this varying
voltage at constant level is needed. For this regard we had the choice to either design the buck
boost converter or the Ćuk converter. After going through different the researches and
comparison between buck boost and Ćuk converter, it has been concluded that that Ćuk
converter provides far less ripples than buck boost converter, so it provides better
approximation to idealand hence it is a better option and hence it was the choice.

21
3.3 Ćuk Converter:
The Ćuk converter is used to step up or step down the input voltage by varying the duty cycle
of the MOS switch. [xi] Figure 3.10 shows the designed Ćuk converter.

Figure 22 3.10: The Standard Ćuk Converter Model with Variable Duty Cycle MOS

The design equations for Ćuk converters are given in Equation from Eq. 3.1 to Eq. 3.4;

𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐷
ΔI1 = (Eq. 3.1)
𝐿1 𝑓

𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐷
𝛥𝐼2 = (Eq. 3.2)
𝐿2 𝑓

𝐼𝑆 (1−𝐷)
𝛥𝑉𝑐1 = (Eq. 3.3)
𝐶1 𝑓

𝛥𝐼
𝛥𝑉𝑐2 = 8 𝐶 2𝑓 (Eq. 3.4)
2

For input voltage of 24volts, switching frequency of 25 KHz and 10% ripple voltage and
current, the designed parameters of Ćuk converters are found to be;

L1=180uHand L2=150uH

C1=200uF and C2=220uF

Once the converter is designed, the Output voltage is given as in Eq. 3.5;

𝐷
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖 (Eq. 3.5)
1−𝐷

22
I.e.,once the converter is designed, the output voltage only depends upon the input voltage
and the duty cycle and not on the other circuit elements. Thus when the input varies, we can
vary the duty cycle in the same proportion so to keep the output at constant voltage. The next
step was to take the control of variation of Duty Cycle in our hand.

3.3.1 Varying the Duty Cycle of Ćuk Converter:

For taking the control on duty cycle, some kind of regulatoris needed that can vary the duty
cycle of Ćuk converter on spot whenever it sees the voltage deviating from 24 volts. For that
purpose, a simple low voltage DC signal with slider gainas reference signal and a low
voltage, high frequency sinusoid signal with the switching frequency of 25 KHz are used.
Both the DC signal and sinusoid signal are compared though a comparator as shown in Fig.
3.11.

Figure 23 3.11: The PWM generating Variable Duty Cycle

The circuit in Fig. 3.11 generates logical output of 1s and 0s periodically. This logical output
will represent the duty cycle of the Ćuk converter. By varying the slider gain, the duration of
cycle can be controlled (Fig. 3.12) hence controlling the output DC.

23
 Figure 24 3.12: Varying the Slider Gain (above), Varies the Duty Cycle (below) with inverse relation

The Final circuit of Ćuk converter with variable duty cycle in separate blocks is shown in
Fig. 3.13.

Figure 25 3.13: The Ćuk Converter with Variable Duty Cycle enclosed in separated blocks

24
3.4 Simulation of PV Array with Ćuk Converter:
After having the individual components PV Array and Ćuk Converter Ready, we are also
ready to connect them together to observe their overall Working as shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 26 3.14: Connecting the PV Array With the Ćuk’s Converter

3.4.1: Observation:
As shown in Figure 3.14, System will take Sun’s Irradiation as Input, This Solar Energy will
enter into the 72 cells Module PV Array and it will generate the Varying Electric voltage
corresponding to the Varying intensity of Sun’s Input Irradiation. This Varying Electric
Voltage is passed through a 24volt DC-DC Ćuk Converter with Variable Duty Cycle at its
MOSFET’s Gate Input. The Ćuk Converter will transform this varying voltage to a 24volt
constant DC. The observation of this circuit is made through the shown in Figure 3.15. The
Scope shows the 4 graphs, of The Input Sun’s Irradiation, The varying voltage Generated by
72 cells PV, The Variable Duty Cycle and the Output of the Ćuk Converter, sequentially.

25
 Figure 27 3.15: Variation in the output voltage with the variation of sun’s radiation.

As our expectations, with a random Pattern of Sun’s Input Irradiation as Shown in Figure
3.15. The PV Array output follows the Sun Irradiations and generates the Electric voltage,
but this varying voltage is stabilized at constant 24 volts seen at the Ćuk’s Output. The Slight
Ripples in the Ćuk’s Output can be observed, they occur whenever the Sun’s Irradiation
varies. After vary minor ripples, the output is again brought back to 24volts. The ripples
observed in the Ćuk have output areof far less peaks and also of no time duration than what
we would have got, if we had used Buck Boost Converter.

3.5 Three Phase Inverter:

The constant voltage dc output will now feed to the three phase inverter circuitry to produce
3Ø AC output that can sink with the grid. As it has been discussed in previous chapter that
the technique we are using to achieve 3Ø output is sinusoid pulse width modulation

26
technique. We have divided the simulation of inverter circuity in different small blocks and
we shall discuss them individually for better understanding. [xii]

The inverter circuit overall designed circuit is given in Fig. 3.16

Figure 28 3.16: The first look to 3phase Inverter Circuitry

Here the Ćuk Converter’s output is given as the DC input to the switching circuitry. The
switching circuitry also takes input from the SPWM Modulator. The SPWM provides the 6
pulse Width Modulated outputs, each shifted by 60 degrees, to the Switching circuitry that
controls the switching of 6 MOSFETs switches present inside the switching circuitry. The
combination of the high voltage DC input, and low voltage controlling Pulse Width
Modulated input provides the 3 phase output at switching circuity. The Output is then filtered
out to pass only 50Hz frequency.

3.5.1 The SPWM Modulator:

The SPWM Modulator is shown in Fig. 3.17. It includes low power low frequency reference
3 phase sine wave, and a low power high frequency Triangular wave. Each phase of sine
wave is compared with a triangular wave through comparator and provides 3 PWM logical
outputs and 3 more inverted logical outputs. The Sine waves are taken as our reference
signal, having frequency of 50Hz, while the Triangular wave is having the switching
frequency of 12 KHz. The amplitude of sine wave and triangular waves are set such to
provide the modulation index of 0.8.

27
 Figure 29 3.17: The SPWM Modulator generating 6 shifted PWM Logical Outputs

The output waveform from the SPWM Modulator in the scope is shown in Fig 3.18.

Figure 30 3.18: The 6 shifted PWM Logical Outputs produced by the SPWM Modulator

These 6 logical outputs are given as input to the gate of the 6 MOSFETs in Switching
Circuitry so as to control their switching.

28
3.5.2 The Switching Circuitry:
The Switching circuitry takes in a constant DC voltage and the 6 logical PWM outputs of the
SPWM Modulator as shown in Fig 3.19. The inverter should conduct the magnitude and the
frequency of AC output voltages, and the diode-rectifiers are required to fix the line to line
voltage. It provides the three phase output 120 degrees apart.

Figure 31 3.19: The Switching Circuitry of 3phase Inverter

3.5.3 Band pass filter:

Although the Switching Circuitry has produced the 3Ø 50Hz AC voltage, but it still needs to
be filtered out to finally end up in a 3Ø sinusoid. For this, we have used the simple RLC
Filter to design the band pass filter. For the pass band frequency of 50Hz, Quality factor of
10, taking inductance of 0.1H and using the Equation 3.5;

ω0 𝑅
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝑠
𝑄 𝐿
= ω = 𝑅 1 (Eq. 3.5)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑠 2 + 0 𝑠+ω0 2 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+
𝑄 𝐿 𝐿𝐶

29
The other element values Capacitor and Resistor are calculated to be 100uF and 3.3ohms
respectively.

The Frequency and Phase response of designed band pass filter is plotted as in Fig. 3.20.

Figure 32 3.20: The Bode plot of 50Hz Band pass filter

The SPWM Modulator, Switching Circuitry and Band pass filter are finally connected
together to form a complete 3phase inverter circuitry as shown in Fig. 3.21.

Figure 33 3.21: The 3phase Inverter with Inputs and Outputs Mentioned

30
With the DC constant source of 24volts feed in by the Ćuk Converter, the 3phase output is
shown in the figure 22;

Figure 34 3.22: The DC Input to Inverter Circuitry from Ćuk converter (above), the 3phase 50Hz output generated
by Inverter Circuitry (below)

Step up Transformer:

The input to the 3phase inverter was just 24 volts, therefore it couldn’t generate the output of
higher volts. While we needed to synchronize this voltage level with the grid. Therefore just
after getting the low voltage 3phase output from inverter, it is sent to the three phase step up
transformer so as to step up the voltage upto the grid level.

31
3.6 Phase Shifting Transformer:
The stepped up output from Inverter is now ready to be integrated with our national grid.
Before directly connecting it to grid, some power flow controlling method was needed. Phase
shifting transformer, for this purpose,was the choice to control the flow of power between the
PV Array and grid, just by changing its taps.

As discussed in previous chapter, a phase shifting transformer consists of a shunt transformer

and a series transformer. As the name suggests the shunt transformer is connected in parallel
while series transformer is connected in series with the line as shown in Fig. 3.23

Figure 35 3.23: The Phase Shifting Transformer as Combination of 3phase 12 terminals series Transformer and a
3phase Shunt Transformer

The turn ratio of series transformer is kept constant and the turn ratio of shunt transformer is
used to vary the magnitude and phase of the source voltage. The series transformer is used to
add (vector sum of) the source voltage and the shifted voltage. Hence, it is an asymmetrical
design of PST because it is changing magnitude of applied voltage along with the phase
angle.

To observe the pattern of phase shifting transformer, initiallytwo 3phase ideal sources
assumption was made in place of distributed generation and the utility grid with Phase
shifting transformer in between as shown in Fig. 3.24

32
Figure 36 3.24: The Simulation of Phase Shifted Transformer, taking the Grid and the Solar Panel as Two different
Generating Sources

3.6.1: Ratings:
Following are the ratings for the above simulated circuit:

Load: 1KW at 400V

Source 1: 1KW at 400V

Source 2: Swing Source at 400V

Here in Fig, that source 1 is assumed to be the Distributed Generation of 1000W source
which is equal to the required amount for the Load connected to it and source 2 is the grid
after the distribution transformer and is stepped down to 400V with large amount of power.

33
3.6.2 Observation table:
Varying the Phase angle of transformer, the readings were observed as shown in Table 3.1;

Table 1 3.1 Power contribution to load between two ideal sources through Phase Shifting

Phase Angle Power (DG) Power (Grid)

(Deg) (Watt) (Watt)
-0.16 1000 0
-0.12 840 160
-0.08 600 400
-0.04 315 685
-0.01 180 820
0.01 0 1000

After getting the certain amount of Readings of the variation of Power contribution due to the
variation in PST angle, the pattern of how PST work is understood and now the Phase
shifting transformer is ready to be integrated with the Grid.

3.7: Integrating the Distributed Generation to the Utility Grid through

Phase Shifting Transformer
The Final Integration of the Distributed Generation to the Utility Grid through Phase Shifting
Transformer is shown in the Figure 3.25. (on next page)

34
 Figure 37 3.25: The Final Integration of Distributed Generation to the Utility Grid

Figure 3.25shows the 72 cell module PV Array that takes Sun’s Input Irradiation in W/m2 and
provides output to the Ćuk Converter. The Ćuk Converter taking the Varying DC from the
PV Array provides a constant 24 DC Voltage to the Inverter, and the Output of the Inverter
produces the 3-phase AC Voltage. This AC Voltage is stepped up through the Phase Shifting
Transformer and also its power contribution to the Load is controlled through varying the
angle of the 3phase voltage. The Load is also supplied though the 9 bus utility Grid. This
simulation is run at different angles and the Power contribution of the utility Grid and the
Distributed Generation (The Solar Panel) is observed.

3.7.1: Observation:
As an example, the Simulation is run at angle +2degree of Phase Shifting Transformer, and
the Power delivered by The Distributed Generation is shown in Fig. 3.26

35
 Figure 38 3.26: Graph Showing the Power contribution of Distributed Generation to 1kW Load

Similarly, the different Power contribution to Load at different angles was also measured.

36
 CHAPTER 4

4.1: Conclusion:
The project started with the basics of various topics related to Renewable energy, load
sharing, and later moved on to the original idea of integration of distributed generation with
the main (National) Grid.

The Major aim of our project was to utilize renewable energy sources as much as possible
and also with idea of minimizing electricity consumption (or reducing net load) from the
utility companies.

4.1.1 Effect on the society:

The major noticeable advantage will be the reduction in unit consumption on the individual
and the collective basis, thus reduction in overall electricity bills.

It will also relax the load on the utility companies which could lead to elimination of the load
shedding. Another positive effect would be the environmental advantage, as reduction in use
of the fuel i.e. diesel, natural gas.

Our project consisted of three major modules:

4.1.2 Module 1:
Distributed generation gives away the fluctuating (variable) output which is then fed to the
CUK converters, which produces lesser harmonics then buck and boost converter. The
performance of CUK Converter is varied with the change with duty cycle. With the help of
slider gain the output of the CUK converter is set to have a constant output (DC), so that the
respective output could be used to charge a DC battery (practically).

4.1.3 Module 2:
The constant DC output is further fed to the inverter input, which is designed to convert it to
sine wave, with the most harmonics removed with the help of low pass filter incorporated
inside the inverter, which operates through PWM.

4.1.4 Module 3:
The output of inverter serves as a power source, which is fed to PST (phase shift
transformer), which consists of series and shunt transformer. Thought PST the load angle δ is
varied. The angle δ, the angle between PST output voltage and grid voltage is varied to
control the real power output. Power flow is also dependent over the turns ratio of shunt
transformer of PST, which could varied through Tap changers. The output of PST is

37
integrated with the swing generator (represents utility) and to be used to power load for
backup.

4.2 SUGGESTIONS:
4.2.1 Time delay logic:
The time delay logic in place of PST can also be used. It would produce delay in angle to
control the power; two Input and one output, First input to provide delay, other input tells
delay magnitude, thus output delay the signal, and varying the load angle thus finally
controlling the power. The working efficiency of PST is better than time delay logic. Also
there are more harmonics induced in time delay logic. But using such method could be cost
effective.

4.2.2 Extended power:

A fuel cell or other renewable energysources can be connectedfor extended power source. At
the input stage, Duty cycle of the CUK converter should be set accordingly and so does the
slider gain. This will make the system more efficient and advanced. But still, the system
would work fine even if the extended power is removed

4.3 Future Work:

This heading defines all the work which has the room of all the further work which could be
carried out in our project, the work which we couldn’t complete due to time constraints. It
tells all the major modification in our project which could make it more reliable, efficient and
advance but at the edge of cost and complexity.

4.3.1 Display of real time values:

The display of real time values of terminal voltages, real and reactive power and load angle δ
etc., at various points of the system, for e.g. inverter output, Main grid. It can be do so by
using software like MATLAB. This could help dramatically, for system maintenance and its
trouble shooting.

4.3.2 Close Loop system:

At some stage of our project, our project is left open loop. It can be further modified to close
loop to some extend at the cost of complexity. It will make the system smart and able to make
decisions. For e.g. at the output of distributed generation, CUK converter is Efficient to vary
the duty cycle to convey the constant output. (Close loop).

38
4.3.3 Use of maximum power point tracking (MPPT):
A circuit for maximum power transfer can be interfaced with the solar panel input, which is
called maximum power point tracking (MPPT). This function is like the transmission of the
car, where wheels don’t receive maximum power, when car’s in wrong gear. Here, car is
analogous to solar panel. And engine speed is to voltage, the ideal voltage is that at which it
can deliver maximum power, this is called MPPT.

4.3.4 Power factor control:

The Power factor of our system’s output is not in control, due to change in phase angle
between the integrated power and the grid power. A system can be designed to control the
power factor to our desired value. There are also various methods for power factor
improvement, like, static capacitor, synchronous condenser, which could be integrated with
the system.

4.3.4 Hybrid energy system (HES):

The system could be advanced to HES (hybrid energy system). A generator will be interfaced
along with system. The basic schematics would remain same, but the system would be more
reliable and dependable at the times of high power demand.

Figure 39: 4.1: Hybrid Energy System

4.3.5 Integrating system with a computer:

System can be communicated with the computer, using serial bus communication which will
make easier to monitor the system and also prevent it from breakdown.

39
 APPENDIX A
[xiii]
IEEE 9 Bus Data

Description of the IEEE Common

Bus data cards *:
Data Format [xiv] -----------------

The data file has lines of up to 128 characters. Columns 1- 4 Bus number (I) *
The lines are grouped Columns 7-17 Name (A) (left justify) *
into sections with section headers. Data items Columns 19-20 Load flow area number (I) Don't
are entered in specific use zero! *
columns. No blank items are allowed, enter zeros Columns 21-23 Loss zone number (I)
instead. Floating point Columns 25-26 Type (I) *
items should have explicit decimal point. No 0 - Unregulated (load, PQ)
implicit decimal points 1 - Hold MVAR generation within
are used. voltage limits, (PQ)
2 - Hold voltage within VAR
Data type codes: A - Alphanumeric (no special limits (gen, PV)
characters) 3 - Hold voltage and angle
I - Integer (swing, V-Theta) (must always
F - Floating point have one)
* - Mandatory item Columns 28-33 Final voltage, p.u. (F) *
Columns 34-40 Final angle, degrees (F) *
Title Data Columns 41-49 Load MW (F) *
========== Columns 50-59 Load MVAR (F) *
Columns 60-67 Generation MW (F) *
First card in file. Columns 68-75 Generation MVAR (F) *
Columns 77-83 Base KV (F)
Columns 2- 9 Date, in format DD/MM/YY with Columns 85-90 Desired volts (pu) (F) (This is
leading zeros. If no date desired remote voltage if
provided, use 0b/0b/0b where b is this bus is controlling another
blank. bus.
Columns 91-98 Maximum MVAR or voltage limit (F)
Columns 11-30 Originator's name (A) Columns 99-106 Minimum MVAR or voltage limit (F)
Columns 107-114 Shunt conductance G (per unit)
Columns 32-37 MVA Base (F*) (F) *
Columns 115-122 Shunt susceptance B (per unit)
Columns 39-42 Year (I) (F) *
Columns 124-127 Remote controlled bus number
Column 44 Season (S - Summer, W - Winter)
Section end card:
Column 46-73 Case identification (A) -----------------

Bus Data * Columns 1- 4 -999

==========
Branch Data *
Section start card *: =============
---------------------
Section start card *:
Columns 1-16 BUS DATA FOLLOWS (not clear that ---------------------
any more than BUS in
1-3 is significant) * Columns 1-16 BRANCH DATA FOLLOWS (not clear
that any more than BRANCH
Columns ?- ? NNNNN ITEMS (column not clear, I is significant) *
would not count on this)

40
Columns 40?- ? NNNNN ITEMS (column not clear, I Columns 40?- ? NNNNN ITEMS (column not clear, I
would not count on this) would not count on this)

Branch data cards *: Loss Zone Cards:

-------------------- ----------------

Columns 1- 4 Tap bus number (I) * Columns 1- 3 Loss zone number (I)
For transformers or phase Columns 5-16 Loss zone name (A)
shifters, the side of the model
the non-unity tap is on Section end card:
Columns 6- 9 Z bus number (I) * -----------------
For transformers and phase
shifters, the side of the model Columns 1- 3 -99
the device impedance is on.
Columns 11-12 Load flow area (I) Interchange Data *
Columns 13-14 Loss zone (I) ==================
Column 17 Circuit (I) * (Use 1 for single
lines) Section start card
Column 19 Type (I) * ------------------
0 - Transmission line
1 - Fixed tap Columns 1-16 INTERCHANGE DATA FOLLOWS (not
2 - Variable tap for voltage clear that any more than
control (TCUL, LTC) first word is significant).
3 - Variable tap (turns ratio) Columns 40?- ? NNNNN ITEMS (column not clear, I
for MVAR control would not count on this)
4 - Variable phase angle for MW
control (phase shifter) Interchange Data Cards *:
Columns 20-29 Branch resistance R, per unit (F) -------------------------
*
Columns 30-40 Branch reactance X, per unit (F) Columns 1- 2 Area number (I) no zeros! *
* No zero impedance lines Columns 4- 7 Interchange slack bus number (I)
Columns 41-50 Line charging B, per unit (F) * *
(total line charging, +B) Columns 9-20 Alternate swing bus name (A)
Columns 51-55 Line MVA rating No 1 (I) Left Columns 21-28 Area interchange export, MW (F)
justify! (+ = out) *
Columns 57-61 Line MVA rating No 2 (I) Left Columns 30-35 Area interchange tolerance, MW
justify! (F) *
Columns 63-67 Line MVA rating No 3 (I) Left Columns 38-43 Area code (abbreviated name) (A)
justify! *
Columns 69-72 Control bus number Columns 46-75 Area name (A)
Column 74 Side (I)
0 - Controlled bus is one of the Section end card:
terminals -----------------
1 - Controlled bus is near the
tap side Columns 1- 2 -9
2 - Controlled bus is near the
impedance side (Z bus) Tie Line Data
Columns 77-82 Transformer final turns ratio (F) =============
Columns 84-90 Transformer (phase shifter) final
angle (F) Section start card
Columns 91-97 Minimum tap or phase shift (F) ------------------
Columns 98-104 Maximum tap or phase shift (F)
Columns 106-111 Step size (F) Columns 1-16 TIE LINES FOLLOW (not clear that
Columns 113-119 Minimum voltage, MVAR or MW limit any more than TIE
(F) is significant)
Columns 120-126 Maximum voltage, MVAR or MW limit
(F) Columns 40?- ? NNNNN ITEMS (column not clear, I
would not count on this)
Section end card:
----------------- Tie Line Cards:
---------------
Columns 1- 4 -999
Columns 1- 4 Metered bus number (I)
Loss Zone Data Columns 7-8 Metered area number (I)
============== Columns 11-14 Non-metered bus number (I)
Columns 17-18 Non-metered area number (I)
Section start card Column 21 Circuit number
------------------
Section end card:
Columns 1-16 LOSS ZONES FOLLOWS (not clear -----------------
that any more than LOSS
is significant) Columns 1- 3 -999

41
References
i
Renewable energy
http://www.iea.org/aboutus/faqs/renewableenergy/
ii
Introduction to Renewable Energy
http://www.wrenuk.co.uk
iii
Solar Could Well be the Future
http://ispakle.com.au/solar-could-well-be-the-future/

iv
Why did PV Prices Come down So Rapidly?
http://solarcellcentral.com/cost_page.html

v
Autonomous Control of Microgrids by D Paolo Piagi , Member, IEEE, Robert H. Lasseter, Fellow, IEEE
https://eaei.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/Autonomous_Control_of_Microgrids.pdf
vi
Modelling and Simulation of Solar Photovoltaic array for Battery charging Application using Matlab-
Simulink By P.Sathya and G.Aarthi
http://www.ijesrt.com/issues%20pdf%20file/Archives%202013/november-2013/8.pdf

Ćuk Converter
vii

http://www.plexim.com/academy/power-electronics/cuk-conv

Power Electronics; Converters, Applications and Design; Chapter 8 Switch Mode dc-ac Inverters: dc –
viii

Sinusoidal: ac by NED Mohan, Tore M. Undeland and William P. Robbins

ix
Control of Voltage Source Inverters using PWM/SVPWM for Adjustable Speed Drive Applications by
Sunil Panda, Anupam Mishra and B. Srinivas
http://ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in/1133/1/Control_of_Voltage_Source_Inverters_using_PWM.pdf
x
Phase Shifting Transformers
http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/01/phase-shiftingtransformers.html
xi
Design of Cuk Converter Powered by PV Array By R. Sriranjani, A. Shree Bharathi and S. Jayalalitha EEE
Department, EIE Department, School of EEE, SASTRA University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India
http://maxwellsci.com/print/rjaset/v6-793-796.pdf

xii
Development of Three Step Charging H-Bridge based Sine wave Inverter by Gopinath.G and A.Arikesh,
Hindustan University, Chennai.
http://www.warse.org/pdfs/2013/ncrtece28.pdf
xiii
Test Case P.M. Anderson Power System
http://fglongatt.org/OLD/Test_Case_Anderson.html
xiv
University of Washington, Electrical Engineering dpt.
https://www.ee.washington.edu/research/pstca/formats/cdf.txt

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