Experiment 1

Title: Flow through a Convergent-divergent duct

Objective: To study the application of the Bernoulli equation as applied to the flow in a
convergent-divergent duct.

Theory:
Bernoulli principle stated that an inviscid flow of a non-conducting fluid, an increase in the
speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure. Bernoulli's principle
can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady
flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on
that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and internal
energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the velocity of the fluid indicates an increase in
kinetic energy but decrease in potential energy and internal energy. If the fluid is flowing out
of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a
reservoir the sum of pressure and gravitational potential is the same everywhere.

Bernoulli Equation is given by the following relationship:

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑃1 + + 𝑝1 𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑃2 + + 𝑝2 𝑔𝑧2
2 2

Divide specific weight = 𝑝 𝑔, obtaining the formula:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝑝1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝑝2 𝑔 2𝑔

Where:
𝑝1 / 𝑝2 = are the density of water
g = gravitational acceleration
𝑉1 = velocity at cross section 1
𝑉2 = velocity at cross section 2
𝑧1 / 𝑧2 = elevation
H = pressure head

In this experiment, the water is considered as incompressible which mean the pressure at any
section of fluid is equal to 0.
𝑝1=𝑝2 = 0

Since the water level in the horizontal convergent-divergent duct is always at the same
horizontal level, the elevation,
𝑧1 = 𝑧2 = z
Formula of flow rate, Q
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝑄= 𝑑1 𝑉1 = 𝑑 𝑉
4 4 2 2
During the flow of fluid in pipes, there is friction occur in the contact between fluid
and pipes surface due to viscosity of fluid. Hence the head loss due to friction based on
Bernoulli principle is as follow:
𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃 𝑉2
1
+ 2𝑔 + 𝑧1 =𝑝 2𝑔 + 2𝑔
2
+ 𝑧2 = H
𝑝1 𝑔 2
In ideal case, it is assumed that no frictional loss occur, hence H remain constant. However,
in reality, no matter how smooth the fluid can flow in the tubes, there is always friction occur
an head loss. So, the Actual Pressure head is less than Ideal Pressure Head. The Ideal
Pressure Head is obtained from:
𝑃1 𝑉12
+ 𝑧1 = 𝐻0 −
𝑝1 𝑔 2𝑔

Apparatus:

1) Hydraulic bench
2) Bernoulli’s apparatus
Procedure:
1) Make sure that the water outlet tube was directed to the sump of the apparatus.
2) The water pump was switched on .
3) The main input water flow valve kept fully open, then the bypass water valve was
adjusted to control the volume flow rate.
4) The water flow rate was adjusted to the maximum possible flow rate by closing the
bypass valve to remove all the air bubbles in the system and ensure the flow was
stabilize.
5) The air pump provided was fitted to the right end of the manifold on top of the
manometers.
6) The pump was used to control the base line level of the manometer readings by
increasing or decreasing the pressure in the manifold. The base line not necessary to
fall at zero line because the velocity calculations use only the pressure difference.
7) The pressure in the manifold was increase by pumping action of the air pump.
8) Sometimes, the pressure in the manifold was decreased by pressing on to the needle
valve on the right hand side of the manifold to release the air in the manifold.
9) All the volume flow rate reading and all the manometer readings was recorded and
key in into the spreadsheet in the computer.
10) The step 1 to 9 was repeated to obtain different sets of manometer readings for flow
rates of 6.5, 6.0, 5.0, 4.0 and 3.0 gallons/min.

Calculations:
Density of water, 𝜌 = 1000 kg/m3
Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 ms-2
Take pi, 𝜋 = 3.14

The calculations was demonstrate by using 3GPM with different diameter of the convergent-
divergent duct varies at different part of the duct.
( 26.0 mm, 24.0 mm, 17.6 mm, 16.0 mm, 18.6 mm, 21.6 mm, 24.7 mm, 26.0 mm )

Q = 3 gallons/min = 0.0001893 m3/s

Q
V= A

𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(26mm)2
1) d = 26.0 mm , Area = = = 530.9 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (530.9)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.36 ms-1
A

2
𝑉2 (0.36ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 6.5 × 10-3 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 6.5 mm
 Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 80.0mm + 6.5mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 180.0mm + 6.5mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 116.5mm-116.5mm
= 0mm

𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(24mm)2
2) d = 24.0 mm , Area = = = 452.4 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (452.4)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.42 ms-1
A

2
𝑉2 (0.42ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 8.9 × 10-3 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 8.9 mm

Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 77.6mm + 8.9mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 78mm + 8.9mm + 30.0mm
= 116.9mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 116.5mm-116.9mm
= -0.4mm
 𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(17.6mm)2
3) d = 17.6 mm , Area = = = 243.3 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (243.3)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.78 ms-1
A

2
𝑉2 (0.78ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 0.0308 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 30.8 mm

Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 55.6mm + 30.8mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 65.0mm + 30.8mm + 30.0mm
= 125.8mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 116.5mm-125.8mm
= -9.3mm

𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(16 mm)2

4) d = 16.0 mm , Area = = = 201.1 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (201.1)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.94 ms-1
A

2
𝑉2 (0.94ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 0.0452 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 45.2 mm

Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 41.3mm + 45.2mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm
 Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 48.0mm + 45.2mm + 30.0mm
= 123.2mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 116.5mm -123.2mm
= -6.7mm

𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(18.6mm)2
5) d = 18.6 mm , Area = = = 271.3 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (271.6)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.70 ms-1
A

2
𝑉2 (0.70ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 0.0248 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 24.8 mm

Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 61.7mm + 24.8mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 64.0mm + 24.8mm + 30.0mm
= 118.8mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 116.5mm-118.8mm
= -2.3mm

𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(21.6mm)2
6) d = 21.6 mm , Area = = = 367.0 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (366.2)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.52 ms-1
A
 2
𝑉2 (0.52ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 0.0135 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 13.5 mm

Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 72.9mm + 13.5mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 70.0mm + 13.5mm + 30.0mm
= 113.5mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 116.5mm-113.5mm
= 2.9mm

𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(24.7mm)2
7) d = 24.7 mm , Area = = = 477.3 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (478.9)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.40 ms-1
A
2
𝑉2 (0.40ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 8 × 10-3 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 8.0 mm

Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 78.5mm + 8.0mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 73.0mm + 8.0mm + 30.0mm
= 111.0mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 116.5mm-111.0mm
= 5.5mm
 𝜋𝑑2 3.14×(26mm)2
8) d = 26.0 mm , Area = = = 530.9 mm2
4 4

Q 0.0001893m3 s−1
V= = (530.9)×(10−3 m)2
= 0.36 ms-1
A

2
𝑉2 (0.36ms−1 )
Velocity head = = = 6.5 × 10-3 m
2𝑔 2×9.81ms−2
= 6.5 mm

Ideal total head = ideal pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 80.mm + 6.5mm + 30.0mm
= 116.5mm

Actual total head = actual pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
𝑝 𝑉2
= 𝜌𝑔 + + 𝑧
2𝑔
= 75.0mm + 6.5mm + 30.0mm
= 111.5mm

Head loss = ideal head loss – actual head loss

= 216.5mm-211.5mm
= 5.0mm

Discussion:

With referring the graph plotted, it is easy to see that there is actually a big difference
between the ideal and actual total head for different flow rate. Since both total head is the
summation of pressure head, velocity head and elevation head, therefore the differences is
only caused by pressure head because the velocity head and elevation head remains
unchanged throughout the experiment. The difference is mainly due to the viscous effect
caused by the flow. even though water has a relatively small viscosity and can be treated as
inviscid in calculations, but in real life the assumption will not stand on its own feet. It turns
out that ideal pressure head is greater than actual pressure head in most of the cases although
it actually has some exclusions. When the area increases, the velocity decreases. And when
velocity decreases, the pressure shall increases because the whole Bernoulli’s equation will
bring sum to a constant.
 However, there is some exclusion in the data where the actual pressure head is
greater than the ideal pressure head. This causes the head loss to have a negative value. This
phenomena happens in all the flow rate, especially happen in section 3 of the pipe. In
addition, the pipe in section 3 was found has a little rift. Hence, the actual head loss will be
higher then the ideal head lose due to the rift. Upon closer look, it is not hard to find that all
these exclusions happen in the region where the diameter is small (the converging region).
This might be due to the change in velocity. It is not impossible to think that before the
converging part when the velocity is low, the dominant force in water is the viscous effect.
But as the water enter the region of smaller area, the velocity of water increases, and the
dominant force in the flow of water becomes inertial force instead of viscous effect as what it
was before the converging part. This conversion of dominant force from viscous effect to
inertial force makes the viscous effect becomes unimportant for a short period of time,
therefore the viscous effect is neglected. Therefore, the actual pressure head is greater than
the ideal pressure head. When the water leave the converging part into the diverging part, its
velocity decreases. Hence, the dominant force for the flow of the water becomes viscous
effect back again, and that’s why the actual pressure head is less than ideal pressure head
again.

If the convergent-divergent duct is inclined upwards, total head will reduce. First, the
dynamic velocity will surely reduce. This is because now the water is travelling against
gravity upwards. When the velocity reduces, the pressure increases. The pressure head will
rise until it equals to the elevation head in the downstream. By then, the fluid will be brought
to a stop and the velocity head is zero. But if the flowrate is high enough, the water can still
flow. The elevation head will not change much, but the velocity and pressure head surely got
affected. The total head will not change much, because the increase of one head will be
offset by the decrease of another head as the elevation head is constant.

The precaution for this experiment is to avoid parallax error when the height of the
manometer is being taken. Next, make sure there is no water bubble inside the manometer
tube before the experiment was started.

Conclusion:
The actual head of a system will always be less than the ideal head due to the viscous effect
and the friction caused by the water and the wall surface of the duct due to the theoretical
value using Bernoulli’s equation as it was made with assumption of zero fluid viscosity.
When area of the duct increases, the velocity of fluid flow past the region decreases, and the
pressure increases