LESSON 1- Location of Plate Tectonics

Overview of Earth as a Planet

The Earth is about 4.5 billion years old, approximately one-third of the age of the
universe. According to the Nebula Theory, it was formed at the same time as the other
members of the solar system by accretion from the solar nebula. As the nebula
collapsed due to its gravity, it spun faster and flattened into a disk. Most of the materials
were pulled toward the center, forming the sun.

Hydrosphere- also known as water sphereincludes all the water found in the
oceans, seas, lakes, glaciers, ground water, and even the vapor in the air.
Geosphere- layer of Earth that we are most knowledgeable includes then
planet’s interior structure, rocks, minerals, landforms, and the processes that shape its
surface.

Plate Tectonics
Tectonic is a term derived from a Greek word tekton, which means “carpenter” or
“builder”. Tectonic platesare massive, irregular slabs of solid rock that envelope the
surface of Earth.

Earthquakes
is a natural phenomenon that is characterized by a sudden, violent shifting of
massive plates underneath Earth’s surface.This movement of plates releases stress
that generates along geologic faults.

Fault- is a crack across which the rocks have been offset first. Their sizes range from
micrometers to thousands of kilometers in length and tens of kilometers in depth, but
they are generally much thinner than they are long or deep.

Types of Earthquakes
When an earthquake occurs, only a part of a fault is involved in the rupture, and
that area is usually determined by plotting the distribution of aftershocks in the
sequence.
Tectonic Earthquake- constantly moving slowly, but sometimes friction between
them causes them lock together and become unable to move.
Volcanic earthquake- often occurs in volcanic regions and can serve as an
early warning of volcanic eruptions.
Collapse earthquakes- are small earthquakes located underground and in
mines that are by the disintegration of the roof of the mine or cavern or by massive
landsliding.
Explosion earthquake- it is an earthquake that results from detonation of
chemicals or nuclear devices. Explosion occurs when enormous nuclear energy is
released during underground nuclear explosions.
Lesson 1

Location of
Plate
tectonics
4
Lesson 2

Plate
Boundaries
5
Lesson 2 – Plate Boundaries
Aside from the Continental Drift Theory, the Seafloor Spreading Theoryplayed a crucial
role in providing a conceptual base for the development of the plate tectonics. The
Seafloor Spreading Theory was first proposed by an American geologist, professor, and
military officer Harry Hess in the 1960’s.
Different Plate Boundaries
Seafloor spreading and continental drift are inseparable concepts in geology. Hess
claimed that seafloor spreading is caused by two plates moving apart while Wegener
postulated that it is caused by plate tectonics.
Convergent Boundary
This type of plate boundary is also called the destructive plate boundary. It occurs
where two plates are pushing toward each other. Here, the crust is destroyed and
recycled back into the interior of Earth while one plate dives under another. How does it
happen?
When moving plate of dense oceanic lithosphere collides with a plate moving in the
opposite direction, one of the plates subducts beneath the other.
Oceanic-oceanic convergence occurs when two oceanic plates meet and one oceanic
plate is pushed underneath the other. During the process of subduction, the subducting
plates descends into the mantle. Due to extreme temperature, the plate is heated and
magma is generated.
Oceanic-continental convergence occurs when an oceanic plate pushes into and
moves underneath a continental plate. The continental plate that overrides the oceanic
plates lifts up to create a mountain ranges.
Continental-continental convergence occurs when two continents meet head on.
This type of convergence is different from oceanic-oceanic convergence as continental
crusts are too light to slide into a trench.
Divergent Boundary
A divergent boundary is a zone where two lithospheric plates move apart from each
other. Also known as constructive boundary, this plate boundary is characterized by
tensional stresses that normally produce long rift zones, normal fault, and basaltic
volcanism.
Transform Fault Boundary
Transform fault boundary, or simply transform boundary, is a zone between two plates
that slide horizontally past one another. Unlike the two boundary types, transform
boundary neither creates nor destroys a crust, hence, it is also called conservative
boundary.
 Lesson 3
Processes
and
Landforms
along plate
Boundaries
6
Lecture 3-Processes and Landforms along Plate Boundaries
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them.
It focuses on understanding landform history and dynamics and predicting future
changesthrough observations, experiment, and modeling.

Aeolian Landforms
Aeolian landforms are formed by the chemical and mechanical action on the wind. The
word is derived from the Greek god of the wind, Aeolus. Areas where the wind is the
dominantenergy are prone to exhibit different aeolian landforms likes dunes, loess, and
mushroom rocks.

Erosional Landforms
Erosional landforms are created from exclusively erosional and weathering activities.
Examples of the types are mesas, buttes, and canyons.
1. Mesas
Also called table mountains, mesas are elevated areas of land with a flat top and
sides that are usually steep cliffs.
2. Buttes
This type is almost similar to mesas as they have flat-topped hills and steep
sides are formed in arid to semi-arid desert conditions.
3. Canyons
A canyon, sometimes called “gorge”, is a deep ravine between cliffs that is oftencarved
form the landscape by a river, wind, or glacier.

Mountainous and Glacial Landforms

Mountainous landforms are those that rise higher that the rest of their surroundings.
They exhibit slopes, summit areas, and local reliefs. Like real mountains, they can be
created by different tectonic activities.
Volcanoes are landforms that are controlled by geological processes that form them
and continually act on them after their formation.
Hills are elevated portions of land that are formed by geologic activities such as faulting
Valleys or dales are low-lying areas of land situated between hills or mountains.
Glacial landforms are the results of the actions of the glaciers.
Lesson 4

Internal
Structure of
Earth
7
Lesson 4 – Internal Structure of Earth

The movements of the lithospheric plates also affect other earthly phenomena to a great
extent .Plate tectonics is closely related to the global problem that we experiencing
today—climate change. In general, plate tectonics cause a change in the ocean
currents and in turn, generate more heat. When the plates interact, with one another,
volcanic eruption may occur, which increases the amount of greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere. In effect, global temperature
increases. Hence, it is needed necessary to further explore earth’s interior because
knowledge on what’s really inside and happening inside the planet will allow human
beings to better understand their natural environment.

What really is Inside Earth?

The interior structure of Earth is layered in spherical shells like an onion, a hard boiled
egg, or a chocolate-covered cherry. During the ancient times, people believed that Earth
is a solid planet like a ball. Through the study of seismic waves, scientist inferred that
our planet is made up of different layers. As seismic waves travel through Earth, they
are refracted and their speed gives vital information on the composition of the different
layers of Earth.
The structure of Earth can be defined mechanically or chemically. Rheology is the study
of the flow of matter primarily on the liquid state under conditions at which they respond
with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force.
Mechanically, Earth can be divided into five layers: the lithosphere, asthenosphere
mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, the layers of Earth are:
crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The lithosphere is the outer solid part of the planet including Earth’s crust as well as the
underlying cool, dense, and rigid upper part of the upper mantle. It extends from rhe
surface of Earth depth of about 70-100 km. The lithosphere is underlain by the
asthenosphere, a highly viscous, hotter and ductile region of the upper mantle that is
involved in plate-tectonic movement and isostatic adjustments.
 Lesson 5

Mechanism of
Plate
Tectonics
8
Lesson 5-Mechanism of Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonic Theory is Regarded as the most important theory ever developed in the
field of geology. Resting on a broad synthesis of geologic and geophysical data, plate
tectonics allowed men to deeply understand the global environment including the
activities underneath Earth. In a nutshell, the theory of plate tectonics attributes various
event such as earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain-building processes, and other related
phenomena to the motion and interaction of the plates that compose Earth’s
lithosphere. It states that lithospheric plates on the scales of continents and ocean floors
are constantly moving in response to the movements in the mantle.

Mantle Convection Theory

You have observed from the previous activity that heat can be transferred from one
place to another through a process known as convection. This type of heat transfer is
usually observed among fluid molecules (gas and liquid). Fluids expand and become
less dense when heated. In effect, the less dense fluid rises away from the heat source.
As it rises, it pulls cool fluid down to replace it. As the pulled “pulled” fluid becomes
heated, it also rises and pulls down more cool fluid, creating a cycle that stops only
when the heat is evenly distributed throughout the fluid.

Slab Pull Theory

This theory states that gravity and the plates themselves are ones responsible for the
plate tectonics through subduction process. We are aware that subduction zones exist
at the outer edges of plates. In these zones, rocks are older, hence they are cooler and
denser compared to those located at the inner layers. The old rocks or slabs also
subduct or sink into the mantle below it, due to gravitation forces.
Lesson 6

Evidence of
Plate
Movement
9
Lesson 6-Evidence of Plate Movement

The concept about the moving lithospheric plates has gained popularity over time. Yet,
some are skill skeptical on the total validity of the plate tectonics. Wegener’s continental
drift attracted a number of supporters form other parts of the world but more scientist
became skeptical about it.

Paleontological Evidence
There is a striking similarity of certain fossils on the continents on both sides of the
Atlantic, Which is difficult to explain if the continents were not once connected as one.
Fossils of two land-dwelling reptiles—Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus—that lived during
the Triassic Period have been underneath in various continents, and their fossils are so
numerous that they account for a major percentage of the bones recovered at some
fossil beds.

Evidence from Glaciation

Another evidence supporting the moving continents are the glacial till deposits in the
Southern Hemisphere. Considering the present positions of the continents, till deposits
indicate erratic glacier motion, but when they were fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle
continents reveal a much more streamlined motion, of the glacier from Southern Africa
and Northern Australia outward.

Evidence from Structure and Rock Type

Along with the development of reliable world maps in the early 20 th century,
geographers noticed that the coastlines of several present-day continents would
perfectly fit together, particularly Africa And South Africa.

Evidence from Paleoclimates

Paleoclimatology is the study of the extended climatic conditions of past geologic ages.
To prove the apparent shifting of climatic belts over time, Wegener reconstructed old
climatic zones. He used the distribution of specific rock types to determine the
distribution of the climates in ancient times.
 Project
In
Science 10
Aeron Isaac Borja
10-Gamma
Mrs. Vanessa Eustaquio
 Dedication
I dedicate this work for my family because they are
working hard for me to finish my studies and to
reach my ambitions, and I dedicate this for those
people who always motivate me to study well.
1

Auto Biography
I am Aeron Isaac Borja 14 years old, I live at
BarangayDelapaz Pasig city, my favorite hobby is
playing mobile games, someday I want to achieve
my goals to become a professional and famous
Basketball player, and also I want to become a
businessman.
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Letter to the Reader

Good day! Thank you for reading my project, this
portfolio is more on information about science 10, I
hope it can give you and additional knowledge.
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 Table of contents

Dedication………………... 1
Auto Biography…………... 2
Letter to the Reader……... 3
Lesson 1………………….. 4
Lesson 2………………….. 5
Lesson 3………………….. 6
Lesson 4………………….. 7
Lesson 5………………….. 8
Lesson 6………………….. 9