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2009-01-0859
Convective Heat Transfer Optimization of Automotive Brake Discs
Copyright © 2009 SAE International
ABSTRACT
Under intensive braking, such as continuous down-hill
braking, high temperatures could be generated in
automotive brake disks. The heat dissipation and
thermal performance of vented brake discs strongly
depends on the aerodynamic characteristics of the air
flow through the rotor passages and the geometry
configurations of brake discs. In this paper, commercial
software GAMBIT is used for geometrical modeling and
automatic mesh generating for brake rotors. Then, a
computational fluid dynamic package, FLUENT, is
employed to simulate the turbulent motions of air flow
through the vented discs. Through the numerical
simulations, the design criteria regarding the heat
transfer rate and air flow rate of the discs are predicted.
To optimize the 2-D and 3-D geometrical configurations
of the brake discs, commercial software iSIGHT is used
to integrate the geometrical modeling with GAMBIT and
numerical simulations based on CFD software FLUENT.
With the design of experiment studies implemented
through this integrated design synthesis process, the
thermal performance of brake rotors is greatly improved
by optimizing disc outer and inner radii, vane numbers,
vane angles, and the radius of vane curvature.
INTRODUCTION
Automotive braking systems are one of the most
important safety systems of road vehicles. They are
mainly used to decelerate vehicles from an initial speed
to a given speed. Excessive thermal loading can result in
surface cracking, judder and high wear of brake rubbing
surfaces. High temperatures can also lead to
SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. | Volume 2 | Issue 1
Zhongzhe Chi, Yuping He and Greg Naterer
University of Ontario Institute of Technology
overheating of brake fluid, seals and other components
[1, 2]. Therefore, one of the main tasks of braking
system design is to reduce the surface temperature of
brakes [3].
Much attention has been focused on improving the
thermal performance of brake discs. Numerical
simulations and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in
particular are commonly applied to braking disc thermal
performance analyses [5]. Many experimental studies
have also been conducted to measure the air flow and
temperature field inside the discs in the application of
braking [6, 7, 8]. It has been demonstrated that CFD
simulation results have achieved good agreement with
those based on experimental studies.
Various CFD tools for a computer-aided design have
been applied to the development of brake discs. For
example, FLUENT has been used by the automotive
industry to model and design various configurations of
brake discs [5]. From a design point of view, the
drawback of most commercial packages such as
FLUENT is that they only provide analysis of the brake
discs whose design variables have been specified.
Design syntheses including parametric and sensitivity
analyses have been difficult. Instead, engineers must
decide by trial and error to change design variable
values and re-perform the analysis until a set of
performance criteria becomes acceptable. This “manual”
process, often accompanied by prototype testing, can be
difficult and time-consuming for complex systems, such
as vehicle disc brakes.
However, little attention has been paid to the potential of
a comprehensive automated design synthesis process of
brake discs [4]. Numerical optimization may help
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automate the design synthesis by altering variable
values in a search to optimize performance criteria,
subject to constraints. Due to the complexity of the CFD
model of brake discs, even a single iteration of the
optimization may take a large amount of time. However,
if these optimizations are implemented in a massively-
parallel computer system, the computation time could
easily be reduced approximately by a factor equal to the
total number of slave computers.
To explore the potential of an automated design
synthesis process of brake discs, in the current paper,
an integrated design synthesis has been proposed and
implemented. Commercial software GAMBIT is used for
geometrical modeling and automatic mesh generation
for vented discs. Then, the CFD package, FLUENT [9],
is employed to simulate the air flow through the vented
disc. To automate the design process of the disc rotor, a
software framework, iSIGHT [10], is used to integrate the
geometrical modeling using GAMBIT and numerical
simulations based on FLUENT. Through this integrated
design synthesis process, the disc rotor geometrical
shape optimization is performed with design of
experiments (DOE) studies. The main design criterion of
the geometrical optimization is to maximize the
convective cooling by increasing the heat transfer rate
inside the rotor passages.
GEOMETRICAL OPTIMIZATION FRAMEWORK
The geometrical optimization was implemented by
integrating geometrical modeling and CFD numerical
simulations. The framework for automated design
synthesis is depicted in figure 1. This framework consists
of the following three software packages: GAMBIT,
FLUENT and ISIGHT.
Inner radius
Outer radius Objective:
Vane number Maximize the heat Net heat
Angel of vanes transfer rate transfer rate
Vane offset Strategy: DOE
Thickness
Input iSIGHT Output
Mesh file
GAMBIT FLUENT
3-D parametric Solver
and meshing
Figure 1: Schematic representation of the framework
for automated design synthesis of brake discs
GAMBIT is a geometrical modeling and automatic mesh
generation software package. With various input
parameters such as inner radius, outer radius, vane
962 SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. | Volume 2 | Issue 1
number, vane angle and vane offset, GAMBIT generates
various mesh files for CFD and other numerical
simulations.
FLUENT is an effective CFD solver, which is used to
simulate the complex turbulent air flow inside the rotor
passages.
iSIGHT can enable the rapid integration of commercial
CAD/CAE software, internally developed programs, and
Excel spreadsheets and automate their execution to
accelerate the evaluation of many more design
alternatives. In addition, it provides leading edge design
exploration and optimization technology to ensure that
an optimal design is discovered using techniques such
as optimization, approximations and design of
experiment (DOE) [10].
As an integration and optimization tool, iSIGHT can
integrate GAMBIT and FLUENT, leading to optimal
design parameters. With a given set of input parameters,
such as the inner radius, outer radius, vane number,
vane angle, vane offset, and rotor thickness, from
iSIGHT, GAMBIT will build geometrical models and
generate corresponding mesh files. Then, FLUENT will
call these meshing files to calculate specified
performance indices, such as heat transfer rates. The
resulting performance indices will be returned to iSIGHT.
Through objective fitness evaluations, iSIGHT will
coordinate the trade-off relations among various design
criteria and constraints and identify a set of better design
variables. The resulting design variable set will be
forwarded to GAMBIT as the new input parameters for
the next iteration. The above procedure will repeat until
an optimal set of design variables is obtained [1].
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS WITH CFD
In order to achieve accurate results, in the current study
a 3-D disc rotor model has been generated and the
corresponding numerical simulations with CFD have
been conducted. Figure 2 schematically shows the 3-D
disc rotor model.
Figure 2: Representation of the 3-D rotor model
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In the numerical simulations and design optimization, the figure 6. Since the vanes are evenly arranged along the
design variables include the rotor thickness (RT), inner whole disc rotor, a given vane number corresponds to a
radius (IR), outer radius (OR), vane number (VNu), vane specified section angle. The vane number can be
angle (VA), and vane offset (VO). The design variables changed by varying the section angles. When changing
RT, IR and OR are defined geometrically in figure 2. the vane number, the vane thickness remains constant.
Note that the rotor thickness is the total distance
between the two disc brake surfaces that touch braking
pads. When rotor thickness changes, the brake plate
thickness remains constant and the cooling passage
width varies accordingly. VA is defined as the angle
between the axis of a vane and the corresponding radial
line in the rotor plane, which is perpendicular to the
rotating axis of the rotor. If the rotor is rotating clockwise
and the axis of the vane is oriented counterclockwise
with respect to the corresponding radial line, the vane
angle has a positive sense. As shown in figure 3, the
vanes in the left and right take the vane angle with the
o o
values of +10 and +30 , respectively. VO is used as a
measurement for the curvature of a curved vane. As
shown in figure 4, it is defined as the offset of the middle
point of the curved vane from its straight vane
counterpart, assuming that the two ends of the former
coincide with those of the latter. Figure 5 shows two Figure 5: Representation of vanes with the offsets of 1
curved vanes with different offsets. With the introduction (left) and 3 mm (right) [1]
of the periodic side boundary conditions, the whole disc
The 3-D mesh model was constructed with GAMBIT.
rotor can be modeled as a partial section, as shown in
Due to the axial symmetric of the rotor, a partial cooling
passage was generated with boundary conditions
applied on both sides, as shown in figures 6, 7 and 8.

Figure 3: Representation of vanes with the vane angles

of +10° (left) and +30° (right) [1] Figure 6: 3-D mesh produced by GAMBIT

Figure 4: Geometrical definition of the offset of a curved Figure 7: Outlet section of a 3-D section produced by
vane GAMBIT

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Figure 8: Inlet of a 3-D section produced by GAMBIT
The computational domain and mesh are shown in figure
9. The boundary conditions are summarized as follows:
1. A pressure inlet was applied to the bottom inlet
layers;
2. A pressure outlet was applied to the top outlet
layers;
3. The layers near the inlet and outlet show the
inlet and outlet periodic boundary conditions;
4. The wall boundary layers were depicted at the
side of section mesh.
Figure 9: Computational domain and boundary
conditions of a 3-D section
In the CFD simulations, the following assumptions have
been made:
x Steady state air flow;
x Segregated solver and implicit formulation;
x Standard k-epsilon viscous turbulence model;
x Non-equilibrium wall functions;
x Moving reference frame at a constant velocity of
44 rad/s;
x Vane- wall interface with a constant temperature
of 900 K;
x Momentum second-order upwind scheme;
x Turbulence kinetic energy second-order upwind
scheme;
x Turbulence dissipation rate second-order
upwind scheme;
x Energy second-order upwind scheme.
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Steady-state conditions were assumed because the time
dependent behaviour was not needed. There are three
different solvers in FLUENT, namely segregated,
coupled implicit and coupled explicit solvers. They differ
in the ways that they solve equations sequentially or
simultaneously. Conventionally, the segregated solver
has been used for incompressible and mildly
compressible flows. The coupled approach, on the other
hand, was originally designed for high-speed
compressible flows [9]. The air flow inside the vehicle is
assumed incompressible, so the segregated solver and
implicit formulation were used. The standard k-ˢ model is
a semi-empirical model based on model transport
equations for the turbulence kinetic energy (k) and
dissipation rate (ˢ) [9]. It is used for fully turbulent flows,
particularly in the inlet and outlet areas of the rotors.
FLUENT can also model the air motion inside rotors by
using the moving reference frame at constant speed.
The non-equilibrium wall functions are recommended for
use in complex flows involving separation, reattachment,
and impingement where the mean flow and turbulence
are subjected to strong pressure gradients and change
rapidly [2]. Standard wall functions were selected. By
using the second-order upwind scheme, higher accuracy
was achieved.
It was noted that when the geometric parameters (such
as inner radius) vary, the mass of the rotor should also
change accordingly. The variation of rotor mass may
lead to the change of its heat capacity that will influence
the cooling of the disc rotor. However, in the current
study, it is assumed that the rotor mass is constant,
considering the following facts:
x Increasing inner radius from 68.4 to 76 mm
results in mass variation by 5.07%;
x Varying the rotor thickness from 20 to 22 mm
leads to the mass change by 6.28%;
x The current study focuses on the effects of
geometric design variables on rotor convective
heat transfer.
Therefore, in the numerical simulations and design
optimization, the rotor mass variation with the change of
the geometric parameters was not considered.
In the CFD simulations, the design variables take the
values as listed in table 1. The heat transfer rate was
calculated. The predicted velocity, static pressure and
turbulence distributions are shown in figures 10, 11, and
12. A close observation of figures 10, 11 and 12 reveals
that the velocity in the outlet is greater than that in the
inlet, while the static pressure is bigger in the inlet and
outlet and weaker along the vane. The turbulence is
greater at the corners of vanes.
Table 1: Design variable values
VNu VA VO IR OR RT
(degree) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
40 30 1.0 65 171 20
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DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS WITH ISIGHT

To avoid a long computational time, the design of

experiments (DOE) was selected as the optimization tool
and a full-factorial study by the design analysis
technique was used in the current research. The design
variables involve inner radius, outer radius, vane
numbers, vane angles, vane offset, and rotor thickness.
The design object is to maximize the total heat transfer
rate of the rotor. The optimal design variables should be
selected from the specified ranges. With these
considerations, the design optimization problem is
formulated as follows.
Maximize Q (total heat transfer rate)
Subject to 32  VNu  76
68.4  IR  83.6 (mm)
Figure 10: Predicted velocity distributions in one section 126.9  OR  155.1 (mm)
0°  VA  30°
0  VO  3 (mm)
18  RT  22 (mm)

where the heat transfer rate, Q, is the total heat

dissipated from the rotor passage vanes and walls which
can be derived from the CFD calculation. With FLUENT,
the heat transfer rate of one section of the rotor can be
determined directly. Then the total heat transfer rate can
be calculated by multiplying that of one section with the
vane number. When calculating, the heat transfer rate
beyond the rotor passage vanes is not taken into
account, since the variation of vane numbers, vane
angles and vane offset does not influence this heat
transfer rate. The inner and outer radii have effect on
this heat transfer rate, but the effect is not significant.
Thus, it can be neglected.

To improve computational efficiency, the DOE study with

Figure 11: Predicted static pressure distributions in one the full-factorial technique was used for the geometrical
section optimization of vented brake discs. The specified ranges
of design variables were divided evenly in terms of their
significance as shown in table 2.

Table 2: Design variable range and variation steps

variables steps
VNu 32 36 40 44 48 52
56 60 64 68 72
VA (degree) 0 10 20 30
VO (mm) 0 1 2 3
IR (mm) 68 72 76 80 84
OR (mm) 127 134 141 148 151
RT (mm) 18 19 20 21 22

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Following the framework for automated design synthesis

of brake discs shown in figure 1, the DOE described
Figure 12: Predicted turbulence distributions in one above was implemented. The resulting optimal design
section variables are listed as follows.

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VNu: 56
IR: 83.6 mm
OR: 155.1 mm
VA: 0°
VO: 02 mm
RT: 22 mm

EFFECTS OF VANE NUMBERS Figure 13 shows the

relationship between the vane number and the total heat
transfer rate. When the vane number increases, the heat
transfer rate increases and then reaches a peak value at
a vane number value of 56. When the vane number is
higher, the heat transfer rate begins to decrease. This
occurs because the rotors with less vane numbers have
Figure 14: Inner radius and outer radius vs. heat
a larger non-uniformity of velocity distribution than those
transfer rate
with more vane numbers. Thus, the heat transfer rate
increases with the increase of vane number. However,
when the vane number exceeds 56, although the
velocity distribution tends to be even, the narrow cooling
passages block the air flow and the heat transfer rate
drops after the peak point.
Heat Transfer Rate(w)

7000

6000

Figure 15: Vane offset and vane angle vs. heat transfer
rate for 40 vanes
5000
32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72
Vane Numbers

Figure 13: Vane numbers vs. heat transfer rate

EFFECTS OF INNER AND OUTER RADIUS The

influence of inner radius and outer radius on the heat
transfer rate is shown in figure 14. Numerical simulation
results show that the heat transfer increases with the
inner and outer radii. This phenomenon can be
explained as follows: bigger inner radius gives greater
inlet area, leading to better cooling performance; larger
outer radius provides greater cooling area, also resulting
in better cooling performance. Moreover, a close
observation reveals that compared with the design Figure 16: Vane offset and vane angle vs. heat transfer
variable of inner radius, the design variable of outer rate for 56 vanes
radius has more significant effect on the heat transfer.
EFFECTS OF ROTOR THICKNESS The influence of
EFFECTS OF VANE OFFSET AND VANE ANGLE rotor thickness is shown in figure 17. The heat transfer
Regarding the vane angle and offset, they do not affect rate increases with an increase of rotor thickness. Rising
the heat transfer rate significantly. As shown in figures the rotor thickness will increase the area of cooling
15 and 16, the heat transfer rate has a maximum value passages, which results in better cooling performance.
when the vane angle takes a value within the range of 0°
~ 20°, whereas for the vane offset, it has no
deterministic relation with the heat transfer rate.

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between a 2-D model and the 3-D model has been

Heat transfer rate(W) conducted in the current study.
8000
For the 2-D case, the mesh model was also constructed
with the commercial software package GAMBIT. The
computational domain, pressure inlet and outlet
7000 boundary conditions were introduced in reference [1].

In the case of the 3-D model, the design optimization

6000 problem has already described in the section of DESIGN
18 19 20 21 22
OF EXPERIMENTS WITH ISIGHT. In the case of the 2-
Thickness(mm) D model, the design optimization problem is formulated
as follows:
Figure 17: Rotor thicknesses vs. heat transfer rate at 56 Maximize Q (total heat transfer rate)
vane numbers
Subject to 24  VNu  76
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS The numerical simulation 68.4  IR  83.6 (mm)
results based on the 3-D rotor model indicated that the 126.9  OR  155.1 (mm)
most important design variables affecting brake disc 0°  VA  40°
thermal performance are vane numbers, inner and outer 0  VO  4 (mm)
radius and rotor thickness. The vane offset and vane
angle have little influence on enhancing the cooling The resulting optimal design variables using the 2-D and
performance of rotors. The parametric studies revealed 3-D models are listed in table 3.
that by increasing the vane numbers from 40 to 56, the
cooling performance can be improved by 9.2%. Table 3: Optimal design variables based on 2-D and 3-D
Increasing the outer radius and the inner radius from the models
specified lower bound value to upper bound value can
improve the heat transfer rate by 15.4% and 2.7% 2-D model 3-D model
respectively. For rotor thickness, the cooling
VNu 64 56
performance improves by 17.6%, with an increase of
rotor thickness from 18 to 22 mm. However, changing IR (mm) 68.4 83.6
the vane angle and vane offset slightly increases the OR (mm) 155.1 155.1
heat transfer rate by only 0% and 0.4%, respectively. VA (degree) 0° 0°
Through the design optimization, the design variable set
listed above were identified within the given variable VO (mm) 1 2
ranges. Compared with the baseline design, the heat RT (mm) 22
transfer rate based on the optimized design improves by
18.8% as shown in figure 18.
Figure 19 shows the relationship between the vane
number and the total heat transfer rate using the 2-D
18.8 model. With an increase of vane numbers, the heat
20
18
dissipation area increases as well and reaches the peak
15.4 at the vane number of 64 instead of 56 in the case of the
16
Heat transfer rate(Percentage

14 3-D model. This occurs because of the limitation of 2-D

12 model. In the 2-D model, it is assumed that the thickness
9.2 of brake rotor is large enough. It is obvious that the
10
Improvment)

8 unrealistic assumption regarding the brake rotor

6 thickness will result in the diversity in the optimal vane
4 2.7
number of the resulting brake rotor designs based on the
2 0.4 0 2-D and 3-D models.
0
vane vane vane inner outer total effect As shown in figures 20 and 21, the heat transfer rate
numbers offset angle radius radius increases when the inner radius drops or outer radius
rises in the case of the 2-D model. The numerical
Figure 18: Effects of design variables on reducing the simulation result based on the 2-D models revealed that
heat transfer rate in percentage a smaller inner radius will result in better cooling
performance. In contrast, in the case of the 3-D model,
COMPARISION OF 2-D AND 3-D MODELS when decreasing the inner radius of rotors, the heat
transfer rate decreases as well as shown in figure 14.
To identify the influence of using 2-D and 3-D brake rotor
This occurs because with the 2-D model, the effect of
models on numerical simulation results, a comparison
thickness of the rotors is held unchanged, when the
inner radius of the rotors decreases, the increased rotor

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300000

250000
Total heat(W)

200000

150000

100000
24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76
Vane numbers

Figure 19: Vane numbers vs. heat transfer rate (2-D

models) [1]

Figure 22: Vane angle and vane offset vs. total heat
160000 transfer rate with 56 vanes (2-D models) [1]
Total heat transfer rate (KW)

140000
As for the vane offset and vane angle, the numerical
simulations based on the 2-D and 3- D models give a
120000
similar result, that is, the heat transfer rate reaches a
maximum value when the vane angle has a value within
100000 the range of 0° - 20°, whereas for the vane offset, there
68.4 72.2 76 79.8 83.6 is no deterministic relation with the heat transfer rate, as
shown in figures 15 and 22.
Inner radius (mm)

In terms of computational efficiency, for the case of the

Figure 20: Inner radius vs. total heat transfer rate [1] 2-D model, the elapse time used for one DOE (design of
experiments) run is about 4 hours using a computer with
the CPU of Intel Dual Core 7100 (1.8GHz and 2MB).
However, in the case of the 3-D model, completing one
DOE run requires nearly 23 hours.
Total heat transfer rate (KW)

220000
190000
160000
130000
126.9
Figure 21: Outer radius vs. total heat transfer rate [1]
surface area gives better cooling performance. However,
in the more realistic 3-D model, when the inner radius of
the rotor decreases, the entrance area decreases as
well, which blocks the inlet air flow. As shown in both
figures 14 and 21, for both the 2-D and 3-D models,
increasing the outer radius of the rotor will result in
higher heat transfer rate.
Therefore, the 3-D models are more realistic and have
higher fidelity, which can give more accurate results, but
using 2-D models can drastically reduce the computing
time.
CONCLUSION
This paper presented an automated design synthesis
134 141 148 155.1 approach to the geometrical optimization of vented brake
Outer radius (mm) discs of automotive vehicles. The design optimization
was implemented using a software framework, iSIGHT,
to integrate the geometric modeling by a commercial
software package, GAMBIT, and numerical simulations
based on a computational fluid dynamics tool, FLUENT.
The effectiveness of the automated design synthesis
approach was investigated through optimizing the
geometrical parameters of a 3-D model of a vented
brake disc with a Design of Experiments (DOE)
technique. It is expected that this automated design
synthesis approach can be extended to the optimization
of realistic 3-D models of vented brake discs using
typical optimization techniques, such as genetic
algorithms and gradient based search methods.

The parameter sensitivity analysis based on the 3-D

rotor model has identified the most important design

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variables affecting brake disc thermal performance. 8. Michael D. Hudson and Roland L. Ruhl, Ventilated
These design variables are vane numbers, inner and Brake Rotor Air Flow Investigation, SAE
outer radius, and rotor thickness. With the DOE studies International Congress & Exposition, Detroit,
implemented through the automated design synthesis Michigan, February 24-27, 1997.
approach, the thermal performance of brake rotors is 9. http://www.fluent.com/software/gambit/index.htm.
greatly improved by optimizing the geometric design 10. http://www.engineous.com/iSIGHT.cfm.
variables.

The analysis of the benchmark simulation results based Contact

on the 2-D and 3-D rotor models discloses the
distinguished difference between these two models in Dr. Yuping He
terms of the resulting optimal design variables. The Assistant Professor
unrealistic assumption regarding the brake rotor Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
thickness of the 2-D model will result in the diversity in University of Ontario Institute of Technology
the optimal vane number of the resulting design from Oshawa, Ontario, Canada L1H 7K4
that based on the 3-D model. Interestingly, the numerical E-mail: yuping.he@uoit.ca
results based on the 2-D and 3-D models offer exactly
opposite directions for identifying the optimal rotor inner Dr. Greg Naterer
radius for the optimized brake rotor designs. Analysis Professor
reveals that the simulation results based on the 3-D Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
models are more realistic and accurate. On the other University of Ontario Institute of Technology
hand, the numerical simulations using 2-D models can Oshawa, Ontario, Canada L1H 7K4
drastically reduce the computing time. E-mail: greg.naterer@uoit.ca

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support of this research from the Natural

Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. Z. Chi, Y. He and G. F. Naterer, Geometrical

Optimization of Vented Brake Discs of Automotive
Vehicles, CATS Forum 2008, Toronto, Canada,
2008.
2. Z. Chi, G. F. Naterer and Y. He, Thermal
Performance Analysis of Vented Automotive Brake
Discs, CSME Forum 2008, University of Ottawa,
Ottawa, Canada, 2008.
3. C. Qian, Aerodynamic Shape Optimization using
CFD Parametric Model with Brake Cooling
Application, SAE 2002 World Congress, Detroit,
Michigan, March 4-7, 2002.
4. R. Limpert, Brake Design and Safety, Second
Edition, Warrendale, PA : Society of Automotive
Engineers, c1992.
5. H. Sun, Sensitivity Study on Brake Cooling
Performance, SAE Paper 2006-01-0694, 2006.
6. G. Barigozzi, G. E. Cossali and A. Perdichizzi,
Experimental Investigation of the Aero-Thermal
Characteristics at the Exit of an Automotive Vented
st
Brake Disc, SAE international, 21 Annual Brake
Colloquium and Exhibition, Hollywood, Florida USA,
October 6-8, 2003.
7. Anwar R. Daudi, 72 Curved Fin Rotor Design
Reduces Maximum Rotor Temperature, SAE
international, 17th Annual Brake Colloquium and
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10-13, 1999.

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