History - NCERT

Sunday, 23 July 2017 22:29

1. Class 6 Dhananjay Singh

A. What where when and how
a. Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills on Af-Pak border - some of the first places
where wheat and barley were grown and sheep, goat, cattle were
reared (6000 BC). Rice was first grown north of Vindhyas. Garo hills
also had early agriculture.
b. Manuscripts were written on palm leaves or bark of birch tree
(Himalayas).
B. Earliest people
a. Kurnool caves has evidence of familiarity with fire. Paleolithic site.
b. Hungsi - tools made out of local limestone.
c. Paleolithic - stone age. Longest stretch of time. Covers 99% of
human history.
d. Mesolithic - middle stone. 12,000-10,000 years ago. Change in
environment (ice age ends), grasslands develop. Stone tools (called
microliths).
e. Neolithic - from about 10,000 years ago.
C. Growing food
a. Domestication - First animal to be tamed wild ancestor of dog.
Teeth and horns of wild animals are larger than those of
domesticated ones. Earliest plants were wheat and barley.
b. Sites where grains and bones have been found - Kashmir (Burzahom
had dug houses), UP, Bihar (Chirand), AP (Hallur).
c. Mehrgarh, near Bolan pass, is one of the earliest villages we know
about. They kept sheep and goat. Square and rectangular houses.
IVC is continuation of the neolithic Mehrgarh culture 
d. Daojali Hading (Brahmaputra valley) - had jadeite, which may have
been brought from China.
D. Earliest cities
a. Cities were divided into two or more parts. West was smaller but
higher and had citadel. Part to east was larger but lower. Bricks
were laid in interlocking pattern that made walls strong.
b. Houses were 1 or 2 storeys high. Separate bathing area. Covered
drains.
c. Copper and bronze to make tools, weapons, vessels. Gold and silver
to make ornaments and vessels. Faience was an artificial material
used to make beads, bangles, earrings.
d. Imported items - copper, tin, gold, silver, precious stones.
e. Harappans were aware of binary and decimal system and used it for
measurement
f. Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed
and mustard. Ploughs made of wood was used to dig earth. Some
form of irrigation may have been used. Reared - cattle, sheep, goat
and buffalo.

City State Special feature

Harappa Pakistan only site which yields the evidence of
coffin burial. A copper bullock cart is
another notable finding.
Mohenjodaro Pakistan Great Bath (no stone use), elaborate
store houses, uniform buildings and
weights, hidden drains, cotton clothes.
Dancing girl, seal of Pashupati,
bearded priest
Kalibangan Rajasthan Fire altar, oldest ploughed field, bricks
 are earthen ones, no drainage
Rakhigarhi Haryana
Banawali
Lothal Gujarat Fire altar, Semi precious stones
available. Coastal town, direct sea
trade links with Mesopotamia
Dholavira Gujarat Divided into 3 parts. Large open area
for public ceremonies.

E. Vedic period
a. Vedas - Rigveda has a dialog bw Vishwamitra and rivers Beas and
Sutlej. Many prayers for cattle, children and horses. Battles on horse
chariots fought to capture cattle and lands.
i. Groups who are described in terms of their work - brahmins
and rajas.
ii. People or community were described as jana or vish
(vaishya).
b. Practice of megaliths began around 3000 years ago (1000 BC) and
was prevalent throughout Deccan and south, North east and
Kashmir. Dead were buried with distinctive pots - Black and Red
Ware, tools and weapons, horses, ornaments of stone and gold.
Rich and poor distinction was clear.
c. Cist burial is a small stone-built coffin like box to keep the dead
persons while Dolmen burial is like a single chamber megalithic
tomb having two or more vertical megaliths 
d. Inamgaon (Maharashtra) - buried head towards north, sometimes
within the houses, vessels that contained food and water.
F. Post vedic
a. Some men now became recognized as rajas by performing very big
sacrifices. Asvamedha was one such ritual (horse was let loose, if
wandered into other kingdoms and they stopped it, those kings had
to fight. If horse allowed to pass, suzerainty accepted and gifts
offered).
b. Rajas who performed big sacrifices were known as rajas of janpadas.
Painted Grey Ware is from this time period, was used for special
occasions

c.

d. Mahajanpadas were fortified. Armies were maintained with regular

salaries. Instead of gifts brought by people, rajas now started
 collecting taxes
i. 1/6 of crop produce. One man day on craftsperson. Herders
had to provide animals and animals produce. Taxes on trade.
Hunters had to provide forest produce.
e. Major changes - iron ploughs and transplanting of paddy. Dasas and
kammakaras (landless) had to do this work.
f. Rise of Magadha - rivers flowing through it made transport easy,
easy supply of water, and fertile lands, elephants in the region for
army.
g. Vajji - capital at Vaishali. Was under gana or sangha form of govt -
many rulers (not women). Both Buddha and Mahavira came from
such ganas.
G. New movements
a. Buddha belonged to Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. Taught in
Prakrit.
b. Upanishads - means approaching and sitting near. Texts contain
conversations bw teachers and students. Most thinkers were men,
especially brahmins and rajas. Exceptions - Gargi and Satyakama
Jabala. Upanishad thinkers believed that atman (individual soul) and
brahman (universal soul) were ultimately one.
c. Mahavira - kshatriya prince of Lichchhavis (Vajji sangha). Taught in
Prakrit. Jainism was supported mainly by traders as farmers had to
kill insects to protect crops.
d. Earliest viharas were made of wood and then of brick. Often land
was donated by rich merchant or landowner or king.
e. Brahmins developed the system of ashramas around this period -
brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and sanyasa.
H. Ashoka
a. Megasthenese was an ambassador sent to Chandragupta by Greek
ruler of West Asia Seleucus Nicator. Wrote - king surrounded by
armed women, never sleeps in same bedroom for 2 nights, trained
parrots circle about head of emperor.
b. Inscriptions have been found all over the country (except maybe NE
and TN/KL). Written in Prakrit (Brahmi script).
c. Ashoka's dhamma - appointed officials known as dhamma
mahamatta. Sent messengers to Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka.
Ideas - being gentle with slaves and servants, respecting one's
elders, giving gifts to monks, respect other's religion.
d. use of stone started from the time of Asoka. Even of the numerous
monuments of Asoka, only a few have remained. Only remaining
stupa is at Sanchi.
I. Towns and villages (1st CE)
a. In Tamil Nadu, large landowners (vellalars), ploughmen (uzhavar)
and landless labor (kadaisiyar) and slaves (adimai).
b. In North, village headman (gram bhojaka) which was a hereditary
post and was the largest landowner. Judicial and police functions.
Independent farmers known as grihapatis.
c. Earliest coins were in use for 500 years were punched coins, made
of - silver and copper. Designs were punched on silver or copper.
d. Shrenis were associations of craft persons and merchants. Also
served as banks where rich people deposited money.
e. Arikamedu (Pondicherry) was a famous sea port - Roman goods
have been found here. Mentioned in Ptolemy's Geographia as
Poduke
J. Traders, kings and pilgrims (before Gupta)
a. Muvendars (three chiefs) became powerful in ancient Tamil. Puhar
(Kaveripattinam) was a famous sea port of Cholas in the
Nagapattinam district which traded with Roman empire. Madurai
was capital of Pandyas.
b. Did not collect regular taxes. Demanded and received gifts. Sangam
poets composed poems in praise of these chiefs who rewarded
them.
 c. Gautamiputra Satakarni is known because of inscription composed
by his mother, Gautami Balashri. Lords of the Dakshinpatha.
d. Kushanas controlled the silk route from their major power center -
Peshawar and Mathura. Hence a branch of silk road came to Indus.
Kushanas issued gold coins - one of the earliest rulers to do so.
e. Kanishka organized Buddhist council. His court poet, Ashvagosha
composed biography of Buddha called Buddhacharita, writing in
Sanskrit. Mahayana developed.
f. Travelers - Fa Hien (Chandra Gupta II, went back by sea. Noticed
plight of untouchables), Xuan Zang (Harsha, went back by land), I-
Qing.
i. Faxian's visit to India occurred during the reign of
Chandragupta II. However, he mentioned nothing about
Guptas.
g. Beginning of Bhakti - present in Bhagavad Gita. Emphasized
devotion and individual worship of a god rather performance of
elaborate sacrifices.
K. Gupta Empire
a. Prashashti is a Sanskrit word meaning, in praise of.
b. Samudragupta - inscriptions were written by Harisena. Harisena was
also maha-danda-nayaka (chief judicial officer). SG's achievements
i. Rulers of Aryavarta - uprooted and their kingdoms made part
of Gupta empire
ii. 12 Rulers of dakshinapath - surrendered and were allowed to
rule
iii. Gana sanghas of neighboring states - paid tributes and
followed his orders
iv. Rulers of SL, NW - submitted to him and offered daughters in
marriage
c. Both father (CG) and son used title maharaj-adhiraja.
d. Harshavardhana - his biography Harshacharita was written by
Banabhatta. Xuan Zang spent time at his court. Successful in east,
nowhere else.
e. Chalukyas - capital at Aihole which developed as a religious center.
Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided one another's land.
i. Pulakeshin II is known from his prashasti composed by court
poet Ravikirti.
f. Imp posts around this time
i. Kumar-amatya: important minister
ii. Sandhi-vigrahika: minister of war and peace
iii. Nagara-shreshthi: chief banker/merchant
iv. Sarthavaha: leader of merchant caravans
v. Prathama-kulika: chief craftsman
vi. Kayasthas: scribes
vii. Samantas: military leaders who provided troops in lieu of
land
g. Assemblies of southern kingdom
i. Sabha - assembly of brahmin land owners
ii. Ur - village assembly with non-brahmin land owners
iii. Nagaram - association of merchants
L. Buildings and paintings
i. Iron pillar at Mehrauli -generally identified with Chandragupta
II
ii. Stupas - generally have a small box containing bodily remains
of Buddha or his followers
iii. Kalidasa - flourished during the reign of Chandragupta II. Plays
- Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Malvikaagnimitram,
Vikramorasiyam. Poems- Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa
iv. Aryabhata, mathematician and astronomer - wrote
Aryabhatiyam and Aryasiddhanta. Day and night caused by
rotation on axis, explained eclipses, calculated circumference
of a circle.
2. Class 7
A. Tracing the changes bw 700 AD to 1750 AD
a. Al-Idrisi & Guillaume Delisle - were cartographers. Minhaj-i-siraj -
used the term India to mean dominions of Delhi Sultanate, not
including south India. Hindustan was used by Babur to describe
geography, flora and fauna of the subcontinent. Paper was more
easily available from 14th century onwards. Miniature paintings
were used to illustrate the text of paintings. Taliq, nastaliq and
shikaste - are Persian and Arabic writing styles. By 700 AD, many
regions already possessed distinct geographical dimensions and
their own language and cultural characteristics.
b. Brahmins position was consolidated by new rulers searching for
prestige. Idea of bhakti – of a loving, personal deity that devotees
could reach without the aid of priests or elaborate rituals. Like
Hinduism, Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways - Shias
(Prophet's son-in-law Ali is the leader) and Sunnis (accepted
leadership of father-in-law Bakr). Sunnis are the largest religious
domination, followed by Catholics. Sunni schools, prominent 4-
Hanafi (reason), Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali.
B. New kingdoms
a. Samantas - big landlords/warrior chief who were subordinate to the
kings. Called themselves mahasamanta or maha-mandaleswara.
Rashtrakutas (Dantidurga performed hiranya-garbha ritual to
"rebirth" himself as a kshatriya) gained power by overthrowing their
Chalukyan overlord. Brahmanas also took up arms and established
kingdoms (Gurjaras and Kadambas).
b. Administration: resources were obtained from producers -
peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans. Cholas took taxes - vetti (forced
labor) & kadamai (land revenue). Prashasti contain details that may
not be true. Copper plates with royal seal - record of grant of land
by the ruler. Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini which was an account of
Kashmir.
c. Kannauj - was center of conquest for subcontinent rulers. Foreign
invaders raided the temples for their wealth. Kitab-ul-Hind written
by Al-Biruni is an account of subcontinent around that period (11th
century).
d. Cholas - founder Vijayalaya, seized power from Pandyan and
Pallavas territories. Rajaraja consolidated power, Rajendra I raided
Sri Lanka and SE Asia by building navies for these expedition. Great
Living Chola temples - UNESCO World Heritage Site consists of 3
Shiva temples - Brihadeeswarar, Gangaikonda Cholapuram
(Rajendra I), Airavatesvara. Temples hub of economic, social and
cultural life. Chola bronze image are the finest in the world. From 5-
6th century, Kaveri delta opened up for large scale cultivation.
e. Admin of cholas - ur was settlement of peasants. Group of villages
formed unit called nadus. Nadus dispensed justice and collected
taxes. Vellala caste was dominant. Rich landowners were given titles
by kings like - muvendavelan (peasant serving 3 kings), araiyar and
gave them important offices in the State. Types of land - vellanvagai
(non-Brahaman), brahmadeya (gift to Brahamanas), Shalabhoga (for
maintenance of schools), Devadana (temples), pallichchhandam
(Jainas institutions). Brahmadeya was looked after by a sabha who
recorded decisions on the walls of the temples. Uttaramerur
inscription - members of sabha should own the land, 35-70 age,
knowledge of vedas, account of himself and relatives, honest, 3 year
max term. Association of traders (nagaram) performed admin
functions. Periyapuranam (12th century Tamil work) talks about
outcastes called Pulaiyas.
C. Delhi Sultanate
a. Delhi became an important commercial center under Tomaras and
Chahamanas. Coins minted called delhiwal.

Rajput Early 12th century - 1206

 Mamluk Dynasty 1206-1290 Turks
Khilji Dynasty 1290-1320 Turks
Tughlaq Dynasty 1320-1414 Turko-Indian
b.
Sayyid Dynasty 1414-1451 Turks
Lodi Dynasty 1451-1526 Pashtuns/Afghans

c. Tarikh/tawarikh - are histories written in Persian the language of

administration of Delhi Sultans. The authors of these had lived in
cities and not villages, expected reward from the rulers, advised to
preserve ideal social order based on birth right and gender
distinctions. Raziyya Sultan was the only woman ruler of Delhi
Sultanate. Minaj-i-sayyid was her chronicler. Usually women ruler
kept their gender identity on low profile (Rudramadevi, Didda).
Delhi Sultanate was one of the few states in the world which could
repel Mongol invasion.
d. Expansion of Delhi Sultanate - 1st expansion in internal frontiers -
hinterland around garrison towns was controlled by clearing forests
and encouraging agriculture. 2nd expansion - external frontiers -
military expedition into Southern India. Notable - Alauddin Khilji &
Muhammad Tughlaq. Quwwat al-Islam (Qutab complex) - built in
12th century by Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish. Qibla is direction of
Kabba in Mecca.
e. Administration - Bandagan (special slave for military slaves) were
governors. Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and
patrons, but not to their heirs. New Sultans had their own servants.
As a result the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict
between the old and the new nobility. The patronage of these
humble people by the Delhi Sultans also shocked many elites and
the authors of Persian tawarikh criticized the Delhi Sultans for
appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices.
f. Khilji and Tughlaq - appointed muqtis or iqtadars, who were
basically feudal lords. This position was not hereditary and the
muqtis were frequently transferred. Accountants kept a check on
amount of revenue collected. Rights of chieftains to levy taxes were
cancelled and they were also forced to pay taxes. 3 types of taxes:
(1) on cultivation called kharaj about 50% of peasant’s produce, (2)
on cattle and (3) on houses. But entire area was not under effective
administrations - forests or far away provinces or South India. Tribal
chieftains defended themselves (protected by bamboo forests and
harvested rainwater for crops and selves) - account by Ibn Battuta.
g. Mongols - attacked under Genghis Khan. Mongol attacks on the
Delhi Sultanate increased during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and in
the early years of Muhammad Tughluq’s rule. Forced both to
mobilize a large standing army in Delhi which posed a huge
administrative challenge. Strategies -

Alauddin Khilji Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Defensive measures, Raised a large standing army to attack
raised large standing Transoxiana, emptied Delhi-i-kunha
army and forced migration to Daulatabad
Taxed land between Produce from same area was collected
Ganga and Yamuna at as tax, but levied additional taxes,
h. 50% to feed his soldiers which coincided with famine
Paid cash than iqtas Paid cash but instead of controlling
(rations), and controlled prices gave out tokens (think sodexo),
prices of goods in Delhi which people didn't trust. They instead
and surveyed by officers paid taxes with it which could also be
counterfeited.
Measures were Measures considered as a failure.
 considered successful, Offensive campaign was a disaster and
reign was marked by his administrative measures created
cheap prices and problems. Resented for emptying
efficient supply of goods cities, famines, "token" currency
and services

To Tughlaq's credit - planned an offensive against Mongols and

capture their territory.
D. Mughals
a. Mughals were descendants of 2 lineages - Genghis Khan (mother's
side, ruler of Central Asia) & Timur (father's side, ruler of Iran Iraq
Turkey).
i. Babur - 1526-1530. Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at 1st Battle of
Panipat in 1526 establishing Mughal empire in Northern India.
1528 defeated Rajputs at Chanderi.
ii. Humayun - 1530-1540 & 1555-56 - divided inheritance as per
will of father. Sher Khan Suri ruled for 15 years after defeating
Humayun at Chausa & Kanauj. Humayun re-captures Delhi
with the help of Safavid Shah of Iran
iii. Akbar 1556-1605 - regent king under Bairam Khan until 1570.
Consolidated power by launching campaigns against
neighboring kingdoms such as Malwa, Gondwana, Sisodiya
etc. 1570-1585 - Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha captured.
1585-1605 - Kabul, Kandahar + Deccan.
iv. Jahangir 1605 - 1627 - Military campaigns continue. Shah
Jahan takes over after his death.
v. Shah Jahan 1627 - 1658 - Taj Mahal and Shahjahanabad.
vi. Aurangzeb 1658 - 1707 - killed his 2 brothers over succession
conflict and jailed Shah Jahan for life in Agra.
b. Mughals followed coparcenary inheritance (joint heirship) instead of
primogeniture - which ultimately led to battle of succession among
princes. The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating
their opponents enabled the Mughals to extend their influence over
many kings and chieftains. Mansabdars refers to a person who holds
mansab meaning a rank. It was a grading system used by Mughals to
fix rank, salary and military responsibilities (maintain cavalrymen);
which was determined by a numerical value called zat. Mansabdars
received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagir.
i. Peasantry by Aurangzeb's reign suffered because mansabdars
increased while jagirs were in short supply. Revenue from
jagirs was extracted as much as possible.
ii. Zabti was a revenue system under Akbar's reign by Todar Mal.
After careful survey tax was fixed on each crop in cash based
on 10 year data. Each province was divided into revenue circle
with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops.
Not possible in Gujarat and Bengal but where Mughals had
direct control.
iii. Abul Fazl wrote Akbar Nama, 3 volume history of Akbar's
reign. Ain-i-Akbari is 3rd volume of it and deals with his
administration, army, household et al and provides rich
details about traditions and culture of people living in India.
c. Akbar's policies - Empire was divided into provinces called subas,
governed by subadar. Financial officer called diwan. Peace and
order controlled by officials such as the military paymaster
(bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable
patronage (sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town
police commander (kotwal).
d. Sulh-i-kul (universal peace) - This idea of tolerance did not
discriminate between people of different religions in his realm,
focused on a system of ethics – honesty, justice, peace – that was
universally applicable. Was adopted by Akbar not merely for
religious purposes, but as a part of general imperial administrative
 policy. Akbar held discussions with priests of different religions in
ibadat khana.
e. Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent a great deal of their
income on salaries and goods. This expenditure benefited the
artisans and peasantry who supplied them with goods and produce.
But the scale of revenue collection left very little for investment in
the hands of the primary producers – the peasant and the artisan.
i. Poorest amongst them lived from hand to mouth and they
could hardly consider investing in additional resources – tools
and supplies – to increase productivity. The wealthier
peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants and bankers
profited in this economic world
f. Ottoman Turkey - Sultan Suleiman. He was the great emperor of
Ottoman empire, known as al-Qanuni (law giver) because of large
number of qanuns passed during his reign.
E. Rulers and buildings
a. Qutb Minar is 5 storeys tall, 1st floor was by Qutbuddin Aybak and
rest by Iltutmish. Tallest brick minaret in the world. Engineering
skills - corbelled or trabeate technique, used between 8-13 AD.
From early 12 AD - (1) The weight of the superstructure above the
doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches. This
architectural form was called “arcuate” (2) Limestone cement was
increasingly used in construction, which made construction of large
structures easier and faster
b. Temple construction in early 11 AD -
i. Kandariya Mahadeva - Shiva temple by King Dhangadeva of
Chandela dynasty. Khajuraho had royal temples where
commoners weren't allowed. Main hall (mahamandapa) &
main shrine (garbhagriha).
ii. Rajarajeshwara temple - Shiva temple by King Rajaraja deva
which doesn’t allow non-Hindus. Had tallest shikhara of its
time.
c. As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasize
their moral right to be rulers. Constructing places of worship
provided rulers with the chance to proclaim their close relationship
with God, especially important in an age of rapid political change.
Because kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God
and their power and wealth, it is not surprising that when they
attacked one another’s kingdoms they often targeted these
buildings
d. Mughals were especially interested in literature, art and
architecture (chahar baghs). The central towering dome and the tall
gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects of Mughal
architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb. During Shah Jahan’s
reign that the different elements of Mughal architecture were fused
together in a synthesis. His reign witnessed a huge amount of
construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi. The ceremonial
halls of public and private audience (diwan-i khas or aam) were
carefully planned. Placed within a large courtyard, these courts
were also described as chihil sutun or forty-pillared halls. //The idea
of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by
architectural features, such as facing Mecca when court is in
session.
e. Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj
Mahal. The mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the
river and the garden was to its south. Access to river was reserved
for imperial king.
f. The creation of large empires that brought different regions under
their rule helped in this cross-fertilization of artistic forms and
architectural styles. Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in
adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of their
own buildings. In Bengal, for example, the local rulers had
developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut.
 Mughals liked this “Bangla dome” so much that they used it in their
architecture. The impact of other regions was also evident. In
Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri many of the buildings show the
influence of the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.
F. Towns, traders, craftsmen
a. Sthapatis (sculptors). Thanjavur is an example of a temple town.
Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanization,
the process by which cities develop. Towns emerged around
temples such as those of Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or Vidisha in Madhya
Pradesh), and Somnath in Gujarat. Other important temple towns
included Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu, and Tirupati in
Andhra Pradesh.
b. Banjaras were traders. Guilds formed to protect interests as traders
traveled intensively - Manigramam and Nanadesi. These guilds
traded extensively both within the peninsula and with Southeast
Asia and China.
c. Crafts - The craftsperson of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work
in copper and silver that it came to be called Bidri. Panchalas or
Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronze smiths,
blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the building
of temples. Weavers were the Saliyar or Kaikkolars.
d. Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed
the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 1336. The
magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified city. No mortar or
cementing agent was used in the construction of these walls and
the technique followed was to wedge them together by
interlocking.
e. Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the
Mughal period along with Cambay (present day Khambat) and
somewhat later, Ahmedabad. Surat was the gateway for trade with
West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz. Surat has also been called the gate
to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here. Surat
hundis were honored in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra
in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.
f. Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to
control Masulipatnam as it became the most important port on the
Andhra coast. The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch.
g. In the 16th and 17th centuries, European countries were searching
for spices and textiles. The English, Dutch and French formed East
India Companies in order to expand their commercial activities in
the east. Initially great Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and
Virji Vora who owned a large number of ships competed with them.
However, the European Companies used their naval power to gain
control of the sea trade and forced Indian traders to work as their
agents.
h. 18th century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, which
are nodal cities today. Crafts and commerce underwent major
changes as merchants and artisans (such as weavers) were moved
into the Black Towns established by the European companies within
these new cities. The “blacks” or native traders and crafts persons
were confined here while the “white” rulers occupied the superior
residencies of Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in
Calcutta.
G. Tribes, Nomads & Settled Communities
a. Difference between the high and low, and between the rich and
poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans and the Mughals, this
hierarchy between social classes grew further. Many societies in the
subcontinent did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by
the Brahmanas. Nor were they divided into numerous unequal
classes. Such societies are often called tribes. Preserved rich
customs and oral traditions were passed down to each new
generation. Present day historians have started using such oral
traditions to write tribal histories.
 b. Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads. Their caravan
was called tanda. Many tribes and social groups were taken into
caste-based society and given the status of jatis. Smiths, carpenters
and masons – were also recognized as separate jatis. Jatis, rather
than varna, became the basis for organizing society. The rise of
Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal
people to follow. Many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind and the NW
Frontier adopted Islam quite early. The unequal social order,
prescribed by orthodox Hinduism, was not widely accepted in these
areas.
c. Gonds lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana – or “country
inhabited by Gonds” and shifting cultivation. Large Gond tribe was
divided into many smaller clans, each clan with own raja or rai.
About the time that the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a
few large Gond kingdoms were beginning to dominate the smaller
Gond chiefs. Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that had 70,000
villages.
i. Kingdom divided into garhs. Each garh was controlled by a
particular Gond clan. This was further divided into units of 84
villages called chaurasi. The chaurasi was subdivided into
barhots which were made up of 12 villages each. Was also
involved in exporting elephants.
ii. later struggled unsuccessfully against the stronger Bundelas
and Marathas.  
d. Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day
Myanmar in the 13th century. They created a new state by
suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).
Ahom state depended upon forced labor. Those forced to work for
the state were called paiks. A census of the population was taken.
Each village had to send a number of paiks by rotation.
i. Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. There were very
few castes of artisans, so artisans in the Ahom areas came
from the adjoining kingdoms. A khel often controlled several
villages. The peasant was given land by his village community.
Even the king could not take it away without the community’s
consent.
ii. Transformed into a Hindu society in early 18th century as
kings sought prestige and were encouraged in performing
rituals. Poets and scholars were given land grants. Theatre
was encouraged. Important works of Sanskrit were translated
into the local language. Historical works, known as buranjis,
were also written – first in the Ahom language and then in
Assamese.
e. Varna-based society and tribal people constantly interacted with
each other. This interaction caused both kinds of societies to adapt
and change. There were many different tribes and they took up
diverse livelihoods. Over a period of time, many of them merged
with caste based society. Others, however, rejected both the caste
system and orthodox Hinduism.
H. Devotional Paths to Divine
a. Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people
worshipped their own gods and goddesses. As people were brought
together, new ideas began to develop. All living things pass through
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good deeds and bad
came to be widely accepted. Similarly, the idea that all human
beings are not equal even at birth gained ground during this period.
The belief that social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family
or a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
b. Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the
teachings of the Buddha or the Jains according to which it was
possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle of
rebirth through personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such bondage if
 approached with devotion (or bhakti). This idea, advocated in the
Bhagavadgita, grew in popularity in the early centuries of the
Common Era.
c. 7th to 9th centuries saw the emergence of new religious
movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and
Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including
those considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
i. 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds.
Best known were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and
Manikkavasagar. There are two sets of compilations of their
songs – Tevaram and Tiruvacakam
ii. There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally divergent
backgrounds, the best known being Periyalvar, his daughter
Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their songs
were compiled in the Divya Prabandham.
d. Shankara - born in 8th century Kerala - advocate of Advaita or the
doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God
which is the Ultimate Reality. Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the
11th century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars (Vaishnavites). He
propounded the doctrine of Vishisht advaita or qualified oneness in
that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained
distinct (non-dualistic).
i. Vedanta is an umbrella term for many sub-traditions, ranging
from dualism to non-dualism, all of which developed on the
basis of a common textual connection called the
Prasthanatrayi.
ii. Prasthanatrayi is a collective term for the Principal
Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Some
of the better known sub-traditions of Vedanta include Advaita
(non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and
Dvaita (dualism).
e. Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his companions
like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. This movement began in
Karnataka in the mid-12th century.
i. Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human
beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the
treatment of women. They were also against all forms of
ritual and idol worship.
ii. Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry known
as Vachanaas.  introduced new public institutions such as the
Anubhava Mantapa (or, the “hall of spiritual experience”),
which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic
backgrounds to discuss spiritual and mundane questions of
life, in open.
f. From the 13th to the 17th centuries Maharashtra saw a great
number of saint-poets, whose songs in simple Marathi continue to
inspire people. The most important among them were Jnaneshwar,
Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakhubai and
the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable”
Mahar caste. This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the
Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the
notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all people.
//abhang (Marathi devotional hymn for Vithoba)
g. Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis criticized the ritual and other
aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple,
logical arguments. They advocated renunciation of the world.
i. Nathpanthis - Shaivism sub-tradition within Hinduism. A
medieval era movement, it combined ideas from Buddhism,
Shaivism and Yoga traditions in India.
ii. Siddhacharas - devotional group popular among the lower
caste people as they did not advocate rituals but called for
renouncing worldly rituals
 iii. Yogis - also referred to members of the Nath siddha tradition
of Hinduism
h. Sufism - The sants had much in common with the Sufis, so much so
that it is believed that they adopted many ideas of each other. Sufis
were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward religiosity and
emphasized love and devotion to God and compassion towards all
fellow human beings. The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals
and codes of behavior demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis, the Sufis too believed that
the heart can be trained to look at the world in a different way.
i. They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr
(chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama
(singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath
control, etc. under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus
emerged the silsilas, a spiritual genealogy of Sufi teachers,
each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of
instruction and ritual practice.
ii. The Chishti silsila was among the most influential orders. It
had a long line of teachers like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of
Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab,
Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz
Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
i. Period after 13th century saw a new wave of the bhakti movement
in north India. This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism,
Sufism, various strands of bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and
Yogis influenced one another. Some of them like Kabir and Baba
Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions.
Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and
practices but wanted to make these accessible to all. Tulsidas
conceived of God in the form of Rama. Tulsidas’s composition, the
Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi.
Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions are in
Sursagara, Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari.

j.
k. This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and
Mirabai. Mirabai was a Rajput princess married into the royal family
of Mewar in the sixteenth century. Mirabai became a disciple of
Ravidas (contested), a saint from a caste considered “untouchable”;
devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable bhajans. Her songs
openly challenged the norms of the “upper” castes and became
popular with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
l. Kabir, who probably lived in the 15-16th centuries, was one of the
most influential saints. He was brought up in a family of Muslim
julahas or weavers settled in or near the city of Benares.
i. His ideas are from collection of verses called sakhis and pads,
said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering
bhajan singers. Some of these were preserved in the Guru
Granth Sahib, Panch Vani (text of the Dadupanthi tradition
within Hinduism) and Bijak (Kabirpanthi's text).
ii. Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, indeed
vehement, rejection of the major religious traditions. His
teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship of
both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam, the pre-eminence of
the priestly classes and the caste system. The language of his
poetry was a form of spoken Hindi.
iii. Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that
the only path to salvation was through bhakti or devotion.
Kabir drew his followers from among both Hindus and
Muslims.
m. Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in
Pakistan), he travelled widely before establishing a center at
Kartarpur (Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi). A regular worship
that consisted of the singing of his own hymns was established
there for his followers. Irrespective of their former creed, caste or
gender, his followers ate together in the common kitchen (langar).
The sacred space thus created by Baba Guru Nanak was known as
dharmsal. It is now known as Gurdwara.
i. Guru Angad (his successor) compiled the compositions of
Baba Guru Nanak, to which he added his own in a new script
known as Gurmukhi. The three successors of Guru Angad also
wrote under the name of “Nanak”. The fifth guru, Guru Arjun
Dev, gave the Sikhs three things. The first was in the shape of
the Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and
other allied saints. The second was the standardized script for
Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first written. And
finally, the site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or
the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the
highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh
community are issued.
ii. To this compilation were added the writings of other figures
like Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh
Bahadur. In 1706 this compilation was authenticated by Guru
Tegh Bahadur’s son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh. It is
now known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the
Sikhs. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa,
which means “the pure”, in 1699. He also ordained the Sikhs
to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long hair and a
beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a
sword) and kaccha (an underwear extending to a little above
the knees). Consequently, these symbols became the
distinguishing marks of a Sikh. He further added that after his
death the Adi Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs and they
have to pay obeisance to this holy book.
iii. Nanak emphasized the importance of the worship of one God.
He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for
 attaining liberation. His idea of liberation was not that of a
state of inert bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with a
strong sense of social commitment. He himself used the terms
nam, dan and insan for the essence of his teaching, which
actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of
conduct. His teachings are now remembered as nam-japna,
kirt-karna and vandchhakna (sharing), which also underline
the importance of right belief and worship, honest living, and
helping others. Thus, Baba Guru Nanak’s idea of equality had
social and political implications. This might partly explain the
difference between the history of the followers of Baba Guru
Nanak and the history of the followers of the other religious
figures of the medieval centuries, like Kabir, Ravidas and Dadu
whose ideas were very similar to those of Baba Guru Nanak.
I. Regional Culture
a. Cheras -> development of Malayalam in Mahodayapuram (their
capital). Added Sanskrit traditions to it. Regional texts are indebted
to Sanskrit. Manipravalam - mix of Sanskrit and Tamil - one work is
Lilatilakam dealing in grammar and poetics.
b. Regional cultures grew around religious traditions. Best example - is
the cult of Jagannatha (lord of the world, name for Vishnu) at Puri.
To date, the local tribal people make the wooden image of the
deity, which suggests that the deity was originally a local god, later
identified with Vishnu. Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to
erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
Rajputs had a tradition of heroism, often choosing death over
defeat.
c. Kathak - The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in
Sanskrit and other languages for story. The kathaks were originally a
caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished
their performances with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving
into a distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th centuries with
the spread of the bhakti movement. The legends of Radha-Krishna
were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk
dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
i. Under the Mughal emperors, Kathak was performed in the
court, where it acquired its present features and developed
into a form of dance with a distinctive style. Subsequently, it
developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in the courts of
Jaipur and the other in Lucknow. Under the patronage of
Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major
art form.
ii. Kathak, like several other cultural practices, was viewed with
disfavor by most British administrators. However, it survived
and continued to be performed by courtesans, and was
recognized as one of six “classical” forms of dance in the
country after independence.
iii. Other dance forms that are recognized as classical at present
are: Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu) Kathakali (Kerala) Odissi
(Orissa) Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri (Manipur)
d. Miniature paintings - Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally
done in water color on cloth or paper; were patronized by Mughal
emperors. After decline of Mughal emperors, the artists moved to
emerging regional kingdoms. As a result, Mughal artistic tastes
influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts
of Rajasthan. Himachal Pradesh developed a bold and intense style
of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be
painted here was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari; led to the founding of
the Kangra school of painting (soft colors including cool blues and
greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes)
e. Although Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several
stages of evolution. Also, a wide range of non-Sanskrit words,
derived from a variety of sources including tribal languages, Persian,
 and European languages, have become part of modern Bengali.
Early Bengal literature - Sanskrit and independent of it. Sanksrit -
Mangalkavya (dealing with local deities) and bhakti literature
(biography of Chaitanyadeva). Independent - Nath literature such as
the songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra, stories concerning the
worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.
i. Pirs - were community leaders including saints or Sufis and
other religious personalities, daring colonizers and deified
soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and even
animistic spirits. The cult of pirs became very popular and
their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.
ii. Temples were built by people to demonstrate power and
proclaim their deity. Coming of Europeans created new
economic opportunities and Bengal went on a temple building
spree (15th-19th century)
iii. When local deities, once worshipped in thatched huts in
villages, gained the recognition of the Brahmanas, their
images began to be housed in temples. The temples began to
copy the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala)
structure of the thatched huts. This led to the evolution of
Bengali style temple architecture.
iv. Brihaddharma Purana, a 13th-century Sanskrit text from
Bengal, permitted the local Brahmanas to eat certain varieties
of fish.
J. 18th century political formations
a. Decline of Mughals - Mughal Empire reached the height of its
success and started facing a variety of crises towards the closing
years of the 17th century. Aurangzeb had depleted the military and
financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the
Deccan. Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial
administration broke down. It became increasingly difficult for the
later Mughal emperors to keep a check on their powerful
mansabdars. Nobles appointed as governors (subadars) often
controlled the offices of revenue and military administration (diwani
and faujdari) making them all powerful.
b. Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and
western India added to these problems. These revolts were
sometimes caused by the pressures of mounting taxes. At other
times they were attempts by powerful chieftains to consolidate
their own positions.
c. In the midst of this economic and political crisis, the ruler of Iran,
Nadir Shah, sacked and plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took
away immense amounts of wealth. This invasion was followed by a
series of plundering raids by the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali,
who invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761.
d. Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) and Alamgir II (1754-1759) were
assassinated, and two others Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) and Shah
Alam II (1759-1816) were blinded by their nobles.
e. New states - states of the eighteenth century can be divided into
three overlapping groups: (1) States that were old Mughal provinces
like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. Although extremely powerful
and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break their
formal ties with the Mughal emperor. (2) States that had enjoyed
considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs.
These included several Rajput principalities. (3) The last group
included states under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like
the Jats. These were of differing sizes and had seized their
independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn armed
struggle.
f. Hyderabad - founder was Asaf Jah. Taking subsequent advantage of
the turmoil in the Deccan and the competition amongst the court
nobility, he gathered power in his hands and became the actual
ruler of that region.
 g. Awadh - Burhan-ul-mulk Saadat Khan was subadar of Awadh and
one of important states to emerge after Mughal break up. He held
the combined offices of subadari, diwani and faujdari. It sold the
right to collect tax to the highest bidders. These “revenue farmers”
(ijaradars) agreed to pay the state a fixed sum of money. Local
bankers guaranteed the payment of this contracted amount to the
state. In turn, the revenue-farmers were given considerable
freedom in the assessment and collection of taxes.
h. Bengal - Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal control under
Murshid Quli Khan who was appointed as the naib, deputy to the
governor of the province. Although never a formal subadar, Murshid
Quli Khan very quickly seized all the power that went with that
office.
i. 3 common features amongst these states - (1) Erstwhile Mughal
nobles were highly suspicious of some of the administrative systems
that they had inherited, in particular the jagirdari system. (2) their
method of tax collection differed. Rather than relying upon the
officers of the state, all three regimes contracted with revenue-
farmers for the collection of revenue. The practice of ijaradari,
thoroughly disapproved of by the Mughals, spread all over India in
the 18th century. Their impact on the countryside differed
considerably (3) Emerging relationship with rich bankers and
merchants. These people lent money to revenue farmers, received
land as security and collected taxes from these lands through their
own agents. Throughout India the richest merchants and bankers
were gaining a stake in the new political order.
j. Sikhs - Organization of the Sikhs into a political community during
the 17th century helped in regional state-building in the Punjab.
Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the
Rajput and Mughal rulers, both before and after the institution of
the Khalsa in 1699. After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt
against the Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur’s leadership,
declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru
Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established their own
administration between the Sutlej and the Jamuna. Sikh territories
in the late 18th century extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but
they were divided under different rulers. One of them, Maharaja
Ranjit Singh, reunited these groups and established his capital at
Lahore in 1799.
k. Marathas - Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable kingdom with the
support of powerful warrior families (deshmukhs). Groups of highly
mobile, peasant pastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of the
Maratha army. Shivaji used these forces to challenge the Mughals in
the peninsula. Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire
expanded, chipping away at the authority of the Mughal Empire.
Malwa and Gujarat were seized from the Mughals by the 1720s;
Maratha king possessed the right to levy chauth (25%) and
sardeshmukhi (10%) in the entire region
l. Jats - The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and towns like
Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important trading centers in the
areas dominated by them. Under Suraj Mal the kingdom of
Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
3. Class 8 Part 1
A. Beginnings
a. James Mill wrote A History of British India and divided Indian history
into - Hindu, Muslim and British.
b. 1st English factory set up on Hugli near Kalikata in 1651, fortified it
by 1696. First got a farman for right to free trade from Aurangzeb.
Successive nawabs of Bengal accused Company of deceit while
Company declared that unjust demands of local officials was ruining
trade. Battle of Plassey was fought in 1757 between Clive and
Sirajuddaulah, resulting in defeat of latter as forces led by Mir Jafar
 never fought the battle. Eventually after failing to work with puppet
Nawabs, they decide to rule directly themselves.
c. In 1765, Diwani was allowed. This stopped flow of gold from Britain
as revenues from Diwani was used to finance trade, wars and
fortification. Company rarely launched a direct military attack on
unknown territory, rather choosing political, economic and
diplomatic methods to annex a kingdom. After Battle of Buxar,
company started appointing residents in Indian states.
d. Mysore - Four wars with Mysore, eventually winning in 1799 with
death of Tipu.
e. Marathas - subdued in a series of wars. First war ended with Treaty
of Salbai in 1782. 2nd war 1803-05 resulted in British gaining
territories. 3rd war 1817-19 crushed Marathas.
f. Policy of paramountcy initiated under Lord Hastings - in order to
protect its interests, annexing or threatening to do so to any Indian
kingdom was justified. Due to fear of a Russian invasion, EIC sought
to secure north-west, hence war with Afghanistan bw 1838-42 and
established indirect rule there. Sind was taken over in 1843. Punjab
in 1849 after couple of wars after Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death.
g. Doctrine of Lapse - Lord Dalhousie devised this policy, if an Indian
ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would lapse. Kingdoms
annexed under this doctrine - Satara, Sambalpur, Udaipur, Nagpur,
Jhansi.
h. Setting up of administration - 1st Governor-General introduced
several administrative reforms, notably in sphere of justice. From
1772, new system of justice was established - faujdari adalat
(criminal) and diwani adalat (civil). Criminal courts under qazi and
mufti but supervision of collector. In 1775, digest of Hindu laws
were compiled for benefit of European judges. N. B. Halhed
translated this to English.
i. Company army - focused on building professional soldiers armed
with new technology. Infantry regiments were more important than
sawars.
B. Ruling the countryside
a. Revenue for the Company - even after becoming Diwan, company
saw itself as a trader. Effort was to buy cotton and silk as cheaply as
possible and increase revenue as much as it could. Bengal economy
was precarious at this point, and in 1770 famine wiped out 1/3
population or 10 million people.
b. After two decades of debate on question of agriculture
improvement, Permanent Settlement was introduced in 1793 by
Lord Cornwallis. Rajas and taluqdars were recognized as zamindars.
Amount to be paid was fixed permanently, and zamindar to invest in
land to increase production, thereby, own profits.
i. However, revenue fixed was so high that zamindars struggled
to pay. They preferred renting it to tenants and not interested
in improving the land. Conversely, cultivators found system
extremely oppressive. Rent was high and rights insecure.
ii. Declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence, they
could keep 1/11th of the revenue collected to themselves
while the British got a fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue
collected. Zamindars were free to fix the rents.
c. Mahalwari - Holt Mackenzie devised it in Bengal presidency.
Estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added to
calculate revenue that each mahal (village/group of village) had to
pay. Demand revised periodically. Charge of collection given to
village headman.
d. Ryotwari - developed in Madras presidency. By Alexander Read and
Thomas Munro. Settlement directly made with cultivators
(ryots).Fields carefully surveyed before revenue assessment made
i. Revenue officials fixed too high a demand, peasants unable to
pay, ryots fled the countryside and villages became deserted.
 e. Crops for Europe - by late 18th century, company was trying its best
to expand cultivation of opium and indigo. Indigo primarily grows in
tropics and produced rich blue color. Europeans were using plant
called woad to make violet and blue dyes, manufacturers of which
tried to get indigo banned. However, indigo plantations came up in
different parts of the colonized world. In late 18th century due to
slave rebellion in French colonies, production of indigo fell by half.
Bengal became dominant exporter of indigo to Britain.
Indigo was cultivated in 2 main systems - nij and ryoti.
i. Nij - planter produced indigo in lands that he directly
controlled (bought or rented). Indigo could only be cultivated
in fertile lands and these were already occupied. It also
required labor and ploughs and bullocks. Indigo season
coincided with rice planting and harvesting. Less than 25% of
land producing indigo was under this system.
ii. Ryoti - planters forced ryots to sing an agreement called satta.
Those who signed get cash advances from planters at low rate
of interest. Loan committed ryot to cultivating indigo on at
least 25% of area under his holding. Planter provided seed
and drill. The system was harsh as price they got for indigo
was low and cycle of loan never ended.
iii. Indigo production - plant was taken to vats (fermenting or
storage vessel), 3-4 vats with each having a separate
function.
f. Blue rebellion - in 1859, ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo,
socially boycotted planters and attacked gomasthas (agents of
planters). They felt that had support of local zamindars and
headmen against planters. They were unhappy with increasing
power of planters. Ashley Eden, a magistrate, tried to control the
situation which was read as support for rebellion. Worried about
this, govt brought military to protect planters and set up Indigo
Commission. It held planters guilty and asked ryots to fulfil existing
contracts.
C. Tribals & dikus (outsiders)
a. Most tribal societies had customs and rituals which were very
different from those laid down by Brahmanas. They were involved
in variety of activities
i. Jhum cultivation - shifting cultivation, slash and burn. Spread
the ash from fire which contained potash to fertile the soil.
Broadcast the seeds instead of ploughing. Field cultivated
once was left fallow for a few years. Free movement in forests
necessary.
ii. Hunter-gatherer - Forests essential for survival, dependent on
forest produce. E.g. Baigas. But tribals were usually exploited
in market and commercial activities.
iii. Herding and rearing - pastorals who moved according to
seasons. E.g. Van Gujjars, Lambadis, Gaddis, Bakarwals.
iv. Settled cultivation - land belonged to whole clan, powerful
men often rented out land instead of cultivating themselves.
b. What changed under British rule
i. Lost administrative power and forced to follow law of British,
unable to fulfil their traditional functions
ii. British didn't want shifting cultivations as it affected revenue
and harder to administer. Efforts to settle jhum cultivators
was not successful.
iii. Forest laws were changed and entire forests made state
property. Forest people not allowed to move freely and
forced to move and find work. However, forest villages were
established to ensure supply of labor in lieu of small patches
of land to jhum cultivators. Revolt of Songram Sangma 1906 in
Assam was against colonial forest laws.
c. Revolts - Kols in 1832, Santhals in 1855, Bastar in 1910 and Warli in
1940.
 Birsa movement aimed to drive out missionaries, moneylenders,
landlords and govt, and set up a Munda raj (restore the golden age
when Mundas lived a good life). He was imprisoned for 2 years but
came back and roused more support, his supporters attacking police
stations and churches. Movement was significant in 2 ways - forced
colonial govt to introduce laws to protect their lands and tribal
people's capacity to protest
D. First rebellion
a. Nawabs lost their power gradually, and with that their authority and
honor. Residents were stationed in their court, armed forces
disbanded and revenues and territories overtaken. Awadh was one
of the territories overtaken under subsidiary alliance on charges of
misgovernance. In 1856, Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar
will be the last king, his descendants would be just princes.
b. Peasants and sepoys - high taxes and rigid collection meant many
failed to pay back loans on time and lost their lands. Sepoys were
unhappy about pay, allowance, and violations to their religious
beliefs (believed that one loses religion and caste if they cross the
sea). Many Indians began to feel that British were destroying their
religion, social customs and way of life - stopped practice of Sati,
English language promoted, free pass to Christian missionaries and
conversions made easier.
c. 1857 rebellion - In May 1857, the immediate event which angered
the sepoys was about the ammunition for the new rifles they had to
use. The cartridges that were used in the rifles had to
be bitten open. Hindus and Muslims were angry because they
thought that the paper cartridges had cow/pig fat in them. Sepoys
were dismissed from service and sentenced to jail. Other Indian
soldiers marched to jail and released them, and attacked British
officers. They marched to Delhi and asked BSZ to become leader of
the rebellion who agreed unwillingly.
d. Regiments after regiments mutinied and took off to join other
troops. People of towns and villages rallied around local leaders
who were ready to fight the British. Nana Saheb, adopted son of
Peshwa Baji Rao, and Tantia Tope, Rani Lakshmibai, Rani Avantibai
Lodhi were some other leaders of the mutiny. Many new leaders
came up - Ahmadullah Shah Maulvi, Bakht Khan (soldier), Kunwar
Singh (zamindar) were other key leaders.
e. Suppression - Company brought reinforcements from England,
passed new laws to convict rebels with ease and moved to storm
the centers of revolt. Delhi was recaptured in Sep 1857, BSZ exiled
to Burma. It took British two more years to defeat all other rebel
leaders. British tried their best to win back loyalty of people by
offering rewards to loyal landholders, land rights to rebels who
haven't killed white people. However, many sepoys, rebels, nawabs
were tried and hanged.
f. Aftermath -
i. British Parliament passed new Act in 1858 and transferred
powers to British Crown to ensure more responsible
management of Indian affairs. Secretary of State for India
appointed and India Council to advise him. Viceroy
(representative of the Crown) instead of Governor-General.
ii. All ruling chiefs assured that their territory will not be
annexed in future, doctrine of lapse abolished. But
acknowledge Queen as sovereign paramount.
iii. Increase number of British soldiers. Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathan
recruitment increased.
iv. Land and property of Muslims confiscated and treated with
suspicion and hostility as British believed they were largely
responsible for rebellion.
v. British decided to respect customary religious and social
practices of people in India.
E. Delhi under British
 a. Cities such as Surat, Machlipatnam and Seringapatam were de-
urbanized in 19th century as trade and commercial shifted as British
took over.
b. British gained control of Delhi in 1803 after defeating Marathas.
Since British India were ruling from Calcutta, Mughal emperor was
allowed to continue living in Red Fort. Many refer to 1830-57 as
period of Delhi renaissance. After regaining the city from rebels,
Delhi was plundered, area around Fort was cleared of gardens,
pavilions and mosques. No worship was allowed in Jama Masjid for
5 years and 1/3 of city was demolished.
c. New capital - In 1877,Viceroy Lytton organized a Durbar to
acknowledge Queen as Empress of India. 1903 under Curzon, durbar
was held to celebrate the succession of Edward VII and Alexandra of
Denmark as Emperor and Empress of India. In 1911, when King
George V was crowned in England (Viceroy Hardinge), Durbar was
held in Delhi (only time the sovereign attended) to celebrate and
decision to shift capital to Delhi was announced. Annulment of the
Partition of Bengal was also announced during this durbar.
d. Lutyens and Baker designed New Delhi and its buildings. Overall
look was Classical Greek with features borrowed from different
period of India's imperial history. New Delhi was to represent a
sense of law and order instead of chaotic old Delhi.
e. During Partition - fierce rioting began. Over 2/3 of Delhi Muslims
left. Delhi became a city of refugees. Lajpat Nagar and Tilak Nagar
came up to house refugees. Large migration changed the social
milieu of Delhi.
f. Lahore Gate Improvement Scheme - Robert Clarke in 1888 for
walled city residents.

4. Class 8 Part 2
A. Weavers, Iron Smelters & Factory Owners
a. By 1850s, Britain came to be known as "workshop of the world".
Before British conquered Bengal, India was by far the world's largest
producer of cotton textiles. Europeans first saw the fine cotton cloth
from India in Mosul, hence the name Muslin. Portuguese took back
cotton from Calicut, calling it calico.
i. Chintz (floral print), cossaes (or khassa) and bandanna are all
Indian words which got popularized in Europe
ii. British govt banned chintz by Calico Act
iii. Some weaver communities - Tanti (Bengal), julahas, momin
(North), sale, kaikollar, devangs (South).
b. Rise of British industries and suppression of Indian cotton from
world markets led to decline of Indian textiles. By 1880s, 2/3 of
India was wearing British manufactured clothes. Only rich handloom
clothing and coarse clothing worn by poor could survive this
onslaught.
c. Wootz (anglicized ukku) steel was produced all over south India.
Steel industry declined as British conquered more parts of India,
introduced imported steel and enacted forest laws which
devastated small scale smelting communities (such as Agarias).
B. Civilizing the Native
a. William Jones, Henry Colbrooke and Nathaniel Halhed set up Asiatic
Society of Bengal and a journal called Asiatick Researches.
b. Orientalists believed that ancient customs of the country and
oriental learning ought to be the basis of British rule in India.
c. Anglicists believed that British effort should not be to teach what
natives wanted in order to please them. Aim of education ought to
be to teach what was useful and practical. These critics were James
Mill & Thomas Macaulay.
i. Following Macaulay's Minute, English Education Act of 1835
was introduced. Medium of instruction for higher education
 was to be English and stop promotion of Orientalists
institution.
ii. Woods' despatch 1854 - literature of East was not only full of
grave errors, it could not instill in people a sense of duty, nor
skills required for administration.
iii. Until 1813, Company opposed missionary activities for the
fear of backlash from local population. Hence the missionaries
set up a mission at Serampore in an area under Danish
control. Printing press came up in 1800 and college in 1818.
d. William Adam report on education in Bengal - 1 lakh pathshalas in
Bengal & Bihar. Small institutions with around 20 students each. Fee
depended on income of parents, teaching was oral, classes not held
during harvest time.
i. After company decided to improve vernacular system -
decided to appoint govt pandit in charge of 4-5 schools, fixed
time table, annual exams, teaching based on textbooks. Those
who accepted got govt grants.
e. Nationalists view
i. Mahatma Gandhi deplored colonial education as it created
sense of inferiority in minds of Indian and lose self respect in
own culture. He valued lived experience and practical
knowledge.
ii. Tagore started Shantiniketan in 1901 combining elements of
modern western civilization and best of Indian traditions.
Need to teach science and technology along with art, music
and dance.
C. Women & Caste Reform
a. Ram Mohan Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of western
education in country and bring about greater freedom and equality
for women.
b. Some women reformers in 19th century - Pandita Ramabai
(founded Sharda Sadan, a widows' home at Poona and Arya Mahila
Samaj) & Tarabai Shinde (published Stripurushtulna)
c. Satnami movement (Guru Ghansidas) in Central India worked
among leatherworkers to improve their social status. In East Bengal,
Harshad Mehta's Matua sect worked among Chandala cultivators.
D. Changing world of visual arts
a. European artists brought the idea of realism, technique of oil
painting (Indians not very familiar). Some trends - (a) Thomas and
William Daniell were landscape artists. (b) Portrait paintings became
popular with Indian nawabs c) celebration of military triumph -
these were recurring themes as British power grew.
b. Indian adaptation - scroll painters (called patuas) and potters
developed a new style in Kalighat. Style was bold, deliberate non-
realistic where figures emerge large and powerful. Themes were
political and social themes. Even the poor could buy these.
c. Raja Ravi Varma - created a style that was both modern and
national. Became rage among Indian princes and art collectors.
Abanindranath Tagore (and pupil Nandlal Bose) - this school
rejected Varma's style as imitative and tried to capture spiritual
essence of the East, and were inspired by miniature paintings and
mural paintings of Ajanta.
E. Making of National Movement
a. Swadesi movement was known as Vandematram movement in
Deltaic Andhra.
F. India After Independence

5. Class 9
A. French Revolution - John Locke, Rousseau (The Social Contract) put
forward the idea of a society based on freedom and equal laws and
opportunities for all.
Montesquieu proposed division of power within govt bw legislative,
executive and judiciary (The Spirit of Laws).
6. Class X - Part 2
A. Nationalism in India
a. Growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to anti-
colonial movement. People began discovering their unity in struggle
with colonialism. Congress under Gandhi tried to forge various
groups within one movement.
b. WW1 created new economic and political turmoil. (a) Increase in
defense expenditure financed by war loans and increasing taxes (b)
forced recruitment to supply soldiers c) Crops failed in 1918-20
leading to acute shortage of food and influenza epidemic (12-13
million perished).
c. Gandhi returned to India in Jan 1915. Idea of satyagraha
emphasized power of truth and need to search for truth. If cause
was true, struggle was against injustice, then physical force not
necessary to fight the oppressor. Satyagrahi could win battle by
appealing to conscience of oppressor. Gandhi believed dharma of
non-violence could unite all Indians. Early satyagraha movements by
Gandhi - Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad.
d. Rowlatt Act 1919 - passed through Imperial Legislative despite
Indian opposition. Gave govt power to repress political activities and
detention of political prisoners for 2 years. Eventually led to
Jalianwala Bagh massacre under General Dyer's command. Seeing
violence spread (Chauri Chaura), Gandhi called off the movement.
e. To launch a more broad based movement, needed rural support
and unity of Hindu-Muslims. Gandhi took up the Khilafat issue.
Ottoman Turkey was on losing side of WW1 and a harsh treaty was
in works. In Calcutta session 1920, convinced Congress to start non-
cooperation in support of Khilafat and swaraj. Why Non-
Cooperation? British rule was established in India with the
cooperation of Indians and will collapse if Indians refused to
cooperate. However, council elections of 1920 were on the minds of
some Congress leaders.
f. Non-Cooperation/Khilafat began in Jan 1921. Various social groups
participated with own specific aspiration. //Justice Party in Madras
was a non-Brahmanical party, founded by Nair and Chetty.
i. Urban - movement started with middle class participation in
cities. School students, teachers, lawyers. Foreign goods
boycotted, foreign cloth burnt in bonfires. Merchants and
traders refused to trade or finance foreign trade. But poor
people couldn't afford khadi, alternative Indian institutions
didn't come up
ii. Countryside - drew into fold struggles of peasants and tribals.
Awadh Kisan Sabha by Nehru and Baba Ramachandra had
come up to promote Non-Cooperation and integrate peasant
struggle into wider struggle. However, it turned violent. Name
of Gandhi was invoked to sanction all actions and
aspirations.
iii. Tribals - interpreted the message of Gandhi in yet another
way. Militant guerilla movement in Gudem Hills AP led by
Alluri Raju (Rampa Rebellion 1922) who asserted use of
force.
iv. Plantations - workers felt swaraj was freedom to move freely
and retaining links with their native villages. Inland Emigration
Act of 1859 prohibited them from leaving tea gardens without
permission which was rarely given. They headed home after
hearing of non-cooperation. Believed Gandhi raj was coming
and everyone would get land in their own villages.
v. Though social groups interpreted swaraj in own ways, they
were emotionally demanding and relating to an all-India
agitation. However movement turned violent in many places.
CR Das and ML Nehru argued return to council politics. JLN
 and SCB pressed for radical mass agitation. Chauri Chaura
incident brought an end to Non-Coop (police officials opened
fire and were killed)
g. Before Civil Disobedience - countryside in turmoil due to effects of
Great Depression and Tory govt constitutes Statutory Commission
under John Simon to look into functioning of constitutional system
in India. Problem: No Indian member. Lord Irwin announced in
October 1929 (a) vague offer of dominion status (b) Round Table
Conference. December 1929 - Lahore Congress formalized demand
of Purna Swaraj. 26 January 1930 as Independence Day. Gandhi
attempted to relate this to concrete everyday issues of life.
h. Salt march and Civil Disobedience - Gandhi sent list of 11 wide-
ranging demands to Lord Irwin, most controversial was salt tax. If
not fulfilled by 11 March, ultimatum to start a civil disobedience
campaign. Dandi march was from Sabarmati to Dandi (240 km) for
24 days and urging people to peacefully defy the British. What was
different from NCM? Break colonial laws. Following happened
i. Colonial govt began arresting Congress leaders one by one.
When Gandhi was arrested, supporters attacked structures
that symbolized British rule. Govt responded with a policy of
brutal repression.
ii. Gandhi-Irwin pact - participate in (2nd) Round Table
Conference in London and in return political prisoners to be
released. But negotiations broke down and back in India new
cycle of repression had begun. Gandhi relaunched CDM but
lost momentum by 1934.
i. How people saw CDM
i. Rich peasant communities hard hit by Depression. For them
fight for swaraj was struggle against high revenues.
Disappointed when movement called off in 1931 without
revenue rates being revised.
ii. Poor peasantry - wanted unpaid rent to landlord to be
remitted. Joined radical movements led by Socialists and
Communists, which made relationship bw poor peasantry and
Congress uncertain.
iii. Businessmen - keen on expanding business and protection
from imports. Formed Indian Industrial Commercial Congress
1920 and FICCI 1927. Saw swaraj as time when trade and
industry would flourish without constraints. But failure of
Round Table made them less enthusiastic. Spread of militant
activities, prolonged disruption of business and growing
influence of socialism worried them. Congress was reluctant
to include industrial workers' demand.
iv. Women - thousands of women came out of homes and
participated, many went to jail. From high caste families and
rich peasant households. Yet increased public role didn't
change way position of women was perceived.
v. Dalits - for long Congress ignored dailts for fear of offending
conservative high caste Hindus. Gandhi championed their
cause, called them harijan - children of god - and organized
satyagraha to get them entry into public places. Dalit leaders
saw a different political approach by organizing themselves
and demanded reserved seats in education and separate
electorate to choose Dalit members for legislative councils.
j. BR Ambedkar organized Dalits into Depressed Class Association in
1930 and clashed with Gandhi in 2nd RTC and demanded separate
electorate, Gandhi started fast unto death. Poona Pact 1932 bw
Ambedkar and Gandhi saw status of Schedule Castes getting
reserved seats but in general electorate.
k. After decline of Khilafat/NCM, large section of Muslims felt
alienated from Congress which was visibly associated from 20s
onwards with Hindu religious nationalist groups. Jinnah and Muslim
League wanted federal structure in the Constitution on the lines of
 USA and reserved 1/3 seats in Central assembly but were shut
down. CDM started under atmosphere of distrust and suspicion bw
communities, Muslims could not respond to call for a united
struggle.
l. Nationalism - spreads when people begin to believe they are all part
of same nation, some unity that binds them together. History and
fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbolism all played
part in making of nationalism. Bankim Chandra Chattopdhyay wrote
Vande Mataram in 1870s. Later included in his novel Anandamath
and widely sung during Swadesi Movement in Bengal.
Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata, devotion to this figure
came to be seen as evidence of one's nationalism.
In late 19th century India, nationalists began recording folk tales to
create a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted
by outside forces. Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal and Natesa Sastri
in Madras led folk revival. During Swadesi movement, red green
yellow tricolor flag with 8 lotus and crescent moon was designed. By
1921, Gandhi designed the swaraj flag - red green white with
charkha in center.
m. Efforts to unify people were not without problems - when past
being glorified was Hindu, images celebrated taken from Hindu
iconography, people of other communities felt left out.
B. Print culture
a. Print tech was developed in China, Japan, Korea. System of hand
printing by rubbing paper. Oldest Japanese book is Diamond Sutra.
Marco Polo took the woodblock tech from China to Italy in 13th
century. Johann Gutenberg developed first known printing press in
1430s. First printed book using mechanical press was Bible.
b. Earlier people lived in world of oral culture. Protestant Reformation
can be attributed to printing technology.
c. India - very rich tradition of handwritten manuscripts, copied on
palm leaves or handmade paper. Pre-colonial Bengal had village
primary schools where people learnt to write only.
d. Printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in
mid-16th century. James A Hickey started Bengal Gazette, a weekly
newspaper which was not part of Company (Hastings closed it).

Bengal Gazette (first Bengali) Gangadhar Bhattacharya

e. Sambad Kaumudi Rammohan Roy

Samachar Chandrika Hindu orthodoxy to oppose
Roy
Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Persian newspapers
Akhbar
Bombay Samachar Gujarati

f. Liberal men began educating womenfolk at home and sent them to

school when they were set up in mid-19th century.

g. Amar Jiban first autobiography in Bengali by

Rashsundar Debi
Gulamgiri Jyotiba Phule - on injustices of caste
system
Chhote aur bade ka Kashibaba - caste and class exploitation
sawal

h. Censorship - after revolt of 1857, Vernacular Press Act was passed

modelled on Irish Press Laws. Rights to censor reports and editorials
in vernacular press.
C. Novels, society
 a. Novel originated in Europe at a time when it was colonizing the rest
of the world. Early novel contributed to colonialism by making
readers feel they were part of a superior community of fellow
colonialists.
b. Stories in prose were not new to India. Earliest novels in modern
India were written in Bengali and Marathi.

Sanskrit Kadambari written by Banabhatta - one of

earliest in world
Marathi Yamuna Baba Padmanji - 1st in Marathi
Paryatan
Marathi Muktamala Lakshman Moreswar Halbe
Malayalam Indulekha Chandu Menon - 1st in
Malayalam,
Saraswathivijayam by Potheri
c. Kunjambu (novel was about
caste)
Telugu Rajasekhara Kandukuri Viresalingam
Caritamu
Kannada Indirabai Gulavadi Venkata Rao
Hindi Pariskha Guru Srinivas Das, but not popular as
1882 too preachy
Hindi Chandrakanta Devaki Nandan Khatri, made
novel popular in Hindi
Hindi Sewasadan Premchand, poor condition of
women in society
Assamese Manomati Rajanikanta Bardoloi, Assamese
Bengali Durgeshnandini Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
-
1st was Karuna O Phulmonir
Bibaran by Hannah Mullens,
Titash by Malla Burman

d. National song was published in Anandmath by Bankim Chandra

Chatterjee.

7. Class 12 - part 1
A. Theme 1
a. Harappan seal - made of stone called steatite, contains animal
motifs and signs - script indecipherable. Finds of rice are rare in
Harappan. No clue if Harappan hunted wild animals or traded with
hunting communities. Evidence of ploughed field at Kalibangan.
Likely that water from wells used for irrigation. Water reservoir in
Dholavira used to store water for agriculture. Vessels made of
stone, metal and terracotta. Cities such as Kalibangan and Lothal
had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.
b. Mohenjo-Daro - divided into Citadel and Lower stone. Citadel was
walled, physically separated from the lower town. Lower town also
walled. Settlement was first planned and then implemented, as all
buildings were built on. Sun dried bricks were of standard ratio.
Harappa cities - carefully planned drainage system. Alexander
Cunningham, father of Indian archaeology. Citadel - warehouse and
the great bath.
c. Burials - dead were laid in pits. Graves contain pottery and
ornaments. Valuable materials concentrated in Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa.
 d. Chanhudaro - exclusively devoted to craft production with variety of
materials - precious stones, metals. Nageshwar and Balakot -
bangles, ladles and inlay.
e. Procuring materials - from alluvial plains, riverine routes, coastal
routes. Shortughai (lapis lazuli, high value blue stone) is in
Afghanistan. Expeditions to other communities. Omani (Magan)
copper and Harappan artifacts have common origins. Mesopotamia
called Harappa region of Meluhha. The earliest traces of
cotton known anywhere in the world have been found in the
Valley.
f. Seals, scripts and weights - seals were used to facilitate long
distance trade and communication. Harappan seal had writing (right
to left) + motifs for those who couldn't read. Writing was found on
variety of items => were most people literate? Weights - made of
stone called chert, cubical in shape.
g. Authority - no identifiable power of authority. Parallel of priest king
of Mesopotamia found in Indus. Single state theory - similarity in
artifacts, planned settlements, standardized ratio of brick size and
settlements near sources of raw materials. Unlikely entire
communities could have collectively made and implemented such
complex decisions.
h. Decline - after 1900 BCE disappearance of distinctive artifacts of
civilization, ritual way of life in Late Harappa cultures. Discovery
time - Cunningham used Chinese pilgrim accounts to locate and
excavate sites. Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji - found seals
at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. John Marshall - announced
discovery of Indus Valley to the world 1924. Mound - build up of
occupational debris. Study of sterile layers is called stratigraphy.
i. Wheeler - DG ASI 1944 - followed the stratigraphy of the mound
rather than uniform digging up of an area, for military precision to
practice of archaeology.
j. Piecing together - classifying finds - material, function.
Reconstruction of history made on assumption that later tradition
provide parallels with earlier ones. Issue of gender work haven't
been investigated till now.
B. Kings, Farmers and Towns (600 BCE to 600 AD)
a. Emergence of early states, empires and kingdoms. New modes of
disposal of dead - including making of megaliths (iron age). 1830s
James Princep, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, scripts used in
earliest inscriptions and coins. Led to reconstruct lineage of major
dynasties.
b. Earliest states - 16 mahajanapadas. 6th century BCE major turning
point in early Indian history, era associated with early states, cities
and growing use of iron, use of coins etc. Growth of diverse systems
of thoughts including Buddhism and Jainism. Some mahajanapadas
had power sharing arrangements - collectively by people called
Rajas. Mahavir and Buddha belonged to such janas. Vajji - controlled
resources collectively.
c. Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone,
metal or pottery. Earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit. Brahma sutras
composed by Brahmins in 6th century BCE. Rulers advised
d. Bw 6th and 4th century - Magadha became most powerful
mahajanapada. Why - esp agriculturally productive region. Iron
mines were accessible. Elephants, imp part of army, found in
forests. Ganga and tributaries - cheap and convenient
communication. But more importantly - ambitious kings.
e. Jatakas were written in Pali. Agriculture production increased
because of iron tipped ploughshare and transplantation. Manusmriti
best known legal text of early India, advising the king what to do.
f. Successful merchants were called masattuvan in Tamil and setthis in
Prakrit. First coins to use name and images of rulers were used in
2nd century BCE by Indo-Greek rulers. First gold coins by Kushanas
 in 1st century AD. Coins (mainly copper) were also issued by tribal
republics of Punjab and Haryana called the Yaudheyas.
g. Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived
from Brahmi, worked backwards from Bengali and Devanagari to
decipher. Kharosthi - coins of Indo Greeks has names of kings in
Greek and Kharosthi. Brahmi is written left to right, while Kharosthi
is written right to left. Used till 4th AD.
C. Kinship, Caste and Class - early societies (600 BCE - 600 AD)
a. Critical Edition of Mahabharata - under leadership of V.S.
Sukthankar, project took 47 years to complete. 2 thing emerged -
several common elements in Sanskrit version & enormous legal
variations.
b. Kinship and marriage - kula (families), jati (larger network of
kinfolk), vamsha (lineage). Patrilineal means tracing descent from
father, matrilineal is tracing through mother. While patrilineal
existed prior to composition of Mahabharata, it reinforced the idea
that it was valuable. Endogamy - refers to marriage within a unit,
exogamy - outside the unit, polygyny - man having several wives,
polyandry - women having many husbands.
i. Challenge of various beliefs and practises merging led to
creation of Dharamasutras by Brahmans, most important
work was Manusmriti. 8 forms of marriage - 4 good (Brahma,
Prajapatya, Daiva, Arsha vivaah) 4 bad.
ii. Gotra of women - from 1000 BCE esp Brahmans classified in
terms of gotras. Each gotra named after Vedic seer. 2
important rules - women give up their father's gotras and
members of same gotras can't marry. Satvahanas women
didn’t necessarily follow the latter. Metronymic - name
derived from mother/female ancestor -> list of generations of
teachers and students contained in Brihadarayanka
Upanishad (Yajurveda, principal upanishad)
iii. Mothers were important? No definite conclusion. //Temple in
Ahichchhatra (UP) - earliest sculpture depiction of scene from
Mahabharata in terracotta sculpture
c. Caste - ideal order laid down in Dharmasutras and dharmashastras,
also contained rules about the ideal occupations of 4 varnas.
i. Brahamanas - study and teach vedas, perform sacrifices,
give/receive gifts. Kshatriyas - engage in warfare, protect
people, administer justice, study the vedas, get sacrifices
performed, give gifts. Vaishyas - engage in agriculture,
pastoralism, trade, study vedas, get sacrifices performed and
make gifts. Shudras - only occupation - serve the higher
varnas. 2-3 strategies to enforce norms - assert varna was of
divine order (quoted Purusha sukta from Rigveda, describing
sacrifice of purusha, the primeval man); advised kings to
ensure norms were followed; persuaded people that their
status was determined by birth (reinforced by stories told in
Mahabharata and other texts, story of Drona-Eklavya).
ii. Non-kshatriya kings - political power was open to anyone who
could support and resources, (shashtras said only kshatriya
could be kings). Outsider rulers were called mlechchhas
(barbarians) by Brahmana. However Rudradaman (Saka ruler)
rebuilt Sudarshan lake (Junagadh inscription in Sanskrit).
Gotami-puta Satakani claimed to both ek Bamahana and
destroyer of pride of Kshatriyas. Ensured no intermarriage
amongst member of 4 varnas but married kin of Rudradaman
(outsider) himself.
iii. Social mobility - nishada (a hunting community to which
Eklavya belonged to). Varnas were fixed but jatis were
unlimited. Jatis were assigned which didn't easily fit into the
varna system. Jati shared a common occupation and
sometimes organized into shrenis or guilds. Mandasor (MP )
inscription records history of emigration of a guild of silk
 weave workers. Vanik - term to designate merchants
(//Mrichchhakatika written by Shudraka, 4th century AD). The
term rakshasa is maybe used to describe people whose
practice differed from Brahamnical texts.
iv. Untouchables - it rested on notion that certain activities
connected with performance of rituals and by extension pure
and some activities polluting (handling corpses and dead
animals). Chandalas - those who did it were classified as
untouchables. Manusmriti - laid down duties of chandalas,
live outside the village, use discarded utensils, wear clothes of
the dead and ornaments of iron. Fa Xian wrote how they had
to sound a clapper so that people would know they are
coming and not see them. Matanga Jataka (pali text,
Bodhisatta in previous birth was chandala).
d. Resources and status - according to Manusmriti, paternal estate was
to be divided equally amongst sons with special share for eldest,
women no claim. Women allowed to retain gifts they received at
time of marriage called stridhana, husband can't claim. Social
difference bw men and women were sharpened cos of differences
in access of resources. Way to acquire wealth - 7 for men and 6 for
women.
i. Buddhist text in Pali - Majjhima Nikaya, part of dialog
between Avantiputtta and Kachchana - talked about the
wealthy shudra. Puranaruru - anthologies of poems of Tamil
sangam.
ii. The word Nikaya is most commonly used in reference to the
Buddhist texts of the Sutta Piṭaka.
e. Social differences -  Buddhists also developed an alternative
understanding of social inequalities. In a myth found in a text known
as the Sutta Pitaka, they suggested that originally human beings did
not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants fully
developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from
nature only what they needed for each meal.
f. Mahabharata - divided into 2 broad sections - narrative and didactic
but no watertight division. Original story was probably composed by
charioteer-bards known as sutas. From 5th century BCE,
Brahamanas took over and began to write (mahajanpadas time
period).
g. Timeline of texts
i. 500 BCE Ashtadhyayi, Panini - work on Sanskrit grammar
ii. 500-200 BCE Major dharmasutras - Sanskrit
iii. 500-100 BCE early Budhhist texts including Tripitaka (in Pali)
iv. 500 BCE - 400 AD Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit)
v. 200 BCE - 200 AD Manusmriti, Tamil sangam
vi. 100 AD Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas - work on medicine
vii. 200 AD onwards compilation of Puranas
viii. 300 AD - Natyashashtra of Bharata - work on dramaturgy
ix. 400 - 600 AD other Dharmashashtras
x. 400 - 500 AD Sanskrit plays including works of Kalidasa,
compilation of Jain works in Prakrit
D. Thinkers, beliefs & buildings (600 BCE - 600 AD)
a. Great stupa at Sanchi - rulers of Bhopal - Shahjehan Begum and
Sultan Jehan Begum provided money for preservation. John
Marshall (ASI)
b. Mid-first millennium BCE (around 500 BCE) is often regarded as
turning point in world history - emergence of thinkers such as
Zarathustra (Iran), Kong Zi (China), Socrates, Aristotle & Plato,
Mahavira & Gautam Buddha.
i. Several pre-existing traditions of though, religious belief and
practice. Rigveda compiled between 1500-1000 BCE, consists
of hymns in praise of variety of deities - Agni, Indra, Soma. At
first, sacrifices were performed collectively, later, by heads of
households for well being of domestic unit. Elaborate
 sacrifices such as Rajasuya (consecration ceremony),
Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot races, and
gifts to courtiers) performed by kings and chiefs through
Brahmana priests.
ii. Most prominent river of the Rigveda is the Sarasvati, next to
the Indus.
iii. People were curious about meaning of life, life after death.
Debates and discussions took place in kutagarashala - hut with
a pointed roof or in groves where travelling mendicants
halted. Many of these teachers, including Mahavira and
Buddha, questioned authority of the vedas. //Chandogya
Upanishad (Sama Veda) - verses on nature of self and true
sacrifice.
iv. Buddhist texts - Teachings of Buddha compiled at Vaishali,
known as Tripitaka - 3 baskets to hold different types of
texts.
1. Vinaya Pitaka - rules and regulations for those who
joined the sangh
2. Sutta Pitaka - Buddha's teaching were included in here
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka - dealt with philosophical matters.
4. Other texts such as Dipavamsa (chronicle of island),
Mahavamsa (great chronicle) - written in Pali contain
regional (Sri Lankan) histories of Buddhism

v. Fatalists - tradition of Ajivikas (teacher Makkhali Gosala); says

that the wise and the fool cannot come out of karma. It can
neither be lessened nor increased. So fool and wise alike will
take their course and make an end of sorrow.
vi. Materialists reject Vedas, Vedic ritualism, and
supernaturalism - tradition of Lokayatas (or Charvaka),
philospher Ajita Kesakambalin and Brihaspati). Believe that
everything is not predetermined. Human being is made up of
the four elements
vii. Jain tradition - Mahavira was preceded by 23 other
tirthankaras - meaning those who guide people across river of
existence. Most important idea in Jainism is that entire world
is animated. Non-injury to living beings is central to the
philosophy. Principle of ahimsa, emphasized within Jainism.
Cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma; to free
oneself asceticism and penance is required. Which can be
achieved only by renouncing the world hence monastic
existence is necessary condition of salvation. Jain monks and
nuns took 5 vows
1. Abstain from killing, stealing and lying; observe celibacy;
abstain from possessing property. //Uttaradhyayana
Sutta - queen Kamalavati tried to persuade her husband
to renounce the world.
Spread of Jainism - scholars produced wealth of literature in -
Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil. Earliest stone sculptures
associated with religious traditions were from Jain devotees.
c. Buddha and his hagiography (biography of religious leader) - born
Siddhartha in Sakya clan in Lumbini, he had a sheltered upbringing.
First journey to outside world was traumatic - saw an old man, sick
man and a corpse. Decay and destruction of human body was
inevitable. Saw a homeless mendicant who came to terms with old
 age, disease and death, and found peace. Siddhartha decided to
adopt the same path. Explored several paths including bodily
mortification but abandoned it. Meditated for several days and
attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. Called Buddha or the
Enlightened One. Taught dhamma or the path of righteous living for
the rest of his life. Gave first sermon at Sarnath and attained nirvana
at Kusinagara.
d. Teachings of Buddha - Reconstructed from stories mainly found in
Sutta Pitaka. According to Buddhist philosophy, world is transient
(anicca) and constantly changing. It is soulless (anatta) as there is
nothing permanent in it. Within transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is
intrinsic to human existence. By following the path of moderation
between severe penance and self indulgence that human beings can
rise above worldly troubles. In earliest forms of Buddhism, whether
or not god existed was irrelevant. Social world was creation of
humans rather than divine origin, hence advised kings and gahapatis
to be humane and ethical. Emphasized individual agency and
righteous action as the means to escape from cycle of rebirth and
attain self realization and nirvana.
e. Followers of Buddha - Ananda, Buddha's disciple, persuaded
Buddha to allow women into sanghas. Buddha's foster mother,
Mahapajapati Gotami, first woman to be ordained. Many went on
to become teachers of dhamma and theris (respected women who
had attained liberation). Therigatha - collection of short poem of
elder nuns. Part of Khuddaka Nikaya within Sutta Pitaka (Theravada
Buddhism)
The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims
of superiority based on birth, emphasis on metta (fellow feeling)
and karuna (compassion) were ideas that dew people to Buddhist
teachings.
f. Stupas - //Chaityas derived from the word chita and by extension
meaning a funerary mound. Tradition of erecting stupas was pre-
Buddhist but came to be associated with Buddhism. They contained
some relics so entire stupa was venerated as emblem of Buddha
and Buddhism. Asokavandana - Asoka distributed portion of
Buddha's relics to every important town and ordered construction
of stupa over them . Eg Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath.
i. Structure of stupas

ii.

iii. Elliot marbles - Walter Elliot collected sculpture panels of

Amravati stupa were called so. H.H. Cole to the rescue of the
structure.
iv. Shalabhanjika - woman whose touch caused trees to flower
and bear fruit. People who turned to Buddhism enriched it
with their non-Buddhist beliefs such as these. Early sculptures
 didn't show Buddha in human form but through symbols -
stupa was representation of mahanirvana, wheel - stood for
first sermon of Buddha.
v. Paintings at Ajanta depict stories from Jatakas.
g. New religious traditions - 1st century AD evidence of changes in
Buddhist ideas and practices. Bodhisatta perceived as deeply
compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts
but didn't attain nirvana to help others. Worship of Buddha and
Bodhisattas became important part of this tradition. New way of
thinking called Mahayana - literally the great vehicle. Followers of
older tradition describe themselves as theravadins, path of the old.
h. Growth of Puranic Hinduism - notion of savior not unique Buddhism.
Similar ideas in Hinduism - Vaishnavism (Vishnu worshipped as
principal deity) and Saivism (Shiva the chief god). Bond between the
devotee and god visualized as one of love & devotion (bhakti).
i. Vaishnavism - 10 avatars recognized within the tradition,
recognizing local deities was one way of creating more unified
religious traditions. Puranas compiled by Brahmanas by 500
AD included stories about gods and goddesses. Written in
simple Sanskrit and meant to be read aloud to everybody (incl
women and Shudras) who didn't have access to Vedic
learning. One could attain the grace of God irrespective of
one’s caste status
ii. Early temples (3rd century AD) were square room called
garbhagriha with a single door. Gradually shikhara, tall
structure over central shrine. Some early temples - hollowed
out of huge rocks as artificial caves (for renouncers of Ajivija
sect). By 8th century - carved entirely out of rock, temples
such as Kailashnatha temple at Ellora.
8. Class 12 part II
A. Travelers (10th-17th AD)
a. Women travelers did exist but no account left. Al-biruni - Uzbekistan
- 11th century. Ibn Battuta - Morocco - 14th century. Bernier -
France - 17th century. Others who visited India - Abdur Razzaq
Samarqandi, Mahmud Wali Balkhi, Shaikh Ali Hazin, Marco Polo.
b. Al-biruni and Kitab ul Hind (founder of Indology). Was a hostage of
Mahmud Ghazni and traveled widely in Punjab and Northern India.
Kitab-ul-hind is written in Arabic - covers variety of subjects. He
depended mostly on Vedas, Puranas, Gita, Patanjali and Manusmriti
for his understanding of Indian society. Thought that caste system
was contrary to laws of nature. Antyaja - born outside the system /
untouchables - were inexpensive labor to peasants.
c. Ibn Battuta wrote Rihla in Arabic - rich and interesting details about
social and cultural life of 14th century. Was a qazi for Muhammad
bin Tughlaq at Delhi. Marco Polo was his contemporary. Described
coconut and paan to the foreign audience (NCERT sigh). He noted
the network of trade and commerce links subcontinent had with
Indian products in great demand. Efficient system of postal
communication - uluq (run by royal horses) & dawa (foot post,
meaning 1/3 of a mile).
d. Francois Bernier - compared Mughal empire with contemporary
Europe, canvassing Europe as the superior civilization. Found crown
ownership of property as harmful to both state and people.
Asserted that there is no middle class in India. Was a champion of
private property. No Mughal document suggests that state was sole
owner of land. Bernier's description influenced Western theorists -
idea of oriental despotism developed by Montesquieu. In 17th
century around 15% of Indian population lived in towns (higher than
Western Europe). Merchants were organized into caste-cum-
occupational bodies called mahajans, and chief sheth.
e. Women, slaves & satis - slaves were common, sometimes used as a
spy, generally for domestic labor.
B. Bhakti-Sufi traditions (8th to 18th century AD)
a. Wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts.
Integration of cults happened - by disseminating of Brahmanical
ideas to others & Brahmanas accepting and reworking beliefs of the
others. E.g. Jagannatha was identified as a form of Vishnu. Great
traditions (emanated from ruler and priestly class) and little
traditions (local practices). Local deities were incorporated within
Puranic framework with an identity as wife of principal male deity.
Forms of worship associated with goddess were classified as Tantric,
influenced Saivism & Buddhism.
b. Vedic vs Puranic traditions - principal deity of Vedic pantheon were
Agni, Indra and Soma, which get marginalized while authority of
Vedas is still unchallenged. Vishnu, Shiva and goddess were in Vedic
mantras but little in common with Puranic mythologies.
c. In course of evolution of forms of worship, poet-saints emerged as
leaders around whom community of devotees developed. These
tradition accommodated women and lower castes. Bhakti traditions
can be classified into 2 broad categories - saguna (with attributes,
Shiva Vishnu Devi) and nirguna (without attributes, abstract form of
god).
i. Earliest bhakti movements were by Alvars (immersed in
devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (leaders who were Shiva
devotees).
ii. Nalayira Divyaprabandham - major anthology of composition
by 12 Alvars. Tondaradippodi, Andal, - were some prominent
Alvars. Bhagvata Purana was a result of incorporation of ideas
of Tamil bhakts within Sanskritic tradition.
iii. Tevaram - consists of poems by Appar, Sampandhar and
Sundarar during the 12th century. There were 63 major
Nayanars. Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a woman. Manikkavacakar
was not a Nayanar.
iv. One of the major themes of Tamil bhakti hymns is opposition
to Buddhism and Jainism because of competition between
members of religious tradition for royal patronage. Chola
rulers supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions (Shiva and
Vishnu temples constructed). Vellala peasants revered both
Nayanars and Alvars.
v. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu - Chaitanya was a saint from Bengal.
He was a devotee of Lord Krishna. Though he was a Brahman
he condemned the caste system and emphasized on the
equality of all. Founded Gaudiya Vaishnavism in 15th century.
d. Virashaiva - 12th century movement in Karnataka led by Basavanna,
followers were called Virashaivas or Lingayats. They worship Shiva
in his manifestation as a linga. Jangama or wandering monks are
also revered by them. They believe that on death the devotee will
be united with Shiva and not return to this world - bury the dead
and not cremate. Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and
pollution by Brahmanas and questioned the theory of rebirth.
Encouraged idea of post-puberty marriage and remarriage of
widows - which was disapproved by Dharmashastras.
e. The emergence of Rajput states led to consolidation of Brahmanas
with the ruling elites in North India. Non-Brahmanical leaders such
as Naths, Jogis, Siddhas from artisanal groups questioned the
authority of vedas but couldn't win support of ruling elites. However
establishment of Delhi Sultanate undermined power of Rajput
states and associated Brahamanas.
f. Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind in 711 - first invasion by Muslim
in Indian subcontinent, which eventually led to Sultanate and
Mughal empire. Muslim rulers were to be guided by ulama who
were to ensure shari'a. Shari'a is based on Quran, hadis, qiyas
(reasoning by analogy) and ijma (consensus by community). Non
muslims paid jizya to be in the category of zimmi (protected). All
those who adopted Islam accepted its 5 pillars - there is one god
Allah and Muhammad is his messenger (shahada), offering prayers 5
 times a day (namaz/salat), giving alms (zakat), fasting during month
of Ramzan (sawm/roza) and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca
(hajj).
i. Khojas, a Shia sect, wrote Ginans (devotional hymns) in
Khojaki script which was derived from local landa script.
ii. Mlechchha - migrant communities which didn't observe
norms of caste society.
g. Growth of Sufism - group of religious minded people turned to
asceticism and mysticism in protest against growing materialism of
Caliphate. Regarded Muhammad as a perfect human being. Sufism
= tasawwuf. By 11th century, Sufism evolved into a well developed
movement. Sufis began to organize communities around khanqas
controlled by teaching master - shaikh, pir, mushird - who enrolled
disciples murid and appointed successor khalifa.
i. Silsila literally means a chain, signifying continuous link
between master and disciple. When shaikh died, his tomb
dargah became center of devotion. Practice of pilgrimage
ziyarat to his grave, on his death anniversary or urs. People
sought their blessings to attain material and spiritual benefits,
evolving the cult of wali (plural auliya). Qawwali is part of
ziyarat. Sufis remember god by reciting divine names zikr or
sama (literally audition).
ii. Those mystics who ignored rituals - Qalandars, Madaris,
Malangs, Haidaris - were referred to as be-sharia as they
defied sharia.
h. Chistis - migrated to India in late 12th century, adapted successfully
to local environment. The big 5 - Moinuddin Chishti, Qutbuddin
Bakhtiar Kaki, Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Nizamuddin Auliya and
Nasiruddin Chirag Dehlavi. Khanqa was the center of social life.
Open kitchen run on futuh (unasked for charity). Shaikh Nizamuddin
appointed several successors and deputed them to set up hospice in
various parts leading to rapid spread of the order. Most famous was
Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti (aka Garib Nawaz). Amir Khusrau, disciple
and friend of Auliya, introduced qual.
i. Masnavis is long poem written by Rumi
ii. Padmavat was composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi,
romance of Padmini and Ratansen
iii. Poems written in Dakhani (Deccani urdu) sung by women
doing household work, lurinama (lullabies) and shadinama
(wedding songs).
iv. Vachanas by Lingayats and Abhangs by Pandharpur warkaris
(god Vithoba) also inspired Sufism. //Dhyaneswar & Tukaram
are saints of warkaris.
Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from political elites.
Charitable trusts (auqafs) and tax free lands (inam).
i. Kabir 14th century - verses ascribed to Kabir are in 3 distinct but
overlapping traditions - Kabir Bijak (by Kabirpanth in Varanasi and
UP), Kabir Granthwali (Dadupanth Rajasthan), Adi Granth Sahib.
i. Poems are in several languages and dialects; including
santbhasha (gurmukhi). Ulatbansi - everyday meanings are
inverted, fire raging in the ocean.
ii. Kabir drew range of traditions to describe the Ultimate Reality
- khuda, alakh, shabda, shunya.
iii. Kabir and his rich corpus of verses present source of
inspiration for those who questioned entrenched religious
and social institutions, ideas and practice in search of divine.
His guru was Ramananda, but that is contested.
j. Baba Guru Nanak - born into a Hindu family in a Muslim Punjab.
Advocated a form of nirguna bhakti. Rejected sacrifices, ritual baths,
image worship, austerities and scriptures of both religions.
Expressed his ideas through hymns called shabad in Punjabi. He
sang while attendant Mardana played rabab. Appears that Nanak
didn't want to establish a religion. 5th guru, Guru Arjan, compiled
 Nanak's hymns and the 4 successors along with Baba Farid, Raidas,
Kabir in Adi Granth Sahib. Hymns called gurbani in various
languages. 10th guru, Guru Gobind, included 9th Guru Teg
Bahadur's composition and this was finally Guru Granth Sahib.
i. Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the
pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted as a trainee
on his march to godliness. The Sikhs performed “washing of
the swords” ceremony, called khande ka pahul, evolving as
the pir-muridi custom
k. Mirabai - 15/16th century. Was married to a prince of Sisodia clan.
Defied the traditional role and recognized Krishna as her lover. Guru
was perhaps Raidas. Raskhan, a Muslim poet, was a devotee of Lord
Krishna.
l. Shankaradeva - late 15th century, leading proponent of Vaishnavism
in Assam. His teachings are known as Bhagavati dharma, based on
Gita and Puranas. Need for naam kirtan, sat sang and satra
(monasteries) for transmission of spiritual knowledge. Major
composition is kirtana-ghosha.
C. Vijayanagara (14th-16 century) - aka Karnataka Samrajyamu
a. People remembered the city as Hampi (named after Pampadevi).
Oral traditions, archaeological finds, monuments & inscriptions
helped reconstruct the empire.
Discovery of Hampi - brought about by Colin Mackenzie (1st
Surveyor General of India 1815).
b. Harihara & Bukka founded Vijayanagara Empire is 1336, had
different religions & different languages within. Rulers built on rich
traditions of Cholas & Hoysalas. Warfare was dependent on
effective cavalry, import of horses was crucial. Local merchants
kudirai chettis participated in this as well as Arab traders. Trade was
status symbol of these cities - spices, textiles & precious stones.
Revenue from trade contributed to prosperity of state.
c. Had 5 dynasties - Sangama, Saluvas, Tuluva, Aravidu - that order.
Krishnadeva Raya's rule was that of expansion and consolidation.
Acquired - Raichur doab, Odisha subdued, Sultan of Bijapur
defeated. Addition of gopuram to many important temples was the
highlight of his rule. New township - Nagalapuram after his mother.
Wrote Amuktamalyada, work on statecraft in Telugu.
d. Successors were troubled by nayakas (military chiefs). Military
ambitions of rulers of Vijayanagara led to alliance of Sultans against
them. Rama Raya led army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota)
and got routed. Hampi was sacked and eventually deserted.
Relations bw Sultans and Rayas were not always hostile, Rama Raya
is blamed for adventurism which led to Sultans combining against
him. //Yavana is used for Greek and others who entered
subcontinent through north west.
e. Nayakas - controlled forts and had armed supporters. Often
rebelled and had to be subdued by military action. Amara-nayaka
system was major political innovation of Vijayanagara empire, most
likely derived from iqta system of Delhi Sultanate. Amara-nayaka
were military commanders who were given territories to govern by
raya, collected taxes and other dues. Part of revenue used for own
army maintenance, temples, rest for empire. Kings asserted their
control by transferring them. By 17th century, many nayakas
established independent kingdoms.
f. Vijayanagara - was written about by - Nicolo de Conti, Abdur
Razzaq, Afanasii Nikitin (all 15th century). Barbosa, Paes, Nuniz
(16th century). Location feature - natural basin formed by
Tungabhadra which flows in NE direction, surrounded by granite
hills with number of streams. One of most arid zones in peninsula,
hence elaborate arrangement to store rainwater and conduct to
city. Most imp - Kamalapuram tank. Hiriya canal was used for
irrigation, built by Sangamas. Forts encircled not just the city but
also hinterland and forests. No mortar or cementing agent, stone
 blocks were wedged together. Agricultural tracts were incorporated
within fortified area - to protect the agricultural belt and thus
outlast any siege against the kingdom. Gateways with arch and
dome were influenced from Indo-Islamic features.
i. Urban core - entire area dotted with numerous shrines and
small temples, supported by different communities. Tanks,
wells were sources of water.
ii. Royal center - included over 60 temples, patronage of cult and
temples was important as it justified divine authority.
Superstructure of secular buildings was made of perishable
materials such as mahanavami dibba. Massive platform on
base 11k sq ft, base covered with relief carvings. Audience hall
high platform with slots for wooden pillars. Their use remains
an enigma.
iii. Other buildings in royal center - Lotus Mahal (may have been
meeting place with advisors), Elephant stables, Hazara Rama
(used by king and family).
iv. Sacred center - Pampadevi did penance in the hills to marry
Virupaksha (Shiva), guardian deity of kingdom. This area has
Jain temples from pre-Vijayanagara time as well. Temple
building was encouraged - to give divine authority to king and
use as learning center. Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on
behalf of god Virupaksha.
1. Hindu Suratrana - early Vijayanagara rulers called
themselves this.
v. Gopuram & mandapas - mark of imperial authority. Halls in
temples were used for a variety of purposes - music, dance,
drama, marriages. Vittala, form of Vishnu worshipped in
Maharashtra, has a temple in Hampi. Temple complexes had
chariot streets from gopuram which served as markets.
vi. Mackenzie, Greenlaw, Fleet, Marshall - all were instrumental
in discovery and conservation of Vijayanagara. 1986 declared
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
D. Peasants, Zamindars and the State (Mughals)
a. Basic unit of agricultural society was the village. Major
understanding of the time doesn't come from peasants as they did
not write about themselves. 16th & 17th century chronicles from
Mughal court. Abul Fazl Ain-i-Akbari recorded arrangements made
by state to ensure cultivation. Provided a view from the top - vision
of Akbar's empire where social harmony was provided by a strong
ruling class.
b. Peasants - term to describe raiyat, muzarian, kisan or asami. Khud-
khasta (resident of village in which they held their lands) or pahi-
khasta (non-resident cultivators). Avg peasant had a pair of bullocks
and 2 ploughs; most even less. 10 acres holdings were rich peasants.
Peasants were generally mobile, as there was abundant land as well
(as noticed by Babur).
Irrigation - abundance of land, labor and mobility accounted for
expansion of agriculture. Tobacco first came in Deccan and spread
to Northern India in early 17th century. Crops such as cotton and
sugarcane were jins-i-kamil (perfect crops) as they got state more
revenue. New world crops - Potato, tomato, maize, chilies,
pineapple, papaya.
c. Village community - constituents were cultivators, panchayat and
village headman (muqaddam or mandal). Large section was
constrained by position in caste hierarchy and relegated to poverty.
Muslims had such communities as well - halalkhoran (scavengers) &
mallahzadas (boatmen). Caste-poverty-social status were directly
correlated in lower society. Village headmen - chosen through
consensus of village elders and ratified by zamindars, work was
supervise preparation of village account assisted by patwari (called
Kanungo in Punjab). Panchayat also ensured caste boundaries were
upheld (marriages in presence of mandal). Jati had own jati
 panchayat which resolved civil disputes. Lower class peasants could
resist oppression by deserting the village.
d. Artisans - cultivators could engage in craft production while there
was lull in agricultural activity. Artisans could be paid by way of
harvest or allotment of land (called watan or miras). Jajmani system
- remuneration of services with small daily allowance and diet
money. Wasn't a little republic as British officials thought, deep
inequalities wrt to asset ownership and status.
e. Women in agrarian society - entire household was labor for
production, men tilled and ploughed while women sowed, weeded,
threshed and winnowed. Biases related to women's biological
functions did continue. Artisanal and commercialized product were
dependent on women's labor. Considered an important resource
because child bearer in society dependent on labor. But high
mortality rates among women - pregnancy, child birth, malnutrition
- led to shortage of wives. Non-elite groups considered remarriage
among widowed and divorced women. Fear of losing them was
great, hence kept under strict control. Among landed gentry,
women had the right to inherit property (Rajshahi zamindari).
f. Forests and tribes - forests were a subversive place for the state,
trouble makers who take refuges (mawas). Chandimangala is a
Bengali poem composed by Mukundaram Chakrabarti - talks about
clearing of forests. Spread of commercial agriculture and great
demand of forest produce (honey, elephants) brought forest
dwellers in close contact with state. Forest chieftains turned
zamindars and kings (Ahom kings and their slave army paiks).
Capture of wild elephants became royal monopoly.
g. Zamindars - did not directly participate in process of production.
Caste was one factor of elevated status, another was khidmat
(services) for the state. They held personal lands, termed milqiyat,
often used cultivators and meant for private use. (1) often collect
revenue (2) forts and armed contingent. They spearheaded
colonization of agricultural land, and settled cultivators. Little doubt
that zamindars were exploitative, relationship with peasantry was
based on reciprocity, paternalism and patronage. Why - sufis didn't
condemn zamindars and moneylenders as oppressors, agrarian
uprisings involved peasant support for zamindar against the state.
h. Land revenue system - Revenue from land was mainstay of Mughals,
diwan was responsible for supervising the fiscal system of empire.
Jama was amount assessed and hasil was amount collect (in both
cash and kind) - duties of amil-guzar (revenue collector). In kind was
collected through kankut, bhaoli, khet batai, lang batai. Amin was
official responsible for ensuring imperial regulations were carried
out in provinces.
Italian traveler Giovanni Careri wrote about flow of silver and India.
i. Ain-i-akbari- was the 3rd book of Akbar Nama and was organized as
collection of imperial regulations and gazetteer of empire.
Important to deconstruct life under Mughal empire but it's still an
imperial view of state of affairs. Ain is made up of 5 books - (1)
manzil-abadi (imperial household and maintenance) (2) sipah-abadi
(military and civil administration) (3) mulk-abadi (fiscal side of
empire and revenue system). It gives a detailed and highly complex
view of agrarian society including suba, sarkar, pargana, mahal
divisions. 4th and 5th book contain religious, literary and cultural
traditions. Ain had its limitations but gives a fascinating glimpse into
the structure and organization of Mughal empire and quantitative
information about its people and products. Enables historians to
reconstruct the social fabric of that time. //Blochmann & Jarett
translated it in 3 volumes.
E. Kings and Chronicles - Mughals
a. Mughals referred to themselves as Timurids, descendants of Turkish
ruler Timur on paternal side. Babur was related to Genghiz Khan
from his mother's side. Chronicles of Mughal emperors had 3
 purposes - project vision of an enlightened kingdom, convey that
resistance is futile, account of rule for posterity. Written in Persian,
flourished from Sultanate times and prospered under Akbar as
language of court. Urdu sprang from interaction of Hindi and
Persian. Mahabharata was translated as Razmnama.
b. All books were manuscripts (handwritten) and imperial kitabkhana
the center of production. Muhammad Husayn of Kashmir was one
of the finest calligraphers at Akbar's court. Miniature paintings in
the manuscripts was source of tension bw rulers and ulamas who
invoked Islamic prohibition of portrayal of human beings (Quran,
hadis) by Prophet. He forbade depiction of living beings in
naturalistic manner as it would suggest that artist was seeking to
appropriate power of creation. //Painters such as Bihzad
contributed to cultural fame of Safavid court. Mir Sayyid Ali and
Abdus Sammad were painters who came to India with Humayun.
c. Badshah Nama by Abdul Hamid Lahori was Shah Jahan's chronicle.
Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by William Jones in 1784 to
edit, print and translate many Indian manuscripts. Badshah Nama
hasn't been translated fully yet. Akbar Nama was translated by
Henry Beveridge. Alamgir (Aurangzeb) by Muhammad Kazim.
d. Divine light (farri-i-izadi) - source of power of Mughals, inspired by
philosophy of Iranian sufi Suhrawadi. King becomes the source of
spiritual guidance for his subjects. Idea of sulh-i-kul (absolute peace)
prevailed, which meant freedom of expression as long as long state
authority not undermined or fight amongst themselves. Akbar
abolished tax on pilgrimage and jizya (re-imposed by Aurangzeb).
Just sovereignty was a social contract, justice was represented
through symbols in paintings (lion and cow together symbolized
strong and weak in harmony).
e. Capitals - Mughals had capitals at Agra, Sikri, Lahore, Delhi
(Shahjahanabad). Kornish - Mughal aadab. Axis mundi - pole that is
visualized as support of earth. Chahar taslim & Zaminbos - mode of
salutation introduced by Shah Jahan. Titles could be earned or paid
for by nobles. Imperial household - it was through alliances of
marriages Mughals could keep together such a vast empire. Begams
(royal wives) > aghas (non-noble wives) > agachas (concubines).
Humayun Nama was written by Gulbadan Begum (described role of
elderly women in resolving family conflicts).
f. Imperial officials - mansabdars of 1000 above zat were umara
(nobles). Akbar designed the mansab system. Akbar had 3 ministers
- mir bakshi (paymaster), diwan-i-ala (finance), sadr-us sudur
(grants) - as advisory body. Akhbarat were court proceeding
documents. Imperial post had foot runners (qasid or pathmar).
Provincial governor was subadar. Suba was divided into sarkar
which was divided into parganas.
g. Beyond the empire - Hindukush had to be crossed by any intruder
coming into India from NW. Kabul and Kandahar were strategic
outposts to dispel any invasion. Kandahar was bone of contention
bw Safavids and Mughals. Ottomans - trade and commerce plus
pilgrim to Mecca relations. Jesuits - Monserrate & Acquaviva was
member of first Jesuit mission.
9. Class 12 part 3
A. Colonialism and countryside
a. Jotedar was a rich class of peasants who had acquired vast lands.
Controlled local trade and moneylending. Resisted zamindars on
most issues and had effective control over a village. Zamindar's
power were similar to a Collector before they were curtailed.
Jotedars used to deliberately delay payment of revenue to zamindar
and purchase their estates upon auction. Their rise weakened
zamindari authority. Also known as haoldar, gantidars or mandals.
b. Zamindars began benami transactions when estate was being
auctioned. Even if it was sold to another zamindar, lathyal will not
let it happen.
 c. Fifth Report - document prepared by a Select Committee set up in
1810 by the British Parliament to look into the affairs of
the Company. Terms of reference of the Select Committee were to
inquire into the state of the company's territorial possessions with
particular focus on revenue and judiciary.
d. Hill people - as settled agriculture expanded, conflicts arose.
Santhals were the pioneer settlers and were persuaded to settle in
Rajmahal hill area. Area of land given to them was Damin-i-koh. But
transactions with dikus (moneylenders, zamindars) made them
more miserable. After Santhal revolt of 1855-56, Santhal Pargana
was created from Bhagalpur and Birbhum.
e. Francis Buchanan was a physician who was surgeon for Wellesley.
His assessment was shaped by commercial concerns of company
and western notions of progress.
f. Bombay Deccan - revolt due to ryotwari system which was inspired
by David Ricardo (economist). Under this, revenue was directly
settled with ryot, land surveyed every 30 years. Revenue demand
was so high that peasants fled villages. When someone failed to
pay, crop was seized and fine imposed on whole villages.
g. American Civil War made India top exporter of cotton to Britain,
easy credit flowed and long term loans extended. This ended after
supplies from America were revived post Civil War. Now ryots found
it even harder to get loans and moneylenders were insensitive to
their plight. Deeds and bonds became symbols of new oppressive
system.
h. Deccan Riots Commission - report presented to British Parliament in
1878. Rioters' specific purpose was to obtain and destroy the bonds,
decrees, and other documents in the possession of the
moneylenders (Pune et al 1875). Cultivators' distress resulted from
falling agricultural prices, heavy taxation, and a sense of political
powerlessness. Commercialization of agriculture under British land
revenue policies burdened small peasants by placing a premium on
access to credit to finance productive investments in the land.
B. Rebels and the Raj
a. In context of revolt of 1857, term revolt refers primarily to uprising
of civilian population while mutiny was of the sepoys. To fight the
British the rebels turned to old leaders. BSZ reluctantly became the
nominal leader of the rebellion. Nana Saheb for Kanpur, Laxmi Bai
for Jhansi, Kunwar Singh in Arah, Birjis Qadr (son of Waji Ali Shah) in
Awadh. Local leaders emerged urging peasants, zamindars and
tribals to revolt. Shah Mal and Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah inspired
people to end firangi raj.
b. Rumors and prophecies played a significant role in stirring people to
action against British. (i) cartridges covered in cow and pig fat (ii)
bone dust of cow and pig in flour of cantonments and cows (iii) 100
years since Battle of Plassey prophecy of end of British rule. Why did
people believe the rumors?
i. British adopted several reform policies - set up English
medium schools, colleges and universities
ii. Laws to abolish sati and remarriage of Hindu widows
iii. Annexed new territories through Lapse and mis-governance
takeover, and implemented new administration, laws and
land revenue collection
iv. Activities of missionaries
v. It seemed to people that all they held sacred - kings, socio-
religious customs, pattern of landholding and revenue
payment - was being destroyed and replaced with an alien
and oppressive system.
c. Awadh in revolt - Wajid Ali Shah was exiled to Calcutta on the plea
of mis-governance but British wrongly assumed that he was
unpopular. Removal of Nawab also led to dissolution of court and
culture. British land revenue policy also undermined the position
and authority of taluqdars. Summary Settlement of 1856 in Awadh
 assumed talqudars were interlopers with no permanent stakes in
land. But revenue demand was over assessed and neither peasants
nor taluqdars were happy. Ties of loyalty and patronage were
broken as new system was inflexible in face of misfortune.
d. What rebels wanted - vision of unity bw Hindu and Muslims against
British, against oppression of zamindars, peasants, artisans,
merchants, and against destruction of caste and religion of people.
e. Repression - British passed a series of laws to help them quell the
insurgency. Whole of north India was put under martial law,
ordinary processes of law and trial were suspended and even
ordinary Britons were given the power to try and punish Indians
suspected of rebellion and reinforcements were brought in from
Britain. Rebellion would have only one punishment: death.
Campbell, Outram and Havelock were instrumental in suppressing
the rebellion across North India, esp Lucknow.
C. Colonial cities
a. Madras, Calcutta and Bombay were all fishing and weaving villages,
became trade centers due to trade of English EIC. Madras was
settled in 1639, Bombay in 1661 (dowry from Holland).
b. Before British - towns came to represent specific form of economic
activities and cultures. Towns were populated by artisans, traders,
administrators and rulers. Often fortified thus separating them from
countryside.
i. Presence of noblemen and emperor in towns led to
development of services for their households. Focus of the
town was oriented towards palace and mosque (temples in
south). Kotwas oversaw internal affairs and policing of town.
ii. Gradual erosion of Mughal power led to demise of cities
associated with their rule. Qasbah (small town with a local
chief) and Ganj (small fixed market).
iii. European early towns - Panaji (Portuguese ), Masulipatnam
(Dutch), Madras (British), Puducherry (French).
c. Colonial cities - British created maps to allow better control over
region. Survey of India was established in 1878. Census was started
in 1872 and then every 10 years from 1881, however census was
riddled with incorrect information because of biases.
i. Rise of metros was at the expense of other existing urban
centers.
ii. Introduction of Railways led to de-urbanization of some cities
(Mirzapur) and growth of new ones (Jamshedpur, Bareilly).
iii. M-C-B were not industrial cities by themselves but provided
tertiary services. Only 2 can be classified as industrial - Kanpur
(leather and textiles) and Jamshedpur (iron and steel).
iv. These cities reflected the mercantile culture of new rulers.
Patronage shifted to merchants of EIC. Economic activity led
to development of docks and ghats.
d. After revolt, threat of natives led to segregation of spaces - Civil
Lines came up in many cities. However mere segregation couldn't
keep threat of diseases, which the black areas symbolized. Hence
administrative measures regarding sanitation were implemented.
e. Cantonments and hill stations were distinctive colonial urban
development. Initially found and settling was based on need of
British army. Hill stations were also developed as sanitariums where
ill soldiers could be sent for recovering.
i. Shimla because of Gurkha War
ii. Mount Abu because of Anglo Maratha War
iii. Darjeeling because of war with rulers of Sikkim.
With plantations, influx of immigrant labor from plains meant hill
stations were no longer exclusive racial enclaves.
f. Company first set up trading at Surat, subsequently search for
textiles got them to East coast - Madraspatnam in 1639. Local lords,
Nayaks of Kalahasti, sold the rights of settlement.
 g. Madras - With defeat of French in 1761, Madras became more
secure and grew. Fort St George became nucleus of White Town.
Dutch and Portuguese were allowed because they were European
and Christian. Initially jobs were monopolized by Vellalars. Brahmins
started competing with spread of English education.
h. Calcutta - grew from Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindapur.
i. Wellesley in 1803 wrote Minutes on the need of urban
planning which were mostly health related.
ii. Lottery Committee 1817 used to raise funds for town
improvement through public lotteries and used to construct
roads on Indian parts of Calcutta and clear river bank of
encroachments.
iii. Govt believed that a direct correlation between diseases and
living conditions existed. Densely built areas were seen as
insanitary. Poor in the city were made to move frequently to
distant part of the city strict regulations enforced (thatched
roofs banned).
With growth of their empire - town planning had to represent what
British claimed to stand for: rational ordering, meticulous execution
and western aesthetic ideals.
i. Bombay - was initially 7 islands, fused to created one city. Indian
middlemen made their wealth on opium export to China and cotton
export to England. In 1869, Suez Canal was opened which opened
up Europe to Asia even more. Bombay was declared Urbs Prima in
Indis (most important city of India).
j. British imported European style buildings - to feel home at alien
land, to symbolize their superiority and to differentiate bw master
and subjects. Architecture of public buildings - neo-classical (ancient
Rome) example is Asiatic Society Bombay, neo-Gothic (mid-19th
England) example is CST and finally Indo-Saracenic (Hindu-Muslim)
example is Gateway of India.
D. Gandhi and Nationalist Movement
a. South Africa was making of Mahatma. First forged the non-violent
protest of satyagraha, promoted harmony between religions. On
Gokhale's advice, Gandhi traveled around British India and got to
know people. 1st major public appearance was opening of BHU in
1916 - which was a statement that Indian nationalism was an elitist
phenomenon - a creation of lawyers, doctors and landlords. Gandhi
desired to make it more representative of Indian people as a whole.
b. It was Rowlatt satyagraha that made Gandhi a national leader. This
was followed up by NCM - renunciation of all voluntary association
with British govt. Khilafat movement demanded the following -
Khalifa to retain control over Muslim sacred places in erstwhile
Ottoman empire, jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) must
remain under Muslim sovereignty, and Khalifa to be left with
sufficient territory to enable him to defend Islamic faith. Combining
NCM and Khilafat unleashed a surge of popular action for the first
time in colonial action.
c. After NCM, movement was no longer that of professionals and
intellectuals. Key aspect: Gandhi could be identified as a common
folk. Gandhi appeared to Indian peasant as a savior - from high
taxes and oppressive officials. While Gandhi's mass appeal was one
aspect, broadening the basis of nationalism was based on careful
organization
i. New branches of Congress, Praja Mandals in princely states,
communication of nationalist message in vernacular
ii. Industrial leaders were also supportive as they envisioned a
free trade policy that will lead to growth.
Gandhi was as much a social reformer as he was politician.
d. Dandi March - covered with TN.
i. 1st RTC in Nov 1931 was exercise in futility.
ii. Followed by Gandhi-Irwin pact - CDM called off, all prisoners
released, salt mfg along sea coast. Criticized by radical
 nationalists as Gandhi unable to secure commitment of
political independence
iii. 2nd RTC - Gandhi represents Congress but NOT all of India.
Challenged by 3 parties - Muslim League (didn't represent
minorities), Princely states (didn't represent their territories)
and B.R. Ambedkar (didn't represent lowest castes).
Conference inconclusive. Led to GOI Act 1935 => gave
restricted franchise and Congress victory in 8/11 provinces.
e. Once WW2 started, Congress offered some support towards the
war given Hitler's agenda but on the promise that India will get full
independence once war is over. Lord Linlithgow refused and talks
broke down.
f. In March 1940, Muslim League passed a resolution committing itself
to creation of Pakistan. Now it was a 3 way struggle bw Congress,
Muslim League and British. In 1942 Churchill sent Stafford Cripps to
forge a compromise but talks failed. Congress had demanded to
help if Viceroy appoints Indian as defense member of Executive
Council.
g. 1942 Quit India - genuinely a mass movement, esp energized the
youth who left colleges and went to jail. During these years, Muslim
League worked patiently at expanding their influence and made a
mark in Punjab and Sindh. Gandhi released in 1944, who then held
meetings with Jinnah seeking to bridge the gap. In 1945, Labor govt
came to power and committed itself to granting independence.
h. In 1946 provincial legislature election, Congress swept General seats
while Muslim League dominated seats reserved for Muslims.
Polarization was complete. Jinnah called for Direct Action Day on
16th Aug 1946, blood riots broke out.
i. In Feb 1947, Mountbatten became the new Viceroy. Announced for
independence and partition after a series of talks.
E. Understanding Partition
a. Boundaries bw India and Pakistan were not known for 2 days after
formal independence. Partition generated memories, hatred,
stereotypes and identities that still continue to shape history of
people on either side of the border.
b. Separate electorate crucially shaped the nature of communal
politics (in 1909 & 1919). Religious identities acquired a functional
use within modern political system. In 1937, elections to provincial
legislatures were held for the first time. Only10-12% of people were
eligible to vote. Congress won 5/11 and formed govt in 7/11.
Refusal by Congress (who won absolute majority) of League's
proposal of forming joint govt in UP further pushed League towards
partition solution. Congress couldn't reach out to the Muslim
masses and alarmed landed elite joined Muslim League as Congress
pushed land reform agenda.
c. Pakistan demand was formalized gradually. Pak-stan was coined by
Choudhary Rehmat Ali in pamphlets in 1933 & 1935 and was not
taken seriously initially. On 23 March 1940, resolution demanding
autonomy in Muslim-majority areas was moved. League wished for
a confederation of loosely structured states. Initially even Muslim
leaders may have used it as a bargaining counter and gain additional
favors.
d. Discussions about transfer of power broke down when League
demanded right to choose all Muslim members of Executive Council
and communal veto of some sort (2/3 majority for decisions
opposed by Muslims). Provincial elections held in 1946 gave
sweeping victories to both Congress and ML in their respective
electorates. In March 1946, 3 member Cabinet Mission was sent to
suggest suitable political framework for Free India. 3 tier
confederation was recommended - weak central govt controlling
only foreign affairs, communications and defense. States to be
reorganized as State A (Hindu majority) and State B Muslim majority
in NW and State C Muslim majority in NE.
 e. Initially plan was accepted but due to differing interpretations.
League wanted grouping to be compulsory with right to secede in
future. Congress wanted provinces be given the right to join a
group. This was a crucial juncture because after this partition
became, tragically, inevitable. Pakistan announced 16 Aug 1946 as
"Direct Action Day". Riots broke and violence spread to many parts
of northern India. Congress high command in March 1947 also
voted for split as numerical minority and loss of political power in
either Punjab or Bengal would have been an unacceptable
outcome.
f. Bloodbath continued for a year from March 1947 onwards. Main
reason for this was collapse of governance. British were preparing
to leave India, Indian civil servants feared for their own lives and
property and Indian leadership was busy negotiating independence.
Displacement of Hindus and Muslims happened bw 1946 and 1948.
Punjab was the worst affected. Muslim families from interior India
continued to migrate through 50s and 60s (known as muhajirs or
migrants).
F. Framing the Constitution
a. At independence, India was not only large and diverse but also
deeply divided. Constitution sought to heal the wounds of past and
present and make diverse Indians come together in shared political
experiment.
b. Great Calcutta Killings of Aug 1946 began a year of almost
continuous rioting across northern and eastern India. Millions of
refugees were on the move. Constitutional status of princely states
was ambiguous. Constituent Assembly met in the background of
these issues.
c. Members of this Assembly were not elected on the basis of
universal franchise. In winter of 1945-46, provincial elections were
held. They then chose representatives to Constituent Assembly.
82% of its members were from Congress as League boycotted it and
Socialists also stayed away. Through the national movement
Congress members had learnt to debate their ideas in public and
negotiate their differences. Public was also asked to send in their
views to create sense of collective participation. Dominant voices -
Nehru, Patel, Prasad, Ambedkar, K.M. Munshi, Alladi Krishnaswamy
Aiyar. Two civil servants - B.N. Rau - constitutional advisor to govt.
S.N. Mukherjee - Chief Draughtsman.
d. Nehru introduced Objectives Resolution in Dec 1946, outlining the
ideals of Constitution and provided framework within which work of
making it was to proceed. Proclaimed India to be "independent
sovereign republic" guaranteeing its citizens justice, equality and
freedom, assuring safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal
areas. No specific form of democracy was defined and suggested
that this had to be decided through deliberations.
e. Separate electorates was a topic of intense and passionate debates.
Many thought it was possible for people to live in harmony only if
minorities were well represented within the political system and
their views taken into account. Even more people contended that it
was a suicidal demand that would permanently isolate the
minorities and lead to divided loyalties and against the idea of a
unified nation. After partition, Ambedkar too no longer argued for
separate electorates.
f. Before partition, Congress had agreed to grant considerable
autonomy to provinces. After partition, most nationalists changed
their positions as earlier pressures for a loose federation structure
were not there. Violence of the time gave push to centralization - to
plan for country's economic development and to forestall chaos.
g. Language - in 1930s Congress had accepted that Hindustani ought
to be the national language. This multi cultural language would be
ideal for communication bw diverse communities. However as
communal conflicts deepened, Hindi and Urdu started growing
 apart. Hindi was Sanskritized and Urdu was Persianized. Languages
became associated with politics of religious identities. R.V. Dhulekar
pushed for Hindi becoming National Language of India.
G.