Floor Vibration

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Floor vibrations
From Steelconstruction.info
In recent years, there has been an increase in demand for buildings that are fast to construct, have
large uninterrupted floor areas and are flexible in their intended final use. Modern design and
construction techniques enable steel construction to satisfy these demands and deliver structures
which are competitive in terms of overall cost.
For most multi-storey commercial buildings, straightforward steel construction will meet the
required vibration performance criteria without modification. For more vibration-sensitive
applications, such as hospital operating theatre floors, steel’s advantages can be utilised, although
stiffer solutions may be necessary. Even if a stiffer floor is required, steel remains the most cost-
effective and lightweight solution.
Long-span applications, for which steel is the only option, have been found to offer very good
vibration damping, despite common preconceptions that damping in composite floors is lower than
that of concrete structures. This is because of the large mass of the long-span sections which
participate in any motion reduces the magnitude of the vibration response. The steel sector has
extensive experience in designing steel structures to ensure compliance with even the strictest
vibration performance criteria.
The subject of floor vibrations is complex. This article describes the basic theory of floor vibrations,
human perception and acceptability levels and provides practical methods for assessing the likely
vibrational behaviour of floors in steel framed buildings.
https://www.steelconstruction.info/Floor_vibrations 06-Nov-18
Floor vibrations - Steelconstruction.info Page 2 of 25
Contents
◾ 1 Introduction to floor vibrations
◾ 1.1 Vibrations
◾ 1.2 Sources of vibration
◾ 1.3 Consequences of vibrations
◾ 2 Theory of vibrations
◾ 2.1 Single degree of freedom systems
◾ 2.2 Continuous systems
◾ 3 Types of response
◾ 3.1 Resonant response
◾ 3.2 Response to periodic impulses
Floor vibration
◾ 4 Human induced vibration
◾ 5 Acceptability of vibrations
◾ 5.1 The human perception of vibration
◾ 5.2 Design criteria for vibrations
◾ 5.3 Design for rhythmic activity
◾ 5.4 Designing for dynamic loads
◾ 6 Vibration analysis
◾ 6.1 Basic principles
◾ 6.2 Finite element modelling
◾ 6.3 Simplified assessment of floors with steel beams
◾ 6.4 Floor response calculator
◾ 7 Dynamic testing of floors
◾ 7.1 Modal testing
◾ 7.1.1 Modal testing without measuring the excitation force
◾ 7.1.2 Modal testing with measured excitation force
◾ 7.2 Response measurement
◾ 8 Regulations and design rules
◾ 9 Structural design considerations
◾ 9.1 Damping
◾ 9.2 Floor loading
◾ 9.3 Modelling issues
◾ 9.4 Continuity and isolation of critical areas
◾ 9.5 Precast concrete units in composite design
◾ 10 Architectural design considerations
◾ 10.1 Walking paths
◾ 10.2 Location of aerobic areas
◾ 11 Case studies
◾ 12 References
◾ 13 Further reading
◾ 14 Resources
◾ 15 See also
◾ 16 CPD
[top]Introduction to floor vibrations
[top]Vibrations
The term ‘vibrations’ when applied to floors refers to the oscillatory motion experienced by the
building and its occupants during the course of normal day-to-day activities. This motion is normally
vertical (up and down), but horizontal vibrations are also possible. In either case, the consequences
of vibrations range from being a nuisance to the building users to causing damage to the fixtures and
fittings or even (in very extreme cases) to the building structure. The severity of the consequences
will depend on the source of the motion, its duration and the design and layout of the building.
Sensitive process/equipment such as nano-technologies, microscopes or lasers may be sensitive to a

level of vibration which is often below human perception. In such special cases, malfunctioning of
the equipment is avoided by limiting the level of vibration to the specific requirement of the
equipment.
Severe vibration events due to earthquakes and explosions are outside the scope of this article.
Once constructed, it is very difficult to modify an existing floor to reduce its susceptibility to
vibration, as only major changes to the mass, stiffness or damping of the floor system will produce
any perceptible reduction in vibration amplitudes. It is important therefore that the levels of
acceptable vibration be established at the concept design stage, paying particular attention to the
anticipated usage of the floors. The client must be involved in this decision, as the specified
acceptance criteria may have a significant impact on the design of the floor and the cost of
construction.
[top]Sources of vibration
Floor vibrations are generally caused by dynamic loads applied either directly to the floor by people
or machinery or indirectly by moving floor supports after transmission through the building structure
or through the ground. The principal sources of vibration in buildings are:
◾ Human activity, e.g.

walking, dancing, jumping,
etc.
◾ Vibrating machinery
◾ External forces, e.g. traffic
at ground level or
underground, or wind
buffeting.
The most common source of

vibration that can cause nuisance
in building applications is human
activity, usually walking.
Although small in magnitude,
walking-induced vibrations can
cause a nuisance to people
working or living in the building,
especially to the use of sensitive Plymouth Derriford hospital – multi-storey, steel-framed
equipment or to those engaged in construction
motion-sensitive activities, e.g.
surgery. Naturally, the problem is more acute for more vigorous types of human activity such as
dancing and jumping and therefore designers of buildings featuring a gymnasium or dance studio
should take extra care to limit the vibrations in the rest of the building.
Machinery-induced vibrations are best dealt with at source through the provision of isolating mounts
or motion arresting pads. Machines installed in factories tend to produce the most severe vibrations
due to their size and the nature of their operation. However, floor vibration is rarely a problem in
most factories, since it is accepted by the workforce as part of the industrial environment.
Wind induced vibrations are generally not an issue for normal building construction, such as low to
medium rise commercial or residential buildings. Where they need to be considered, building
designers should consult the appropriate wind loading code of practice, e.g. BS EN 1991-1-4[1] in the
UK.
Ground-borne vibrations can be problematic, but are best dealt with at source, e.g. repairing the pot-
hole in the road. However, where problems are anticipated, such as when a building is adjacent to a
busy road, steps should be taken to minimise the transmission into and through the building
structure. Careful detailing of the structure and foundations plays a key role in this respect.
[top]Consequences of vibrations
For the building designer, there are three principal effects of floor vibrations that may need to be
considered, depending on the frequency of occurrence and the magnitude of the vibration. These are:
◾ Nuisance – Human occupants of a building can perceive very low amplitudes of vibration and,
depending on the circumstances, even modest doses of floor vibration can cause discomfort or
alarm. Certain items of precision equipment are also extremely sensitive to vibration.
◾ Strength – The structure must be strong enough to resist the peak dynamic forces acting on it.
Depending on the relative frequencies of the applied force and the building structure, together
with the duration of dynamic event, the dynamic response can be significantly greater than the
response due to equivalent static load. In such cases, it will be necessary to design the
structural members and their connections to resist these higher loads.
◾ Fatigue – Fatigue cracks can initiate and propagate when a structural component, usually a
connection, is subjected to repeated cyclic loading, such as in bridges. For steel, there is a
limiting stress below which fatigue will not occur irrespective of the number of cycles. Fatigue
may therefore be avoided by designing connections such that this stress limit is not exceeded.
Of these three potential consequences, nuisance caused by the perception of vibrations is the most
common issue for most building applications. It is, therefore, the focus of this article. Strength and
fatigue issues are sometimes encountered in buildings used for rhythmic activities such as gymnasia,
dance studios and nightclubs.
[top]Theory of vibrations
Vibrations are characterised by a regular cyclic motion of a given frequency and amplitude. In
practice, vibrating floors are complex dynamic systems with infinite modes of vibration, each with
its own frequency. Fortunately, even the most complex vibrating system may be represented as a
series of simple mass and spring models with a single degree of freedom. Such models are easy to
understand in terms of their theoretical behaviour and are a useful means of introducing the
fundamental principles that govern the motion of all vibrating systems.
[top]Single degree of freedom systems
The simplest vibrating system is one with only a single degree of freedom (SDOF), such as the mass
and spring model shown below.
Model of a SDOF system
In this system, if the mass M were displaced from its equilibrium (rest) position and then released, its
displacement y plotted against time t would represent a sine wave. In the absence of damping, this
motion would continue indefinitely, with the peak displacement corresponding to the initial release
position. The time taken to complete each cycle would depend only on mass M and spring stiffness k
of the system. In practice, all vibrating systems encounter a degree of damping. This is represented
in the SDOF model by the dashpot damper. As an alternative to displacing and then releasing the
mass, the vibrations could be initiated by subjecting the mass to a dynamic (time varying) load. This
is represented in the model by the external force p(t). The motion of the SDOF system can be
defined in terms of three parameters:
◾ Frequency
◾ Amplitude
◾ Damping.
The frequency of a system, or of an applied force, is a measure of the rate at which the system
vibrates. The frequency is normally quoted in Hertz (cycles per second) or alternatively in radians
per second and is proportional to the square root of the stiffness k divided by the mass M. The
inverse of the frequency f is the period T, defined as the time taken for the system to complete one
whole cycle.
The amplitude of a
system is a measure of the
peak response relative to
the mean. Since the
motion is sinusoidal in
nature, the term
amplitude applies equally
to the displacement,
velocity or acceleration.
In the case of floor
vibrations, the amplitude
usually refers to the peak
acceleration, since
Frequency and period acceleration is generally
used to determine the
acceptability of the floor.
Amplitude
Damping refers to the loss of mechanical energy in a system. There are many sources of damping in
a building, including friction at the connections, furniture and fit-out and energy dissipations through
non-structural components such as partitions. As energy is taken out of the system through the
damping, the amplitude of the response reduces until the motion eventually ceases. The amount of
damping will determine the duration of the response and can be critical in situations involving
resonance.
For the SDOF system shown above, subjected to a load p(t), the motion of the system is governed by
dynamic equilibrium, which may be expressed as:
[top]Continuous systems
A beam may be thought of as a series of mass/spring models joined together to form a continuous
system. Unlike the SDOF system, which has a single natural frequency and corresponding mode of
vibration, a continuous system theoretically has an infinite number of natural frequencies and
associated modes. When

the beam vibrates, these
modes are superimposed
on one another to give the
overall response of the
system. Fortunately it is
generally sufficient to
consider only the first 3
or 4 modes, since the
higher modes are quickly
extinguished by damping.
The different responses of

Damping a system may be
represented by ‘mode
shapes’, which show the
deflections of the deformed shapes of the system. The
fundamental (or first mode) frequency always
corresponds to the mode shape with the lowest
frequency. The first three mode shapes of a uniform
simply supported beam are shown in the figure.
Mode shapes of a simply supported beam
For design purposes, the fundamental frequency of a simply supported beam may be estimated using
the following expression:
where δ is the deflection due to the self weight and any other loads that may be considered to be
permanent. To complicate matters further, real structures comprise a framework of beams, connected
together directly or via columns. This results in vibration modes involving several beams moving
simultaneously, together with an area of floor slab. In this case, the fundamental
frequency of the system will depend on the motion of the primary and secondary
beams and concrete slab. The fundamental frequency of the whole system will
be lower than those of the individual components and may be obtained using:
where δmax is the total deflection of the primary beam, secondary beam and slab expressed in
millimetres. Alternatively, the fundamental frequency of the floor system may be obtained using
Dunkerly’s approximation as follows:
where fs, fb and fp are the fundamental frequencies of the slab, secondary beam and primary beam
respectively.
[top]Types of response
The response of a floor may be classed as either:
◾ Resonant or
◾ Impulsive.
[top]Resonant response
When a continuous (sinusoidal or cosinusoidal) force is applied to a system with the same frequency
as that of the system, each successive load cycle will add to the response, causing the amplitude to
increase. In the absence of damping, the amplitude will increase to a magnitude well in excess of the
level of acceleration resulting from a single load cycle. This is known as resonance and, if allowed to
develop in a structure, can result in unacceptably high responses and damage to the structure.
Fortunately, in building structures, the energy in the vibrating system is dissipated by damping over
a number of cycles and resonance

does not occur. Instead, the
response settles down to a steady
state having a constant amplitude.
In this state, each new cycle of
load merely replenishes the
energy lost to damping. The
build-up to a typical steady state
response is shown.
It should be noted that, despite

damping, the steady state
amplitude is several times the
initial amplitude, and this
response may still be problematic
to the building designer.
Increasing the level of damping
will reduce the steady state
resonant response.
In addition to the level of

damping, the amplitude of the
Resonant response
response also depends on the
amount of mass that is mobilised,
the magnitude of the applied force and the ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural frequency of
the system. On this last point, it is important to remember that floors possess many (in theory
infinitely many) natural frequencies, corresponding to the different modes of vibration. To avoid
resonance, it is also important to ensure that the frequency of the applied force does not match the
frequency of the first few vibration modes of the floor.
[top]Response to periodic impulses
If the natural frequency of the structure is significantly higher than the frequency of impulses, during
each cycle of periodic impulsive loading there will be several cycles of response. Damping in the
system will reduce the amplitude of the response, until the arrival of the next cycle of load. The
resulting impulsive response is shown.
In this case, the peak amplitude corresponds to the arrival of each successive load and, therefore, is
independent of the degree of damping. The magnitude of the response is dependent only on the
magnitude of the impulsive force and the amount of mass that is mobilised.
[top]Human induced vibration

The simple act of walking across a floor might not seem to be too onerous to the building designer,
especially when the structure has been designed for a much higher level of load. However, in
environments such as hospitals or quiet offices, a single person walking along a corridor can be a
serious nuisance to other building occupants.
A person walking
at a regular pace
applies a
periodically
repeated forcing
function to the
floor at a
frequency of
between 1.6 to
2.2Hz. This may
cause a build-up
of response, i.e.
resonance.
Although
dominated by the
pacing frequency,
the periodic
loading caused by
Impulsive response walking is made
up of several frequencies
superimposed on one
another. When
considering the
possibility of resonance,
account must be taken of
these higher excitation
frequencies. A typical
force-time plot for
walking is shown.
To establish the overall

response, this forcing
function can be broken
down into a series of sine
waves, each of which has
a frequency at an integer
multiple (or harmonic) of
the forcing frequency.
Each harmonic will have
an associated amplitude
and phase shift, and the
set of harmonics are Typical force time plot for walking
known as a Fourier series.
Although not immediately apparent from the image provided, the cyclic loading due to walking may
be broken down into a series of sine waves, each representing one of the constituent frequencies.
Each component of the response may be weighted by the appropriate factors (Fourier coefficient)
and then summed to give a good approximation to the actual loading. In the case shown, the pacing
frequency is 2 Hz, with higher harmonic frequencies of 4 Hz, and 8 Hz. The lowest frequency will
always be the most significant and resonance at this frequency should always be avoided (by
ensuring that the natural frequency of the floor is sufficiently high). A similar treatment can also be
applied to other human activities such as running, jumping and dancing.
Recommended design frequencies and Fourier coefficients for common activities may be found in
the relevant Regulations and design rules.
[top]Acceptability of vibrations
Generally, the vibration of floors is considered to be a serviceability issue, primarily related to the
discomfort of building occupants or damage to sensitive equipment. Where there is sensitive
equipment, it is a relatively straightforward matter to specify the maximum permissible acceleration.
However, discomfort to humans cannot be directly quantified, since perception and tolerance vary
between individuals and are highly dependent on the circumstances.
[top]The human perception of vibration
The following factors are known to influence the human perception of vibration:
◾ Type of activity
◾ Time of day when the activity is being undertaken
◾ The type of environment where the activity is taking place
◾ The direction of the vibration
◾ The amplitude of the vibration
◾ The frequency of the vibration
◾ The source of the vibration
◾ The level of damping
◾ The duration of the exposure.
[top]Design criteria for vibrations
The subjective nature of vibrations means that it is not possible to prescribe an exact limit that will
guarantee an acceptable floor response. Instead, the design guidance aims to ensure that the building
will attract ‘a low probability’ of adverse comment from its occupants.
Historically, designers have used the natural frequency of the floor as the sole measure of acceptable
performance. By specifying a sufficiently high natural frequency, the intention was that the floor
would be effectively ‘tuned’ out of the frequency range of the walking activity. However, while this
might be true for the first harmonic, resonance could still occur on the second, third and fourth
harmonics of the walking activity.
Current Standards quantify the magnitude of floor vibrations in terms of the acceleration of the floor;
defined in terms of weighted, root-mean square (rms) acceleration. The acceptability of a floor is
assessed by dividing the predicted acceleration by a baseline value to obtain a response factor, and
checking that the calculated response factor is less than the appropriate multiplying factor given in
the relevant Codes and other specialist guidance.
The baseline acceleration is dependent on the direction of the vibrations relative to the human body
(the z-axis is defined as head-to-toe, whether the person is standing or lying) and the frequency of
the vibration.
Directions for Vibration defined in ISO 2631, BS 6472-1[2] and BS

6841[3]
The baseline acceleration for the z-axis, as specified in BS 6472[2], is shown below. The line
represents a constant level of human perception. The area above the line corresponds to an increasing
level of human perception to vibration; the area below the line represents vibration that is
imperceptible to the majority of humans.
The response factor is compared against the specified maximum allowable response factor for the
application. The allowable response factor should take account of the human perception factors listed
above and may be obtained from Standards, published guidance or may be specified by the client.
Specialist guidance is available for hospitals.
The response factor approach assumes continuous vibration over a 16 hour day or 8 hour night. If the
vibrations are only intermittent in nature, the building designer may take advantage of the reduced
duration by using the Vibration Dose Value (VDV) approach. This alternative method may prove
especially beneficial in buildings where the vibration is caused by discrete and infrequent events,
rather than continuous activity, for example residents of an apartment block leaving for work in the
morning and returning several hours later.
[top]Design for rhythmic activity
Where floors are likely to be subject to dancing

and jumping activities characterised by
synchronised crowd movement, the floor must be
designed for ultimate limit state considerations in
accordance with the requirements given in the
National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-1[4].
According to these Standards:
◾ The floor may be designed to have a fundamental

frequency of at least 8.4 Hz vertically and at least
4 Hz horizontally, in which case the resonant
effects need not be evaluated.
or
◾ The floor should be designed to resist the

anticipated dynamic loads due to rhythmic
activity which should be considered as an
additional imposed load case.
z-axis base curve (BS 6472BS 6472[2])
The vertical natural frequency of the floor should
be evaluated for the appropriate mode of vibration for an empty structure.
[top]Designing for dynamic loads
As noted above, a dynamic load may result in considerably higher forces and moments in a structure
compared to the corresponding static load. The degree of magnification depends on the ratio of the
frequency of the loading function (fp) to the natural frequency of the structure (fn); the level of
damping present in the structure is also important.
The ratio of dynamic to static responses is known as the Dynamic Magnification Factor (DMF). The
relationship between DMF (fp/fn) and damping ratio is shown below.
It is apparent from the figure that, as the frequency of the applied load approaches the natural
frequency of the structure (fp/fn =1), resonance occurs leading to very large DMF values. The
magnitude of the DMF at resonance is dependent on the degree of damping. Theoretically for
undamped systems, i.e. ξ = 0, the steady-state response tends towards infinity. Since in many
practical structural systems the critical damping ratio is of the order of 1%, the dynamic
magnification can be considerable, if precautions are not taken to avoid resonance.
Resonance on the fundamental frequency (the worst case) may be avoided by designing the floor to
have a natural frequency of over 3Hz. This ensures that the fundamental frequency of the floor will
be higher than the lowest harmonic of walking.
[top]
Vibration
analysis
[top]Basic
principles
The vibration
characteristics of
a structure are
defined by its
modal properties
comprising:
◾ Natural frequency
◾ Modal mass
◾
Dynamic magnification factor for accelerations Mode shape
◾ Modal damping.
For any structure, there are an infinite number of modes, each with its own set of properties.
However, in practice, only those modes with the lowest frequencies will be relevant to the analysis.
For each individual mode, the natural frequency is the number of oscillations per second, the mode
shape is the deformed shape that the structure would naturally tend to exhibit at that frequency, and
the modal damping defines the energy dissipation within the mode. The first three modal properties
are dependent on the dimensions, mass and stiffness of the structure and may be calculated using one
of the methods described below. Damping depends on the finishes on the structure and an
appropriate value will generally have to be assumed (based on past experience or testing).
As real structures are built up from a number of components, the determination of the modal
properties is a complex process, requiring consideration not only of all of the members within the
structure, but also the interaction between these members. The most effective way of assessing the
modal parameters of a structure is by finite element analysis, but simplified methods may also be
used on some simpler structures. Simplified methods are usually only applicable to regular structures
with rectilinear grids and may be conservative.
[top]Finite element modelling
Finite element modelling may be used to obtain the natural frequencies, modal masses and mode
shapes of any shape of floor, but the method is particularly useful for buildings with irregular grids
or onerous design requirements with regard to vibration e.g. hospitals. The method is more accurate
and generally less conservative than hand calculation methods.
Finite element modelling is an approximation, in which a continuous structure is divided into a

number of parts or elements. The accuracy of the solution is dependent on the number of elements
into which the system is divided, but this has to be balanced against the longer computation time.
Selecting the optimum number of elements is crucial to the success of the analysis. There are no firm
rules for determining the mesh size (and hence number of the elements) but in general, if the number
of elements can be doubled without significantly changing the result, then the number of elements is
sufficient.
A typical output from a modal

finite element analysis of a
building is shown. The figure
shows the plot of one of the
floor’s many mode shapes
superimposed on an outline of the
floor. The red and blue areas
indicate positive and negative
modeshape amplitudes
respectively (to an exaggerated
vertical scale). For a given floor,
the software will generate as
many of these plots or
modeshapes as required, together
with the corresponding natural Finite element analysis
frequency and modal mass. In
practice, it is generally sufficient
to consider only the first 30 modes, i.e. the mode shapes corresponding to the lowest 30 natural
frequencies.
Having obtained the mode shapes, frequencies and modal masses, the vibration response of the floor
to a given excitation, e.g. a person walking at a known pace along a corridor may be obtained by
modal superposition. As the name suggests, this is a process whereby the responses (accelerations)
from each of the individual modes are superimposed on one another and summed to obtain the total
response. This is best achieved with the aid of software.
For the majority of buildings, the walking paths are not known at the time of analysis, so the
response is calculated on the basis that the response and excitation points are coincident, i.e. the
acceleration is calculated at various points around the building assuming that the person causing the
acceleration and the person feeling it are standing at the same location. This is likely to produce the
worst case response at each location. A range of realistic walking frequencies is considered to obtain
the highest response.
The end product of the analysis will be a matrix of accelerations, corresponding to the nodes of the
finite element mesh. It is normal practice to divide these accelerations by the baseline acceptable
value to obtain a series of response factors. These may be superimposed on the floor plan in order to
visually identify any potential problem areas.
[top]Simplified assessment of floors with steel beams
To avoid the need for a finite element analysis, a simplified assessment method has been developed
for simple building layouts comprising regular grids of steel beams supporting a concrete floor slab.
It is also suitable for composite floors. This design procedure is based on a parametric study of a
wide variety of floor grids modelled using finite element analysis. The method is described in detail
in SCI P354 and is summarised in the flowchart below.
The design procedure comprises

the following steps:
◾ Calculation of natural frequency

◾ Determination of modal mass
◾ Evaluation of the critical
acceleration and hence response
factor
◾ Checking the response factor
against the acceptance criteria
(for continuous vibration).
In conventional steel-concrete
floor systems, the fundamental
frequency may be estimated by
using engineering judgement on
the likely deflected shape of the
floor (the mode shape), and
considering how the supports and
boundary conditions will affect
the behaviour of the individual
structural components. For
example, on a simple composite
floor comprising a slab
continuous over a number of
secondary beams that are, in turn,
supported by stiff primary beams,
two possible mode shapes may be
sensibly considered, as shown
below:
◾ Secondary beam mode

◾ Primary beam mode.
In the secondary beam mode, the

Assessment of floor vibrations from SCI P354
primary beams form nodal lines,
Note: Section numbers refer to those in SCI P354
i.e. they have zero deflection,
about which the secondary beams
vibrate as simply-supported members. The slab is assumed to be continuous over the secondary
beams. In the primary beam mode, the primary beams vibrate about the columns as simply-supported
members and the secondary beams and slab are taken to be fixed-ended.
The natural frequency should be calculated for each mode, allowing for the deflection of both sets of
beams and the slab, and the fundamental frequency of the floor should be taken as the lower value of
the two modes considered. The modal mass for the critical mode may be obtained from the
simplified equations in SCI P354. The acceleration may then be obtained by treating the floor as an
equivalent single degree of freedom system.
[top]Floor response
calculator
A web-based Floor response

calculator is also available that
allows designers to make an
immediate assessment of the
dynamic response of a floor
solution. The software reports the
results of approximately 19,000
arrangements of floor grid,
loading and bay size, which have
been investigated using finite Typical mode shapes for steel-concrete floor systems
element analysis. The results
from this software provide an improved prediction of the dynamic response compared to the ‘manual
method’ in SCI P354, described above. The software may be used to examine complete floor plans
or part floor plans, comparing alternative beam arrangements.
[top]Dynamic testing of floors

Testing and vibration performance assessment based on experimental data are powerful tools which
can be used to ascertain the as-built vibration behaviour of building floors. This is particularly true
for complex floor layouts or in situations where the floor vibration performance is critical for day to
day operation of a building, such as in hospitals. Due to the uncertainties associated with the two
analytical methods described above (frequency method and response factor method), clients often
ask for in-situ testing of floors after they are constructed to check the actual performance and verify
the accuracy of the design calculations.
There are two principal categories of dynamic floor test, relating to the purpose and desired output of
the test:
◾ Measurement of the modal properties of the floor

◾ Measurement of the response of the floor to dynamic loading.
[top]Modal testing
The purpose of modal testing is to establish experimentally the modal properties of the structure.
There are two types of modal test. Those where:
◾ The excitation force creating the response is not measured

◾ The excitation force creating the response is measured.
[top]Modal testing without measuring the excitation force
There are three types of test in common use:
1. Ambient vibration survey (AVS),

2. Heel-drop excitation
3. Rotating mass shaker excitation.
In the ambient vibration survey the floor dynamic excitation is provided by the environment in
which it resides. Vibration responses to this kind of excitation are acquired over a grid of test points
covering the floor area of interest. This grid needs to be dense enough to describe all of the likely
floor mode shapes in sufficient detail. It is also necessary to ensure that the modes of interest are
excited by the ambient environment and that the reference transducers are away from the nodal
points of the mode being measured.
Excitation in a heel-drop test is provided by a single person raising himself on the balls of the feet,
and dropping onto the heels, thus providing an impact. The multi-modal decaying response to this
impulsive broadband excitation can be measured at one or more locations simultaneously. This
method may be used to obtain the modal frequencies of the floor.
In the rotating mass exciter, two masses rotate in a vertical plane at the same speed but in opposite
directions, so that the horizontal components of their inertial forces cancel, leaving only a
sinusoidally varying vertical force. Harmonic forces at particular frequencies generated by the
rotating mass shaker excite floor harmonic responses at the same frequencies. These are then
measured simultaneously at one or more grid points on the floor and their amplitudes recorded. The
excitation frequency is then changed and the corresponding harmonic response amplitudes are again
recorded. By repeating this process for a number of frequencies and plotting the recorded amplitudes
against the frequencies for each test point, it is possible to estimate likely natural frequencies of the
floor.
A common feature in all these modal testing methods, where the excitation force is not measured, is
that modal properties tend to be less reliable than those obtained from tests where the excitation
force is measured. This is because the lack of force measurement requires a number of assumptions
to be made to enable extraction of modal properties; incorrect assumptions can lead to significant
errors.
[top]Modal testing with measured excitation force
Two types of tests are commonly performed:
1. Impact testing
2. Shaker testing.
Impact testing may be undertaken using an instrumented hammer or a heel-drop on an instrumented

force plate. In the case of an instrumented hammer, the force is measured by a load cell installed at
the tip of the hammer. The excitation usually moves from point to point while the responses are
measured at a number of stationary reference points. At each point, the excitation is applied several
times to average out the effects of extraneous noise. To minimise the detrimental effects of
unmeasured extraneous excitation of the floor, the testing should be performed on an unoccupied
floor structure, preferably in an unoccupied building. Therefore, for floors in operation or under
construction, night and weekend work is often the only option. An instrumented hammer test is
shown.
Typical instrumented hammer test
Typical shaker test Shaker testing may be undertaken using a single shaker
or an array of shakers distributed over the floor area. The
excitation is generated by a moving shaker armature of
known mass. This mass is driven by a signal generated by a spectrum analyser that is also used to
acquire all of the force and response data. The use of a shaker overcomes the problems with
extraneous noise encountered with impact testing. A considerable enhancement of the shaker
excitation at a single point of the floor is achieved by multiple uncorrelated random shaker excitation
applied simultaneously over a number of test points distributed over the floor area. A typical shaker
test is shown .
[top]Response measurement
There are many situations in which the client, building owner or occupant might want to measure the
response of a floor in service. In this case, the aim of the test will be to measure directly the
acceleration caused by a realistic excitation event. The measured acceleration may then be compared
against the specified limit for the floor, in order to verify its acceptability. Typically, for office
floors, the appropriate excitation event is a single person walking.
After the in-situ determination of the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the floor, as described
above, the floor can be classified as low or high frequency. The type of walking test which needs to
be carried out will depend on this classification. As low frequency floors can be excited close to their
resonant frequency, by frequencies of one or more harmonics of walking, it is important to maintain
the pacing rate of the test subject to generate the higher harmonics. For example, if resonance of a
floor needs to be excited at 6Hz, the pacing could be set to two steps per second (2 Hz), so that its
third harmonic excites the 6 Hz mode. The use of a metronome might be useful in maintaining a
steady pace. In the case of high frequency floors, there is no need to adjust the pacing rate to excite
the resonant frequencies (since resonant build up does not occur in this type of floor). Usually, a
range of pacing frequencies is specified, e.g. from 1.4 Hz to 2.2 Hz in increments of 0.2 Hz.
After determining the required pacing rate(s), a walking path must be selected. This will depend on
the utilisation of the floor. For example, there may be cases when walking paths only along planned
corridors are considered relevant. Finally, a test subject is asked to walk several times along the
walking path, during which responses are measured at a number of pre-selected points on the floor.
These may be at positions of maximum amplitude for the mode shape under consideration or at
sensitive locations (e.g. in hospital operating theatres).
In addition to these short tests, requiring an unoccupied building, technology now exists whereby
long-term monitoring of floor vibrations can be performed. One or more vibration transducers can be
installed on the floor and left to acquire vibration response data, due to everyday normal floor usage
by its occupants, over a prolonged period of time.
[top]Regulations and design rules

BS EN 1990[5], Annex A1.4.4 states that vibration should be limited to avoid discomfort to users,
and to ensure the functionality of the structure or structural members. It states that the acceptability
criteria may be given in terms of a frequency limit, or can be determined using ‘a more refined
analysis of the dynamic response of the structure, including the consideration of damping.’ It lists a
number of possible sources of vibration, including walking, synchronised movement of people and
machinery that should be considered and refers the reader to ISO 10137[6] for further guidance.
BS EN 1993-1-1[7] states that ‘the vibrations of structures on which the public can walk should be
limited to avoid significant discomfort to users, and limits should be specified for each project and
agreed with the client.’ The UK National Annex[8] refers to specialist literature for more detailed
advice.
The two main codes used in the UK which cover floor vibrations are:
◾ ISO 10137:2007[6] Bases for design of structures - Serviceability of buildings and walkways
against vibrations
◾ BS 6472-1:2008[2] Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings.
ISO 10137[6] gives recommendations on the evaluation of serviceability against vibrations of

buildings and walkways for human occupancy, the contents of the building and the structure of the
building.
BS 6472-1[2] provides guidance on predicting human response to vibration in buildings over the
frequency range 0.5 Hz to 80 Hz. Frequency weighting curves for human beings exposed to whole-
body vibration are included, together with advice on measurement methods to be employed.
Methods of assessing continuous, intermittent and impulsive vibration are presented. The code also
describes how to determine the vibration dose value, VDV, from frequency-weighted vibration
measurements.
These codes specify multiplying factors to limit the value of calculated response factors to achieve
‘low probability of adverse comment’ for different building types. In 1989, SCI proposed a series of
multiplying factors which are larger than those proposed in the codes. These are provided in SCI
P354. Similar values are also recommended by the AISC/CISC DG 11[9] (American code for
vibration) which leads to a more economical design.
For the case of health buildings, HTM 08-01[10] sets out the vibration design criteria for healthcare
premises. These are shown in the table below.
Response factors used in HTM 08-01[10] to specify satisfactory

magnitudes of vibration in hospitals
Response factor for
Space
continuous vibration
Operating theatre, precision laboratory,
1
audiometric testing booth
Wards 2
General laboratories, treatment areas 4
Offices, consulting rooms 8
SCI P354 ‘Design of floors for vibration: A new approach’ presents the details of the response factor
method to assess the performance of the floors subject to different sources of vibration. This
publication, which includes worked examples, is becoming increasingly popular in the industry and
widely recognised as a good practice for design.
[top]Structural design considerations

[top]Damping
The damping ratio (ξ), in typical steel framed buildings depends on type of the connections, degree
of fit-out, furnishings, etc. The typical values shown in the table should be used in design unless
more accurate information is available.
Critical damping ratios for various floor types

Damping ratio
Floor finishes
(ξ)
0.5% For fully welded steel structures, e.g. staircases
For completely bare floors or floors where only a small
1.1%
amount of furnishings are present
3.0% For fully fitted out and furnished floors in normal use
For a floor where the designer is confident that partitions
will be appropriately located to interrupt the relevant
4.5% mode(s) of vibration, i.e. the partition lines are
perpendicular to the main vibrating elements of the
critical mode shape
[top]Floor loading
It is important that the distributed mass used in vibration analysis is representative of the mass that
will be present in service, as a higher mass will reduce the response of a floor at a given frequency.
In design, the mass per unit area should be taken as the unfactored self-weight of the structure
including superimposed dead loads such as the weight of ceilings and services. In addition, where
the designer can be confident that such loading will exist in the finished structure, an allowance may
be included for semi-permanent loads (this loading should not be included for dance or aerobic
floors).
According to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1990, 30% of the imposed load should be included
when considering deformation at serviceability limit state. However, this is likely to be inappropriate
for floor vibrations because, in reality, the actual imposed load will be considerably less than the
prescribed design loads on the floor. Hicks et al.[11] recommend that the allowance should not exceed
10% of the nominal imposed load.
[top]Modelling issues
Due to the small strains encountered during a vibration response, the normal assumption that beams
and slabs are simply supported is not necessarily valid. When the strains are insufficient to overcome
friction, the beams and slabs will act as if they were structurally continuous, even where nominally
pinned connections are used. In this case, a more accurate result will be obtained by modelling the
joints as rigid connections.
Also non-structural elements, e.g. partitions, can significantly affect the vibration performance of
floors. Their influence is complex however and partitions may be reconfigured over time. Therefore
the beneficial influence of partitions is generally not included in the structural models.
The methods presented for evaluating natural frequencies of beams are broadly applicable to
cantilevers. However, due to the ineffective mobilisation of mass near to the free end of the
cantilever, the simplified method of calculating response can be unsafe and should not be used.
Designers should only use the general procedure (finite element analysis) for cantilevers.
[top]Continuity and isolation of critical areas
The structural response is dependent on the floor mass participating in the dynamic movement.
Designers may influence the floor response by taking measures to control the extent of floor
participation. Where a greater mass is required, designers should seek to maximise the area of floor
participating in the response by way of floor plate continuity. Conversely, where specific areas are
especially sensitive to vibration, it may be desirable to isolate these areas from the rest of the floor.
A floor which has not been designed to be continuous when loaded statically, may act as such under
dynamic conditions. If a floor plate is continuous over a beam, or if the beam provides continuity,
the floor plate can generally be considered continuous for dynamic performance. For composite
beam applications, care must be taken to ensure that transverse reinforcement is provided, as its
absence can lead to a worsening of vibration performance over time, as cracks form and continuity is
lost.
To isolate an area of floor, it must be structurally separated from the rest of the floor. This may be
achieved by the provision of construction joints all around the edges. Alternatively, the stiffness of
the floor may be increased locally; this has the effect of isolating the area.
[top]Precast concrete units in composite design
Precast units with an in situ concrete topping and supplementary continuity reinforcement will
behave in a similar manner to a metal decking composite floor system, if connected to the supporting
beams through shear connectors, or if trapped between the flanges of the beams (e.g. shallow floor
construction). However, if shear connectors are not provided to the supporting beams, the area
considered to participate in the motion should correspond to half the beam span multiplied by half
the beam spacing.
If a structural topping is not provided to the precast units, the designer should be aware that there is a
danger that the units could vibrate independently from one another. This will result in a high
response, owing to the relatively low effective mass participating in the motion.
[top]Architectural design considerations

[top]Walking paths
Some areas of a floor will have a higher response than others due to the mode shapes of the
vibration. Generally, areas close to beams and columns will be less responsive than areas in the
middle of a slab as these form nodal lines, i.e. limited or no motion. By locating walking paths closer
to these less responsive areas, many vibration issues may be eliminated.
In addition to location, the length of the corridor should be considered. The longer the corridor, the
greater the time associated with the walking activity. Reducing corridor lengths or breaking-up the
corridor into smaller lengths reduces the duration of any given walking activity and may prevent the
build up of a resonant response.
[top]Location of aerobic areas
Aerobic areas are, by their very nature, likely to experience a high dynamic response. Due to
continuity of the floor, this response may be transmitted into other areas of the building. It is,
therefore, advisable to take care when positioning aerobic areas to ensure that the affected floor
locations do not exhibit a response that would be considered unacceptable. Ideally, office, residential
and other communal locations should not be placed close to areas where rhythmic activities are
likely to take place.
[top]Case studies
The Noel-Baker School, The Royal Orthopaedic

Alvaston, Derby Hospital, Birmingham
[top]References
1. BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010, Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Wind

actions, BSI.
2. BS 6472-1:2008, Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings. Vibration
sources other than blasting, BSI.
3. BS 6841:1987 Guide to measurement and evaluation of human exposure to whole-body
mechanical vibration and repeated shock, BSI
4. NA to BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, UK National Annex to Eurocode 1. Actions on structures.
General actions. Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings, BSI.
5. BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005. Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI
6. ISO 10137: Bases for design of structures – Serviceability of buildings against vibration,
International Organisation for Standardization, 2007.
7. BS EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. General rules and
rules for buildings, BSI
8. NA to BS EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014, UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures General rules and rules for buildings, BSI
9. Design Guide 11: Floor Vibrations Due To Human Activity, AISC/CISC Steel Design Guide
Series 11, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1997.
10. Health Technical Memorandum 08-01, Acoustics. Department of Health, 2013
11. Hicks, S.J., Brozzetti, J., Remy, B. and Lawson, R.M. Dimensionnement Des Planchers
Mixtes Acier Beton vis-à-vis des Vibrations Construction Metallique No.1, pp 3-31, 2003 (in
French).
[top]Further reading
◾ Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel
Construction Institute 2012, Chapter 13, Structural vibration
◾ Ellis, B.R. On the response of long-span floors to walking loads generated by individuals and
crowds, The Structural Engineer, 78(10), May 2000, pp 17-25.
[top]Resources
◾ SCI P354: Design of floors for vibration: A new approach (Revised Edition), 2009
◾ Floor response calculator
◾ Steel Construction: Floor Vibration, BCSA, 2016
[top]See also
◾ Cost of structural steelwork
◾ Healthcare buildings
◾ Composite construction
◾ Long-span beams
◾ Multi-storey office buildings
◾ Residential and mixed-use buildings
[top]CPD
◾ Design of floors for vibration
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[top]Introduction to floor vibrations

Sensitive process/equipment such as nano-technologies, microscopes or lasers may be sensitive to a

◾ Human activity, e.g.

The most common source of

[top]Single degree of freedom systems

Model of a SDOF system

associated modes. When

The different responses of

Mode shapes of a simply supported beam

a number of cycles and resonance

It should be noted that, despite

In addition to the level of

[top]Response to periodic impulses

[top]Human induced vibration

To establish the overall

[top]The human perception of vibration

[top]Design criteria for vibrations

Directions for Vibration defined in ISO 2631, BS 6472-1[2] and BS

[top]Design for rhythmic activity

Where floors are likely to be subject to dancing

According to these Standards:

◾ The floor may be designed to have a fundamental

◾ The floor should be designed to resist the

[top]Designing for dynamic loads

[top]Finite element modelling

Finite element modelling is an approximation, in which a continuous structure is divided into a

A typical output from a modal

[top]Simplified assessment of floors with steel beams

The design procedure comprises

◾ Calculation of natural frequency

◾ Secondary beam mode

In the secondary beam mode, the

A web-based Floor response

[top]Dynamic testing of floors

◾ Measurement of the modal properties of the floor

◾ The excitation force creating the response is not measured

[top]Modal testing without measuring the excitation force

There are three types of test in common use:

1. Ambient vibration survey (AVS),

[top]Modal testing with measured excitation force

Two types of tests are commonly performed:

Impact testing may be undertaken using an instrumented hammer or a heel-drop on an instrumented

Typical instrumented hammer test

[top]Regulations and design rules

ISO 10137[6] gives recommendations on the evaluation of serviceability against vibrations of

Response factors used in HTM 08-01[10] to specify satisfactory

[top]Structural design considerations

Critical damping ratios for various floor types

[top]Continuity and isolation of critical areas

[top]Precast concrete units in composite design

[top]Architectural design considerations

[top]Location of aerobic areas

The Noel-Baker School, The Royal Orthopaedic

1. BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010, Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Wind

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Category: Floor vibrations

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