H

IL LIN I S
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

PRODUCTION NOTE
University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign Library
Large-scale Digitization Project, 2007.
 ABSTRACT

PROGRESSIVE, PERMANENT STRUCTURAL

DAMAGE OCCURS IN PLAIN CONCRETE WHICH
IS SUBJECTED TO TIME FLUCTUATING
STRESSES AND STRAINS. THIS FATIGUE
PROCESS HAS BEEN UNDER INVESTIGATION
SINCE ABOUT 1900 WITH MOST STUDIES
BEING PHENOMENALISTIC. STUDIES OF A
MORE FUNDAMENTAL NATURE WHICH EMPHASIZE
THE INITIATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
FATIGUE DAMAGE ARE REVIEWED.
INVESTIGATIONS OF REPEATING LOADS,
STATIC LOADS, FRACTURE MECHANICS,
DRYING SHRINKAGE, AND EFFECT OF TIME
RATE OF APPLIED STRESS MODULUS OF
RUPTURE ARE CORRELATED WITH A PROPOSED
FAILURE MECHANISM. FATIGUE FAILURE OF
PLAIN CONCRETE IS RELATED TO THE
PRESENCE OF DISCONTINUITIES, THE
PRESENCE OF STRESSES, SOME OF A RE-
PEATING NATURE, AND THE RESISTANCE OF
CONCRETE TO FRACTURE OR GROWTH OF DIS-
CONTINUITIES.
THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF
FLEXURAL FATIGUE IS REVIEWED WITH EM-
PHASIS ON THOSE ASPECTS WHICH HAVE
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE ON CONCRETE
PAVEMENT DESIGN.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This is the final summary report of the investigation

under the Illinois Cooperative Highway Research Program
Project IHR-73, "Mechanism of Fatigue Failure in Concrete."
The project was undertaken by the Engineering Experiment
Station of the University of Illinois, in cooperation with
the Illinois Division of Highways, State of Illinois and the
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administra-
tion, Bureau of Public Roads.
The general administrative supervision was provided by
W. L. Everitt, Dean of the College of Engineering, R. J. Martin,
Director of the Engineering Experiment Station, T. J. Dolan,
Head, Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, and
Ellis Danner, Director, Illinois Cooperative Highway Research
Program and Professor of Civil Engineering.
The administrative supervision by the Division of High-
ways, State of Illinois was provided by Virden Staff, Chief
Highway Engineer, John E. Burke, Engineer of Research and
Development, and John McKay, Engineer of Research Coordination.
The Project Advisory Committee which served the project
comprised the following members:
 Representing the Illinois Division of Highways:
John E. Burke, Engineer of Research and Development
W. E. Baumann, Assistant Engineer of Design
Robert E. Dellert, Liaison Engineer
Representing the Bureau of Public Roads:
J. L. Hirsch, Bridge Engineer
Representing the University of Illinois:
Chester P. Siess, Professor of Civil Engineering
George M. Sinclair, Professor of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics.
Clyde E. Kesler, Professor of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics and of Civil Engineering, was Project Supervisor and
served as Chairman of the Advisory Committee; John P. Lloyd,
Research Associate, Department of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, served as Secretary of the Project Advisory
Committee and as Project Investigator; and James L. Lott,
Assistant Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
served as consultant to the Project.
Appreciation is also extended to the reviewers of
this Bulletin: John E. Burke, Illinois Division of
Highways, Professor John F. McLaughlin, Purdue University,
and Professor John W. Murdock, University of Illinois.
 CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Structure of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. ILLINOIS STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Fatigue Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Static Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Drying Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Relationship Between the Modulus of
Rupture and the Time Rate of
Applied Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Relationship of Dynamic Properties
to Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
III. SIGNIFICANCE OF ILLINOIS STUDIES . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Mechanics of Fatigue Fracture . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Drying Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Relationship Between the Modulus
and Rupture and the Time Rate
of Applied Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Relationship of Dynamic Properties
to Fatigue . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 15
IV. PROPOSED MECHANISM OF FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . 16
V. PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EXISTING
KNOWLEDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.1 Magnitude of Fatigue Strength . . . . . . . . 18
5.2 Rest Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3 Range of Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.4 Rate of Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.5 Varying Maximum Flexural Stresses
and the Miner Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.6 Initiation of Fatigue Failure . . . . . . . . 20
5.7 Relative Strains in Static
and Repeated Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
VI. NECESSARY RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
VII. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
FIGURES

1. Details of Mortar Beams Used to Model the Structure of

Concrete.

2. Qualitative Load-Deflection Curve for Test Specimens

(Reference 19).

3. Relationship Between Rate of Applied Load and Indicated

Modulus of Rupture for Plain Concrete Specimens
(Reference 6).

4. Relationship Between Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity,

Logarithmic Decrement, and Modulus of Rupture (Reference
5).
5. Effect of Rate of Loading on the Modulus of Rupture of
Concrete (Reference 25).

6. Typical Fatigue Curve for Concrete Subjected to Repeated

Flexural Loading.

7. Effect of Rest Periods on Fatigue Strength at 10 Million

Cycles (Reference 28).

8. Modified Goodman Diagram Showing the Effect of the Range

of Stress on the Fatigue Strength of Plain Concrete Under
10 Million Cycles of Repeated Loading (Reference 4).

9. Stress Histories Investigated by Hilsdorf and Kesler

(Reference 28).

10. S-N Relationships for Constant Probabilities of Failure

(Specimens Subjected to Program 3 with Lower Load 17
Percent of Upper Load) (Reference 28).

11. Maximum Tensile Strains at Failure (Reference 35).

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL to herein, this must be considered a

Fatigue is a process of progres- summary report.
sive, permanent structural change
occurring in a material which is sub-
jected to conditions which produce 1.2 STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE
time fluctuating stresses and strains; To understand the fatigue mecha-
the structural changes may culminate nism by which damage and failure occur
in cracks or complete fracture after a in concrete which is subjected to re-
sufficient number of fluctuations. peated loading, it is necessary to
The fatigue process occurring in relate the physical occurrences which
plain concrete has been under investi- produce fatigue damage to the internal
gation since about 1900 with the major- structure of concrete.
ity of the significant work having been From the gross or macroscopic level
done during the past twenty years. of observation, the structure of con-
This process has been observed in con- crete is relatively easy to describe.
crete under repeated compressive and It is observed that concrete is a
repeated flexural loading, and small mixture of coarse aggregate material
amounts of experimental work show that and mortar, having the characteristic
it also occurs under reversed flexural that each aggregate particle is sepa-
loading and repeated tensile loading. rated from one another by a layer of
This paper will consider recent re- mortar. Viewed on this scale, the
search and the present state of strength of concrete derives from the
knowledge for plain concrete subjected cohesion of the mortar and aggregate
to repeated flexural loading, a loading phases and from the adhesion between
condition of particular importance in them.
the design of many highway structures. Examination of the mortar reveals
Emphasis is placed on initiation and what may be considered small scale con-
propagation of fatigue damage, which crete. It is a mixture of various
are summarized in Chapter IV, Proposed sized sand grains and hydrated portland
Mechanism of Failure. This approach cement paste and has the characteristics
to fatigue of concrete was the major that the aggregate particles are sepa-
reason for undertaking the study. rated from one another by the paste or
Because of large amounts of data binding matrix. Direct observation of
considered but only briefly referred the tensile or flexural failure surface
of mortar reveals that fracture occurs may be plate-, foil-, or needle-like in
through the paste or at the interface shape.
between the sand and paste with very While the strength of the paste
few failures occurring through the sand can be reasonably attributed to the
particles. Once again the strength gel phase and the magnitude of the
derives from the cohesion of the aggre- strength to the gel particle concentra-
gate and the paste and from the adhesion tion, Powers points out that no
between them. acceptable theory presently exists as
The solid constituents of the to the source of strength. He specu-

paste are derived from chemical reac- lates that the strength arises from two
tions between water and portland cement. kinds of cohesive bonds: physical
At the microscopic level, the products attraction between solid surfaces and
of these reactions may be divided into chemical bonds. The presence of sig-
two major phases, crystalline calcium nificant surface or van der Waal forces
hydroxide and microscopically amorphous is suggested by the extremely small
cement gel. The gel phase, which is
size of the gel particles; the existence
structurally submicroscopic and hetero-
of chemical or primary bonds may be
genous, can be divided into a solid
surmised because of the limited swelling
phase, designated as gel particles, and
nature of the gel, i.e., the inability
interstices, designated as gel pores.
of water to disperse the gel particles.
The gel particles are colloidal in size
It appears that the majority of the
and have a crystalline structure which
internal forces which enable the gel
is similar to that of the natural
to resist tensile stresses are of the
mineral tobermorite. The gel particles
van der Waal type.

Superscript numbers in parentheses

refer to entries in References,
Chapter VII.
 II. ILLINOIS STUDIES

(2 )
Murdock has prepared a compre- some particular practical problem,
hensive and critical review of research while the results of a fundamental
conducted in the area of conrete study may be of a type which would in-
fatigue through the early 1960's, which crease the total store of knowledge
covers the historical background, about the behavior of the material
problems encountered, results obtained, without necessarily being immediately
and the state of the art at that time. applicable to any specific problem.
Murdock noted that the fatigue of con- The investigations which have been
crete can be studied from two view- conducted at the University of Illinois
points. The essential differences in recent years have been primarily
between these approaches which can be fundamental in orientation. The extent
designated as fundamental and phenom- of these studies is described below.
enological is that the former is con- Fatigue tests were conducted with
cerned with the actual happenings in mortar beams containing various types
the material, the mechanism of failure of preshaped aggregate inclusions.
in this case, while the latter is con- These beams which were assumed to be
cerned only with the gross behavior of simplified models of concrete were used
the material or, for example, the to study aggregate-mortar bond, drying
fatigue response of a particular type shrinkage, and the influence of the
of specimen. It should be recognized elastic modulus of the aggregate.
that these two approaches are different Two fatigue studies investigated
in philosophy, but sometimes similar a fracture mechanics approach to
or even identical in experimental fatigue failure. In support of these
technique because of the present limi- studies, two series of beams were
tations of the experimental art. tested statically to define necessary
Furthermore, it is true that the ulti- relationships between flexibility and
mate goal of each of the two types of flaw depth.
studies is the same, namely a more The remaining phases of the program
efficient use of concrete as a construc- dealth with restrained shrinkage,
tion material. The principal difference stress rate, and the relationship
between fundamental and phenomenological between the modulus of rupture and the
research is that the results of a dynamic properties of concrete.
phenomenological study can usually be Because of the diversity of the
applied directly and immediately to various studies, this chapter will con-
3
sider the findings of each study sepa- the models were assumed to be two-
rately; the following chapter will tie dimensional. Figure la shows the size,
the results together and discuss them shape, location, and orientation of
in light of other recent investigations. the inclusions in the beams. The four
series are designated as follows:
I - plain mortar beams
2.1 FATIGUE STUDIES II - beams with a circular in-
clusion
2.1.1 General III - beams with a square in-
Eight series of mortar beams con- clusion
taining various arrangements of pre- IV - beams with a diamond irt-
shaped aggregate inclusions and one c Ius ion
control series of plain mortar beams The second phase of the model
were tested under fatigue loading. The study was designed to investigate
beams containing the inclusions were the influence of shrinkage stresses on
designated as models of concrete. fatigue behavior. Three types of in-
All specimens had a 2-in. width and a clusions were used to provide varying
4-in. depth; specimens were simply restraint to shrinkage deformations in
supported on a 40-in. span and sub- the mortar. Two of the inclusions, an
jected to symmetrical two-point loading unbonded aluminum cylinder and a
supplied by a constant displacement bonded granite cylinder, had high
fatigue machine. The loads were elastic moduli with respect to the
applied 15 in. from either support mortar and, therefore, provided a high
resulting in a 10-in. constant moment degree of restraint; the other
region. "inclusion" was actually a cylindrical
The first phase of the model in- void providing no restraint but permit-
vestigation consisted of four series ting comparison with results obtained
of beams. This portion of the model from specimens with reduced cross
investigation was conducted to evaluate sections. Figure lb shows the location
the influences of bond failure on of the various inclusions in the speci-
fatigue response, which Murdock and mens of the three series which are
(4 )
Kesler had earlier suggested might designated as follows:
be critical. With the exception of one V - beams with unbonded aluminum

series of plain mortar beams, all cylinders

specimens contained a single aggregate VI - beams with bonded granite
inclusion within the constant moment cylinders
region. The inclusions were limestone VII - beams with cylindrical voids

having an elastic modulus similar to The third and final phase of the

the mortar; because the inclusions ex- model investigation studied the

tended the entire width of a beam and influence of aggregate modulus on

because of the similarity in elastic fatigue behavior. The beams of one

properties of the mortar and limestone, series which were subjected to drying
shrinkage contained a limestone and a plain concrete fatigue studies in
granite cylindrical inclusion in the recent years.
constant moment region. The granite The plain mortar beams of Series I
inclusion was much more rigid than the were air dried in a laboratory environ-
limestone. A preference for failure ment a minimum of five months prior to
to occur at either the rigid or flexible testing. The test data yielded a
inclusion would have been attributed fatigue strength at 10 million cycles
to the influence of the aggregate's equal to 61 percent of the static
elastic modulus. The specimens of the ultimate strength. This fatigue
other series were kept continuously strength agrees with earlier results
wet, thus minimizing the influence of obtained from similar specimens and
shrinkage. The specimens contained loading conditions. Fracture occured
three bonded granite cylindrical inclu- at random locations in the constant
sions in the constant moment region. moment region with no cracking visible
The clear spacing between the inclusions prior to failure.
was one diameter. Figure Ic shows the Specimens of Series II were air
location of the inclusions in beams for dried in a laboratory environment for
the two series which are designated as a minimum of six months prior to
follows: testing. The fatigue strength at 10
VIII - beams with both limestone million cycles was equal to 66 percent
and granite cylindrical of the static ultimate strength. The
inclusions average static ultimate strength of
IX - beams with three granite these beams with circular inclusions
cylindrical inclusions was 87 percent of the static ultimate
strength of the mortar beams of Series
2.1.2 Results I. The aggregate prism restricted the
The relationship between maximum location of fracture, and three general
applied stress and cycles to failure types of failure were obtained:
can be determined by conducting fatigue (a) "Socket" type of failure in which
tests on a group of identical specimens. the aggregate prism remained intact;
Unfortunately, it is very difficult to (b) fracture within the prism approxi-
fabricate concrete specimens which are mately through a vertical diametrical
sufficiently alike to be considered plane; (c) a failure partially through
identical. Concrete fatigue data are and partially around the aggregate
usually normalized for this reason; prism. However, only one failure of
i.e., the maximum applied stress is each of the last two types occurred in
divided by the beam's modulus of rup- the 23 fatigue specimens. As in Series
ture which is determined from static I, no cracking could be detected
tests conducted on "halves" of fatigue visually prior to fatigue failure.
specimens. This ratio, designated as Specimens of Series III had a
stress level, has been used in the minimum age of one month at the time
analysis of data from virtually all of the test. Unlike Series I and II,
in which runout was defined to be 10 a specimen, little growth could be
million repetitions of load, runout in detected until approximately mid-life
Series III was defined to be five in the fatigue history. After mid-life,
million repetitions. The fatigue the crack lengthened and widened and
strength extrapolated to 10 million the width of the crack showed increas-
cycles was 62 percent of the static ing pulsation as failure became immi-
strength. The average static ultimate nent.
strength of these beams with square The lower load was 25 percent of
inclusions was 63 percent of the the maximum load for all specimens in
static ultimate strength of the mortar this phase of the model study. The
beams of Series I. The failure section fatigue strength at 10 million cycles
always included one of the vertical varied between 61 and 66 percent of the
faces of the square aggregate prism. static strength which is not a statisti-
Although no visible cracking was ob- cally significant variation. Although
served prior to failure, some specimens the fatigue strength in terms of stress
did not completely fracture at failure; level was not statistically influenced
this may be explained by the fact that by the aggregate inclusions, it was
load was applied by a constant dis- found that the presence of the aggre-
placement machine. At failure, gate inclusions influenced both the
sufficient cracking and associated location of fracture and the static
deflection occurred to remove practi- strength of the beams. Murdock and
cally all load from the specimen. Kesler (3 ) noted that the nominal

Specimens of Series IV were also stresses occurring in the specimens

at least one month old at the time of with aggregate inclusions were suffi-

testing. Like Series III, runout was cient to cause failure of the bond
defined to be five million repetitions between the mortar and the aggregate

of load. The fatigue strength extra- material.

polated to 10 million cycles was 63 The results from the second phase

percent of the static strength. The of the model investigation indicated

average static ultimate strength of that there were no statistical differ-

these beams with diamond inclusions ences in the fatigue strength for the

was 53 percent of the static ultimate various conditions of restrained

strength of the mortar beams of Series shrinkage, providing results were

I. The plane of failure always oc- analyzed in terms of the stress level.

curredin the region of the aggregate However, the static strengths were

prism and often was displaced laterally definitely influenced by shrinkage.

from the aggregate's vertical diagonal The modulus of rupture of beams with-

plane by approximately 3/8 in. The out any inclusion was approximately

beams of this series showed visible 660 psi. The beams of Series V which

cracking at the extreme tensile surface contained an unbonded aluminum cylinder

prior to failure. When a crack was had an average modulus of rupture of

detected early in the fatigue like of 520 psi. Beams of Series VI, contain-
ing bonded granite inclusions, had an discussed in Section 2.3. In fatigue
average modulus of rupture of 570 psi tests, cracks can propagate slowly to
and the beams of Series VII, contain- a significant depth before the onset
ing cylindrical voids, had an average of rapid crack propagation. A common
modulus of rupture of 460 psi. approach to estimate the amount of
The third and final phase of stable crack growth has been to deter-
model investigation provided fatigue mine a relationship between a measure
data which, when analyzed in terms of of the distortion or flexibility of a
stress level, yielded fatigue strengths beam and the measured flaw depth.(7'8,9)
in agreement with the other two phases Two static test series lO'll) were

of the program. Of 71 breaks which conducted with the primary goal of

occurred in the beams of Series VIII, determining the suitability of such an

55 percent of the breaks occurred at approach. A secondary objective was

the granite inclusion. Since 50 per- to obtain general information concern-

cent would have represented a random ing the flexural behavior and strength

selection of the two inclusion loca- of plain concrete members containing

tions, no strong preference for the various types of flaws.
aggregate with the higher modulus was
shown. While the aggregate modulus
may in fact have little influence on 2.2.2 Results
the restrained shrinkage, it is also The following results and

possible that any clear trend was conclusions were obtained from the two
masked by different bond strengths series of static flexural tests:
associated with the two aggregate (a) Sawn notches or load-induced
materials. Of 87 breaks which occurred cracks in a tensile stress region of a

in the beams of Series IX, 37 percent beam influenced the measured flexibility
of the breaks occurred at the middle in distinctly different fashions; there-

inclusion. Since 33 percent would fore the development of a relationship

have represented a random selection of between flexibility and flaw depth
the three inclusion locations, no should consider the influences produced

clearly defined trend existed. How- by notches and load-induced cracks

ever, the clear spacing of one diameter separately.
which is greater than would occur in (b) A plurality of load-induced
actual concrete, may have minimized macrocracks can develop in a constant

the interaction between the inclusions. moment region of an unnotched beam.

This suggests that the accuracy of a
relationship between flexibility and

2.2 STATIC TESTS flaw depth for unnotched beams will be

compromised by the number and severity

2.2.1 General of flaws present in a particular beam.

The fracture mechanics parameter, (c) Flaw depths present in
flaw depth, must be considered in fatigue specimens can be predicted with
certain methods of analysis as will be greater accuracy if both the flexibility
of the fatigue specimen and the time other cases of brittle fracture
flexibility-flaw depth relationship are such as in pressurized airplane cabins
based upon the relative change in and pressure vessels have caused much
flexibility. This normalization tends attention to be devoted to the method.
to minimize the influence of flexibility Irwin(14,15) and Orowan(0
6
, 1 7)
parameters which are not related to the modified the Griffith theory of

flaw depth of a specimen. fracture for materials that exhibit

(d) For a given specimen geometry, ductile behavior. In ductile materials
the normalized flexibility-flaw depth the energy demands associated with

relationships appear to be dependent plastic deformations near a crack tip

on certain, and presently undetermined, often exceeds the surface energy by

concrete parameters. several orders of magnitude. Although

(e) Stable crack growth in notched the fracture mechanics concept was

beams initiates at loads significantly extended to material having some

less than the ultimate capacity of the ductility, no procedure was proposed

beams. to extend the concept to polyphase

materials such as concrete.
Presently the use of fracture

2.3 FRACTURE MECHANICS mechanics normally involves the use of

a stress intensity factor concept. It

2.3.1 General is not a failure criterion; rather, it

Fracture mechanics is an analysis involves the description of the stress

of the stress and displacement fields field present at-a crack tip at the

in the region of a flaw at the onset onset of fracture. The concept recog-

of fracture. An energy concept of nizes that inelastic deformations occur

fracture mechanics was developed for at the crack tip; however, if the

an ideally elastic material. inelastic region is small compared to

Griffith(
12
,13) suggested that the the flaw size, the elastic stress field

fracture of glass resulted from the is a good approximation. When the

propagation of flaws inherent to glass; inelastic region becomes large, the

the energy release accompanying a inelastic deformations must be con-

small extension of a flaw would sidered in this analysis.

furnish the energy demands for flaw Because of the apparent brittle-

extension. Since glass exhibits little ness of portland cement paste, mortar,

ductile behavior, the only energy re- and concrete, it is natural that frac-

quirement considered was surface ture mechanics concepts have been used

energy. The Griffith method was found to study failure in these materials.

to be unsuitable for most real materi- It appears that the first use of

and consequently received little fracture mechanics with mortars and

als,
over 200 catastrophic concretes was made by Kaplan, who
attention until
in welded investigated one mortar and two con-
brittle fractures occurred
World War II. Since that cretes. The two concretes differed in
ships during
water-cement ratio, coarse aggregate and the crack tip moves through the
percentage, and coarse aggregate microcrack region causing the formation
material. Kaplan compared the critical of new microcracking regions which in
strain energy release rate, G , calcu- general grow in size; and the fracture
lated by an analytical and by a direct stage where the microcracking region
method for a number of test conditions. has reached a limiting size and any
Slow crack propagation prior to failure additional energy supplied to the
was neglected. specimen by the load causes the main
In a more extensive investigation crack to grow spontaneously to com-
1
than that of Kaplan, Lott and Kesler( 9) plete fracture. These four stages are
studied influences of various parameters shown schematically in Figure 2.
on the value of critical stress inten- Final fatigue failure is a case
sity factor which is proportional to of rapid crack propagation. Therefore
consideration of G or the critical
c c
In the analytical treatment of the stress intensity factor might reveal
problem it was shown that the critical if fracture mechanics is applicable to
stress intensity factor for plain con- fatigue failure. Glucklich extended
crete is derived from two sources, the fracture mechanics to mortar under re-
fracture resistance of the mortar and peated loading, and Neal, et al., (8,9)
the crack arresting mechanism due to and Lloyd, et al., applied
the coarse aggregate material in the Glucklich's approach to concrete.
concrete. A mechanism of fracture in Glucklich suggested the study of the
concrete was proposed which gave four parameter ao2c (a is the nominal stress
reasonably distinct parts to the load- and c is the critical flaw depth).
deformation curve for any given speci- This parameter is proportional to G
c
men: the linear stage, where the which, if a material constant, would be
material simply resists load in a re- independent of the fatigue life or the
versible elastic manner; the micro- stress applied to a specimen. Unlike
cracking stage, where a region of the use of fracture mechanics with
microcracks form around the tip of the static loading where the amount of slow
crack, which is trying to propagate crack growth is small, repeated loading
through the material, thus consuming results in appreciable slow crack growth
the energy which would otherwise drive which cannot be ignored. For this
the main crack; the slow cracking stage, reason relationships between flexibility
where the main crack begins to grow and flaw depth were determined experi-
mentally and used to estimate the
critical flaw depth indirectly.
G is the release of energy AE supplied
by a virtual extension AC necessary to
furnish the energy requirements of the
crack surface AC as AC approaches zero;
i.e., 2.3.2 Results
G lim AE
AC-0 AC' The results obtained by Kaplan

G is the determination of G at the on- indicated that Gc was influenced by the

set of rapid crack propagation. mix proportions, beam cross section,
and the location of the applied loads. and also for various concretes where the.
Kaplan recognized that some slow crack aggregate percentages were the same.
propagation often occurred prior to (b) The critical stress intensity
instability, but no method existed to factor was independent of fine aggre-
determine the extent of the crack gate percentage for three mortars with
growth. The neglect of the slow crack the same water-cement ratio.
propagation resulted in smaller values (c) The critical stress intensity
of G and might have had a significant factor varied directly with the coarse
c
effect on Kaplan's results. aggregate content for concretes with
Certain analytical difficulties the same water-cement ratio and fine
existed at the time of the Kaplan study. aggregate content. The critical stress
An analytical expression developed for intensity factor for concrete was found
a beam loaded with pure couples was to be about 20 percent greater than that
applied to beams with center- and third- for a mortar with the same water-cement
point loading. While the expression ratio and fine aggregate content.
was a good approximation for the case Glucklich obtained results indi-
of third-point loading it was not cating close agreement between G for
accurate for the center-point loading. notched and unnotched static beams. If
Better techniques of analysis for both slow crack growth is ignored, the
loading conditions have been developed results are also in good agreement with
recently and their use reduces the those of Kaplan. However, values of

apparent variations in G c . Kaplan's G for unnotched beams subjected to

.direct method of analysis for beams repeated loading were about 7.5 percent

loaded at the third-points was invalid. lower than those obtained from static

The method requires that compliance be loading, while the notched beams sub-

related to the magnitude and deflection jected to repeated loading yielded G

of applied loads. However, Kaplan values 10 percent higher than those

.related compliance to the magnitude of obtained from the static tests.

applied loads and the deflection of the The results obtained by Neal,

beams at midspan. Nevertheless, Kap- et al., indicated a large discrep-

lan's findings are especially signif- ancy between the Gc values for notched

icant in that they represent the first and unnotched beams. Later static

application of fracture mechanics to tests (Section 2.2) revealed that this

concrete. discrepancy arose from additional

The critical stress intensity parameters that were found to affect

factor investigation conducted by Lott the flaw depth-flexibility relationship.

Kesler yielded, in addition to load Lloyd, et al., found that when

and
deformation curves of the type described a more accurate expression was applied

above, the following observations: to the data from a final series of

(a) For the ranges of the notched beams, the results contained
variables investigated, the critical appreciable scatter. Much of the
stress intensity factor was independent scatter can be attributed to the diffi-

of water-cement ratio for three mortars culty in determining the flexibility at

 2if

Series I

Series II

21]

Series III

Series IV

(a) Series I- IV

FIGURE 1. DETAILS OF MORTAR BEAMS USED

 21

Types of Inclusions: Series:

Unbonded Aluminun V
Bonded Granite VI
Void VII

(b) Series V-VII

2[!'

Series VIII

Series IX

Types of Inclusions: Granite Limestone 0

(c) Series VIII a IX

TO MODEL THE STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE.
 tage

ge

FIGURE 2. QUALITATIVE LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVE

FOR TEST SPECIMENS (REFERENCE 19).

Deflection, Ap

Rate of Loading , psi/sec

FIGURE 3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATE OF APPLIED LOAD AND INDICATED MODULUS OF

RUPTURE FOR PLAIN CONCRETE SPECIMENS (REFERENCE 6).

 8.0 x

7.0

"• 6.0
o

Lu

0
5.0

4.0

3.0
0.020 0.030 0040 0.050 0.060 0.070
Logarithmic Decrement, 8

FIGURE 4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DYNAMIC MODULUS OF ELASTICITY,

LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT, AND MODULUS OF RUPTURE (REFERENCE 5).

0.

; 700
3
0l.

o 600
50

-0

500

Rate of Stressing Extreme Fiber of Concrete, psi per min

FIGURE 5. EFFECT OF RATE OF LOADING ON THE MODULUS OF RUPTURE OF CONCRETE

(REFERENCE 25).
C0

0
-j

I)

0
0
1 10 102 10 I04 I05 106 107
Cycles to Failure, N

FIGURE 6. TYPICAL FATIGUE CURVE FOR CONCRETE

SUBJECTED TO REPEATED FLEXURAL LOADING.

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Duration of Rest Periods , min

FIGURE 7. EFFECT OF REST PERIODS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH

AT 10 MILLION CYCLES (REFERENCE 28).

 FIGURE 8. MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE RANGE OF STRESS

ON THE FATIGUE STRENGTH OF PLAIN CONCRETE UNDER 10 MILLION CYCLES

OF REPEATED LOADING (REFERENCE 4).

Time Time Time

(a) (b) (c)
Stress Increased Once Stress Decreased Once Stress Increased and
Program I Program 2 Decresed Alternately
Program 3

FIGURE 9. STRESS HISTORIES INVESTIGATED BY HILSDORF AND KESLER (REFERENCE 28).

 I 10' 102 10 3 104 105
Cycles to Failure, N

FIGURE 10. S-N RELATIONSHIPS FOR CONSTANT PROBABILITIES OF FAILURE

(SPECIMENS SUBJECTED TO PROGRAM 3 WITH LOWER LOAD 17 PERCENT OF UPPER LOAD)

(REFERENCE 28).

"IA SAv
3UXIU
0
CO.,~

Ave. from Fatigue Tests

0-O
~~0*
0
C
0 ) a
0c
-Ave. from Static Tests

I L
I06
Cycles to Failure ,

FIGURE 11. MAXIMUM TENSILE STRAINS AT FAILURE (REFERENCE 35).

incipient failure. greater shrinkage. Creep acts to
The applicability of fracture mitigate shrinkage deformations
mechanics techniques to concrete under resulting in a complex interaction
service conditions is limited by the between the two phenomena.
present state of the art. The necessity In a recent investigation of the
of obtaining the size of internal flaws free and restrained shrinkage of
(2
is a present difficulty which must be mortar, Kung and Kesler 1 ) considered
resolved before fracture mechanics can a number of parameters: two water-
supply quantitative answers. cement ratios, three times of curing,
two degrees of restraint, and three
relative humidities. Steel rods cast
2.4 DRYING SHRINKAGE along the longitudinal axis of 1-by
I-by 11-3/4-in. mortar prisms provided
2.4.1 General restraint.
The time-dependent deformations As shrinkage occurred, the
of creep and shrinkage of the paste measurement of the shortening of the
matrix induce complex and varying restraining rod which was assumed
stresses and strains in the aggregate equal to the restrained shrinkage, per-
and binding matrix. Only a qualitative mitted the calculation of stress in
description of the phenomena is possible the rod. From static equilibrium it
at the microscopic level. Studies at was thus possible to determine the
the macroscopic level have supplied average stress in the mortar. Free
methods(20) of quantitatively predicting shrinkage specimens provided the
the average, time-dependent deformations potential shrinkage of the mortar. The
produced by drying, applied loads, or difference between the free shrinkage
both with reasonable accuracy. Since and restrained shrinkage was thus the
the quantitative description of stress total strain due to stress. It was
is not available, there is no direct assumed that this total strain due to
application of these methods to failure. stress could be separated into elastic
However, a study of the deformations and inelastic components. The elastic
and cracking associated with drying component of strain was assumed equal
shrinkage gives an insight into the to the average stress in the mortar
phenomena. divided by the sonic modulus of
Drying shrinkage is produced by elasticity.
loss of water in the paste matrix of
concrete. The shrinkage deformations
of paste are restrained by aggregate 2.4.2 Results
particles and reinforcement. In It was found that for specimens
addition, large internal relative cured a minimum of seven days prior to
humidity gradients produce differential drying, the elastic cracking strain,
shrinkage strains which allow moist which was assumed critical, was
regions of a member to restrain adja- approximately 130 p in./in. Test re-
cent regions which have experienced sults indicated that the lime of
cracking for the weaker mortar mix was lus of rupture and fatigue behavior.
influenced by the period of wet curing; The nondestructive sonic method has
such a trend was not found for the the immediate advantage of yielding a
stronger mix. Lower relative humidities direct estimate of strength thus
produced higher elastic strain at any minimizing or eliminating the need for
given time. It is not surprising that control specimens which are normally
restrained shrinkage is a very complex used to provide an estimate of strength.
phenomenon, since it involves the inter- Additional work with nondestructive
action of two phenomena, shrinkage and testing might make possible the
creep, each complex in their own right. evaluation or prediction of the fatigue
response of a member under the ambient
service conditions. Thus it might be
2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MODULUS OF possible to determine the adequacy of
RUPTURE AND THE TIME RATE OF
an existing structure to a proposed
APPLIED STRESS
loading condition.
Because of the possibility that the
rate of stress application could be a
meaningful parameter in the interpreta- 2.6.2 Results
tion of experimental fatigue data as The results of these investigations
well as in the rational application of are shown in Figure 4. The modulus of
results to concrete under service con- rupture is obtained by entering the
ditions, studies ' were conducted to figure with the dynamic modulus and
investigate the relationship between the logarithmic decrement on the
the time rate of applied stress and the ordinate and abscissa, respectively,
modulus of rupture. For stress rates and by projecting these two parameters
between 1 and 500 psi per second which into a family of strength curves. The
were used in the investigation, it was static strength increases with dynamic
found that higher stress rates produced modulus and decreasing logarithmic
higher indicated strength, Figure 3. decrement. This is as expected since
the classical water-cement theory of

strength states that the greater the

2.6 RELATIONSHIP OF DYNAMIC volumetric concentration of hydrated
PROPERTIES TO FATIGUE
portland cement in the paste, the
greater the strength, and an increase
2.6.1 General in the volumetric concentration results
The dynamic properties of concrete, in an increase in the dynamic modulus
sonic modulus of elasticity, and and a decrease in the logarithmic
logarithmic decrement were related to decrement. It was found that with only
2 2 a few exceptions, the strength could be
the modulus of rupture; (5, ) separate
fatigue investigations had previously predicted within 10 percent regardless
defined the relationship between modu- of age, mix, or curing.
III. SIGNIFICANCE OF ILLINOIS STUDIES

3.1 MECHANICS OF FATIGUE FRACTURE on fatigue behavior. Although the

The objectives of this investiga- plane of failure was restricted by the
tion were fundamental, but a large presence of inclusion and the static
portion of the results have practical strengths were lower than the strength
significance. By approaching the of plain mortar, the fatigue behavior
fatigue of concrete with mortar- expressed in terms of the static
inclusion models, it was possible to strength was the same for the plain
study the influence of a number of mortar beams and the various models of
concrete parameters on fatigue behavior, concrete. The investigators concluded
In the first phase of the in- that when fatigue results were expressed
vestigation, single preshaped lime- in terms of static strength there were
stone inclusions placed in the tensile no noticeable effects which could be
region of the constant moment span of attributed to the shrinkage stresses in
mortar beams reduced the static the mortar or variations in the elastic
strength of specimens 13 to 4 7 percent modulus of the inclusion; the results
and severely restricted the plane of did not contradict the failure mechanism
failure. However, when the fatigue hypothesis that failure initiates in
behavior was expressed in terms of the the bond between the coarse aggregate
static strength, no statistically material and the mortar matrix.
significant difference in behavior The static test results permit a
existed between plain mortar beams and critical study of the use of a fracture
mortar beams with inclusions. On the mechanics approach to fatigue failure.
basis of the results of this phase of The results indicate that the fatigue
the study, the hypothesis was developed damage exists on the macroscopic level
that fatigue failure initiated in the as slow and stable propagation of one
bond between the coarse aggregate or more cracks. There was indirect
material and the mortar matrix and evidence that failure could initiate at
then propagated through the mortar a surface crack produced by drying
matrix to produce failure of the speci- shrinkage. The results had a direct
men. bearing on the interpretation of the
The second and third phases of fatigue studies employing a fracture
the study considered the influence of mechanics concept.
aggregate modulus and the interaction Several series of concrete beams
of the modulus and drying shrinkage demonstrated that a fracture mechanics
analysis can provide both an alternate to consider the extent to which the
method of predicting the resistance of self-restraining action of a member
concrete to fracture and a method for can contribute to crack formation.
studying the influence of various con- In a study of restrained shrinkage
crete parameters and environmental of concrete, Polivka(23) utilized
conditions. specimens 4-7/8 by 6 by 40 in. The
Largely as a result of the various specimens received seven days of wet
fatigue studies, "fatigue damage" is no curing followed by drying in a 50 per-
longer a simple phrase for a phenomenon cent relative humidity, 0
70 F environ-
causing the weakening of concrete under ment. Cracking occurred most often
repeated loading. It is now known that within two weeks of drying and at
fatigue damage occurs at the structural elastic strains of 60 to 105 .i in./in.
level in the form of stable crack The existence of shrinkage cracking
growth. Less is known at the micro- prior to loading is also substantiated
24 )
scopic level, where the description of by Blakey. Shrinkage cracking
damage and strength remains largely a occurred within approximately 10 days
matter of conjecture. Bond between in mortar beams cured at 50 to 65 per-
0
coarse aggregate and the mortar matrix cent relative humidity at 70 F without
affects the response of concrete to wet curing. The sonic elastic modulus
static and repeated loading. of the mortar specimens was a maximum
It is of practical significance at an early age. Thereafter the
that even though some of the variables modulus decreased for a period of time
considered presented more severe con- and then started to increase again.
ditions than would normally be Blakey attributed early reduction in the
encountered in service the fatigue modulus to the formation of microcracks
behavior expressed in terms of the in the paste and the subsequent re-
static strength was the same as had covery to autogeneous healing and
been determined in earlier investiga- speculated that the load induced cracks
t ions . may originate as a reopening of shrink-
age microcracking.
The detection of shrinkage cracks
3.2 DRYING SHRINKAGE in specimens subjected to "free"
While drying shrinkage is impor- shrinkage suggests such damage may have
tant in its own right, consideration is also occurred in the fatigue specimens
limited here to its influence on crack used to model the structure of concrete
formation. The observations of Kung or in mortar or concrete specimens
2 1 ) studies conducted
and Kesler( considered the restrained used in most fatigue
shrinkage in a mortar. Their tests to date. It is probable such damage
were primarily designed to study the re- did exist in many fatigue studies;

straining action of a coarse aggregate however, the presence of shrinkage

particle on the shrinkage deformations cracks or stresses apparently reduced
and cracking occurring in the surround- the strength of both the static control

ing mortar matrix. It is also possible specimens and the fatigue specimens to a
similar degree and masked the influence which generally fall in the range
of shrinkage. stud led.
The effect of stress rate may also
be reduced in a fatigue investigation
3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MODULUS by the nature of the repeated loading.
AND RUPTURE AND THE TIME RATE OF
APPLIED STRESS It is known that the load-deflection
curves for concrete are approximately
It was found that the measured linear up to about 40 to 60 percent of
flexural strength is sensitive to the the ultimate strength. Ru'sch(27) has
rate of applied loading. The results shown that the effect of load rate in
obtained agree qualitatively with those the initial portion of these curves is
presented by McHenry and Shideler,(25) far less than in the latter portion.
Figure 5. The sensitivity to load rate Since the magnitude of repeated loading
suggests that it would be more accurate used in fatigue studies would normally
to express fatigue strength as a strain the concrete only slightly
function of the static strength ob- beyond the linear response portion of
tained with a monotonically increasing the curve, it is not likely that the
load having a stress rate equal to the fatigue strength is seriously affected
repeated loading stress rate, which by the rate of loading.
would result in lower fatigue strengths
than are currently reported in the
literature. 3.4 RELATIONSHIP OF DYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Kesler(2 6
) found no influence on TO FATIGUE

the fatigue strength for cyclic load The nondestructive sonic techniques
frequencies between 70 and 440 cycles considered in this phase provide the
per minute. This observation, which most reliable prediction of flexural
was made for a range of loading rates strength available at the present time.
of less than one order of magnitude, The fabrication of flexural fatigue
might be invalid for several orders of specimens which are nearly Identical is
magnitude; however, it would not be of extremely difficult even under careful
practical significance in highway laboratory control; the- prediction of
structures. Since the rate of load strength with the method considered here
application is closely linked with the will permit screening and rejection of
speed of vehicular traffic, there are unsuitable specimens in future fatigue
practical limits to the rate of loading, studies.
IV. PROPOSED MECHANISM OF FAILURE

The fatigue failure of concrete fracture is developed through the

is complex and is strongly related to ability of microcracks to stabilize
four parameters: the presence of macrocracks in a stress field. Repeat-
stress regardless of origin or time ing stresses modify the formation of
variations; the repeating nature of microcracks and cause a slow, stable
some stresses; the presence of discon- growth of macrocracks until the unstable
tinuities such as microcracks, macro- condition is reached.
cracks, and structural heterogeniety; Under the action of a static load
and the resistance of concrete to concrete undergoes time-dependent
fracture. Other parameters such as deformations known as creep. If the
environment are probably important to load is 70 percent or more of the short-
fatigue behavior; however, they direct- time static strength, the material can
ly affect the above parameters and have creep to failure. Such load levels are
secondary effects on fatigue. within'the range of fatigue failures.
Internal flaws in concrete are The significance of creep on the
large compared to the gel structure of failure mechanism is at present unclear.
the matrix. These flaws act as stress Perhaps creep is related to the in-
raisers, and minute volumes of the fluence of the mean load level which
matrix are stressed to the ultimate was not considered of great importance
strength of the paste while the average although the importance of the range
stress resulting from shrinkage, tem- in stress was recognized. However,
perature differentials or applied load Glucklich( 7 ) has pointed out that for
is much less than this potential cases where stress reversal occurs, the
strength. The critical regions of presence of a stress concentration
high stress occur near the tip of factor associated with a flaw in a
macrocracks. These stresses can form tension field will result in a mean
microcracks, which then relieve the stress much larger than would be
high stresses at the macrocrack tip. calculated simply from the nominal
The stability of existing macrocracks stress.
cannot always be accomplished by the One may with confidence conclude
formation of microcracks alone; then that the mechanism of fracture at the
one or more macrocracks will form or macroscopic level involves the growth
propagate. of a major crack or cracks through the
The resistance of concrete to paste matrix and paste-aggregate
interfaces with the crack or cracks loading. The primary bonds which are
feeding upon internal damage found at least an order of magnitude stronger
ahead of a crack tip. Less confidence than the surface bonds would become
can be placed on a mechanism hypothesis increasingly stressed with the movement
based at the microscopic level simply permitted by the secondary bond fail-
because of a lack of knowledge of the ures. With the removal of load, the
structure and behavior at that level. primary bonds which remained intact
The mechanism of failure at the micro- would, with the passage of time, tend
scopic level appears to be directly to restore the internal structure to
related to the interaction of the pri- its original configuration and energy
mary and secondary bonds present in the state. This recovery would explain
paste structure. Upon application of the beneficial effects of rest periods.
load to a specimen, some secondary The fluctuating nature of a repeated
bonds would tend to fail -- and loading would allow a more extensive
possibly reform immediately -- in an and rapid readjustment of internal
effort to arrive at an energy state bonds than would be possible under
most compatible with the imposed static loading.
V. PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE

Up to this point major emphasis years have not shown the existence of
has been given to studies of a funda- a fatigue limit at less than 10 million
mental nature -- particularly those cycles of load, the maximum length of
which have been conducted at the most laboratory tests. The fatigue
University of Illinois. The present strength at 10 million cycles is
state of knowledge will be briefly approximately 55 percent of the static
reviewed, considering in most detail strength, a value often used in design,
certain aspects which have a practical and independent of virtually any con-
significance. Because of the importance crete parameter.
of flexural fatigue behavior in con-
crete pavement design, the following
discussion will frequently refer to 5.2 REST PERIODS
such structures for purposes of illus- Service conditions are often
tration; this is not intended to imply characterized by rest periods inter-
that the application of results are spersed in the loading history.
restricted 28
to such structures. Hilsdorf and Kesler( ) were the first
investigators to describe the influence
of rest periods in quantitative terms.
5.1 MAGNITUDE OF FATIGUE STRENGTH The length of rest periods was varied
Under repeated loading the strength from one to 27 minutes. No difference
of a specimen is reduced and the was found between the effect of a five-
strength at failure may be much less minute rest period and the effect of
than the static capacity. If a group any longer rest period, but the one-
of similar flexural specimens are sub- minute rest periods did not have as
jected to repeated loading, the strength great effect as longer rest periods.
reduction is normally found to be The rest period raised the fatigue
proportional to the logarithm of the strength at 10 million cycles from 62
cycles to failure. For example, if to 68 percent of the static strength
the repeated loading continuously as shown in Figure 7. The fatigue
fluctuates between zero and a maximum strength for no rest periods was 62
value, the fatigue data expressed in percent in this case because the mini-
terms of stress level will result in a mum load was an appreciable percentage
graphic relationship similar to Figure of the maximum load. A design based
6. Investigations conducted in recent on test results obtained with
continuously repeated loading is con- stress and fluctuating stress under
servative. which concrete will withstand the
number of load repetitions for which
the diagram is constructed.
5.3 RANGE OF LOADING
2 9
In 1934 Graf and Brenner( ) con-
sidered the effects of range of stress 5.4 RATE OF LOADING
on the compressive fatigue strength of The influence of the rate of
concrete and established a modified loading was investigated by Kesler.(26)
Goodman diagram which graphically ex- Results of these tests indicated that
presses combinations of mean and for frequencies of loading between 70
fluctuating stresses a material can and 440 cycles per minute the rate of
withstand for a specific fatigue life. applied load has negligible effect on
Murdock and Kesler conducted the fatigue strength of concrete. It
several series of flexural fatigue should be made clear that the stress
tests. With each series of tests, a rate occurring in a pavement during any
repeated loading pattern was used in one cycle of load will be similar to
which the ratio of the minimum load the stress rates used in laboratory
to the maximum load was constant. It studies, and the low frequency of loads
was found that the fatigue strength at on pavements, normally less than one
10 million cycles was influenced by cycle per minute, results from rest
this ratio. These results and the periods after each cycle of load.
earlier results of Clemmer,(30)
and Crepps ( 3 3 ) permit the
(3 1
Hatt, '3 2 )

construction of the modified Goodman 5.5 VARYING MAXIMUM FLEXURAL STRESSES

diagram shown in Figure 8. AND THE MINER HYPOTHESIS

This diagram provides a standard 28

Hilsdorf and Kesler( ) used three
basis of comparison for various results types of tests in a study of varying
which are expressed in terms of static load levels. The load was either in-
strength. With the use of this diagram creased once during the test (Program
it has been shown that the flexural 1), decreased once during the test
fatigue strength at 10 million cycles (Program 2), or repeatedly changed so
is 55 percent of the static strength as to form "blocks" of stress cycles
if the minimum stress level is equal with each block having the same number
to zero. It has been shown that of cycles at the low and high levels
virtually no concrete parameter in- (Program 3). The various loading
fluences the fatigue behavior at 10 histories are illustrated in Figure 9.
million cycles -- providing, of course, The results of Programs 1 and 2
that results are interpreted in terms indicated that specimens subjected to
of static strength. The benefits of a very brief period of high maximum
this diagram as a design aid are stress level followed by a lower stress
fairly obvious; the diagram graphically level to failure have a greater
presents all combinations of mean fatigue life than specimens subjected
to a lower stress level continuously. of the upper load. For this reason
Conversely, a brief period of low maxi- and because of the limited range of
mum stress level followed by a higher their study, Hilsdorf and Kesler were
stress level until failure occurs can careful to point out that their results
result in shorter fatigue lives than were not suggested as being directly
if the higher stress level had been applicable to design.
applied continuously.
The results of Programs I and 2
were compared to the commonly used 5.6 INITIATION OF FATIGUE FAILURE
Miner hypothesis, which assumes The results of the investigation
linear accumulation of damage. The using mortar beam with preshaped in-
Miner hypothesis 6)
was found to be non- clusions(3,5,' supported an earlier
conservative for specimens subjected hypothesis that failure originates
to Program I and conservative for as a failure of bond between coarse
specimens subjected to Program 2. aggregate particles and the binding
With Program 3, where the load matrix. Lloyd, et al., (ll) suggested
was repeatedly varied, the fatigue that shrinkage cracks contributed to
strength was found to decrease as the the formation of multiple cracking
ratio of the number cycles at the high detected in beams under static loading,
stress level to those at the low stress a hypothesis also suggested by
4
level increased. The fatigue strength Blakey.(2 ) A general hypothesis of
also decreased for a maximum stress the initiation of fatigue failure should
level as the difference between the consider the importance of bond deteri-
two stress levels was increased. oration and internal flaws such as
These results indicated the com- shrinkage cracks.
plexity of fatigue behavior under even
a semi-random variation in maximum
stress levels and demonstrate con- 5.7 RELATIVE STRAINS IN STATIC AND
REPEATED LOADING
clusively that the assumption of linear
accumulation of fatigue damage in con- Numerous unsuccessful attempts to
crete in fatigue is false. measure a limiting tensile strain under
Hilsdorf and Kesler illustrated static and repeated loading have been
a method of adjusting their results made. However, it has been shown that
which permitted the use of the Miner the failure strain for concrete under
hypothesis. An S-N diagram based on a repeated loading is significantly
probability of failure concept was also greater than that under static loading.
35
constructed from the average results Hilsdorf and Kesler( ) also noted
of Program 3 loading, Figure 10. that the tensile strain at failure was
This diagram was based on tests independent of the fatigue life of a
in which the lower load was 17 percent specimen, Figure 11.
VI. NECESSARY RESEARCH

The preceeding discussions point difficulties associated with specimen

out that although considerable research preparation and interpretation of
has been performed which has been use- results currently hinder the use of
ful from a phenomenological as well as microscopic examination, further work
a fundamental point of view, accurate may resolve some of these difficulties.
assessment of the results from basic It appears that present techniques
studies has been hampered to varying would suffice to qualitatively examine
degrees by incomplete knowledge of the flaws induced during setting, curing,
structure of cement gel, the origins and loading and correlate the damage to
of bond, and the nature and propagation mix parameters and ambient conditions.
of internal damage. During the past Study of the microcracking zone ahead
few years the use of the electron micro- of macrocracks produced by drying
scope has furnished considerable in- shrinkage or applied loading would be
formation about the structure of cement of special interest.
gel. Additional work in this area may Much attention has been given to
permit the detailed study of gel various sonic tests, but present
structures with reference to parameters methods obtain only an average charac-
normally considered important to teristic of the material. The ability
strength. It is also highly desirable to evaluate a specific property in a
to study the structure of gel at the small region of the material is needed.
interface of aggregate particles. Such To researchers interested in
work would be of value in developing a cracking or failure produced by drying
rational explanation of the origins of shrinkage or applied loading, there is
bond strength. a discouraging lack of study of the
Results obtained in the future with phenomenon of stress rupture --
electron microscopes will probably be especially for conditions of flexure
of most benefit to those interested in and direct tension. Further study in
the very basic aspects of behavior of this area could provide much basic
concrete. However, if this work is information about elastic and inelastic
performed in conjunction with studies strains, influences of loading history,
using high-power light microscopes and and the mechanism of fracture.
X-ray techniques, the practical bene- The recent development of testing
fits would be greatly increased. Al- equipment capable of applying virtually
though a number of technical any desired load to a specimen will
allow investigations to be conducted one area of study, fracture mechanics,
in which the range of fatigue stress is would profit from a combined experi-
held constant but the average stress mental and analytical approach. Al-
is varied independently. This research though the basic concepts of fracture
is necessary to understand the in- mechanics appear rational in nature,
fluence of the mean stress on fatigue the application of the method to a
behavior. polyphase material such as concrete
A number of phenomenological in- requires many approximations. This
vestigations might profitably be con- approach makes application of results
ducted to determine the influences of difficult. The development of new
biaxial stress, severe moisture and techniques of analysis would require
temperature gradients, curing con- some compromise between concrete as a
ditions, corrosive environments, and real material and an analytical model
random loading on the fatigue behavior but would help the researcher in basic
of concrete. parametric studies and also bridge the
The research suggested above is gap between experimental results and
almost entirely experimental in nature; practical applications.
VII. REFERENCES
1. Powers, T. C., "Structure and
Physical Properties of Hardened
Portland Cement Paste," Journal
of the American Ceramic Society,
41:1 (1958), pp. 1-6.
2. Murdock, J. W. A Critical Review
of Research on Fatigue of Plain
Concrete. Engineering Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 475. Uni-
versity of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, February, 1965.
3. *Murdock, J. W. and C. E. Kesler,
"Mechanism of Fatigue Failure in
Concrete," TAM Report No. 587,
Department of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
August, 1960; also Ph.D. thesis
by J. W. Murdock.
'Effect of Ranue of Stre~
on Fatigue Strength of Plain Con-
crete Beams," Proceedings, Ameri-
can Concrete Institute, 55:2
(August, 1958), pp. 221-233.
5. Doyle, J. M., S. H. L. Kung, J. W.
Murdock, and C. E. Kesler, "Second
Progress Report, Mechanism of
Failure in Concrete," TAM Report
No. 601, Department of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
September, 1961.
6. Neal, J. A., S. H. L. Kung, and
C. E. Kesler, "Third Progress
Report, Mechanism of Fatigue
Failure in Concrete," TAM Report
No. 623, Department of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
August, 1962.
*Published reports of this study.
7. *Glucklich, J., "Static and Fatigue
Fractures of Portland Cement
Mortar in Flexure," Proceedings,
The First International Conference
on Fracture, 2 (1965), pp. 1343-
1382.
8. Neal, J. A., S. H. L. Kung, J. L.
Lott, and C. E. Kesler, "Fourth
Progress Report, Mechanism of
Fatigue Failure in Concrete,"
TAM Report No. 639, Department of
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
University of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, September, 1963.
9. Neal, J. A. and C. E. Kesler,
"Fifth Progress Report, Mechanism
of Failure in Concrete," TAM
Report No. 649, Department of
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
University of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, August, 1964.
10. Lloyd, J. P., J. L. Lott, and
C. E. Kesler, "Sixth Progress
Report, Mechanism of Fatigue
Failure in Concrete," TAM Report
No. 659, Department of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
September, 1965.
,___
"Seventh Progress Report,
Mechanism of Fatigue Failure in
Concrete," TAM Report No. 668,
Department of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
September, 1966.
12. Griffith, A. A., "The Phenomena
of Rupture and Flow in Solids,"
Philosophical Transactions, Royal
Society of London, 221, Series A
(1920).
 , "The Theory of Rupture,"
First International Congress for
Applied Mechanics, Delft (1924),
pp. 55-63.
14. Irwin, G. R., "Fracture Dynam-
ics," Transactions, American
Society of Metals, 40A (1948),
pp. 147-165.
15. , "Fracture Mechanics,"
First Symposium on Naval Struc-
tural Mechanics. New York:
Pergamon Press (1960), pp. 557-
591.
16. Orowan, E. 0., "Fundamentals of
Brittle Behavior of Metals,"
Fatigue and Fracture of Metals.
New York: John Wiley & Sons,
pp. 139-167.
__ , "Energy Criteria of
Fracture," Welding Journal Re-
search Supplement, 34 (1955), pp.
197S-160S.
18. Kaplan, M. F., "Crack Propaga-
tion and Fracture of Concrete,"
Proceedings, American Concrete
Institute, 58 (November, 1961),
pp. 591-611.
19. Lott, J. L. and C. E. Kesler,
"Crack Propagation in Plain Con-
crete," TAM Report No. 648,
Department of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
August, 1964; also Ph.D. thesis
by J. L. Lott.
20. Wallo, E. M. and C. E. Kesler,
"Prediction of Creep in Struc-
tural Concrete," TAM Report No.
670, Department of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, Univer-
sity of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, December, 1966; also
Ph.D. thesis by E. M. Wallo.
21. Kung, S. H. L. and C. E. Kesler,
"A Study of Free and Restrained
Shrinkage of Mortar," TAM Report
No. 647, Department of Theoreti-
cal and Applied Mechanics, Uni-
versity of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, July, 1964; also Ph.D.
thesis by S. H. L. Kung.
22. Kung, S. H. L., J. W. Murdock,
and C. E. Kesler, "First Pro-
gress Report. Mechanism of
Fatigue Failure in Concrete,"
TAM Report No. 588, Department
of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, University of Illi-
nois, Urbana, Illinois,
September, 1960.
23. Polivka, M., "Effect of Type of
Aggregate on Shrinkage and
Cracking Characteristics of
Concrete," Institute of Engineer-
ing Research, Series 100, Issue
17, University of California,
1962.
24. Blakey, F. A., "Discussion of
'The Effect of Coarse Aggregate
on the Mode of Failure on Con-
crete in Flexure' by R. Jones
and M. F. Kaplan," Magazine of
Concrete Research, 10:28
(March, 1958), p. 39.
25. McHenry, D. and J. J. Shideler,
"Effect of Speed in Mechanical
Testing of Concrete," Symposium
on Speed of Testing, American
Society for Testing Materials,
June, 1955.
26. Kesler, C. E., "Effect of Speed
of Testing on the Flexural
Fatigue Strength of Plain Con-
crete," Proceedings, Highway
Research Board, 32 (1953), pp.
251-258.
27. Rusch, H., "Physical Problems
in the Testing of Concrete,"
Zement-Kalk-Gips, 12:1 (1959),
pp. 1-9.
28. Hilsdorf, H. K. and C. E. Kesler,
"Fatigue Strength of Concrete
Under Varying Flexural Stresses,"
Proceedings, American Concrete
Institute, 63 (October, 1966),
pp. 1059-1075.
29. Graf, 0. and E. Brenner,
"Versuche zur Ermittlung der
Widerstandsfahigkeit von Beton
gegen oftmals wiederholte
Druckbelastung (Studies of the
Resistance of Concrete to Fre-
quently Repeated Compressive
Loads)," Bulletin No. 76,
Deutscher Ausschuss fur Eisen-
beton, 1934.
30. Clemmer, H. F., "Fatigue of Con-,
crete," Proceedings, American
Society for Testing Materials,
22:11 (1922), pp. 408-418.
31. Hatt, W. K., "Fatigue of Concrete,"'
Proceedings of the Fourth Annual
Maeting of the Highway Research
Board, (December, 1924), pp. 47-
32. __ _ , "Researches in Concrete,"
Bulletin 24, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana (1925), pp. 44-
55.
33. Crepps, R. B., "Fatigue of Mor-
tar," Proceedings, American
SocietX for Testing Materials,
23:11 (1923), pp. 329-337.
Miner, M. A., "Cumulative Damage
in Fatigue," Transactions, Ameri-
can Society of Mechanical Engi-
neering, 67 (1945), pp. A159-
A164.
35. Hilsdorf, H. K. and C. E. Kesler,
"The Behavior of Concrete in
Flexure Under Varying Repeated
Loads," TAM Report No. 172,
Department of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
August, 1960.