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PRINT PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

UNIT 1

LESSON 1 : TYPOGRAPHY

Language is the dress of thought: Samual Johnson

Typography surrounds us: it adorns the building and the streets through which we pass, it is a
component part of the ever-expanding variety of media we consume- from magazines, to
television and the internet- and we even increasingly sport it on our clothing in the form of
branding and symbolic messages.

The typography that is a fundamental part of our lives today is the culmination of centuries of
development, as the letters that comprise the written word evolved and crystalised into the
alphabets that are in common usage. Technology has played a central role in this
development, affecting and changing the way that the marks we recognise as characters are
made and presented. Through the development of the printing industry, technology gave birth
to the concept of typography, the many different presentations of the same character set.

Typography (from the Greek words τύπος (typos) = form and γραφή (graphe) = writing) is
the art and technique of arranging type in order to make language visible. The First goal of
typography was readability. Writing a report may not appear to require much design
knowledge, but as soon as one chooses a certain fonts or adjusts the margins to create more
white space, that person becomes a designer. By learning about the differences between fonts,
how the fonts “work” on the computer, and how to use the various computer font options, the
“designer” can produce a report that not only contains useful information, but is easy to read,
and therefore, easy to understand.

Type is the means by which an idea is written and given visual form. Many typefaces in use
today are based upon designs created in earlier historical epochs, and the characters
themselves have a linage that extends back thousands of years to the first mark-making by
primitive man, when characters were devised to represent objects or concepts.

Type has developed over the last 600 years as the printing process has evolved. The
characters that are printed, however, have been developed over a much longer time period as
language itself has developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs to the Latin letters we use today.

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Language is not static

Letters, language and indeed typography develop and change over time as the dominant
power inherits, alters, adapts and imposes it will on existing forms, the modern Latin
alphabets is a result of this ongoing transition that has been performed over several millennia.
For example, the modern letter ‘A’ was originally a pictogram representing an ox’s head, but
as the Phoenicians wrote from right to left, the symbol was turned on its side. Under the
Greek civilisation this character was turned again as the Greeks generally, wrote from left to
right. Finally, the Romans turned the character full-circle, giving it the form that we recognise
today.

Cuneiform tablets

Cuneiform uses a wedge-shaped stylus to make impressions into a wet clay tablet and is the
earliest standardised writing system, which was developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the
region that is now east of the Mediterranean, from about 4,000 BC until about 100 BC.

Early forms of Cuneiform were written in columns from top to bottom, but later changed to
be written in rows from left to right. With this change the cuneiform signs were turned on
their sides.

Cuneiform began to die out as other language systems as Aramaic spread through the region
in the 7th and 6th centuries BC, and as the use of Phoenician script increased.

Hieroglyphs

Hieroglyphs are a pictogrammatic writing system developed by several cultures including the
ancient Egyptians and Incas. Each pictogram represents an object such as an animal, tool or
person rather vocal sounds. In Egypt, they were developed by scribes to record the
possessions of the Pharaoh, by drawing a picture of a cow or a boat for example. As more
complex ideas needed to be recorded, written language became more complex as pictograms
were needed.

Hieroglyphs can be written from right to left, left to right, or downwards, which can be
discerned by seeing which way pictures of people or animals face. The text is read towards
the faces. For example, if they are facing to the left, the inscription is read from left to right.

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Ideogram-based languages

Ideogrammatic languages use characters or symbols to represent an idea or concept without


expressing the pronunciation of a particular word or words. Ideogrammatic languages have a
one – to –one relation between a symbol and an idea that functions in a similar way to the red
road sign with a horizontal white bar that means ‘no entry’. The meaning is understood but
there is no indication of how this vocalised. Ideogrammatic languages, traditionally written
down the page, include Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Thai.

Phoenician characters

The Phoenicians lived in the eastern Mediterranean in what in modern day Lebanon. They
developed the basis of the modern Latin alphabet around 1600 BC and formalised a system of
22 ‘magic signs’ or symbols that represented sounds rather than objects. The symbols could
be put together in different combinations to construct thousands of words, even though the
alphabet only contained consonants and had no vowels.

Phoenicians was written horizontally from right to left without spaces between words,
although dots were sometimes used to denote word breaks. The Phoenician alphabet is the
bedrock for many subsequent writing systems including Arabic, Hebrew, Greek and Latin,
and ultimately for the modern European alphabet that is used today.

The Greek alphabet

The Greek adopted the characters of the Phoenician system, such as aleph (a) and beth (b),
from which they developed their alphabet. Indeed, the word alphabet is the union of the
Greek characters alpha and beta (right). By around 800 BC the Greeks had added other
characters to their alphabet, which became the basis of the modern day Hebrew and Arabic
scripts. Early Greek was written in the boustrophedon style where rather than proceeding
from left and right as modern English, or right to left as in Arabic, alternate lines must be read
in opposite directions. Many ancient Mediterranean languages were typically written in style.
The development of punctuation allowed writing to move away from the boustrophedon style
towards a system that reads left to right.

The Roman alphabet

The 26 letter Roman alphabet that we use today was formed from the Greek alphabet and
spread through the Roman empire. Majuscules or uppercase letters derive directly from the

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forms carved in stone by the Romans, which serve as the basis for many modern day
typefaces, and from where we get the name Roman. Roman is now used to describe the basic
letterforms, principally the minuscules (lower letters), even though the name is derived from
the majuscules forms.

The Modern alphabet

The Modern Latin alphabet consists of 52 upper- and lowercase letters with ten numerals and
a variety of other symbols, punctuation marks and accents that are employed by various
different languages. Lowercase letters developed from cursive (joined up) versions of the
uppercase letters.

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LESSON 2 : TYPEFACES AND FONTS

In common usage, the words typeface and font are used synonymously. In most cases there is
no harm in doing as the substitution is virtually universal and most people, including
designers, would be hard pressed to state each word’s true definition.

What is a font?

A font is the physical means used to create a typeface, whether it be a typewriter, a stencil,
letter blocks or a piece of PostScript code.

What is a type face?

A typeface is a collection of characters, letters, numerals, symbols and punctuation, which


have the same distinct design. Pictured below are examples of typefaces produced using the
‘cookie cutters’ mentioned (left): a typewriters, a stencil, a letterpress and a piece of
PostScript code.

Typeface anatomy

Typographical characters have an array of attributes and forms that are described through a
variety of different terms, in much the same way as the different names for every part of the
human body.

Relative and absolute measurements

Typography uses two types of measurements, absolute measurements and relative


measurements. It is important to understand the differences between these to understand
many of the typographic processes.

Absolute measurements

Absolute measurement are easy to understand as they are measurements of fixed values. For
example, a millimetre is a precisely defined increment of a centimetre. Equally, points and
picas, the basic typographic measurements, have fixed values. All absolute measurements are
expressed in finite terms that cannot be altered.

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Relative measurements

In typography, many measurements, such as character spacing, are linked to type size, which
means that their relationships are defined by a series of relative measurements, Ems and ens
for example are relative measurements that have no prescribed, absolute size. Their size is
relative to the size of type that is being set.

Leading is another example of the use of relative measurement. Most desktop publishing
programs assign an automatic percentage value for functions like leading. The characters
below (far left) are 10pt, so with leading set at 120 percent, they are effectively being set on
12pts leading. As the type gets bigger, so does the leading as it is relative to the type size.

Points

The point is the unit of measurement used to measure the type size of a font, for example, 7pt
Times New Roman. This measurement refers to the height of the type block, not the letter
itself as shown below (right). The basic typographical measurement is an absolute
measurement equivalent to 1/72 of an inch or 0.35mm and its creation is attributed to French
clergyman Sebastien Truchet (1657-1729). It was further developed by Pierre Fournier and
Francois Didot in the 19th century, before the British / American or Anglo Saxon point was
defined as 1/72 of an inch.

Picas

A pica is unit of measurement equal to 12 points that is commonly used for measuring lines
of type. There are six picas (or 72 points) in an inch, which is equal to 25.4 millimetres.

Type sizes traditionally bore a relationship to the 72 points inch (six picas) but with digitised
PostScript typefaces, it is now easy to use irregular sizes such as 10.2pt.

Characteristic of Each Style

Fonts come in many different designs. Some of these differences are subtle, while others
stand out like the proverbial “sore thumb” Many references sub divide type into only two
categories: serif and sans serif. However, these simplified categories are not adequate for the
great variety of fonts that one might encounter on today’s computers,

 Serif
 Sans Serif

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 Mono-Spaced
 Display
 Script
 Text
 Dingbats

Serif

Serif fonts are the most common text or “body” copy font. They can work nicely for headline
fonts, as well. “Serifs” are the little feet or arms that hang off the end of letter strokes, and
typically add a think/thin look to the letter. Serif fonts are considered the easiest fonts to read
and come in three sub categories: Old style, Modern, and Square Serif.
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Oldstyle

Oldstyle is based on classical Roman inscriptions. The letters are very open, wide, and round
with pointed serifs and a pleasing contrast between the heavy and light strokes.

Modern

Their name not withstanding, modern fonts are based on fonts designed over 200 years ago.
They have a greater degree of mechanical perfection than Oldstyle fonts, and a greater
distinction between the heavy/light strokes, and thin/squared off serifs.

Square Serif

Slab serifs are a contemporary style used mainly for small amounts of text, such as
advertising copy, subheads, and headlines. The letters have square serifs and mostly uniform
strokes with little contrast.

Sans Serif

As the name implies, Sans serif fonts are “ without serifs”, and usually have an overall even
stroke weight, which creates little contrast for the letters. Sans Serif fonts can evoke a more
modern look a report, but can be harder to read than Serif fonts. Although generally used for
small amounts of copy, sub heads, and headlines, Sans Serif can be used for larger amount of
body copy, if applied with care.

As the name implies, Sans Serif fonts are “without serifs,” and usually have an overall even
stroke weight, which creates little contrast for the letters. Sans serif fonts can evoke a more
modern look for a report, but can be harder to read than Serif fonts.

Display

Display and Decorative fonts are designed to be used as attention-getting headline fonts.
They should rarely, if ever, be used as body copy fonts.

Script

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Script fonts are designed to mimic handwriting, therefore, the letters are designed to touch
one another. These fonts may be the more traditional type used for formal invitation. Script
fonts should never be used in all capital letters.

Text

Based on the hand-drawn letters made by early monks for religious books, Text fonts have an
“Old-World” feel to them. They are mostly used for certificates, diplomas, and invitations. As
with Script fonts, they should not be used in all capital letters.

Mono-Spaced

Most fonts are proportionally spaced; that is, smaller characters take up less space than larger
ones. Example, the letter “I” is not as wide as the letter “M”. In the contrast, mono-spaced
fonts, which are usually typewriter-style fonts, take up the same amount of spae regardless of
the actual letter.

Dingbats

Dingbats are symbols that are small pieces of art used to enhance the design of the text or
page. While Zapf Dingbats and Wingdings are the most common dingbats, there are
hundreds, if not thousands, of different designs available.

LESSON 3 :FONT STYLES AND FAMILIES


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Many display, script, and text fonts only come in the “plain” version, even if they appear bold
or italic after styling has been applied. To make the issue more confusing, some fonts only
come in plain and italic versions; plain and bold versions; to plain, italic, and bold (but no
bold italic) versions.

In programs, which have been around for awhile- such as Microsoft Word, QuarkXpress,
PageMaker, and FrameMaker- the software does not know if a font has a bold or italic
version, and will let the user make whatever style formatting he or she wishes. Whether the
font styling actually exists (and will print) is another matter. The only way to be sure that a
font has the correct variation is to use the font weights from the font menu, and not from the
style menu or the “B” and “I” buttons on the format ruler.

Newer programs, such as InDesign, Illustrator, and Photoshop, allow only the styles that are
currently installed on the computer. So, if a bold version of a font is not currently installed
(whether it exists or not), it is not available as a font style selection.

Font families

The term “font families” refers to fonts of the same design, but with a difference in weight
from one font to another. As previously mentioned, many fonts only come in one weight-
plain. However, many body-copy fonts are available in:

 Plain (or Roman)


 Italic (usually a Serif font) or oblique (usually Sans Serif font)
 Bold and
 Bold Italic or Bold oblique

A number of these fonts have additional weights to provide the designer an even greater
choice. Also, each one of the weights may have an italic or oblique version. Some popular
fonts may even have matching condensed and extended versions, too.

Some of the weights, in order from the lightest to heaviest, include:

 Extra Light, Ultra Light, or Extra Thin


 Thin or Light
 Roman or Book
 Medium or Regular
 Demi-Bold or Semi –Bold
 Bold
 Heavy, Extra Bold, Black or Super Bold

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The weights for a font are named by the font designer and follow no set rules. Some
designers may consider may consider a thin font heavier than a light font, or an extra bold
heavier than a black font. Even between standard fonts and condensed fonts, there could be a
name difference for the same weights. For example, a font may have a “book” weight for the
standard font, which may take the name ‘Medium’ in the condensed version. Again, always
use the font weights from the font menu for the best results. While it is acceptable to use
multiple fonts a single family, try to keep the font categories to one or two fonts.

Identifying and selecting a font

Deciding what size to use can be easier with an understanding of the things that affect
readability. The most crucial factor is the x-height of the lowercase letters and their
relationship to the uppercase and ascender letters.

The relationship between the uppercase/ascender letters and the x-height depends solely on
the design of the font. Fonts with a large x-height, or “tall” lower case characters, are easier
to read than fonts with small x-height characters. Another critical factor between different
fonts is the depth of the descenders and their shape.

Special Styles

Using computers offers the opportunity to apply many special effects to type that years ago
would have cost thousands of dollars from a typesetting house. Unfortunately, this ease of use
also has meant abuse, making for some hard-to-read computer typography.
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Underlining

Most programs handle underlining incorrectly; in addition, the user may not have any options
to adjust the settings. If possible, the underlines should be adjusted (lowered) so they do not
touch any of the characters. Underlines come in two styles: straight (complete underline) and
word underline. As its name implies, word underline only affects words and not the spaces
between them.

SMALL CAPS AND ALL CAPS

Small Caps are good for subheads or for the first line of a paragraph, but like other options,
they should not be overused. Text in all caps is harder to read and only should be used for
short headlines or subheads. All caps should never be used for long sentences for emphasis
(except in e-mail on the internet, due to lack of formatting capabilities).

SPECIAL PURPOSE STYLES

Many styles for making footnotes, references, and mathematical formulas exist in publishing
programs. Usually, the user can alter the default settings in the program to change the affected
character size and baseline shift (how far up or down the letter moves).

Text Scaling

Many programs allow the user to create a pseudo-condensed or pseudo-extended font by


horizontally squeezing or stretching a font. The distorts the original design of the font. If
possible, the user should select the true condensed or extended font or alter the design so it
does not require the fake font.

Fonts also can be vertically stretched. The only advantage to this method, rather than resizing
the type, would be to keep the type technically the same size.

Outline and Shadow

Perhaps the most abused styles in older desktop publishing programs are outline and shadow-
overused to the point of being clichéd- avoid them if possible. Newer programs do not offer
the traditional outline or shadow setting at all, but have more advanced settings.

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Font Sizes

Fonts come in many different sizes and use a system of measurement called points. Computer
use 72 points to one inch; traditional typography used 72.27 points to an inch, but that
measurement is hardly used anymore.

Two different font designs at the same point size may actually have different physical sizes.
The correct size for font depends on its usage, but is somewhat arbitrary.

Generally, body copy should be around 9-12 points, depending on the font used, the audience,
and the width of the column. Some fonts are easily read at smaller sizes, while others need to
be larger. Audience age should be considered; the older the audience, the larger the type.
Also, the longer the column width, the larger the body type size. A column of type usually is
about 50 characters across, and no more than 65 characters. Type is too small “cram” too
many letters per line and make the copy hard to read. Remember, type that is hard to read
may not be read at all.

Text Scaling

Many programs allow the user to create a pseudo-condensed or pseudo-extended font by


horizontally squeezing or stretching a font. This distorts the original design of the font. If
possible, the user should select the true condensed or extended font or alter the design so it
does not require the fake font.

Fonts also can be vertically stretched. The only advantage to this method, rather than resizing
the type, would be to keep the type technically the same size.

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Character and Word spacing

Many times, simply typing in the text and formatting the font, size, and line spacing is
enough. However, depending on the program used, extra attention is needed. Larger type
sizes need adjustments to the space between characters; and paragraphs need to be adjusted to
eliminate “widows” and “orphans”.

Kerning

Inter-character spacing known as kerning, creates a more pleasing look to the text. Most word
processors do not allow kerning adjustments and most page-layout programs apply kerning
automatically; however certain letter combinations may require manual adjustments. Some of
these letter combinations include most lowercase letters, and uppercase letters; F, I, K, L, O,
P, Q, T, V, W, X and Y. Kerning also is required when using all uppercase letter combinations
such as VA and WA.

Tracking

The adjustment of word spacing is called Tracking. It is similar to kerning but refers to the
adjustment of a selection of characters, words, and spaces. Its main purpose is to make type
fit a required space without altering the type size or line spacing. Tracking can be either
negative, making the words farther apart. An important use for tracking is to fix single words
(or 2-3 short words) at the end of a paragraph (sometimes called orphans or danglers).
Although not always avoidable, the problem usually can be solved with some minor tracking.
Of course, this should be done only after all editing is complete.

TRACKING FOR EFFECT

Tracking can be used as design tool. Like all design tools, it can be overused and abused.
Remember the goal: readability.

Line Spacing (Leading)

Leading, or line spacing, refers to the amount of space between lines of type. As with type
size, there are no set rules for how much line spacing to use, however, there are some factors
to consider:

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 The font used- Some fonts require more line spacing than others to keep their
ascenders and descenders from touching.
 The line length-longer lines require more leading for easier reading.
 The type size- The larger the type size, the more line spacing is required. This rule
mostly refers to body copy; headlines, which are normally set larger, may actually be
set with tighter line spacing.

A bit of trivia: Leading pronounced “led-ing”, derives from the days when type was set by
hand and typesetters used thin strips of lead to space apart the rows of letters.

Depending on the program one is using, leading may be considered a character format (a line-
by-line selection, allowing multiple settings in a single paragraph) or a paragraph format (one
setting for an entire paragraph). If you are using a program that supports character-based
leading, select the entire paragraph to ensure a uniform setting.

Because type size and line spacing are both measured in points and are inseparable, their
sizes are normally written together. They are commonly written in this manner: 10/12,
pronounced “ten over twelve”. This indicates that the type size is ten points and the line
spacing is 12 points, or has two extra points of space over the type size.

The designer can use computers to set line spacing by a number of methods depending on the
program used. Word processors commonly use multiples of line spacing, such as single line
space, 1.5 line space or double line space. This method is adequate for simple reports, but for
complex formats, a higher degree of control is required. Most page –layout programs and
word processors include the ability to specify an exact line space setting.

Line Spacing for Headlines and Subheads

More advanced layout programs provide additional options, including specifying line spacing
by a percentage of the type size and by adding on a set amount to the type size. Normally, the
percentage option, or auto leading, should be avoided because it can make larger heads look
too spread out. When in doubt, use the exact method for all line spacing.

Leading and Baseline Grid

Baseline grid alignment is used to ensure that text cross-aligns across columns or less
importantly, across pages. The baseline settings usually are set to the body copy’s leading

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under the file’s document preferences. Then, paragraph is locked to the baseline grid during
formatting.

Headlines and Subheads

Headline’ and subheads’ line spacing should be set in multiples of the body text’s line
spacing. For example, if the body text is set 12/14 (12 pt. Text with 14 pt. Line spacing), then
a subhead could be set at 14/14 and a headline could be set at 24/28 (2 x14 pts).

The point size of the type is not as important as keeping the line spacing in multiples. This
creates a symmetrical look to the page, and no double column pages, it keeps the type aligned
across the page. Line spacing for headlines and subheads can be combined with paragraph
spacing setting for even more options.

Paragraph alignment

Alignment refers to the side of the page or column with which the text is even. For example,
text that is even with the left side of the page margin or column is said to be “flush left”,
“aligned left”, or sometimes “rag right” since it is uneven (or ragged) on the right side. Other
options are : flush right (also called rag left), centred, justified (flush on both left and right
sides, except for the last line, which is flush left), and forced justified (which justifies even
the last line). Most body is either flush left or justified. Headlines and subheads are normally
flush left or centered; however, centered text should be used with care. Flush right should
only be used for design purposes, and then only for small amounts of text. Forced justified is
rarely used.

Paragraph Spacing

Paragraph Spacing is an automatic space between each paragraph that is applied when
starting a new paragraph; once set, it can apply space either above the paragraph or below it.
Paragraph spacing is more elegant way to space out paragraphs than simply double spacing
returns because the settings can be adjusted globally or fractional line spaces. More
importantly, the space can be adjusted globally or by fractional lines spaces.

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More importantly, the space is not inserted when a paragraph falls at the end of a page,
whereas traditional double spacing would leave the extra paragraph return at the beginning of
the next page.

Paragraph Rules

Paragraph rules, or in-line rules, are rules that move with the text as it is edited. Most
publishing programs have an option for in-line rules, and some word processors even have
options for in-line boxes. The usual options include the width, style, and colour of the rule;
some programs give the option of setting the rule to the width of the column or the length of
the text it is attached to.

Advanced programs let the user adjust the height of the rule in relation to the sub-head.
Additional paragraph spacing is almost always a requirement when using in line rules. Extra
space opens up the type and allows the rule to have more impact.

LESSON 4: DESIGN AND LAYOUT

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Design is a visual language built on fundamental principles and elements. The elements
(shape, line, and colour) are governed by principles or rules that create order and visual
interest or appeal. A publication designer works with these design principles and elements
and combines them with words (in the form of type) and imagery to achieve a publication’s
purpose or goal. The goal may be to inform, persuade, sell, or entertain. The designer’s role is
to manage the design process in an informed way by fully understanding the publication’s
goal and how it can be achieved using the principles and elements of design.

Communication and Design

Design is basically giving form and visual meaning to a publication, based on its purpose.
But before the design process can begin, it is necessary to have a full understanding of a
publication’s goal, its intended audience, and where it will be seen and read.

Understand the Goal

Publications are conceived and developed for any number of reasons. However, the goal of
most publications can be broken down into four categories.

Publications exist to (1) inform, (2) persuade, (3) sell, or (4) entertain.
1. Inform: This textbook was conceived as an instructional aid for students who want to
learn about publication design. Simply put, the goal of this book could be stated as “help
students learn how to design publications.’’ In addition to textbooks, other publications that
educate or inform include instruction manuals, newspapers, encyclopedias, dictionaries, and
directories.
2. Persuade: Publications that persuade try to convince the reader to make a decision or act
in a deliberate way. Examples of persuasive publications include campaign literature, travel
brochures, and other promotional literature that persuades its audience to buy or invest in a
product or service.
3. Sell: Sales literature is different from persuasive publications in that it serves as a sales
vehicle. Publications that sell allow the reader to see merchandise, make informed choices,
and then follow through with a purchase. Catalogs, for instance, allow a reader to read about,
select, and order merchandise.

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4. Entertain: Publications that entertain include novels, comic books, or any other
publication that exists solely for the purpose of entertaining the reader.

Although some publications have just one goal, many publications have more than one goal.
For instance, magazines contain useful information, provide some entertainment value, and
include ads that attempt to persuade the reader to buy advertised products and services.

In graphic communications, design refers to the application of proper methods to produce a


product that is both artistic and functional. A successful design requires the skillful use of
design elements and principles. Knowledge of common design techniques is critical in
producing a layout and evaluating the visual quality of a product.

It is important to know the psychological foundations of the members of the group (their
behavior, how they think and feel and interact) before a design concept can be formed.
Combining these psychological foundations with statistical information, or demographics,
such as age, gender, ethnicity, geography, and income, forms a basis for determining what
types of messages, imagery, and visual approach will appeal to an audience.

Research, done at the library or through the internet, can provide many opportunities for
inspiration. It can help designer make social and cultural connections, and arrive at
appropriate colour schemes, typeface choices, and stylistic approaches that will appeal to a
targeted audience. Research can also yield sources for imagery, stylistic, social, and cultural
references as well as additional information on a publication’s goal and audience.

The Graphic Designer

The role of the graphic designer varies greatly within the graphic communications industry.
This is because of the overlapping duties that are performed throughout the process of design
and layout. In some companies, the same artist who is responsible for producing artwork may
also be required to perform certain layout tasks.

It is very important for the design person to work closely with the printer, since the planned
design could cause problems when it arrives to be printed. Limitations relating to folding,
press size, and paper capabilities could be potential problem areas. Today’s graphic designer

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might be an artist who prepares the artwork necessary for a portion of a product. Artwork
could include freehand sketches, technical art, lettering, and calligraphy. In many cases, the
graphic designer has little knowledge of the processes used in graphic reproduction. But the
designer may also be responsible for pasting up camera-ready copy or producing a finished
product with page layout software. This illustrates that the specific duties performed by
design and layout personnel are very difficult to clearly define.

In the simplest of situations, a design artist would create the art images needed by the layout
artist. Many companies, however, do not have the luxury of hiring people who only have
specific design or layout skills. The design artist, in many companies, translates ideas into art
and is also involved in layout and production in various stages.

Once the layout design is approved by a client or outside source, the elements are usually
gathered and assembled by the same person who created the design. The design artist must
initially express a visual idea. The idea becomes the foundation of the layout and is then
developed into the final product. Planning and organizing the design process is essential to
having an efficient operation. A small printing facility, from a financial standpoint, often
cannot afford to employ one person to perform design tasks. Therefore, designing may be left
to the plant personnel, who may have very little design knowledge but are required to devise
and complete layouts for production.

Knowledge of the fundamentals of design is required for both the design artist and the layout
artist. The elements and principles of design are an accumulation of many factors that help
solve the problem of producing an image that is both attractive and practical.

Elements of Design
Design involves the selection and arrangement of visual images to make a pleasing
presentation. The text and illustrations used in a design will have a tremendous impact upon
the viewer; therefore, it is essential to develop a strong layout of visual materials. A
successful graphic designer must apply the fundamental principles of design. The basic
elements of design are lines, shapes, mass, texture, and colour.

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Lines

Lines are design elements that form the shapes of an image. Lines can be used to give the
printed image a “personality.” Lines can be loose and free or they can be straight and sharp.
The repetition of lines creates patterns and adds emotional impact to the visual image.

A line is a path connecting two or more points. Although computer programs describe lines as
paths, a line can also be a mark made by a tool that is drawn across a surface to describe a
path. Lines can be straight or angular, or they can meander and curve. The quality or look of a
line is an aspect of the tool that makes it, and it can communicate a mood or attitude. For
instance, a line drawn with charcoal has a soft, organic quality. One drawn with pen-and-ink
is crisp and precise. Lines can also indicate direction. Horizontal lines in a composition guide
a viewer’s eye from left to right. Vertical lines direct a viewer’s gaze downward and upward.

Lines can also be used as a form of “universal language” in communication. In other words,
lines can be designed to create a message. Arrows and other symbols are examples of lines
used as a visual form. Lines are often used to enhance or change the visual quality of styles of
type. They can appear very harsh or very delicate. Lines play a highly important role in
designing a layout that communicates effectively.

Lines are often implied. Alignment of type or shaped elements in a composition can create
implied linear relationships. Linear relationships can activate compositional space by helping
to direct the viewer’s eye.

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Shapes

Shapes are elementary forms that define specific areas of space. In many cases, a shape is
defined by a line. The three basic shapes are the square, circle, and triangle. Each of the three
basic shapes is associated with a psychological meaning. The visual attitude portrayed by the
triangle is one of conflict or action. The square projects an attitude of honesty or equality,
while the circle conveys a feeling of protection or infinity.

Mass
Mass is a measure of volume that adds definition to shapes in a visual presentation. The mass
or solid portion of the shape provides a visual relationship with the other elements. Different
shapes of varying intensities, known as weights, can be used to emphasize or de-emphasize
styles of type. Physical forms are made by combining the three basic shapes.

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Texture

The texture of a visual image is a projection of emphasized structure or weight. When


measuring the texture of an object, the first inclination is to touch the surface. In graphic
communications, texture is usually visual; there is no feeling gained through the sense of
touch. Texture appears as a design element when the visual images reflect the meaning of
lines, or when mass forms images that reflect a special technique. Texture varies and depends
on the structure and weight of the individual letters, the amount of space between lines, and
the amount of mass in a certain space. Actual texture for a printed image can be produced by
embossing, which presses a shape or irregular surface into the substrate.

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Colour

Colour is an important element to be considered when planning or designing a printed


product. Colour can draw attention and produce a strong emotional and psychological impact.
Different colours have traditional and symbolic meanings. A basic understanding of colour is
essential to creating a good design. Colour should be used to add interest and variety to a
design. A small amount of colour can heighten the visual quality of a page.

Like texture, colour enhances the elements in a layout by helping to activate shapes and space
and by creating emphasis and supporting hierarchy. Designers who understand how to use
colour effectively can use it to create a sense of spacial depth and emphasis, and guide a
viewer’s eye through a layout. Colour can also be a powerful means of communicating
emotion and can be a useful unifying device in publication design.

Colour theory is limited to a brief glossary of colour-related terms to refamiliarize you with
basic colour attributes and terminology. Because a thorough understanding of colour theory is
an important part of any designer’s education, study other resources that will give you a more
complete understanding of colour if you have not had a formal introduction to colour theory.

Hue—The essence of name of a colour (e.g., red, blue, green.).


Value—The darkness or lightness of a colour. Colours with black added are called shades.
Tints are colours to which white has been added. Light colours such as yellow are called
high-key. Dark colour such as violet are called low-key.
Saturation—The brightness or dullness of a colour. When black, white, gray, or a colour’s
complement is added, a colour becomes less saturated. (Also called chroma or intensity))

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Colour moods

Different colours project different moods. Yellow, orange, and red are considered to be warm
colours and often denote aggression, excitement, and danger. Red is considered the most
active of these three. Blue, green, and violet are considered to be cool colours and are
associated with nature and passiveness.

Colour wheel

A colour wheel is a visual tool that illustrates the basics of colour. It is an arrangement of
colours that provides a means of identifying colours in a consistent manner. The wheel is
based on three primary colours, from which all other colours can be made. The primary
colours are red, yellow, and blue. Mixing any two will produce a secondary colour. The
secondary colours are green, orange, and violet.

Two systems of colour formation, additive and subtractive, use different primary colours. The
additive primaries are red, green, and blue. The subtractive primaries are cyan, magenta, and
yellow. The colours that are positioned across from each other on the colour wheel are known
as complementary colours. Red and green, orange and blue, and yellow and violet are
complementary colours.

Different shades and tints of a colour, known as values, may be obtained by adding white or
black to a colour. A colour can also take on a different intensity when it is mixed with its
complement. For example, when green is mixed with red, it will probably produce a brown.
Striking colour effects may be produced not only by mixing colours, but also by arranging

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colours in a layout so they have a direct effect on each other. Chapter 8 includes a detailed
description of colour theory and how it relates to graphic communication.

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LESSON 6 : PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

In the process of designing a printed product, many different ideas are generated through the
use of design elements. To ensure the images have a pleasing relationship, design principles
must be applied to sort out or select the right ideas. The basic principles of design are
balance, contrast, unity, rhythm, and proportion. These principles are used by the design
artist to create an image that is both visually pleasing and functional.

Balance

Balance describes the even distribution of images to create a pleasing visual effect. Balance
has one of the most important psychological influences on human perception. Consciously
and unconsciously, people have a basic need for balance. This principle can be illustrated by
the placement of letters on a scale.

Visually, a judgment can be made by the value of each image. The type of balance is
symmetrical and is called formal. The type of balance is asymmetrical and is called informal.

Formal balance is achieved when all of the elements on a page are of equal weight and are
positioned symmetrically. Informal balance may be achieved by changing the value, size, or
location of elements on a page. The use of various colours and colour intensities can also
create informal balance.

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For example, two squares of equal size but different colour values (such as pink and dark red)
will appear to be unequal in size when placed side by side. Balance is a guiding principle of
design. The layout should be considered as a whole when positioning the elements.

Symmetrical balance can be described as having equal "weight" on equal sides of a centrally
placed fulcrum. It may also be referred to as formal balance. When the elements are
arranged equally on either side of a central axis, the result is Bilateral symmetry. This axis
may be horizontal or vertical. It is also possible to build formal balance by arranging
elements equally around a central point , resulting in radial symmetry. There is a variant of
symmetrical balance called approximate symmetry in which equivalent but not identical
forms are arranged around the fulcrum line.

Symmetrical balance, also called informal balance, is more complex and difficult to
envisage. It involves placement of objects in a way that will allow objects of varying visual
weight to balance one another around a fulcrum point. This can be best imagined by
envisioning a literal balance scale that can represent the visual "weights" that can be
imagined in a two dimensional composition. For example, it is possible to balance a heavy
weight with a cluster of lighter weights on equal sides of a fulcrum; in a picture, this might be
a cluster of small objects balanced by a large object. It is also possible to imagine objects of
equal weight but different mass (such as a large mass of feathers versus a small mass of
stones) on equal sides of a fulcrum. Unequal weights can even be balanced by shifting the
fulcrum point on our imaginary scale.

Contrast

Contrast is the variation of elements in a printed product. When used, contrast gives meaning
to a design. Lines drawn thick might have littlemeaning by themselves. Adding thin lines,
however, can enhance the design and eliminate monotony. Styles of type can be contrasted to
produce greater legibility and design variation. Some useful contrasts are round and straight,
ornate and plain, and broad and narrow. A tall tree looks much taller if it is standing on a flat
plane. The relationship between an unprinted area and a printed area of an image can also be
enhanced through the use of contrast. White space, when used effectively, creates contrast in
an image.

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Care must be taken when combining contrasting elements so that the uniform effect of the
total design remains unaffected. A page of many contrasting designs might create confusion.
Balance must be maintained to ensure that one primary element dominates the layout. This
principle can be used to draw attention and keep the reader’s attention from jumping from
one element to another.

Unity

Unity is the proper balance of all elements in an image so that a pleasing whole results and
the image is viewed as one piece. Every element must be in proper position to create a
harmonious image. A design can be moved and manipulated to create an interesting and
functional combination of elements. Choosing type styles is also important to achieving unity.
A unified design is the result of viewing the layout as a whole and not as separate elements.
This principle is also called harmony.

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Rhythm

The movement of a reader’s eye is often determined by the shapes used in the image. The
square reflects horizontal and vertical movement. The triangle reflects diagonal movement,
and the circle reflects a curve. Rhythm in a design results when the elements have been
properly used to create visual movement and direction.

Rhythm can also be achieved through the use of a pattern or repetition. Patterns can be used
in contrast with an element to create an effective design.

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Proportion

Proportion is the relationship between elements in an image. The use of proportion helps to
achieve balance and unity in a layout. All elements should be in proportion to each other.
When using different type styles, it is important that they are in proportion to the other
elements on the page. Using proportion is a means of developing an aesthetically pleasing
relationship between each of the elements in the layout.

A basic knowledge of design elements and principles is key to understanding the guidelines
used in layout. The finished layout or mechanical must exhibit sound principles of design.
The process of preparing a layout sheet is often performed by the same artist responsible for
the design.

Proportion is how a page is segmented. Proportional systems determine how a grid will be
developed. Historically, optically pleasing arrangements have been based on proportional
relationships found in nature. The golden mean, for instance, is based on a harmonic
arrangement that has been found in plants and other life forms. It even exists in the human
body. If you measure your body from foot to navel, then from navel to the top of your head,
you will find the ratio between these measurements is 1 to 1.6. This mathematic ratio can be
expressed in a proportionately sectioned rectangle. The Ancient Greeks understood this ratio
and applied it to the proportions of the Parthenon. Designers often apply this principle today
to serve as a guide for organizing text and visuals in a layout. Other alignment principles
commonly applied to page layouts are based on similar proportional relationships that have
been proven, over time, to be optically pleasing. The line of golden proportion, for instance,
is based on dividing a page into eighths and placing a design element or single line of text at
a point so it is at three-eighths from the top of a page.

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The size of type used in a design should be in proportion to the other elements.

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LESSON 7 : LAYOUT ELEMENTS

Layout is the arrangement of printing elements on a layout sheet. The paste-up version of the
base sheet, or mechanical, is made up of the elements ready for reproduction. Planning a
layout involves choosing elements that best represent the design. The elements of layout are
body type, display type, illustrations, and white space.

The arrangement of elements in a layout must be pleasing to the eye and easy to read. The
layout artist or designer is responsible for assembling the elements to make a composition.
The layout artist plays a very important role in planning each job.

If the same elements were given to several artists, it is very probable that different layouts
would be submitted. If each layout applies valid principles of design, it might be impossible
to say one is better than another. Layouts may be judged differently by different people.The
major objective of the layout is that the printed material must be clearly seen and read. The
layout artist must consider each element independently and determine how each one relates to
the complete product.

Body type

Body type is the printed type that makes up the text in a layout. Body type must be chosen to
reflect the intent of the message. The text must be clearly legible and must relate to the topic.
Typically, a topic aimed at a contemporary audience would use a modern typeface. The
placement of type requires proper spacing or air. White space can be just as important as the
type itself. Usually, the body type itself is not the focal point of the layout. The text will
contain a message that expands upon the other elements. All of the elements, including type,
are positioned in a logical progression of importance to meet the layout objectives.

Some layout elements will be primary, while others become secondary, according to the
objectives of the layout.

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Selecting a proper typeface and type size for the layout is an important part of the
design process

Display type

Display type is the type that conveys the main message of the layout. It is intended to draw
attention. Newspaper and magazine headlines are typical examples of display type. The
display line is key to the success of a message. If the display type creates interest, the reader
will proceed to the body. The display line in an advertisement leads the reader to other
information. After reading the display material, the person must be satisfied or directed to
continue reading the text.

Headlines are a form of display type. They should draw attention and create interest in
the image.

The style of display type is very important because it must correspond to the visual message.
Some type styles can be very dramatic. In such cases, the topic and type style must be
compatible. Fine-line display type, for example, is usually not appropriate when used with

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heavy mass images. Some type styles are directional and lead the eye of the reader.
Sometimes, the layout designer organizes the display line for an ad using hand-lettered
display type. The entire layout must be looked at when choosing a display typeface. The
display line must be distinctive and appropriate. To properly select a typeface, the job
objective must be fully understood by the layout artist.

Type

The principles that apply to the other formal design elements also apply to type. Type is a
component in page and cover layout that is controlled and arranged with other elements in
support of the publication’s communication goal. However, type plays a dual role in that
typographic forms also contain verbal meaning. It is as important for typography to
effectively communicate a verbal message as well as function well in a design composition.
Text, whether it is set in a rectangular format or configured to form a shape, functions as a
design element in a layout. The amount of emphasis that a text-filled shape has in a layout is
largely a result of its scale and the size, weight, and style of the typeface that is used.

Typographic forms can be used to create shapes and harmonious figure/ground relationships
in a layout. Many typographic forms, by themselves, are beautiful and appealing to the eye.
The positive and negative shapes that occur between arrangements of letterforms and
numerals can also yield many intriguing visual possibilities. Typographic forms can also be
layered to create spatial depth. Type also performs as a linear element in a composition,
helping to guide a viewer’s eye. Typographic forms can be arranged in a way that implies
linear direction, or they can be configured into a straight line or a curve to direct a viewer’s
gaze. Just as a block of text serves as shape in a composition, the quality of the text within
that block can lend texture to that shape. Textural effects or patterns can also be created by
repeating typographic forms. Type can also be used to support attitude or mood.

Illustrations

The illustrations in a layout include the ornamentation, photographs, and artwork, such as
line art. Illustrations are common in most printed materials. For example, display ads
typically include illustrations of the product. The message provided by an illustration can be
very revealing. The old saying, “A picture is worth a thousand words,” applies to many
printed materials. Pictorial images are a very strong way of conveying a message. In some

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cases, an illustration may convey the message by itself. Illustrations add another dimension to
the layout; they can increase understanding of the product, as well as interest in the product.

White space

White space includes areas of the layout that are void of printed images. Filling up the entire
design space will usually not produce good results. The utilization of white space or air can
add to the visual quality of a layout. The distance between elements can be very valuable
when white space is used according to sound design principles. It provides a brief period for
absorbing the printed matter. If used excessively, white space can be disorienting. When ideas
are too greatly separated, flow and meaning can be lost. White space is very important and
must be used properly to create flow, unity, and organization for the reader.

Developing a Layout

There are a number of factors to consider in developing a layout. Five areas that must be
addressed by the layout artist are the objective of the project, the message the product will
send, the style and format to be used, the layout requirements for production, and printing
requirements. Each factor contributes to making decisions that will influence production of
the final product.

Layout objective

The layout objective is a statement that describes the intent or purpose of an identifiable end
product. The objective outlines the goal of the layout artist. For example, an objective might
state that the final printed piece should inform the reader, through text and illustrated
material, how a piece of equipment will help in a specific production situation. The objective
describes what the information on the printed page is intended to do. Knowing the purpose
helps the layout artist determine which text and illustrations will be best for the job.

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Conveying a message

The message or visual effect delivered by a printed image helps determine how the layout
will be planned. Identifying the audience gives direction to the layout artist. For example, one
ad might be designed for young people, while another might be aimed at the elderly. The
design of each ad should be unique and must reflect the intent of the printed piece. Design of
the end product also determines the tone or mood of the message. If a light hearted or
humorous mood is intended, a dramatic photograph might not achieve the desired effect. All
of the elements should reflect the message of the end product.

Style and format

Style includes the text type, display type, and illustrations of the design. Some printed pieces
will require a set style, while others do not. For instance, the style used in this textbook is
quite different from the styles used in advertisements. The designer must choose the elements
that will work best.

Deciding how to organize the format of the printed piece is of primary importance. Will a
single sheet carry the message, or will a booklet do a better job? The format will also be
determined by its intended use. For example, if the printed piece is to be posted, it should not
be printed on both sides.

Layout requirements

The different methods of layout and the schedule to complete the job must be considered in
planning a layout. A layout may need to be developed as a sketch, a rough, or a
comprehensive. It may be necessary to perform all three. A sketch is an idea in pictorial form
with little detail. Sketches are often helpful because they provide a picture indicating possible
placement of the elements. A rough is more illustrative of the final product; it provides the
style of the type as well as the position of the elements. A comprehensive is the third and final
method of layout. It is the presentation of what the finished product will indeed look like.
When planning a layout, the artist should decide which methods will be necessary to reach
the final product in a timely manner.

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An estimate of the time it will take to complete the job is essential from a planning
standpoint. Most printed pieces are produced to meet a deadline and must be delivered by a
specified date. The planner must decide whether the job can be completed in the time
allowed.

Printing requirements

The printing process that follows production has a strong influence on how a layout is
developed. The size of the product, the quantity to be printed, paper requirements, colour use,
and operations following the printing must all be considered. The finished dimension of a
printed piece must be determined before beginning layout. The finished size will have a
bearing on every production step. One important concern is the size of the press required to
run the job. The finished size also determines the size of the paper to be used in printing. The
number of pages to be printed and the number of copies required are also factors to consider
because they will help determine the printing requirements. Deciding the most economical
way of printing the job is essential. The designer or editor must estimate the approximate
number of pages to be printed so that final plans for printing can be made.

Printing requirements include the kind of stock or paper to be used. The necessary stock must
be available at the designated time for printing. A custom stock may need to be ordered and
may require additional time. Other considerations in ordering stock are the size of the order,
paper weight (thickness), and opacity.

Multicolour printing is another factor to consider when planning a layout. Different jobs
require different uses of colour. Printing a one-colour or black and white job requires
different layout methods than a two-colour, or four-colour job. The layout artist must decide
whether to use colour when planning the layout.

Once the job is printed, further finishing operations might be required, such as trimming the
job to the final size. Other finishing operations may include folding, scoring, creasing,
varnishing, and binding. Knowing the operations that will be required after printing is
important in planning the job.

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Layout Methods

Choosing the right method to develop a layout can be very difficult and requires careful
planning and thinking by the layout artist. The design methods used in layout are thumbnail
sketches, the rough layout, and the comprehensive layout. Much of the decision depends on
the factors that have already been discussed. The size of the job, the objective, and use of
colour are all important considerations. The layout artist must have a vision of how to arrive
at the final product. The layout can make or break the appearance of the final product. Many
times, a number of layout ideas are discarded before one is chosen. Each method must be
carefully analyzed to produce a strong, functional layout.

Thumbnail sketches

Thumbnail sketches are simple, rapidly drawn designs for a layout. Different approaches
can be taken in drawing sketches. Sketching is a means of testing the visual appeal of a
printed piece. The size of a thumbnail is not important. The sketch is generally smaller than
the size of the printed product. The first sketch might not be the design selected, but each one
will help the artist visualize the end product. A soft pencil or felt tip pen is typically used to
draw thumbnail sketches. Even though the size is not important, the general proportion is
required to indicate image relationships. The purpose of the sketch is to evaluate the weight
of each element. The sketch shows the basic shape and tone of the total piece.

Rough layout
A rough layout is a redrawn version of a thumbnail sketch. Once a specific thumbnail has
been selected, refinement is necessary. The elements in a rough layout or dummy offer a truer
visual meaning. In many cases, the dummy must be checked and approved by the designer,
client, and sometimes the printer. The display lines and illustrations of a rough are very
similar to the elements of the final product. The text material is located in a greeked
(illegible) block or whatever form it will take in the finished product. The rough has a closer
resemblance to the intended printed piece than the thumbnail sketches. Sometimes, a refined
layout may be made. Since the refined layout is closer to the final layout, it can be used as
the final layout when time is a major factor. Special notations for type size, type style, or
colour can be made on a tissue overlay or on the layout.

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Comprehensive layout
A comprehensive layout shows how the printed piece will look when finished. The layout
artist is making a close version of the finished product; therefore, exact detail is essential. The
body type is usually ruled in and the display type is drawn as it will appear in the finished
piece. Any art sketched previously now has a photograph or accurate line art in its place.
Special effects become a part of the comprehensive layout, and colours can also be added.
Instructions, specifications, and notations are not placed directly on the comprehensive. A
common practice is to attach an overlay sheet with tape at the top of the base sheet. The
overlay sheet is usually translucent tissue paper so that the comprehensive can be easily
viewed along with any notations.

The information is written on the tissue and serves as the specifications for the final
preparation of art and copy. The comprehensive should not be confused with the mechanical.
The mechanical is pasted up and completed in the next step of production. The mechanical is
the final stage of layout. It includes the body text and any other camera-ready images that are
converted to film by a process camera or other means.

Specifications

Specifications provide the information relating to type style, type size, line or column width,
colour use, page organization, and other facts pertaining to a printed product. Specifications
or specs are the overall guidelines used in layout.

Directing Eye Movement

After a grid or method of alignment has been decided upon, hierarchy and emphasis play an
important role in guiding a viewer’s eye through a layout. The designer determines which
element is most important and will be the first to catch a viewer’s attention. From there,
design elements with secondary importance (followed by those with even less importance)
lead the viewer’s gaze through a layout so that the eye moves in a way that takes in all of the
visual content. The positioning of elements on a page, their size, colour, and visual weight, as
well as their relationship to one another all affect hierarchy. Here are some guidelines to keep
in mind when determining what elements will be seen first and which will play a subordinate
role:

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• Position—In Western culture, we tend to read from left to right and from top to bottom. As
a result, elements in a layout that are positioned at the top and to the left are likely to be seen
first.
• Scale—Large items in a layout tend to draw the eye. The smallest elements tend to be seen
last.
• Contrast—Areas of high contrast tend to dominate in a layout, whereas areas of low
contrast tend to recede.
• Implied direction—Linear elements, edges, elements in a line, or even an image such as a
face in profile, can direct a viewer’s gaze.

Specifications for Graphic Communications


Trim: 8-1/2 x 10-7/8
Gutter: 5p
Bottom Margin: 5p
Thumb Margin: 4p
Top Margin: 3p to the base of the running head, 5p to the top of the first line of text
2 column format: 20p3 x 1p6 x 20p3
4-colour process
Chapters are always to start a new right.

Typefaces used: Palm Springs, Helvetica (all in roman, bold, italic and/or bold italic).

Running Heads: Left hand pages, set folio flush left on left hand margin of left column.
Folio sets in 10pt Helvetica Bold. On 3p indent set Book Title. Book Title sets in 10pt
Helvetica. Right hand pages, set folio flush right on right hand margin of right column. Folio
sets in 10pt Helvetica Bold. On 3p indent from right margin set Chapter Number and Title.
Chapter number and title sets in 10pt Helvetica, flush right on indent. Allow an em space
between the number and title.

Chapters: Are to start a new right. The chapter opener takes a drop folio, 10pt Helvetica
Bold, prints black, flush left on the outside margin, 2p below the normal text bed.

Chapter Opening Graphic: Falls in the first column, and is made up of squares. Large black
square is 10p3, and sets flush left on first column. Three large squares are each 3p, second set

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of squares is 1p6, and smallest set of squares is 1p3. There should be 3pt space between the
various squares, follow the sample pages for general layout of graphic. The large squares
should be 100% Cyan; 100% Magenta; and 100% Yellow. Secondary squares should be
100% Cyan, 100% Yellow; 100% Yellow, 50% Magenta; 50% Magenta, 50% Cyan. Tertiary
squares should be 50% Yellow, 100% Cyan; 100% Yellow, 50% Cyan; 20% Magenta, 100%
Yellow; 80% Magenta, 100% Yellow.

Chapter number: 190pt Arabic number, Helvetica Bold, 30% Black Screen, 2 digit numbers
track -20, do not use the word chapter. Set so its top aligns with the top of nominal text bed,
flush right. Under prints chapter title.

Chapter title: 30/30 Helvetica, Track -5, build down from top line, flush left, ragged right, in
second column, with ascender of first line aligning with the top of the nominal text bed.

Objectives: Heading sets Helvetica Bold, 14/auto, Clc, flrr x 20p3, 6p below the bottom of
the chapter graphic to the ascender of the heading. 0p3 after. Opening state-

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PSYCHOLOGY OF COLOURS

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COPYFITTING

Copyfitting is the process of fitting together copy and illustrations in a specific amount of
space. It can be done by altering type size, leading, line length, or letter spacing. The layout
planner or artist is heavily involved in copyfitting during various stages of production. If the
amount of copy is greater than the space allocated, the total design is affected. Copyfitting
also involves estimating the amount of space needed for a certain amount of text. The amount
of space needed must be known by the layout artist to design a comprehensive layout. In
desktop publishing, copyfitting is commonly completed for layout on a computer screen. A
desktop publishing system can be used to copyfit text and illustrations, move copy, draw line
art, and finalize layout.

There are also manual counting techniques used in copyfitting. The most common method is
counting the total number of characters in a body of text. To determine the number of

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characters in the text, a vertical line is drawn through the printed copy at the end of the
shortest line in the copy. The number of characters in a single line to the left of the vertical
line is then counted. Characters include all letters, spaces, and punctuation. The number of
characters in one line is then multiplied by the number of full lines. If there is a partial line,
the number of characters it contains is counted and added to the total from the preceding step.
This total represents the number of characters to the left of the vertical line. Next, the number
of characters to the right of the vertical line is counted.

The total number of characters from all lines on the right side is then added to the total
number of characters on the left side. The number of characters in this example is 290. Once
the number of characters in the text is determined, a type style and size is selected for the
text. The line length and character size for the text, in picas, must then be determined.
Typeface tables or catalogs showing different sizes of type and the number of characters per
pica are commonly used.

Processing Illustrations

Photographs and pieces of line art used in layout are commonly edited or sized for
reproduction by the layout artist. The principles used in design and layout must be followed
when processing illustrations. The layout artist must make sure that the llustrations are sized
properly, and that they have the right contrast, unity, and proportion.

Photo cropping
The complete image of a photograph often cannot be used because some portion of the print
is not needed. In many cases, the composition of the photo must be edited or cropped.

Photo cropping is a method of indicating what portion of the print is to be used or


reproduced. A cropped photo separates the desired image from the unwanted areas. Crop
marks border the area to be used. Marks are placed in the white margin of the print with a
grease pencil or a similar marker that will not damage the photograph. Crop marks set the
photograph dimensions. Two sets of marks can be used along the top and bottom of the image
to establish width. Pairs of marks on each side of the image indicate depth or height. The final
image will only use the portion of the photograph that lies within the crop marks.

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Crop marks drawn along the border of a photograph show the area of the image to be
used.
Photo sizing

In graphic production, it is often necessary to use photographs at sizes other than the original.
Many times, the photo must be enlarged or reduced by a certain percentage to fit the space.
For example, if a photo measures 6″ _ 6″ and the design space is only 3″_ 3″, the photo
would have to be reduced to half its original size or by 50 percent. A 35 mm slide might have
to be enlarged to twice its original size (200 percent) or more to provide a printed image of
the required size.

A proportional scale or “proportion wheel” is commonly used to size illustrations for


enlargement or reduction. The scale can be used to determine the correct reproduction
percentage by comparing the original size of the photo with the reproduction size. The
numbers along the inner portion of the scale represent the original size, and the numbers
along the outer portion represent the reproduction size. When the scale is rotated to match the
two sizes, the resulting percentage of enlargement or reduction is indicated by an arrow
pointing to a windowed scale located on the inner portion of the proportion wheel.

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When sizing a photo, it is important to remember that the image will retain the same shape
and proportion. For example, a rectangle will reproduce as a smaller or larger rectangle. The
dimensions change, but the proportion remains the same.
Precise reproduction percentages and often, cropping are necessary to produce the required
results and fit the design space. Sometimes, it might be necessary to use a different
photograph or illustration to meet the specifications of the job.

Photo layout
Photographs are not pasted down along with the other elements on a mechanical. Usually, a
space for the photo is outlined on the layout with a thin black line (called a keyline). Ablock
of opaque material the exact size of the photo is sometimes used, instead of a keyline. A
figure number is assigned to the space and the photo. The number indicates where to place
the screened halftone of the photo when making the mechanical.

Photo markup
Photo markup involves writing directions or specifications for the visual images used in
layout. Markings should be carefully placed on the border or outside the image area of
photos. Crop marks should appear in the margin or in an area that will not be reproduced.
Photographs must be handled very carefully when they are used in layout. The surface of the
image can scratch very easily; never write on an overlay that is placed on top of a photo. The
pressure from a pen or pencil can indent the surface. Damage to a photo can leave an
unwanted mark or reflection during reproduction or screening.

Spaces are reserved as holes to indicate where photos are to be placed for a mechanical.

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Line art

Line art is artwork that is drawn by hand or electronically and is normally pasted up at the
same size on a mechanical. If necessary, the original art can be enlarged or reduced. Then, the
correctly sized line art can be pasted onto the mechanical.
Sketches and drawings are marked in the same manner as photographs. They must be
cropped, sized, and located. Information that is marked up on illustrations might include the
job title and number, location in the printed piece, a figure number if applicable, the
percentage for enlargement or reduction, the reproduction size, and the name of the layout
artist. When line art and tone material are used together, the tone material is placed on an
overlay. For example, if the tone material is going to be used to place colour in line art, it
must be cut to the shape of the art and placed in register on the overlay.

Clip art

Clip art is preprinted artwork that is designed to be cut and pasted up on the mechanical. The
artwork is normally cut from a sheet of clip art. Today, clip art is commonly available in
electronic form. It can be printed out and pasted up in the traditional manner, or added
directly to an electronic page layout. Clip art is commonly used for seasonal designs, such as
Thanksgiving or Christmas newspaper ads. Pieces of clip art save the artist from having to
draw Christmas trees, wreaths, turkeys, and other common images.

Clip art A

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Clip art. A—Preprinted clip art is available in common designs and is ready to be
pasted up. B—Electronic clip art is now widely used.

Clip art used in multicolour printing. Each image is a colour separation and can be used
to make a plate for a primary colour.

Clip art must have high image quality and density so that it will reproduce properly. The most
common form of clip art is made up of black images on a white background. Some clip art is
also available as separations for colour printing. Four-colour clip art can be very effective if
the artwork is appropriate for the layout.
Layout Materials
The two most common working surfaces used in layout and design are a drawing board and
light table. A drawing board provides an area where the layout can be taped down for paste-
up. A T-square is used to align the mechanical on the board.

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A light table is used in layout for the placement of translucent images, such as page negatives
or colour separations. Light passing through the images allows for easier alignment or
registration.

Layout base sheet


A layout base sheet is the paste-up surface or board used in layout. The elements making up
the layout design are pasted up on the base sheet as it is developed into a mechanical. Various
kinds of base sheet stock are available. Base sheets must have a surface that can accept a
variety of adhesives and ink drawings. Sizes typically depend on the size of the copyboard of
the process camera used to photograph the finished mechanical.

Preprinted base sheets are often used to make mechanicals when the same type of job is done
repeatedly. Artists using preprinted sheets do not align paste-up materials with a T-square.
Preprinted base sheets have grids printed with non reproducing blue lines that serve as a
guide for image placement.

Crop marks drawn along the border of a photograph show the area of the image to be
used.

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The grid lines are often measured at intervals of one pica. Thin plastic sheets are used with
base sheets as overlays when preparing a mechanical. Overlays are usually frosted or clear
plastic and are used to align images supporting colour on top of the base sheet. They contain
the elements that will print as colour or screened colour. Register marks are used to align the
overlay with the mechanical.

Workmarks

Workmarks are lines that guide the placement of materials on a base sheet. Corner or trim
marks are always placed on the sheet. Center marks are usually positioned and are essential
for colour work. Workmarks serve as guidelines for the paste-up artist as well as the
mechanical stripper.

A nonreproducing blue pencil or pen is commonly used to draw workmarks on a layout base
sheet. These lines or other marks will not appear when the page is shot. Trim marks are
usually drawn one-eighth inch in length for paste-up or to designate bleeds. A bleed is an
image that extends to the end of a printed sheet. A bleed image, when printed, appears outside
the trim area of the sheet and is cut away when the sheet is trimmed to the final size.

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UNIT –II

LESSON 1 : PRINTING PROCESSES

The five major printing processes are distinguished by the method of image transfer and by
the general type of image carrier employed. Depending upon the process, the printed image is
transferred to the substrate either directly or indirectly. In direct printing the image is
transferred directly from the image carrier to the substrate, examples of direct printing are
gravure, flexography, screen-printing and letterpress printing processes. In indirect, or offset,
printing, the image is first transferred from the image carrier to the blanket cylinder and then
to the substrate. Lithography, currently the dominant printing technology, is an indirect
(offset) process.

Image carriers (or plates) can generally be classified as one of four types: relief,
planographic, intaglio, or screen. In relief printing, the image or printing area is raised above
the non-image areas. Of the five major printing processes, those relying on relief printing are
letterpress and flexography. In planographic printing, the image and nonimage areas are on
the same plane. The image and non-image areas are defined by differing physiochemical
properties. Lithography is a planographic process.

In the intaglio process, the nonprinting area is at a common surface level with the substrate
while the printing area, consisting of minute etched or engraved wells of differing depth
and/or size, is recessed. Gravure is an intaglio process. In the screen process (also known as
porous printing), the image is transferred to the substrate by pushing ink through a porous
mesh, which carries the pictorial or typographic image.

Each printing process can be divided into three major steps: prepress, press, and post press.
Prepress operations encompass that series of steps during which the idea for a printed image
is converted into an image carrier such as a plate, cylinder, or screen. Prepress operations
include composition and typesetting, graphic arts photography, image assembly, and image
carrier preparation. Press refers to actual printing operations. Post press primarily involves
the assembly of printed materials and consists of binding and finishing operations.

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A printing process describes the method adopted by a system to transfer the image on to a
substrate (material). This also means that a printing system will have a medium that carries
the image in the first place before it enables the process of reproduction. Getting this printing
surface prepared is dependent on the printing process. Over the years, many different ways of
putting ink on paper developed and these evolved to be the printing processes. The mechanics
adopted under different systems are so different that they cater to specific applications in the
market. For a long time the printing industry recognized five major processes. These were :

• Relief printing (letterpress, flexography)


• Planographic printing (offset lithography)
• Recess printing (gravure/intaglio)
• Stencil printing (screen)
• Digital printing (toner and inkjet)

Relief printing—letterpress

As the name of the process says, the image areas are in relief and the non-image areas are in
recess. On application of ink, the relief areas are coated with a film of ink and the non-image
areas are not. With pressure over the substrate to bring it in contact with the image area, the
image is then transferred to the substrate. If you can picture how a rubber stamp transfers ink
to paper, then you understand the principle of letterpress and flexography. Relief printing was
the earliest form of printing and remained dominant for a very long time. The movable types
of the hot metal era were all used with letterpress. This printing process takes its name from
the manner in which the process was employed, primarily for type, and later engravings.

Text is made up of movable type. Types are made from an alloy of lead, antimony, and tin. A
block is made of zinc or copper, in which images that are not obtainable in movable type are
etched. Logos, diagrams, and illustrations are made from engraved blocks.

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A letterpress printed product can be identified by the indentation that it creates in the paper.
This is due to the mechanical pressure applied to the paper. In spite of this, letterpress
produces images that are sharp and clean. It is a direct printing process, which means that ink
is transferred directly from the printing surface to the substrate. Letterpress is still used to
some extent for embossing, imprinting, and special-purpose reproduction.

Letterpress Printing
Applications
Typical products printed with letterpress printing processes include business cards, letterhead,
proofs, billheads, forms, posters, announcements, imprinting, embossing and hot-leaf
Stamping

Offset Letterpress Printing Process Overview

Letterpress is the oldest method of printing with equipment and images printed by the "relief"
type printing plates where the image or printing areas are raised above the nonprinting areas.
The use of letterpresses is on the decline being replaced with faster and more efficient
printing presses such as the offset lithographic press or the flexographic press. The amount of
setup required to prepare the equipment to print a job is significant. For example, the image
must be metal cast prior to print versus offset printing plates which are comparatively cheaper
and require less time to make. How letterpress works: Letter press printing exerts variable
amounts of pressure on the substrate dependent on the size and image elements in the
printing. The amount of pressure per square inch or "squeeze" is greater on some highlight
dots than it is on larger shadow dots. Expensive, time consuming adjustments must be made
throughout the press run to make sure the impression pressure is just right. Major chemicals

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used in letterpress printing, very similar to those used in lithography, include film developers
and fixers, inks, and blanket and roller washes (GATF 1992b).

Image Preparation of Letterpress Printing Plates

Letterpress printing uses type that is raised above (relief) the non-printing areas. In traditional
letterpress work, letters were assembled into copy, explanatory cuts were placed nearby, line
drawings were etched or engraved into plates, and all these were placed (composed) on a flat
marble stone, within a rigid frame (chase) spaced artistically with blocks (furniture) tightened
up (locked-up) with toothed angular blocks (quoins). In the construction of a letterpress
"form" older methods of image making involving cast metal, plated molds, and other media
have been replaced with photopolymer relief plates in those instances where letterpress
equipment is still functional There are a few presses still availing themselves of old type and
casts, and using ancient type-making machines (like linotype) but there are few persons alive
today who know how to operate, much less keep them in functional repair.

The usage of cast metal type was replaced in some instances with typewriter generated "cold
type", by the Varityper, Friden Justowriter, IBM Selectric Composer and these were replaced
in part by photographic and then electronic plate making. The development of photopolymer
relief plates began to replace all of the above when letterpress hit its prime, and is now the
most economical plate making method available.

As letterpress usage grew, it became obvious that for long runs of the same copy, duplicate
plates would save time and money. Stereotype, electrotype, rubber and plastic duplicate plate
making thrived, but are no longer widely used for letterpress work. The more economical and
faster to produce photopolymer plates are extending the life of letterpress printing to some
extent. Photoengraving, at one time thought to be the last word in plate making, is still in use
to a limited extent, however photopolymer plates are less expensive, quicker to make, and
supply fewer chemical residues, as a result the equipment to make photopolymer plates and
the plates themselves provide an undeniable cost saving without jeopardizing the quality of
the finished product. Chemical engraving has taken a back seat to mechanical and electronic
computer driven engraving methods because of environmental reasons as well as cost and
speed. Computers are also doing typesetting, and films, where used, are often laser generated.

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Letterpress Equipment Design

There are three different types of letterpress printing devices in use today: platen, flatbed, and
rotary presses. The two most common types of letterpress presses, the unit design perfecting
rotary press and the rotary letterpress typically used for magazine printing.

Platen-type Letterpress Printing


A platen press is made up of two flat surfaces called the bed and the platen. The platen
provides a smooth backing for the paper or other substrate that is to be printed. The raised
plate (image to be printed) is locked onto a flat surface. The plate is inked, the substrate is
then placed on another flat surface called the bed and pressed against the inked plate
producing the impression.

The platen and bed carry both the paper and the type form. The press then opens and closes
like a clam shell. Platen printing is typically used for short runs such as invitations, name
cards, and stationary. Larger platen presses are used for die-cutting and embossing. Some
platen presses are arranged with the bed and platen in the vertical plane.

The plate is inked with an inking roller that transfers ink from an inking plate to the image
carrier. Ink is placed on the inking plate by an ink fountain roller. The platen style press has
been widely used in printing small-town newspapers since the late 1800s. The printing area is
usually limited to a maximum of 18 inches by 24 inches. These presses are also used to print
letterhead, billheads, forms, posters, announcements, and many other types of printed
products, as well as for imprinting, embossing, and hot-leaf stamping.

Flat-Bed Cylinder Letterpress Printing


Flat-bed cylinder presses use either vertical or horizontal beds. The plate is locked to a bed
which passes over an inking roller and then against the substrate. The substrate passes around
an impression cylinder on its way from the feed stack to the delivery stack. Another way of
describing this is that a single revolution of the cylinder moves over the bed while in a
vertical position so that both the bed holding the substrate and cylinder move up and down in
a reciprocating motion. Ink is supplied to the plate cylinder by an inking roller and an ink
fountain. The presses can print either one or two-colour impressions. Flat-bed cylinder
presses, which operate in a manner similar to the platen press, will print stock as large as 42

56
inches by 56 inches. Flat-bed cylinder presses operate very slowly, having a production rate
of not more than 5,000 impressions per hour. As a result, much of the printing formerly done
on this type of press is now done using rotary letterpress or lithography. The horizontal bed
press, the slower of the two types of flat-bed cylinder press, is no longer manufactured in the
United States.

Rotary Letterpress Printing

There are two type of rotary letterpresses, sheet-fed and web-fed. Sheet fed rotary presses are
also declining in use; in fact these presses are no longer manufactured in the U.S. Web-fed
rotary presses are the most popular type of letter press printing. Like all rotary presses, rotary
letterpress requires curved image carrying plates. The most popular types of plates used are
stereotype, electrotype, and molded plastic or rubber. When printing on coated papers, rotary
presses use heat-set inks and are equipped with dryers, usually the high-velocity hot air type.

Web-fed rotary letterpress presses are used primarily for printing newspapers. These presses
are designed to print both sides of the web simultaneously. Typically, they can print up to four
pages across the web; however, some of the new presses can print up to six pages across a 90-
inch web. Rotary letterpress is also used for long-run commercial, packaging, book, and
magazine printing.

Flexography

This process adopts the same principle of relief printing and is therefore similar to letterpress.
The printing surface is made of rubber instead of metal. The plate (the printing surface) is
imaged from film or laser. Rubber plates were replaced by photopolymer plates during the
1970s as was the case with letterpress printing. Flexography is largely used in the packaging
industry, where the substrates used are plastic, aluminum, foil, etc., for which the rubber
plates are more suitable, due to their being soft. Usually flexography prints rolls of paper or
foil instead of cut sheets.

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LESSON 2 : FLEXOGRAPHIC PRINTING
Applications:

Flexography is the major process used to print packaging materials. Flexography is used to
print corrugated containers, folding cartons, multi wall sacks, paper sacks, plastic bags, milk
and beverage cartons, disposable cups and containers, labels, adhesive tapes, envelopes,
newspapers, and wrappers (candy and food).

Flexographic presses are capable of producing good quality impressions on many different
substrates and is the least expensive and simplest of the printing processes used for
decorating and packaging printing. The use of flexographic printing presses is on the rise.
There are two primary reasons for this: 1) it is a relatively simple operation; and 2) it is easily
adapted to the use of water-based inks. The widespread use of water-based inks in
flexographic printing means a large reduction in VOC emission compared to the heatset web
or gravure printing processes.

Publication flexography is used mainly in the production of newspaper, comics, directories,


newspaper inserts, and catalogs. Packaging flexography is used for the production of folding
cartons, labels, and packaging materials. Large quantities of inks are used during normal runs
on flexographic presses; however, some printers are able to recycle a majority of their spent
inks and wash waters. Major chemicals used in flexography include plate making solution,
water and solvent based inks, and blanket/roller cleaning solvents.

Flexography is a form of rotary web letterpress, combining features of both letterpress and
rotogravure printing, using relief plates comprised of flexible rubber or photopolymer plates
and fast drying, low viscosity solvent, water-based or UV curable inks fed from an "anilox"
or two roller inking system. The flexible (rubber or photopolymer) plates are mounted onto
the printing cylinder with double-faced adhesive. Plates are sometimes backed with thin
metal sheets and attached to the cylinder with fastening straps for close register or ink
alignment. This adds additional cost to the plate and requires more make ready time, but
when quality printing is critical this type of plate can make the difference.

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Process Overview
In the typical flexo printing sequence, the substrate is fed into the press from a roll. The
image is printed as substrate is pulled through a series of stations, or print units. Each print
unit is printing a single colour. As with Gravure and Lithographic printing, the various tones
and shading are achieved by overlaying the 4 basic shades of ink. These are magenta, cyan,
yellow and black. Magenta being the red tones and cyan being the blue.

The process of printing each colour on a flexo press consists of a series of four rollers:
• Ink Roller
• Meter Roller
• Plate Cylinder
• Impression Cylinder

The first roller transfers the ink from an ink pan to the meter roller or Anilox Roll, which is
the second roller. The Anilox roller meters the ink to a uniform thickness onto the plate
cylinder. The substrate then moves between the plate cylinder and the impression cylinder,
which is the fourth roller. The impression cylinder applies pressure to the plate cylinder,
thereby transferring the image onto the substrate. The web, which by now has been printed, is
fed into the overhead dryer so the ink is dry before it goes to the next print unit. After the
substrate has been printed with all colours the web MAY be fed through an additional
overhead tunnel dryer to remove most of the residual solvents or water. The finished product
is then rewound onto a roll or is fed through the cutter.

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The major unit operations in a flexographic printing operation are:

• Image preparation
• Plate making
• Printing
• Finishing

Image Preparation
Image preparation begins with camera-ready (mechanical) art/copy or electronically
produced art supplied by the customer. Images are captured for printing by camera, scanner
or computer. Components of the image are manually assembled and positioned in a printing
flat when a camera is used. This process is called stripping. When art/copy is scanned or
digitally captured the computer with special software assembles the image. A simple proof
(brown print) is prepared to check for position and accuracy. When colour is involved, a
colour proof is submitted to the customer for approval.

Flexographic Plate Making


Flexographic and letterpress plates are made using the same basic technologies utilizing a
relief type plate. Both technologies employ plates with raised images (relief) and only the
raised images come in contact with the substrate during printing. Flexographic plates are
made of a flexible material, such as plastic, rubber or UV sensitive polymer (photopolymer),
so that it can be attached to a roller or cylinder for ink application. There are three primary
methods of making flexographic plates; photomechanical, photochemical and laser engraved
plates.

Prepress - Plate making

The photomechanical plate making method begins with making an engraving. Exposing a
metal plate through a negative and processing the exposed plate in an acid bath accomplish
this. The metal engraved plate is used to make a master which is molded out of Bakelite
board. The engraving is placed in a mold press. The mold is produced by applying heat &
pressure to the mold material (bakelite board), which can be either plastic or glass, against the
engraving under controlled temperature and pressure. The Bakelite board fills the engraving
on the metal plate. When its cooled you end up with a master mold for the plastic or rubber

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compound that will be pressed into the mold under pressure and elevated temperature to
produce the flexible printing plate with raised areas that will transfer the ink.

The second method of flexo plate making is relief plates. This utilizes a solid or liquid
photopolymer. The sheet of photopolymer is exposed to light through a negative. The
unexposed areas are then washed away with solvent or water wash. This is fast becoming the
most common method of making plates. The process differs depending on whether solid
sheets of photopolymer or liquid photopolymer are used, though the two processes are similar
in general outline. In both processes the plates are made in ultraviolet exposure units. A
negative of the job is placed between the photopolymer and the ultraviolet light source. The
photopolymer sheet or liquid is then exposed to ultraviolet light, hardening the image area.
Lastly, the plate is processed to remove the unhardened non-image area. Photopolymer plates
are replacing rubber plates because they offer superior quality and performance at a lower
cost. Flexographic printing plates may be made by laser engraving, which is called direct
digital plate making. In this process an image is scanned or computer generated. Then a
computer-guided laser etches the image onto the printing plate.

Flexographic Printing Presses


The five types of printing presses used for flexographic printing are the stack type, central
impression cylinder (CIC), in-line, newspaper unit, and dedicated 4-, 5-, or 6- colour unit
commercial publication flexographic presses. All five types employ a plate cylinder, a
metering cylinder known as the anilox roll that applies ink to the plate, and an ink pan. Some
presses use a third roller as a fountain roller and, in some cases, a doctor blade for improved
ink distribution.

Flexographic Printing Press Types


Stack Type
The stack press is characterized by one or more stacks of printing stations arranged vertically
on either side of the press frame. Each stack has its own plate cylinder which prints one
colour of a multicolour impression. All stations are driven from a common gear train. Stack
presses are easy to set up and can print both sides of the web in one pass. They can be
integrated with winders, unwinders, cutters, creasers, and coating equipment. They are very
popular for milk carton printing. A drawback of stack presses is their poor registration; the
image position on every printed sheet is not as consistent as in many other printing processes.

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Central impression cylinder (CIC)
Central impression cylinder (CIC), like the common impression rotary letterpress, use a
single impression cylinder mounted in the press frame. Two to eight colour printing stations
surround the central impression cylinder. Each station consists of an ink pan, fountain roller,
anilox roll, doctor blade, and plate cylinder. As the web enters the press it comes into contact
with the impression cylinder and remains in contact until it leaves the press. The result is
precise registration which allows CIC presses to produce very good colour impressions. CIC
presses are used extensively for printing flexible films.

In Line
In Line flexo printing is similar to a unit type rotary press or the stacked press except the
printing stations are arranged in a horizontal line. They are all driven by a common line shaft
and may be coupled to folders, cutters, and other post press equipment. These presses are
used for printing bags, corrugated board, folding boxes, and similar products.

Newspaper Flexographic Presses


A newspaper flexographic press consists of multiple printing units, each unit consisting of
two printing stations arranged back-to-back in a common frame. The use of paired stations
allows both sides of the web to be printed in one pass. Multiple printing stations are required
to print the many pages that make up a typical newspaper. Single and double colour decks,
stacked units, or 4-, 5-, or 6-colour units are sometimes positioned above those units where
the publisher wants to provide single or multiple spot colour, spot colour for both sides of the
web, or process colour, respectively (Buonicore).

Commercial Publication Flexographic Presses


Commercial publication flexographic presses are compact high-speed presses with wide web
capability that utilize dedicated 4-, 5-, or 6-colour units. Typically, two four-colour units are
paired in one press to allow printing on both sides of the web. Publication flexographic
presses generally incorporate infrared dryers to ensure drying of the waterborne ink after each
side of the web is printed (Buonicore).

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Flexographic Inks
Flexographic inks are very similar to packaging gravure printing inks in that they are fast
drying and have a low viscosity. The inks are formulated to lie on the surface of nonabsorbent
substrates and solidify when solvents are removed. Solvents are removed with heat, unless
U.V. curable inks are used. These inks consist of colorants, which may be pigments and
soluble dyes along with a binder and various solvents. Both Solvent based and water based
inks commonly contain various types alcohol as the primary solvent or drier. Alcohol rapidly
dries through evaporation and contributes to VOC emissions. The inks may also contain
glycol ether and/or ammonia which facilitate drying.

Types:

• Water Based
• Solvent Based
• U.V. Curable

Water based flexo inks dry through evaporation and absorption on paper. This evaporation
requires a greater amount of fuel or energy to dry the ink. Coated papers may be used to
control the absorption through the paper. Due to the speed of the presses and volume of inks
consumed daily a pollution control system may be necessary, especially if the printer is using
solvent based inks. If the product allows, the printer may avoid pollution control equipment if
they convert to water based inks or UV curable inks. The cost of Pollution control equipment
for a small Flexo or gravure printer will cost approximately $400,000 (1998 estimate) for the
equipment and approximately $50,000 for testing and certification. The price increases as the
size and/or volume of the operation increases.

UV flexo inks are commonly used for top coats and lacquers and are responsible for many
improvements in image quality of flexographic printing. The use of UV curable coloured inks
is rising within the flexographic printing industry, but product concerns and equipment
investment are obstacles. Note, water based or UV curable inks may not be an option for
some printers due to the substrate being printed or design of the product. Finishing After
printing, the substrate may run through a number of operations to be "finished" and ready for
shipment to the customer. Finishing may include operations such as coating, cutting, folding
and binding.

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Flexography features:

• Printing from wrong-reading raised image, flexible plate direct to substrate


• Principal applications: almost any substrate which can go through a web press – tissue,
plastic film, corrugated board, metal foil, milk crates, gift wrap, folding cartons, labels, etc.
• Recognition characteristics: as a relief printing method, has recognizable, but slight, ink
halo effect around letters and solid colour areas
• Two categories: wide web (18 or more inches wide) and narrow web
- Wide web flexo market: flexible packaging, newspapers, corrugated boxes
- Narrow web market: primarily labels, high-quality process colour
- Some flexo corrugated box printing is sheetfed

The continuous, repeated imaging capability, along the length of the web substrate makes
flexography very suitable for products such as wallpaper and wrapping paper.

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LESSON 3 : PLANOGRAPHIC PRINTING—OFFSET LITHOGRAPHY

Lithography is the most dominant of the printing processes. It accounts for over 60% of the
printing market. When people refer to printing, especially colour printing, they usually think
of lithography. Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder. Lithography is a chemical
process and almost opposite to that of letterpress which is more of a mechanical process.
Lithography works on the principle that oil and water do not mix. A lithographic plate is
treated in such a way that the image areas on the plate are sensitized and as such are
oleophilic (oil-loving); and the non-image areas are treated to be ink repelling or oleophobic.

During the press run, the plate is charged twice; first by a set of dampening rollers that apply
a coat of dampening solution and second by a coat of the inking rollers. During this process
the image areas have been charged to accept ink and repel water during the dampening. The
same happens to the non-image areas that start repelling ink as they are coated with water.
(Remember the basic principle on which lithography works.)

Press Operations: Offset Lithographic Printing

Applications

Lithographic printing is well suited for printing both text and illustrations in short to medium
length runs of up to 1,000,000 impressions. Typical products printed with offset printing
processes include:
• General commercial printing Quick printing
• Newspapers Books
• Business Forms Financial and Legal Documents
• Offset Lithographic Printing Process Overview

Lithography is an "offset" printing technique. Ink is not applied directly from the printing
plate (or cylinder) to the substrate as it is in gravure, flexography and letterpress. Ink is
applied to the printing plate to form the "image" (such as text or artwork to be printed) and
then transferred or "offset to a rubber "blanket". The image on the blanket is then transferred
to the substrate (typically paper or paperboard) to produce the printed product.

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On sheet-fed presses, the substrate is fed into the press one sheet at a time at a very high
speed. Web fed presses print on a continuous roll of substrate, or web, which is later cut to
size. There are a total of 3 types of offset printing: non-heatset sheet fed, heatset, and non-
heatset web offset. The difference between heatset and non-heatset is primarily dependent on
the type of ink and how it is dried.

Offset Lithographic Printing Process

All offset presses have three printing cylinders, as well as the inking and dampening systems.
The plate cylinder, the blanket cylinder and the impression cylinder. Lithography uses a
planographic plate, a type of plate on which the image areas are neither raised nor indented
(depressed) in relation to the non-image areas. Instead the image and non-image areas, both
on essentially the same plane of the printing plate, are defined by deferring physiochemical
properties.

Lithography is based on the principal that oil and water do not mix (hydrophilic and
hydrophobic process). Lithographic plates undergo chemical treatment that render the image
area of the plate oleophilic (oil-loving) and therefore ink-receptive and the nonimage area
hydrophilic (water-loving). During printing, fountain (dampening) solution, which consists
primarily of water with small quantities of isopropyl alcohol and other additives to lower
surface tension and control pH, is first applied in a thin layer to the printing plate and
migrates to the hydrophilic non-image areas of the printing plate. Ink is then applied to the
plate and migrates to the oleophilic image areas. Since the ink and water essentially do not
mix, the fountain solution prevents ink from migrating to the non-image areas of the plate.

As the plate cylinder rotates, the plate comes in contact with the dampening rollers first. The
dampening rollers wet the plate so the non-printing areas repel ink. Then the inking rollers
transfer ink to the dampened plate, where ink only adheres to the image areas. The inked
image is transferred to the rubber blanket, and the substrate is printed as it passes between the
blanket and impression cylinder.

There are three basic lithographic press designs: unit-design, common impression cylinder
design, and blanket-to-blanket design. The unit-design press is a self-contained printing

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station consisting of a plate cylinder, a blanket cylinder, and an impression cylinder. Two or
more stations may be joined to perform multi-colour printing. A common impression cylinder
press consists of two or more sets of plate and blanket cylinders sharing a common
impression cylinder. This allows two or more colours to be printed at a single station. A
blanket-to-blanket press consists of two sets of plate and blanket cylinders without an
impression cylinder. The paper is printed on both sides simultaneously as it passes between
the two blanket cylinders (Field).

The major unit operations in a lithographic printing operation include:


• Image preparation
• Processing printing plates
• Printing
• Finishing
• Image Preparation of Lithographic Printing Plates
Image preparation begins with camera-ready (mechanical) art/copy or electronically
produced art supplied by the customer. Images are captured for printing by camera, scanner
or computer. Components of the image are manually assembled and positioned in a printing
flat when a camera is used. This process is called stripping. When art/copy is scanned or
digitally captured the computer with special software assembles the image. A simple proof
(brown print) is prepared to check for position and accuracy. When colour is involved, a
colour proof is submitted to the customer for approval.

Processing of Lithographic Printing Plates

There are eight different types of litho plates common to the commercial printing industry:
Diazos, Photopolymer, Silver Halide, Electro photographic (Electrostatic), Bimetal,
Waterless, Thermal, and Ablation. The predominant surface plate in use today is termed a
"pre-sensitized" plate. Most printers will primarily use one or two types of plates. It is highly
unlikely that you would encounter a printer that could use a few of each type of plate nor is it
easy for them to switch to a different type of plate due to equipment, expense and application
reasons.

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Offset Lithographic Plate Making

Diazos plates are coated with organic compounds and are developed with a special solvent.
They have a shelf life of about one year. These are used for print runs of about 150,000
impressions. Photopolymer plates are coated with organic compounds which are very inert
and abrasion resistant. This makes them last much longer than diazos plates. They are used
for print runs of up to 250,000 impressions Silver halide plates use photosensitive coatings
similar to photographic film, except that the silver halide emulsions are slower and for colour
reproduction are coated on anodized aluminum. The processing solutions contain silver
which must be recovered with the proper equipment before being discharged to the sewer.
Film based silver halide plates are used for single colour printing and metal-based silver
halide plates are used in computer-to-plate systems.

Electrostatic plates are based on the principle of the electrostatic copier. There are two types,
inorganic photoconductors on a drum and the second is organic photo conductor on a
substrate. These are used mostly in quick printing jobs of 100,000 impressions or less.
Bimetal plates use pre-sensitized polymer coatings. There are two types of bimetal plates;
copper plated on stainless steel or aluminum and chromium plated on copper. These are the
most expensive, but rugged plates and are used for very long print runs. In fact they are
capable of print runs in the millions. Waterless plates, used on waterless presses only, consist
of ink on aluminum for the printing areas and a silicone rubber for the non-image areas.
These systems require special inks and high-grade paper to avoid debris accumulating on the
blanket. Ablation plates are imaged by digital data and require no chemical processing. These
plates are digitally imaged by selectively burning tiny holes in thin coatings of a polyester or
metal base. These types of plate are used on the new computer to plate imaging systems and
the brand new computer to press system. The cost of equipment and materials is high and the
technology is relatively new.

Heat sensitive plates are exposed by infrared diodes in special image setter and processed in
water based chemistry. This a relatively new technology and requires the printer to invest in
new equipment that can be quite costly.

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Offset Lithographic Inks:
• Petroleum Based
• Vegetable Oil Based
• UV & EB Curable
• Heatset

There are four common types Lithographic inks, unlike Gravure, Flexo, and Screenise very
viscous to the point they are paste-like. Litho inks are generally very strong in colour value
to compensate for the lesser amount applied. Sheet fed litho inks are similar to oxidizing
types of letterpress inks. To accelerate drying and control ink flow characteristics litho inks
contain solvents (or drying oils) which result in some VOC emissions from the ink.
Offset Lithographic Inks
Linseed and rapeseed (canola) oil have been added to litho inks for years, but other vegetable
oils like soybean oil are more frequently being used because because of their lower VOC
content, which helps eliminate smudging. Heatset Inks are completely different from non-
heatset inks and cannot be interchanged between the two types of presses. Heatset inks are
quick drying inks for web printing. The solvents are vaporized as they pass through resins
fixed to the paper in such a way that there is no chance for the ink to spread, smear, or soak
into the paper. Heatset presses are equipped with a drier, and a chilling system to cool the
heated resins and set the image. Heatset inks emit a significantly greater amount of VOC as
compared to nonheatset lithographic inks. Therefore most heatset presses are also equipped
with pollution control equipment such as a thermal oxidizer or after burner to destroy the
high volumes of VOCs that are being emitted from these inks.

Ultraviolet (UV) and Electron Beam (EB) curable inks are also available for litho printing,
but the press must be properly equipped to run these types of inks. The use of UV curable
inks is on the rise, particularly for the application of overprint coatings.

One advantage of low VOC content is the ability to operate presses at comparable speeds to
conventional inks, versus the slow drying and slow press speeds associated with waterbased
coatings. One disadvantage is equipment can be costly and is still in the development stage,
and the inks and coatings may cost as much as three times the price of conventional coatings.
Electron beam curing inks make a good alternative to U.V. inks because they are less costly
and less reactive materials can be used. They also require less energy than U.V. curing inks.

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The down side of E.B. curing inks is the capital costs to outfit a press. Additionally, EB inks,
like UV inks, can be a skin irritant. The inks, if exposed to sensitive skin or left on skin, may
cause dermatitis and could even cause chemical burns. Fountain Solutions & Dampening
System Traditionally, isopropyl alcohol was used to control surface tension in the fountain
solution, but in recent years its use has been reduced, and in many cases eliminated by using
alcohol substitutes. The reason for this shift is due to the VOC emissions attributed to the
evaporation of isopropyl alcohol and the level of environmental regulation this lead to.
Alcohol substitutes may use glycol ethers such as butyl cellosolve (2-butoxy ethanol) or other
glycols to control surface tension.

• Direct Feed Continuous Integrated System


• Direct to Plate
Fountain solutions are applied to enhance the non-image areas ability to repel ink. Some
newer fountain solutions have been developed with oxidizing chemicals which accelerate the
setting and drying of inks and reduce the need for anti-set off sprays. Anti-Set Off Sprays are
fine corn starch powders sprayed on the sheets to prevent the ink from smearing and sticking
onto the back of the top sheet as the printed material is stacked.
There are two common types of dampening systems; the direct feed continuous integrated
system and direct to plate dampening system. Direct to plate dampening systems apply the
fountain solution directly to the plate. Direct feed continuous integrations systems meter the
fountain solution, which contains alcohol or an alcohol substitute, through the inking system.
Direct feed can also act as a direct to plate dampening system and apply the fountain solution
directly to the plate. This system generally uses less water, reduces make ready time and
paper waste at start up.
The inking system, which has several rollers, is designed to work the ink so that it will be
evenly distributed across the blanket. The rollers also aid in evaporating some of the water
from the dampening system. The fountain solution acts as the water solution for the
hydrophilic process of lithographic printing. Fountain solution also helps to cool the press
and facilitate the ink drying. Fountain solution is applied to the dampening roller to repel ink
in the non-image areas of the plate.

Sheet fed Offset Lithographic Printing


The sheet fed offset process is used mainly for relatively short runs in the production of
commercial and packaging products. In sheet fed lithography, the paper or paperboard

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substrate is normally delivered to the facility in sheets. If rolls are supplied, the paper or
paperboard must be sheeted (cut into sheets and trimmed before printing.

Major categories of chemicals used in the sheet fed offset process include film developers
and fixers, inks, blanket and roller washes, and fountain solution concentrate. Isopropyl
alcohol and glycol based, lower VOC, products are widely used in fountain solutions. Sheet
fed lithographic inks are paste inks primarily composed of petroleum products, a portion of
vegetable oils and pigments, that dry by oxidative polymerization and adsorption into the
substrate, rather than evaporation, and therefore do not generate large amounts of VOC
emissions. The majority of VOC emissions come from isopropyl alcohol used in the fountain
solution and cleanup solvents used to clean ink fountains (trays that hold ink), rollers,
blankets and other press components.

Heatset Web Offset Lithographic Printing


The heatset web offset process is used primarily for long jobs at high speed (up to 40,000
impressions per hour) for the production of magazines, other periodicals, and catalogs. In
heatset web lithography, the paper substrate is delivered to the facility in rolls. The paper is
fed directly into the press and is termed a "Web" since it is a continuous feed of paper as
opposed to individual sheets. After printing, the paper is folded and/or cut "inline" with the
printing units.
Heatset web lithographic inks are paste inks that dry through evaporation of the ink oils
contained in the ink this is usually accomplished with a re-circulating hot air system
(normally fueled by natural gas) although direct flame impingement and infrared drying
systems are in limited use (Buonicore). Ink oil evaporated and emitted through dryer stacks is
a potentially significant source of VOC emissions. Because of this many heatset web
lithographic presses require an emission control device (such as a catalytic or thermal
oxidizer) to reduce VOC concentrations in the dryer exhaust air stream. VOC emissions also
occur from isopropyl alcohol used in fountain solution and cleanup solvents used to clean ink
fountains (trays that hold ink), rollers, blankets, and other press components. Major chemicals
used are quite similar to those used in sheet fed offset

Non-heatset Web Offset Lithographic Printing


The non-heatset web offset process is a high speed process used largely in the production of
newspapers, journals, directories, and forms. In non-heatset web lithography, the paper or

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paperboard substrate is delivered to the facility in rolls. The paper is fed directly into the
press from the roll and is termed a "Web" since it is a continuous feed of paper as opposed to
individual sheets. After printing, the paper is folded and/or cut "in-line" with the printing
units.
Non-heatset lithographic inks are paste inks that dry by oxidative polymerization and
adsorption into the substrate, rather than evaporation therefore they typically do not require
mechanical, and thus, the VOC emissions generated during the use of this printing process
are quite small. Dampening and inking systems (including dampening chemistry and ink
formulations) differ significantly from heatset web offset. The other major chemicals used in
this process, such as fountain solution cleaning solvents, etc. Are quite similar to those used
in heatset web offset.

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LESSON 4 : FINISHING

After printing, the substrate may run through a number of operations to be "finished and
ready for shipment to the customer. Finishing may include operations such as coating,
cutting, folding, binding, stitching, embossing, and die cutting.

Plate, blanket and impression cylinders

The lithographic process operates with three basic cylinders. They are the plate cylinder, the
blanket cylinder, and the impression cylinder. All these are plain heavy metal cylinders. The
plate cylinder has the printing plate wound around it. This plate is the carrier of the image
that needs to be printed. In other words, it is the equivalent of the types and blocks of
letterpress. The blanket cylinder has a rubber blanket wound around it. This facilitates the
transfer of the image from the plate to the blanket, and thereupon to the paper (or other
substrates), when the substrate is passed between the blanket and the impression cylinder. The
blanket provides the required resiliency to compensate for the unevenness of the substrate
used. This is an advantage for the process, as even poorer quality stock can be used in offset
printing. The impression cylinder is just a bare cylinder that acts to provide the necessary
pressure to impress the image from blanket to the substrate. Pressure settings are varied
between the impression cylinder and blanket cylinder when stocks of varying thickness are
used.

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Image transfer

The image areas accept ink and transfer them to the blanket. The orientation of the image in
the plate is readable. When transferred to the blanket it becomes unreadable and in the next
revolution, the image is transferred to the paper that travels between the blanket and the
impression cylinder. The image is first set off from the plate to the blanket and then set off
from the blanket to the paper. For this reason, lithography is also called offset printing. Since
the image and the non-image areas on the plate are both in the same plane, lithography is also
called a planographic process.

Types of offset presses

There are two ways in which paper can be fed to an offset printing press; either in the sheet
form or in the roll form. Presses that feed paper in the cut mode are called sheet fed presses
and the presses that feed paper in the roll mode are called web fed presses. Some of the
presses can print on both sides of paper and they are called perfecting presses. Many of
today’s presses have the capability to print many colours as they have been configured with
the plate, blanket and impression cylinder configurations many times over. A press that has
one of this set is called a single colour press, and presses that have multiple sets of the above
mentioned combinations are called multicolour presses. They are usually in the two-, four-,
five-, six-, eight-, and now ten-colour configurations. The plate used in lithography usually
has a flat surface and is called planographic. There is no physical or mechanical separation
between image and non-image areas. The plate material can be paper, plastic, or metal.

Printing unit

The printing unit is the section of the press where the print is generated and applied to the
substrate. On a single colour lithographic offset press, this is usually done with three
cylinders called the plate, blanket, and impression or back cylinders. The plate cylinder has
four primary functions:
• hold the plate in register
• come into contact with dampening system
• come into contact with inking system
• transfer inked image to the blanket

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Dampening system

The purpose of the dampening system is to apply a very thin layer of water or moisture to the
plate. The water is actually a special mixture of chemicals called fountain solution. The
fountain solution keeps the non-image areas of the plate desensitized and printing clean. The
separation between printing image area and nonprinting area is accomplished chemically by
having:
• Image areas repel water and accept ink (hydrophobic)
• Non-image areas accept water and repel ink (hydrophilic)

Dampening types

• Contact or non-contact
- Non-contact (popular on web presses) Brush (Harris) or spray (Smith)
• Contact dampening
Conventional or continuous -Conventional has a reciprocating ductor roller.

The rollers can be fabric covered or bareback. Fabric can be a thick cotton cloth called
moelleton or a thin parchment paper sleeve Continuous dampening
- Continuous is also called flooding nip
- Direct plate-feed
- Indirect inker-feed (integrated, Dahlgren)
- Some combination of both (bridge)

Perfecting

Printing on both sides of a sheet of paper in a single pass through the press is called
perfecting. In office imaging, laser printing, or photocopying, this is called duplexing.
Sheetfed presses usually perfect sequentially. Webfed presses perfect simultaneously. In order
to perfect on a sheetfed press, the sheet of paper must be flopped or tumbled end-for-end
inside the press. The tail or back edge becomes a new gripper or front edge. Any size sheet
error essentially becomes doubled when done with a perfecting cylinder.

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Inking system

The purpose of the inking system is to apply an accurately measured or metered amount of
ink to the plate. Each process requires a special type of ink and method to apply it to the
image carrier. Some inks are thick like a heavy paste and others are fluid. Some systems
continuously bathe or immerse a roller or cylinder while others intermittently supply a
limited and metered amount of ink.

If the ink is a thick paste, then it can be distributed by a series of soft rubber rollers. If the ink
is a fluid, it would drip off the rollers due to gravity. Fluid inks require miniature wells or
cups to transfer the ink. These wells can be part of the image carrier itself or a special type of
inking roller. The ink film thickness determines the strength or density of a colour. There are
two separate controls for overall or global (sweep) and localized increases or decreases in ink
volume (keys). Here are some of the factors involved in ink distribution:

Fountain roller (ball)


Fountain blade
Ink keys
Ductor roller
Ink train
Oscillating or vibrator rollers
Form rollers

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What does offset mean?

Offset is the method of transferring an image from the plate to the substrate through an
intermediate rubber blanket. When lithography was first invented, it was not an offset
process, but a direct process.
If desired, all of the printing processes could be “offset.” The blanket cylinder has two
primary functions:

• hold the rubber blanket


• transfer ink from the plate to the substrate

Waterless offset

With this concept, the use of water is eliminated from the process. Image areas are in recess
from the non-image areas. The problems that are associated with ink water balance, paper
expansion due to moisture content caused by water in the dampening solution, etc. Are
overcome with waterless offset. This concept was developed in the late 1960s by 3M as a
dryographic process, but they stopped marketing because of the poor scratch resistance and
durability of the plates.

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Plates were developed by Toray Industries of Japan in 1973. Toray made positive working
plates that were more durable, had better scratch resistance, allowed longer print runs, and
produced better quality. By 1978 they marketed positive working waterless plates, and by
1985 they were able to offer negative working plates. Aluminum is the base material for the
plate, and the plate is not anodized like conventional offset plates. Alight-sensitive
photopolymer coating is given to the aluminum base. Over this there is a very thin layer of
silicon, approximately 2 microns.

The plate is protected by a cover sheet, which is approximately 7 microns. This cover sheet
need not be removed during exposure, and does not cause an appreciable dot gain, or
undercutting during exposure.

Exposure and development

The waterless plates are made from either positives or negatives, depending on the plate type
used. The plate is exposed to actinic UV light. During the exposure, the bond between silicon
and the photopolymer is broken. The silicon loosens its hold on the photopolymer.

The plate is developed by a chemical process that consists of tap water solution for
lubrication and a glycol-based solution for treatment with a dye solution, which recirculates
and is not discharged from the processor. These plates have the ability to hold a dot ranging
from 0.5% to 99.5%. The finished plate has the image areas in its photopolymer layer and the
non-image areas in its silicon layer. The nature of silicon to repel ink, suits its role
wonderfully in a waterless plate system. The image areas are in a recess and are protected by
silicon walls. Since the image areas are protected by this wall, individual halftone dots have
less capability to grow, thereby minimizing dot gain on plate. These plates are capable of
producing very high screen frequencies, in the region of 200–300 lpi with negative working
and 400–600 lpi with positive working plates.

Waterless press

Any offset press that has a dampening system on it can be used for waterless offset printing.
Temperature and humidity control in the press room is critical in waterless offset between 80
to 88 degrees F. This is considered the optimum temperature range for inks and ink rollers in
a waterless system. Each unit of the press has a different temperature, with black needing the

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hottest, yellow the coolest and cyan and magenta in between. When printing with good stock,
we can expect good results. Since the non-image areas of the plate are made of silicon, they
tend to get scratched when using poorer quality stock. This is due to the fibers from the paper
scratching the silicon layer. The same problem can be caused by abrasive particles that may
be used to dry ink (pumice powder).

Offset lithography features

• Printing from right-reading planographic (flat) plate to blanket and substrate


• Basic principle: “ink and water don’t mix”
• Principal applications: publications, packaging, forms, general commercial printing, labels,
books, etc.
• Recognition characteristics: sharp, clear images Waterless offset
• Silicone surface of non-image area on a plate—recent advances in inks, plates, and presses
make this a rapidly growing process
• Advantages: no fountain solution; yields cleaner, purer, more consistent colour; improved
colour contrast; reduced dot gain; high gloss levels; reduced make ready, and running waste;
faster job changeover times
• Requires special ink and plates, adapted presses
• Waterless-capable presses able to run both waterless and conventional
• Strong growth projected for high-end commercial sheetfed and heatset web offset

Sheetfed offset trends

• Press automation increases competitive advantage. Most automated features deal with
makeready, nonproductive costs, and turnaround time.
• Programmable, automatic blanket and roller washing
• Semiautomatic and fully automatic plate changing
• Presetting systems for fast format changes
• Improvements in feeder, sheet transfer, and delivery systems increase running speed to
10,000 to 15,000 impressions per hour.

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• Digital press controls allow virtually total press supervision and control from central
workstation
• De facto standard for multiple printing units on new sheetfed presses in six colour units
with inline coating unit. Placement of presses with seven, eight, or more units is increasing.
Higher number of printing units accommodates more complex design and colour
applications.
• Increased demand for short run lengths.
• Sheetfed printing squeezed between efficient web offset operations and by digital non-
impact printing processes and colour copies.

Web offset trends

• Continued development of automated control systems expected for all aspects of web offset
production, from make ready through drying, folding, stacking, and delivery.
• Press speeds of 2500-3000 feet per minute now possible.
• Successfully entering into competition with sheetfed at lower run lengths, and with gravure
at higher run lengths.
• Waterless offset becoming more widely accepted.
• Opposing trends: regionalization of printing (in some part due to increasing postal rates)
may keep run lengths, press sizes down; consolidation of printing plants may drive up need
for longer runs on higher speed, wide web presses.
• Wider webs—54 and more inches wide—becoming more commonplace.
• Average run length has dropped by as much as 25% 1990–1994.
• Short run lengths (under 20,000) and extremely high run lengths (20 million) are
economically feasible, depending on circumstances, with web offset and will be typical by
2000.

Direct imaging technology

Heidelberg came out with “Direct Imaging” which they called the “system solution for
Computer To Press” (a different kind of CTP, essentially Computer to Plate on press). This
technology takes the data stream from the computer that acts as its front end and images the
plate directly on the press. The spirit of offset printing is very much alive in presses that
incorporate the direct imaging technology.

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The plate is mounted on the press, but is quite different from conventional versions. The plate
is in a continuous reel form that is wrapped externally around the plate cylinder. The image is
on the surface of the cylinder. The plate has two layers, a base layer that is an ink-loving layer
and a top layer, made of silicon, that is an ink repelling layer. The laser when fired on the
plate burns the silicon layer leaving the image-receptive layer intact.

Digital Front End (DFE)

The front end of the press is a computer that controls the digital data into the press. A RIP
converts the PostScript data into a bitmap and fires the laser onto the plate, which is already
mounted on the plate cylinder. The imaging head has 64 infrared laser diodes (16 diodes per
colour x 4 colours) that take the raster data and fire up the plate. The plates can be imaged in
either of 1270 or 2540 dpi resolutions.

Direct imaging technology uses waterless printing. When the press is in operation, the plate is
in contact with the ink rollers that apply ink onto the image areas. The image is transferred to
a blanket and then onto the substrate as in offset. The Quick Master-DI uses a common
impression cylinder as its internal architecture for the press. This means that this press has
only one impression cylinder, instead of one for each colour (cyan, magenta, yellow or
black).

The impression cylinder is in the middle and all the four blanket cylinders come in contact
with this common impression cylinder. The paper travels between the blanket and the
impression cylinder as in a conventional offset press.

Direct imaging

The laser technology which is built into the direct imaging press from Heidelberg forms the
heart of this entire technology. Heidelberg has been a long-time known leader in the printing
press arena. They have been and are a leader in the conventional offset field, but had not
made a big dent in the digital work environment. However, they have had the insight to bring
to our industry the strengths of conventional offset and combine it with the strengths of
digital technology.

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In doing so, they and their partner Presstek, harnessed the combined power of these two
technologies and thus was born the technology of “direct imaging.”

Register control

The satellite construction of the press ensures that the paper is gripped once preventing
transfer from one unit to the other. This feature of the press minimizes the chances for
misregister. Another key issue to minimizing or practically eliminating misregister from the
press is in the basic technology of direct imaging itself. Since the plates are imaged on the
press, there is no reason that they will ever have to be moved horizontally or laterally for
register. This is very important in the economics of running a press. A vast amount of time is
spent in a press during the initial make ready of the job. Time being looked at as money these
days, any saving in time has a direct impact on savings in money. Waterless as a process
helps in getting brighter ink reflectance on the paper. The advantages of direct imaging are
numerous.

Although the press is now available in a slightly smaller sheet size (18-3/8”x13-3/8”), which
is a limiting factor, the technology is a sure success. Now a new company called 74 Karat has
been started by Scitex and KBA Planeta and they have adopted the direct imaging technology
in their press. Akey development that has been incorporated in 74 Karat is that they have built
a press that is much larger that the QuickMaster-DI 46-4. Heidelberg has launched a 74 cm
press, matching Karat’s present size.

This press will have five- or six-colour printing capability and images at 2540 dpi resolution.
With many jobs being printed requiring more than four colours, Heidelberg’s decision to
provide the special colour unit will be welcomed by the industry. This press will have an
automatic plate mounting mechanism, with automatic plate washup, which will save
considerable time. It is called the Speedmaster 74-DI. Direct imaging is a technology that has
to be watched.

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UNIT III

LESSON 1 : RECESS PRINTING—GRAVURE

Gravure is another direct printing process, like letterpress with, however some major
differences. The image is directly transferred from the image carrier, which is usually a
cylinder, onto the substrate. Gravure is called intaglio because the image areas are in a sunken
area and the non-image areas are in relief. This must sound like an exact opposite of the
letterpress process. In a way, that is true.

Press construction

A gravure press is constructed with two cylinders per unit, a printing cylinder, which carries
the image and an impression cylinder like in the offset process, that applies the required
pressure to transfer the ink. Gravure cylinders are usually made of steel. This cylinder has a
number of tiny cells in it, around 50,000 to a square inch. The cells are protected by walls that
are in relief. The surface of the cylinder is plated with copper to hold the image. The image is
transferred photographically to the electroplated copper surface. The non-image areas on the
copper are chemically etched or mechanically engraved to form the cells. Each cell varies in
its depth, and this enables each cell to transfer varying densities of ink to produce tones. The
ink used in gravure is in a liquid form.

Doctor blade

The printing cylinder rotates in a trough of liquid ink. During this motion, the inks fill the
cells of the cylinder and inks the image areas. However, the non-image areas also get inked as
they are in relief.

This excess ink is wiped clean by a blade called a doctor blade. The doctor blade is
positioned at an angle over the cylinder so that when the cylinder rotates, the excess ink that
was picked up by the nonimage areas are wiped clean. In the continuing motion of the
cylinder, the paper (or the substrate) is fed in between the printing cylinder and the
impression cylinder. By pressure, the ink in the cells is forced out onto the substrate. Since
the printing image is made of copper, which is quite expensive, gravure is usually used for
very long-run jobs which it handles well because the image is placed on the cylinder directly,
and on copper, which is a strong metal. Traditionally gravure has been used by markets that

83
have a need to produce long run and consistently good quality printing. Packaging and some
long run publications therefore employ this printing process.

Most gravure presses are web-fed. Some are as large as 16 feet wide. The gravure process is
used for specialty products like wall paper and vinyls. Gravure presses can print at incredible
speeds like 2500 feet per minute. So one can imagine that unless the job calls for huge
numbers to be reproduced, in high quality, gravure as a process cannot be chosen.

Gravure features

• Printing from wrong-reading recessed image cylinder direct to substrate


• Three major segments: publications, packaging, and specialty product printing
• Principal applications: packaging, long-run magazines and newspaper inserts, catalogs,
wallpaper, postage stamps, plastic laminates, vinyl flooring
• Recognition characteristics: serrated edge to text letters, solid colour areas
• Relatively short make ready times on press; high colour consistency; continuous, repeated
image
• Cylinders last forever, making repeat runs very economical
• Cost of making cylinders remains high, making gravure expensive for jobs that are not
repeated or not extremely long
• Trend is toward removing chemistry from cylinder-making procedure, increased use of
water-based inks
• Breakthroughs anticipated in electron-beam engraving and photopolymer-coated cylinders

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Gravure Printing
Applications:

Typical gravure printed products include:

• Food packaging
• Wall paper
• Wrapping paper
• Furniture laminates
• Paneling
• Greeting cards
• Magazines

Process Overview
Gravure printing is characteristically used for long run, high quality printing producing a
sharp, fine image. The number of gravure printing plants in the U.S. is significantly lower
than other printing processes. This is due, in part, to the cost of presses and components.
While a lithographic press will cost in the range of $100,000 the cost of gravure press will be
in the range of $1 million. Additionally a single gravure cylinder will cost around $5000
versus around $15 for a lithographic plate. Additionally, the gravure cylinder has a long
service life and will yield a very large number of impressions without degradation.

The gravure process has its origins in the early seventeenth century when the intaglio printing
process was developed to replace woodcuts in illustrating the best books of the time. In early
intaglio printing, illustrations were etched on metal, inked, and pressed on paper. Gravure,
still also known as intaglio printing, makes use of the ability of ink to adhere to a slight
scratch or depression on a polished metal plate.

Currently, the dominant gravure printing process, referred to as rotogravure, employs web
presses equipped with a cylindrical plates (image carrier). A number of other types of gravure
presses are currently in use. Rotary sheet-fed gravure presses are used when high quality
pictorial impressions are required. They find limited use, primarily in Europe. Intaglio plate
printing presses are used in certain specialty applications such as printing currency and in fine
arts printing. Offset gravure presses are used for printing substrates with irregular surfaces or

85
on films and plastics. Today almost all gravure printing is done using engraved copper
cylinders protected from wear by the application of a thin electroplate of chromium. The
cylinders (image carrier) used in rotogravure printing can be from three inches in diameter by
two inch wide to three feet in diameter by 20 feet wide. Publication presses are from six to
eight feet wide while presses used for printing packaging rarely exceed five feet. in width.
Product gravure presses show great variation in size, ranging from presses with cylinders two
inches wide, designed to print wood grain edge trim, to cylinders 20 feet wide, designed to
print paper towels. The basics of Gravure printing is a fairly simple process which consists of
a printing cylinder, a rubber covered impression roll, an ink fountain, a doctor blade, and a
means of drying the ink. Gravure printing is an example of intaglio printing. It uses a
depressed or sunken surface for the image. The image areas consist of honey comb shaped
cells or wells that are etched or engraved into a copper cylinder. The unetched areas of the
cylinder represent the non-image or unprinted areas. The cylinder rotates in a bath of ink
called the ink pan.

As the cylinder turns, the excess ink is wiped off the cylinder by a flexible steel doctor blade.
The ink remaining in the recessed cells forms the image by direct transfer to the substrate
(paper or other material) as it passes between the plate cylinder and the impression cylinder.

The major unit operations in a gravure printing operation are:

• Image preparation
• Cylinder preparation
• Printing
• Finishing

Gravure Inks - Solvent Based, Water Based


Gravure inks are fluid inks with a very low viscosity that allows them to be drawn into the
engraved cells in the cylinder then transferred onto the substrate. In order to dry the ink and
drive off the solvents or water, which essentially replaces most of the solvent, the paper is run
through Gas fired or electric fired driers. The ink will dry before the paper reaches the next
printing station on the press. This is necessary because wet inks cannot be overprinted
without smearing and smudging. Therefore, high volume air dryers are placed after each
printing station.

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The solvent-laden air from the dryers is passed through either a solvent recovery system or
solvent vapor incinerator. A typical recovery system uses beds of activated carbon to absorb
the solvent. Saturated beds are regenerated by steam. The solvent laden steam is then
condensed and the water and solvent separate by gravity. Greater than 95 percent of the ink
solvents can be recovered using this process (Buonicore). The solvents can either be reused or
destroyed by incineration. Water based inks, especially used for packaging and product
gravure, require a higher temperature and longer drier exposure time in order to drive off the
water and lower vapor pressure constituents. As mentioned subsequent sections, Flexo and
Gravure inks are very similar and the constituents are essentially the same. Again, a
pollution control device may be needed.

Gravure Press Design and Equipment

Web-fed gravure presses account for almost all publication, packaging, and product gravure
printing. These presses are generally custom manufactured machines designed for a specific
range of products. The typical press is highly automated and consists of multiple print units.
The printing mechanism in a rotogravure press consists of a gravure cylinder and a smaller,
rubber clad impression cylinder. Other types of gravure presses in commercial use today are
sheet-fed, intaglio plate, and offset gravure. These types of presses are used primarily for
special printing applications.

Web Fed Gravure


There are several types of web presses used in gravure printing, including publication
presses, packaging presses, product presses, label presses, and folding carton presses. The
printing process is basically the same regardless of which press is used.

Publication Gravure

Publication gravure is used primarily for very long press runs required to print mass
circulation periodicals, directories, inserts, and catalogs. Publication gravure maintains a
competitive edge in the printing of mass-circulation magazines because the process offers
high speed, high quality four colour illustrations on less expensive paper, variable cut-off \
lengths, and flexible folding equipment. These presses can have as many as ten printing

87
stations - four for colour and one for monochrome text and illustration in each direction so
that both sides of the web can be printed in one non-stop operation. They can handle web
widths of up to 125 inches and are equipped to print most large format publications in
circulation today. Publication gravure presses can also be fitted with cylinders of differing
diameters to accommodate varying page sizes.

The major types of chemicals used in publication gravure include adhesives, metal plating
solutions, inks, and cleaning solvents. In terms of chemicals, publication gravure differs from
packaging and product gravure primarily in its heavy reliance on toluene based ink (GATF
1992b). The publication gravure industry has had little success with water-based inks
(Buonicore). The industry has found that in publication gravure where the substrate is always
paper stock, water-based inks have not been capable of printing commercially acceptable
quality productions runs of 2,000 to 3,000 feet per minute.

Packaging Gravure

Packaging rotogravure presses are used for printing folding cartons as well as a variety of
other flexible packaging materials. In addition to printing, packaging gravure presses are
equipped to fold, cut, and crease paper boxes in a continuous process. Packages are usually
printed on only one side, so the number of print stations is usually about half that required for
publication gravure presses. However, in addition to printing stations for the four basic
colours, packaging gravure presses may employ printing stations for the application of
metallic inks and varnishes as well as laminating stations designed to apply foils to the paper
substrate prior to printing.

Packaging gravure presses are designed with the accurate cutting and creasing needs of the
packaging material in mind. However, image quality is generally less important in packaging
printing than in most other types of printing and, subsequently, receives less emphasis. The
chemicals used in packaging gravure are similar to those used in publication gravure.
However, the inks used in packaging gravure are largely alcohol- and not toluene-based
(GATF 1992b). Water-based inks are being successfully used for lower quality, nonprocess
printing on paper and paperboard packaging and for printing on non-absorbent packaging
substrates such as plastics, aluminum, and laminates (Tyszka 1993). Use of water-based inks

88
is expected to increase; however, problems still limit their use at press speeds above 1,000
feet per minute (Buonicore).

Product Gravure
The continuous printing surface found on gravure press cylinders provides the "repeat"
required to print the continuous patterns found on textiles and a variety of other products. In
the textile industry, a gravure heat transfer process using subliming dyes is used to print
images on paper. These images are then transferred from the paper to a fabric (usually
polyester) through a combination of heat and pressure. The gravure process is also used to
print continuous patterns on wallboard, wallpaper, floor coverings, and plastics.

The chemicals used in product gravure are similar to those used in both publication and
packaging gravure. However, product gravure uses both water- and solvent-based inks
(GATF 1992b). The industry has used water-based inks successfully on medium-weight
papers and on nonabsorbent substrates such as plastics, aluminum, and laminates (Tyszka
1993). However, problems such as paper distortion and curl persist with lightweight papers
(Buonicore).

Image Preparation
Image preparation begins with camera-ready (mechanical) art/copy or electronically
produced art supplied by the customer. Images are captured for printing by camera, scanner,
or computer. Components of the image are manually assembled and positioned in a printing
flat when a camera is used. This process is called stripping. When art/copy is scanned or
digitally captured, the computer with special software assembles the image. A proof is
prepared to check for position and accuracy. When colour is involved, a colour proof is
submitted to the customer for approval.

Cylinder Preparation
The gravure cylinder is composed of a steel or aluminum base, is copper plated and then
polished to a predetermined diameter. Precise diameter of gravure cylinders in a set is critical.
Any variances in diameter, as little as 2 thousandths of an inch can significantly affect the
print registration. These cylinders are extremely sensitive to scratches and abrasions. Extreme
care is taken when handling and storing the cylinders.

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Because copper is so soft the image areas quickly wear. Cylinders that are used for press runs
of a million impressions or more are chromium plated. Some gravure printers "Double
Chrome" cylinders in order to run them even longer. When the chromium begins to wear or
the image is no lit is stripped off and the cylinder is re-chromed. This is much cheaper (and
environmentally responsible) than etching a new cylinder. Once the cylinder has degraded or
the image is no longer needed the image can be stripped off and the base cylinder can be
reused for other printing jobs unlike other printing processes.

Gravure Cylinder Imaging:

• Chemical Etching
• Electromechanically Engraved
• Direct Digital Engraving.
There are three processes used for making gravure cylinders. The first is for conventional
gravure using chemical etching that produces cells of the same size or area with varying
depths. The second is Electromechanically engraved cylinders. In electromechanically
engraved cylinder making, the image or copy is wrapped around a scanning cylinder. The
scanning head moves across the scanning cylinder which sends impulses to a computer. The
computer signals a pneumatic head, which contains a diamond stylus, when and where to
make a cell in the copper cylinder. The diamond stylus cuts an inverted pyramid shaped cell
into the copper cylinder. Engraved cells may be up to 200 microns wide and up to 50 microns
deep. Chemical etching is hardly used now, but the process involves applying iron chloride
solution of varying strengths over carbon tissue that has been sensitized to light by
submerging it in a bath of potassium bichromate and water. The carbon tissue is a water
sensitive, fibrous paper that has been coated with a smooth gelatin resist.
In summary the gelatin resist is made to adhere to the cylinder. The cylinder is then exposed
to UV light to harden the gelatin resist and then rinsed with plain water. Finally the etching
technician applies the ferric chloride etchant which creates the printing cells on the cylinder.
Electromechanically engraved cells hold a lot less ink, yet print quality is equal to or better
than chemically etched cylinders. In fact, an Electromechanically engraved cell holds
approximately 30% less ink than a chemically engraved cell. Recently direct digital
engraving has become widespread. With this process the image can be created and
manipulated using an image handling computer. Therefore, the steps of creating, copying, and
rescanning film, and the loss of quality inherent in these steps, can be avoided (GAA 1991).

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Web Gravure Printing

The Doctor Blade and Impression Cylinder


The doctor blade is a simple device used to shear the ink from the surface of the plate
cylinder. Pressure is applied to the doctor blade to assure uniform contact along the length of
the cylinder. The blades must be angled to cut the surface of the ink, but pressure and angle
must be carefully adjusted to prevent premature wear on the cylinder. The doctor blade also
oscillates back and forth to prevent a flat surface being worn into the cylinder. The rubber
coated impression roll brings the substrate in contact with the engraved cylinder resulting in
proper ink transfer. The impression roll also acts to adjust the tension between print units and
helps move the substrate through the press. The impression roll is made of a tubular sleeve
coated with a rubber compound. The cover material is determined by the press conditions.
Typically the coating is made of natural rubber, neoprene, nitrile or polyurethane. These
impression rolls are typically purchased from an outside vendor rather than made on site.

Sheet-fed Gravure
Applications:
Sheet-fed gravure is used when very high quality impressions are required. Uses include the
production of pictorial impressions for art books and posters and short runs of high quality
packaging material such as cosmetics cartons. Sheet-fed gravure presses are also used for
overall coating of products printed by sheet-fed offset to provide high brilliancy to the printed
sheet and for the application of metallic inks that cannot be applied by the offset method.
Additionally, sheet-fed gravure presses are used to produce proof copies prior to large
rotogravure runs (GAA 1991).

Intaglio plate printing is used to produce stamps, currency, bank notes, securities, and
stationary items such as invitations and business cards. It is also used for fine arts printing.
Most intaglio plate presses use gravure printing cylinders. However, a flat gravure plate is
used for fine arts printing. Intaglio plate printing presses differ from other gravure presses
primarily in the inking system which is designed to handle thick pastelike ink (GAA 1991).
Another type of offset gravure press, the flexo-gravure press, is currently used for printing
clear film over wraps for paper towels and tissues as well as high quality plastic shopping

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bags. A flexo-gravure press is a flexographic press on which the anilox roller has been
replaced by a gravure printing cylinder (GAA 1991).

Process Overview
The sheet-fed gravure press differs from the web-fed press primarily in that paper is delivered
to the press as pre-cut sheets instead of a continuous web. The printing mechanism in a
typical sheet-fed gravure press consists of a gravure cylinder and an impression cylinder of
the same size. The plate itself is a flexible metal sheet wrapped around a carrier cylinder
equipped with a gripper to hold the plate in place during printing.

The offset gravure press is a standard gravure unit to which a rubber-covered transfer roller
has been added. The image to be printed is transferred from the gravure printing cylinder to
the roller. The transfer roller then prints the image on the substrate. The gravure process has
its origins in the early seventeenth century when the intaglio printing process was developed
to replace woodcuts in illustrating the best books of the time. In early intaglio printing,
illustrations were etched on metal, inked, and pressed on paper. Gravure, still also known as
intaglio printing, makes use of the ability of ink to adhere to a slight scratch or depression on
a polished metal plate.

Currently, the dominant gravure printing process, referred to as rotogravure, employs web
presses equipped with a cylindrical plates (image carrier). A number of other types of gravure
presses are currently in use. Rotary sheet-fed gravure presses are used when high quality
pictorial impressions are required. They find limited use, primarily in Europe. Intaglio plate
printing presses are used in certain specialty applications such as printing currency and in fine
arts printing. Offset gravure presses are used for printing substrates with irregular surfaces or
on films and plastics. Today almost all gravure printing is done using engraved copper
cylinders protected from wear by the application of a thin electroplate of chromium. The
cylinders (image carrier) used in rotogravure printing can be from three inches in diameter by
two inch wide to three feet in diameter by 20 feet wide. Publication presses are from six to
eight feet wide while presses used for printing packaging rarely exceed five feet. in width.
Product gravure presses show great variation in size, ranging from presses with cylinders two
inches wide, designed to print wood grain edge trim, to cylinders 20 feet wide, designed to
print paper towels. The basics of Gravure printing is a fairly simple process which consists of

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a printing cylinder, a rubber covered impression roll, an ink fountain, a doctor blade, and a
means of drying the ink.

The transfer of the image from the cylinder to the roller is similar to the transfer method used
in offset lithography. Offset gravure presses are used to print substrates with irregular
surfaces such as wood veneer or decorated metal (GAA 1991).
In some printing processes, both sides of the web can be printed simultaneously. However, in
gravure, printing of one side of the web must be completed before the other side can be
printed. In practice, the web is printed on one side, rewound, flipped over, and then printed on
the other side. Some rotogravure presses are designed with a turning station that rotates the
web 180 degrees. The web is then run through a parallel paper path with different cylinders
that prints the opposite side of the paper. These presses are called double-ended presses.

LESSON 2 : STENCIL PRINTING—SCREEN PRINTING

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This is a process that is used by many artisans for short-run jobs. It is such a less expensive
process that many screen printing units are operated out of garages. But that does not mean
that screen printing cannot offer good quality printing. It is a pretty simple process to
understand and operate. Basically if you have seen how printing is done from a stencil, then
you have probably seen the process of screen printing. The process is pretty much
photographic in the image creation stage and it is mostly manual at the printing stage.

The image that needs to be printed is first captured on a photographic material, a positive
usually. A silk screen is stretched tightly by hinging around a wooden frame. The process
derives its name from this silk screen, which was used as the image carrier. The positive
image is then transferred to the screen and developed. The image that has been transferred to
the silk screen is on the porous area of the screen. The non-image areas are blocked out
during the stage of image creation itself.

The screen is laid over the substrate that is to be printed and ink is poured on the frame over
the screen. The ink is then wiped across the surface of the screen using a device called a
squeeze. A squeeze is a wooden device that has a rubber blade. It facilitates the smooth flow
of ink over the screen. Since the screen is porous in nature, the ink flows through it. Because
the image areas are porous, they allow ink to flow through them. This ink is thus printed onto
the substrate beneath.

Printing capability

Since the printing surface in the screen printing process is very flexible, it allows printing on
three-dimensional objects too. This is something that the printing processes discussed earlier
cannot offer. A substrate that is two-dimensional and flat is all that can be fed into those
machines; in the case of screen printing, the printing surface itself can be wound around the
substrate. So objects like cups, mugs, watches or other irregular-shaped products can be done
using the screen printing process. Although this description of screen printing may sound
quite simple, in actuality there are screen printing presses that are as automated as any other
printing presses. Multi-colour printing presses employing screen printing process with
capability to print on different substrates like polyester, metal, and pressure-sensitive
materials are today a common scenario. These presses are equipped with online corona
(electrostatic) treatment, and can even combine ultraviolet drying in some colour units.

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Screen Printing
Applications
Screen printing is arguably the most versatile of all printing processes. It can be used to print
on a wide variety of substrates, including paper, paperboard, plastics, glass, metals, fabrics,
and many other materials. including paper, plastics, glass, metals, nylon and cotton. Some
common products from the screen printing industry include posters, labels, decals, signage,
and all types of textiles and electronic circuit boards. The advantage of screen printing over
other print processes is that the press can print on substrates of any shape, thickness and size.

A significant characteristic of screen printing is that a greater thickness of the ink can be
applied to the substrate than is possible with other printing techniques. This allows for some
very interesting effects that are not possible using other printing methods. Because of the
simplicity of the application process, a wider range of inks and dyes are available for use in
screen printing than for use in any other printing process.

Utilization of screen printing presses has begun to increase because production rates have
improved. This has been a result of the development of the automated and rotary screen
printing press, improved dryers, and U.V. curable ink. The major chemicals used include
screen emulsions, inks, and solvents, surfactants, caustics and oxidizers used in screen
reclamation. The inks used vary dramatically in their formulations (GATF 1992b).

Screen Printing Process Overview


Screen printing consists of three elements: the screen which is the image carrier; the
squeegee; and ink. The screen printing process uses a porous mesh stretched tightly over a
frame made of wood or metal. Proper tension is essential to accurate colour registration. The
mesh is made of porous fabric or stainless steel mesh. A stencil is produced on the screen
either manually or photo chemically. The stencil defines the image to be printed in other
printing technologies this would be referred to as the image plate. Screen printing ink is
applied to the substrate by placing the screen over the material. Ink with a paint-like
consistency is placed onto the top of the screen. Ink is then forced through the fine mesh
openings using a squeegee that is drawn across the screen, applying pressure thereby forcing
the ink through the open areas of the screen. Ink will pass through only in areas where no
stencil is applied, thus forming an image on the printing substrate. The diameter of the

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threads and the thread count of the mesh will determine how much ink is deposited onto the
substrates. Many factors such as composition, size and form, angle, pressure, and speed of the
blade (squeegee) determine the quality of the impression made by the squeegee. At one time
most blades were made from rubber which, however, is prone to wear and edge nicks and has
a tendency to warp and distort. While blades continue to be made from rubbers such as
neoprene, most are now made from polyurethane which can produce as many as 25,000
impressions without significant degradation of the image.

If the item was printed on a manual or automatic screen press the printed product will be
placed on a conveyor belt which carries the item into the drying oven or through the UV
curing system. Rotary screen presses feed the material through the drying or curing system
automatically. Air drying of certain inks, though rare in the industry, is still sometimes
utilized.

The rate of screen printing production was once dictated by the drying rate of the screen print
inks. Do to improvements and innovations the production rate has greatly increased. Some
specific innovations which affected the production rate and have also increased screen press
popularity include:

1. Development of automatic presses versus hand operated presses which have comparatively
slow production times
2. Improved drying systems which significantly improves production rate
3. Development and improvement of U.V. curable ink technologies
4. Development of the rotary screen press which allows continuous operation of the press.
This is one of the more recent technology developments

Screen Preparation
Screen (or image transfer) preparation includes a number of steps. First the customer provides
the screen printer with objects, photographs, text, ideas, or concepts of what they wish to
have printed. The printer must then transfer a "picture" of the artwork (also called "copy") to
be printed into an "image" (a picture on film) which can then be processed and eventually
used to prepare the screen stencil.

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Once the artwork is transferred to a positive image that will be chemically processed onto the
screen fabric (applying the emulsion or stencil) and eventually mounted onto a screen frame
that is then attached to the printing press and production begins.

Screen Materials and Preparation Overview


Frames
There are two types of screen frames, metal and wood. Metal frames, both static (solid) and
retention able, have become the industry standard. Retentionables do not require the use of
adhesive products.

Metal frames have been replaced by wood because they do not warp from water like wood
frames do. The most commonly used types of wood are cedar and pine. Pine is preferred
because it is more water resistant while it is light weight. Metal screens are made out of
aluminium or steel. Aluminium is commonly preferred because it is light weight, yet sturdy.
There are some applications where steel is preferred such as very large printing frames used
for long printing runs.
Fabric
Screen making - there are two types of threads for screen fabric:
• Monofilament - single strands weaved into fabric

o primarily used in commercial printing and other applications


o Advantage: Monofilament is easier to clean than multifilament
• Multifilament - multiple strands wound together like a rope, then weaved into fabric
o primarily used in textile printing.
o Disadvantage: ink tends to build up on screen, more difficult to clean
Monofilament mesh has become the industry standard

Fabric Types
Today commercial screen printing primarily uses 4 types of fabric for making screens, silk,
cotton organdie, nylon, and polyester. Silk was the original material used to make screens for
screen printing. By far the most widely used fabric is monofilament polyester followed by
multifilament polyester and nylon.
• Silk - multifilament weave
 loses taughtness with frequent use

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 reclaiming chemicals containing bleach or chlorinated solvents destroy the silk
 today silk is primarily used for printing art, not commercial use as before
• Cotton Organdie - multifilament weave
 same disadvantages as silk
• Nylon - multifilament or monofilament
 good for stretching
 compared to polyester, lacks stability
 less rigid than polyester
 unsuitable for closely registered colours
• Polyester - multifilament or monofilament (calendared monofilament polyester, metallized
monofilament polyester)
 primary material used in commercial screen printing
 Polyester is strong and stable when stretched
 Other screen materials - carbonized polyester
 Glass
 wire mesh
 stainless steel
Screens made of the same material can differ in thread diameter, number of threads-perinch,
and choice of mono- or multifilament fibers. The need for various characteristics such as
wear ability and dimensional stability will help determine the fabric selected for a particular
screen printing job. Diameter of mesh thread and number of threads per inch determine the
amount of ink transferred to the substrate during the printing process (Buonicore and SPAI
1991).
Screen mesh
Screen mesh refers to the number of threads per inch of fabric. The more numerous the
threads per inch the finer the screen. Finer mesh will deposit a thinner ink deposit. This is a
desirable affect when printing a very fine detail and halftones. Typically a fabric should be
200-260 threads per inch.
Water based inks work best on finer mesh. These are generally used in graphic and industrial
printing.
Course mesh will deposit a heavier ink deposit. This type of screen is used on flatter, open
shapes. Typically a course screen mesh will be 160-180 threads per inch. These are generally
used in textile printing. "Emulsion" or "Stencils" The words emulsion and stencil are used
interchangeably in screen printing. Applying the emulsion is the chemical process of
transferring image to a screen. The function of the emulsion (or stencil) is to cover the non-
printing area of the screen. The stencil process works due to the use of a light sensitive

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material that hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light. The stencil material must be of a
material that is impermeable to the screen printing ink.
Materials used for stencils include plain paper, shellac or lacquer coated paper, lacquer film,
photographic film, and light-sensitive emulsions. Stencil types available include: hand-cut
film, photographic film, direct coating, direct/indirect photo stencil, and wet direct photo
stencil.
The stencil is composed of either a liquid product that is poured onto the screen mesh or a
film product. There are two types of photographic film, pre-sensitized and unsensitized,
available for use in the preparation of stencils. Pre-sensitized film is ready to use as
purchased, while unsensitized film must first be treated with a photosensitization solution.
In preparing the stencil, the film is exposed to a positive film image in a vacuum frame. It is
then developed in a solution that renders the unexposed image areas soluble in water. The
soluble areas are removed and the remaining film is bonded to the screen fabric. There are
four stencil application processes, hand cut, direct stencil and indirect stencil (application of a
film):
Hand Cut
A hand-cut film stencil is made by hand cutting the image areas from a lacquer film sheet on
a paper backing. A liquid adhesive is then used to bond the stencil to the screen fabric. Once
the adhesive has dried, the film's paper backing sheet is removed.
Direct Stencil
In the direct coating process, a light-sensitive emulsion is applied to the entire screen using a
scoop coater and allowed to dry. The screen is then exposed to a film positive image. The
non-image areas of the emulsion harden upon exposure. However, the coating in the
unexposed image areas remains soluble and is removed with a spray of warm water. Several
coats of the light-sensitive material are applied and smoothed to achieve a long wearing
screen.
Some of the characteristics of direct stencils are:
• Most are water soluble
• Wear better than indirect stencils
• Cheaper to produce than indirect stencils
• Two different types of direct stencil solution
o Water-resistant stencil solution
o Solvent-resistant stencil solution

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Within direct stencil processes yellow and orange coloured fabric is used for the screen mesh.
The colour prevents light from bouncing when the stencil is exposed to UV. If light bounces
or scatters the exposure is uneven.
Indirect Stencil
The preparation of indirect stencils combines elements of both the photographic film and the
direct coating methods. An unsensitized photographic film is laminated to the screen and then
sensitized by the direct application of a photosensitive emulsion. The exposed stencil is
processed in a manner similar to that used in the preparation of stencils produced by the
photographic film and the direct coating methods. The indirect process produces highly
durable stencils that are used in applications where high print quality is required.

Indirect Stencil process consists of using a coated acetate film which is cut into the exact
shape of the artwork and adhered to the screen using water then is dried by heat. Some of the
characteristics of Indirect Stencils are:
• Produce excellent definition & finer detail
• Best for Water-based ink printing
• More difficult to remove from screen mesh, requires high pressure water rinse.

Wet-Direct Photo stencil

A recent development in stencil preparation is the wet-direct photo stencil process. To prepare
a stencil using this process, a film positive is held in direct contact with a wet photopolymer
emulsion. The emulsion hardens when exposed to UV light. The unexposed areas of emulsion
are then removed yielding a very durable, high quality screen.
Screen Printing Prepress - Screen Making - Emulsion Application
• Clean & Degrease Screen Mesh
o putting tooth on mesh
The screen must first be thoroughly cleaned and degreased prior to applying emulsion
(stencil). If not, the film stencil will not properly adhere to the screen resulting in parts of the
stencil coming loose during printing and thus spoiling the finished product. The screen is then
cleaned with warm water and cleaner/degreaser. Then, a pumice-based abrasive is used.
These steps act to remove grease from the surface and roughen it so that the film stencil
adheres well. This is called "putting tooth" on the mesh.

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• Apply emulsion/stencil

The process of exposing indirect and direct stencils is the same. A light-proof positive is
made on a sheet of clear acetate to act as the positive image area of the screen. This is placed
over the light-sensitive coating. A timed exposure to UV light is then made. The UV light
hardens only the exposed parts of the film coating (negative areas); the areas of emulsion
concealed beneath the positive image remain soft. A simple developer is then used to further
harden the exposed parts of the film stencil. On washing the emulsion with warm water, the
soft areas of film emulsion start to dissolve, finally disappearing to leave a negative stencil
that is the exact opposite of the positive image. When printed, the result will be the exact
likeness to the original positive image / artwork.
Emulsion Types
• Water resistant emulsions
o Solvent based ink
o UV curable ink
o Water based ink - w/ chemical curing
• Solvent resistant emulsions
o Water based ink
o UV curable ink
Water resistant emulsions are used in Direct Stencil processes and capillary film processes.
Stencil or emulsion which is water-soluble is incompatible with water based ink. Solvent-
based and UV curable inks can be used with water-resistant emulsions Chemical curing of
water-resistant emulsions using a HCl based solution can improve resistance to water and
therefore can be used with water based inks. Screens made with water resistant emulsions are
more difficult to reclaim/remove the stencil than solventresistant, but are very inexpensive. It
also adds an extra step and use of additional chemicals.
Solvent resistant emulsions cam be used along with water based inks. Although solvent
resistant emulsions are most compatible with water based ink systems, the use of
solventresistant emulsions and water based inks cause the emulsion to quickly erode and
create pin-holes. In order to avoid this problem screen printers can opt for water resistant
emulsions with chemical curing.

There are no VOC or HAP emissions from screen emulsion products or the process of
applying the emulsion to the screen.

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Screen Printing Presses
There are three types of screen printing presses. The flat-bed (probably the most widely
used), cylinder, and rotary.
Flat-bed and Cylinder Presses
Flat-bed and cylinder presses are similar in that both use a flat screen and a three step
reciprocating process to perform the printing operation. The screen is first moved into
position over the substrate, the squeegee is then pressed against the mesh and drawn over the
image area, and then the screen is lifted away from the substrate to complete the process.
With a flat-bed press the substrate to be printed is positioned on a horizontal print bed that is
parallel to the screen. With a cylinder press the substrate is mounted on a cylinder (Field and
Buonicore).
Rotary Screen Presses
Rotary screen presses are designed for continuous, high speed web printing. The screens used
on rotary screen presses are seamless thin metal cylinders. The open-ended cylinders are
capped at both ends and fitted into blocks at the side of the press. During printing, ink is
pumped into one end of the cylinder so that a fresh supply is constantly maintained. The
squeegee is a free floating steel bar inside the cylinder and squeegee pressure is maintained
and adjusted by magnets mounted under the press bed. Rotary screen presses are most often
used for printing textiles, wallpaper, and other products requiring unbroken continuous
patterns. Until relatively recently all screen printing presses were manually operated. Now,
however, most commercial and industrial screen printing is done on single and multicolour
automated presses.
Screen Reclamation (post-press)

Why reclaim screens?


Polyester fabric costs $10-40 per square yard.
Failure to reclaim screens and ruined screens cost on average $5,000-$10,000 per year.

The average monthly fabric cost $360. One study showed chemical reclamation cost between
2 and 10 dollars per average screen, while screen disposal cost just shy of 50 dollars. The
process of reclaiming screens generates solvent waste and waste water. Solvent waste
generated from screen cleaning and waste water is generated through the process of emulsion

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removal. The waste water will contain particulates comprised of ink pigment, emulsion and
emulsion remover (periodate).

Reclaiming screens involves 2 to 3 steps.


1. Remove the ink:
Any and all excess ink in the screen should be "carded off" for reuse on another job. The
screen must then be washed to remove any remaining ink because the ink will interfere with
the process of removing the stencil. Screen cleaning solvents are a source of VOC emissions.

2. Emulsion removal:
The stencil or emulsion is removed by spraying the screen with a solution of water and
emulsion remover chemicals which is comprised mainly of sodium metaperiodate. Then
rinsing the solution away with fresh water. The emulsion remover solution should not be
permitted to dry on the surface of the screen. The emulsion and remover will become
virtually impossible to remove if allowed to dry. Repeated rinsing will result in excess waste
water that must be disposed of as a regulated waste and will not significantly improve the
situation.
3. Haze or ghost image removal:
Finally, if any haze or "ghost image" remains, a haze remover must be applied. Some haze
remover products are caustic and can damage or weaken the screen. Haze removers make
screens brittle and tear easily, therefore only small amounts should be used. Ghost image is a
shadow of the original image that remains on the screen caused by ink or stencil caught in the
threads of the screen.
Screen Printing Inks
Screen printing inks are moderately viscous inks which exhibit different properties when
compared to other printing inks such as offset, gravure and flexographic inks though they
have similar basic compositions (pigments, solvent carrier, toners, and emulsifiers). There are
five different types of screen ink to include solvent, water, and solvent plastisol, water
plastisol, and UV curable.

UV Curable
UV curable inks consist of liquid prepolymers, monomers, and initiators which upon being
exposed to large doses of U.V. Radiation instantly polymerize the vehicle to a dry, tough

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thermosetting resin. They also require less energy, overall, to dry or "cure" compared to gas
or electric driers.
The down side of UV inks is they can cost as much as three times that of regular inks and
must be handled differently than conventional inks due to safety issues. Additionally, solvents
are required for clean-up which results in some VOC emissions.
Plastisol Inks
Plastisol inks (both solvent and water based) are used in textile screen printing.
Solvent Inks & Water Inks
Solvent and water based screen printing inks are formulated with primarily solvent or water.
The solvent evaporates and results in VOC emissions. Water based inks, though they contain
significantly less, may still emit VOC’s from small amounts of solvent and other additives
blended into the ink. The liquid waste material may also be considered hazardous waste.

Screen printing features

• Printing by forcing ink through a stenciled screen mesh image directly onto substrate
• Principal applications: can print on any substrate; point-of- purchase displays, billboards,
decals, fabric, electronic circuit boards, glasses, etc.
• Ink formulation, screen mesh count, and image type are major quality factors
• Recognition characteristics: heavy, durable, brilliant layer of ink

Other printing processes

The above-mentioned four printing process were considered the major printing processes for
a long time. This was due to the fact that other forms of outputting ink on paper did not really
have the ability to compare with the quality that these processes could produce. Moreover,
the ability of other processes to produce colour was very limited.

Over time other processes evolved to cater to specific market needs, and with their ability to
reproduce colour, they were extended to serve specific printing markets. They are all used
mostly as proofing devices and without an exception they are all digital devices. One of the
prime differences between the already discussed processes and the following is in the image
carrier. In the traditional printing processes, the image is on a surface that produces multiple
reproductions as replica to the one on the printing surface. The digital printing devices have
the ability to vary the image every time they need to print. Let us take a look at some of the

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other technologies that could put ink on paper. For the present, we will call these digital
printing processes:
• dot matrix ( including limited colour)
• electrostatic (including colour)
• laser printing (including colour)
• dye diffusion
• thermal printing
–thermal wax transfer
• inkjet
–bubble jet printers
• other recorders

Dot matrix

These were the early forms of outputting a document from a personal computer. Used largely
in the office environment, they did (and do) a pretty good job. The printers have a series of
hammers in the
print head. A colour ribbon, usually black, is placed in front of the head. On instruction from
the computer to print, the hammer whacks the ribbon against the paper placed behind it. The
ink from the ribbon is thus transferred to the paper. The character or images are constructed
by a formation of small dots. The quality of the output is quite poor, and the noise that is
generated by the printer is quite disturbing. Types do not look sharp and the problems are
worse when printing one colour over another. The quality of image transfer deteriorates with
aging of the ribbon and/or the hammer.

Electrostatic

A laser beam creates a selective charge on a selenium drum when exposed to laser light. The
charge takes place in the image areas. The equivalent of ink is a toner particle. This toner
particle gets attracted to the charge in the drum. When the substrate is fed into the machine,
the toner particles transfer from the drum onto the substrate. A lot of document copying and
printing work is done this way, and is also called photocopying, because multiple copies of a
document are created by the use of light. Colour electrostatic printers adopt the same
principle to reproduce colour and, depending on the equipment, the paper may pass through
the machine four times, in a single writing station, or once in a multiple-pass station. These
printers can print good line work, as they have a high addressability. Some of these printers
print 600 dpi.

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Laser printing

This is electrophotographic imaging as in copying machines, with the printing machines


driven by computers. When the document is sent for output, a laser beam charges the printing
drum by applying a static charge to the photoreceptive drum. The areas that received the
charge tend to attract toner particles, and the image is transferred to substrate. For
permanency, the toner-based image is heated and fused with the substrate.

The early models of laser printers which produced good quality copies had one drawback.
The speeds were not very attractive for high volume requirements. Now high-speed printers
are available like the Xerox Docutech 135 and 180, as well as Docucolour 40 and 70/100
which can be used for production work. They all use the laser process principle. Though
claimed to be high-speed printers, they do not compare with traditional printing process
speeds. Nonetheless, they are quite popular in the short-run, and on-demand printing markets.

Thermal printing

If you have seen the way something gets printed from a fax machine, then you have pretty
much understood this process. A specially made paper that is coated with a dye is used in this

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process. When the paper is heated it turns black. So, during the imaging process, the image
areas are heated and the spots on the paper turn black, giving us the reading matter printed.
This is also a popular method employed for generating labels and barcodes. Because the
process involves an induced change in the state of the substrate (paper), the process is limited
to printing only in single colour.

Dye diffusion printers

Originally this process was created for printing on fabrics. It uses a colour donor ribbon that
transfers the dye to the substrate by the use of heat. The temperature is usually very high, in
the region of 400 degrees C. By varying the temperature on the print heads, varying
intensities of colour can be printed. This can produce a feel of continuous tone printing. This
process has a good potential, as the inks used in dye diffusion printing have a colour gamut
greater than that of photography. However the flip side to this technology is that it is
expensive, slower, and requires special substrates to print on.

Thermal wax printing

This process is somewhat similar to that of a dye diffusion printer, using wax as the medium
of “ink transfer.” A metal drum is divided into a grid that addresses a pixel to a spot on the
grid. Every spot on the grid is assigned a colour value. The pixels in the grid heat up and melt
the wax in the ribbon, which is transferred to paper. These waxes are transparent, which
makes it advantageous for these prints to be used as overhead slides for projection. Some of
these types of printers have a three- or four-colour ribbon to print from. They both produce

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colour prints, but the one with four-colour ribbons has more visual appeal than the tri-colour
ribbon printer.

Inkjet printing

This process works by spitting small droplets of ink on the surface ofvthe paper. The amount
of ink that is to be spewed on the substrate is controlled by a computer. There are three kinds
of ink jet printing:

• continuous inkjet printing


• drop-on-demand inkjet printing
• phase-change inkjet printing

Continuous inkjet printing “spits” liquid ink in a continuous fashion, and the pressure of the
spurting of the ink is controlled by a vibrating device and the ink is spurted from an orifice
which also determines the size of the droplet that will ultimately land on paper. All of the ink
is fired from a single nozzle. This produces print which makes good line work and solid
colours, which is acceptable for some low-end applications of the market. When it comes to
printing fine images and multi-colour printing, the drawback in the process stems from the
single nozzle rather than an array or group of them. And that is what happens in continuous

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array ink jet. Every droplet’s size is controlled by a single nozzle. Because of multiple arrays,
speeds can be increased, and this gives better productivity. An array of continuous ink jet
printing nozzles can also be attached to high speed printing presses for specialized printing
like barcoding or personalization.

Drop-on-demand inkjet printing

The ink is forced out of the orifices onto the substrate only where it is required. This is done
by one of several methods. The inks used in this process are water-based. When heated, the
water in the ink vaporizes and forms a gas bubble. This causes a droplet of ink to be pushed
out of the orifice in the chamber, which will have to be replenished. The replenished ink then
goes through the same process till it is pushed out. Because of this alternating method of
throwing out the ink and then replenishing the chamber, the process slows.

Another drop-on-demand ink jet printing method uses a piezoelectric plate. This plate carries
the ink, and on an electrical current being passed, the size of the plate is deformed. The
deformation of the plate reduces the volume of the ink in the plate and causes it to spill a
drop.

The drop of ink lands and dries on the substrate. This kind of inkjet printing is commonly
used for large billboards and posters. The quality is acceptable.

Phase-change inkjet printing

The process derives its name because the ink changes its state from solid to liquid to solid
before it actually lands on paper. These printers use a waxy kind of an ink in the ink chamber.
This wax is heated and the ink changes to a molten state in a reservoir. When the print head
receives an electrical signal, the volume of the reservoir reduces, causing the molten ink to be
ejected. The reservoir is filled when there is no charge. Based on the signal received from the
computer, the print head either turns on or turns off the electrical signal.

Thus, the ink ejection from the reservoir is controlled. Since the ink is wax-based, it gels well
with the substrate and does not penetrate the substrate. Up to 600 dpi can be addressed by this
process, and it produces sharp and saturated images. As the ink settles on the surface of the

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substrate, its thickness can be felt; this also adds to the feel of the image printed on it.
However, if handled, the print is subject to abrasion and can get damaged.

Bubble-jet printers

Bubble-jet printers are relatively low cost devices that produce colour prints on plain paper.
Low cost per page and low cost of the printer are the primary attraction of these printers.
They are also limited in reproduction size, in that many bubble jet printers can print only up
to a letter size (8.5"x11"). They can be used for applications like inhouse work, or for reports,
but certainly cannot be used for contract proofs.

Slide or film recorders

Film recorders produce slides, in colour and monochrome, as negatives or positives. When
only one slide is needed, it can be easily produced with your camera. However, when a
number of slides need to be duplicated, the need to maintain consistency and standards
become critical. The basic image is created digitally in a computer and is imaged on a
photographic medium for as many times as the number of copies needed. The recorders
function like a camera though they do not capture light the way a camera does. Instead of
aiming at the scene to be captured, the recorder aims at a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). A light-
sensitive emulsion is exposed from the beams of the CRT and this emulsion is sent for
processing, the same way a conventional photographic film is processed. A recorder that has
come in to cater to the high end of the market is Light Valve Technology (LVT). The film that
is to be imaged is wrapped around a cylinder as in a scanner. The drum spins at a high speed,
and the film is imaged by narrow beams of light through electronic light valves that modulate
the amount of light that should image the film.
Ink

Every printing ink is formulated from three basic components:

• colorant (pigment or dye)


• vehicle
• additives
Pigments or dyes give inks their colour and make them visible on the substrate. Without
pigments, printing could occur, but it would be pointless since the image would be almost
invisible. Vehicles carry the pigment through the press and onto the substrate. Without the

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vehicle, there is no printing, period. Additives include silicone, wetting agents, waxes, driers
and other materials used to enhance performance characteristics such as drying speed, colour
development, slip and mar resistance. Of the three, vehicle formulation is most critical to an
ink’s performance on the press.

Colorants are the visible portion of the ink. They may be dyes, but more often are pigments.
They may be in powder form (dry toner), in a concentrated paste dispersion known as a flush,
or in a liquid dispersion. Red, blue, yellow, and black are the most frequently used colours in
printing and together create purple, green, orange and other colours during the printing
process. Other colours are used, but in much smaller quantities. The red, yellow, and blue
colorants are almost exclusively synthetic organic pigments. The black used in printing ink is
carbon black—a soot generated through burning natural gas or oil.

While not as visible as colorants, vehicles are just as important to the ink. Made up of oils
(petroleum or vegetable), solvents, water, or a combination of these, they carry the colorant
through the printing press and attach it to the paper or substrate. Most vehicles contain resins
which serve to bind the colorant to the printing surface. The vehicle is the portion of the ink
most responsible for tack, drying properties and gloss. Additives can include waxes, driers
and other materials which add specific characteristics to an ink or to the dried ink film, such
as slip and resistance to scuffing and chemicals.

Vehicles are complex blends of natural and synthetic solvents, oils, and resins, and are
manufactured with strict attention to cycle times, heating and cooling. They can account for
up to 75 % of an ink’s content.

Ink formulators can choose from hundreds of materials, alone or in combination, to create an
infinite variety of vehicles, each with distinct properties suited to different printing
applications. The vehicle is responsible for an ink’s body and viscosity, or flow properties.

It is also the primary factor in transfer, tack, adhesion, lay, drying and gloss. More than any
other element in a formulation, the vehicle determines how well an ink does its job.

An ink’s vehicle determines its rheology, or flow characteristics— whether it is liquid or


paste, long bodied or short. This has a direct impact on the ink’s movement from the ink

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fountain through the roller train, and its transfer from roller to plate, plate to blanket and
blanket to substrate. The faster the press, the more critical these transfer properties become.
As speeds increase, ink misting tends to increase as well. Increased shear and heat build-up
on faster presses have the potential to cause an ink to break down, leading to dot gain, toning
and other print quality problems.

Printers desiring to use lighter weight, uncoated or recycled stocks for economic or
environmental reasons complain that the softer surface of these stocks makes them prone to
water absorption, dot gain and picking. Using an ink with inappropriate tack and transfer
properties because of an inappropriate vehicle compounds the problem.

Ink formulations differ depending upon printing process and application. Printing presses
used in the various processes require different flow characteristics or rheology for the ink to
travel in an optimal fashion through the press to the substrate. Letterpress and offset
lithographic inks are fairly thick or “viscous.” On press, they move through a series of rollers
called the ink train where the action of the rollers spreads the ink into a thin film for transfer
to the blanket and or plate and onto the substrate. Flexographic and gravure printing inks are
more fluid, so that they flow easily into and out of the engraved cells on anilox rollers (flexo)
and print cylinders (gravure).

All inks are made up of pigments, resin vehicles, solvents, and other additives, but the most
important properties are colour, colour strength, body, length, tack, and drying. Colour is
determined by pigments, which are finely divided solids. Important characteristics of pigment
include specific gravity, particle size, opacity, chemical resistance, wettability, and
permanence. Body refers to the consistency and stiffness or softness of inks. Inks can range
from stiff ink like that used for lithography to very liquid ink like that used in flexography.
The term that is associated with this is viscosity.

Viscosity is the resistance to flow, so that a high viscosity ink would not flow. Length is
associated with the ability of an ink to flow and form filaments. Ink length ranges from long
to short. Long inks flow well and form long filaments and are not ideal since they tend to
mist or fly. Short inks do not flow well, and tend to pile on rollers, plates, and blankets. Ideal

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inks are somewhere in the middle of the two types. Tack refers to the stickiness of the ink, or
the force required to split ink film between two surfaces.
Tack determines whether or not the ink will pick the paper surface, trap properly, or will print
sharp. If the tack is higher than the surface strength of the paper, the paper may pick, split, or
tear. When putting down more than one ink on a page, the ink that has the higher tack should
be put down first. Tack can be measured using either aninkometer or tackoscope. The final
property is drying, but the ink must first set before it actually dries. Some newer drying
systems include ultraviolet and electron beam radiation.

Ink drying

Ink drying is a very important function when considering what to use. Inks can dry by
absorption, oxidation/polymerization, evaporation, solidification, and precipitation. During
the process of absorption the vehicle drains into the sheet, leaving the pigment trapped by the
fibers in the surface of the paper. There is really no true drying, which is why newsprint
comes off on the reader’s hands. When ink is dried using oxygen, it attacks the carbon atoms.
This is called oxidation.

The oxygen break down the double bonds of the atoms found in the drying oils, which causes
the ink to dry. Sometimes the solvent is evaporated using heated rollers or dryers that cause
the inks to dry, and is called evaporation. If the ink then needs to be chilled after going
through a set of heat rollers the process of drying is called solidification. Finally, precipitation
depends on the actual precipitation of resin from the ink vehicle by addition of moisture. This
method is incompatible with the dampening solution on an offset press.

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There are a wide variety of inks used for different purposes. Radiation inks have been
developed to eliminate spray powder in sheet-fed presses. There are two types of radiation
inks

• UV curing
• electron beam

UV curing inks dry when exposed to large doses of UV light. These inks are expensive
because of the costly active ingredients. Electron beam curing inks are a good alternative to
UV inks. The main cost is the high capital cost of getting the equipment to run these inks.
Heat set inks are quick drying inks used mostly for web presses. The solvents in the ink
disappear after a drier heats them. Once the solvents are gone, the pigments and binding
resins are fixed to the paper so the ink does not spread. Another type of ink is high gloss ink.
These inks contain extra varnish, which give them a glossy appearance.

There are still many problems with printing inks although they have been around for
centuries. The most common problems in the pressroom include:

• hickeys
• picking
• piling
• tinting
• scumming
• ghosting

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Hickeys are caused by dirt. Ink cans should be closed to prevent debris from getting in the
ink. Picking transfers debris from the paper back through the ink and onto the paper again.
Piling happens when the ink fails to transfer from the blanket to the paper. Tinting is caused
by the emulsification of ink in the dampening solution and results from poorly formulated
ink.

A common remedy is changing inks, though adding a binding varnish may help. Scumming
occurs when the non-image area takes up ink instead of remaining clean. Ghosting
(mechanical) occurs when there is uneven ink take-off from the form rollers.

The substrate used for each printing application and its end use further dictate the raw
materials chosen to formulate an ink. Nonporous substrates such as plastic films and glass
cannot absorb ink vehicles and require inks which dry either through evaporation or by
polymerization (UV or EB). Often solvent-based, these inks are frequently formulated for
additional performance characteristics. Inks used on soap wrappers, for example, must be
alkali resistant; inks on liquor labels must be alcohol resistant; inks on food containers that
will be heated in ovens or microwaves must resist high cooking temperatures.

Newspaper inks are formulated to dry by absorption; that is, the ink oils are absorbed into the
newsprint. This process leaves the colorant sitting on the surface, and without the binding
properties of resins or drying oils, it tends to rub off. For magazines, catalogs and brochures,
the demand is for high quality paper, glossy printing with vivid colors that do not rub off

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readily. Here the printed ink is often subjected to heat to assist in drying. These properties
dictate a different and more costly set of raw materials.

Many printers have made the switch from alcohol to alcohol substitutes in their fountain
solutions for environmental and health reasons. If they did not communicate the change to
their ink suppliers so that an adjustment in ink could be made, they may have been surprised
to find a deterioration in print quality—increased scumming, tinting and toning.

Using sophisticated laboratory instruments—rheometers, viscometers, inkometers, and


surface tensiometers—ink formulators can test vehicles to closely predict performance
characteristics. The final test of any ink, however, will always be on the press, when the full
combination of variables (ink, press speed, substrate, plate chemistry, fountain solution and
even the ambient temperature and humidity of the press room) come into play. Close
cooperation and continuous communication with ink suppliers will minimize potential
problems and ensure that the vehicle in the ink you are using is the right one to get you where
you want to go.

Inkjet ink

Inkjet printers fall into the larger class of non-impact printers. There are many techniques for
printing without use of plates and pressure. These non-impact printers are used largely for
computer printout and copying requirements and also include electrostatic printers, laser
printers, thermal, and others. Inkjet printers are among the most important of non-impact
printers. The are used to produce or reproduce variable information on a wide variety of
substrates, paper, gloss, and metal, and textiles. For the last thirty years, inkjet has been
predicted to be the next major printing technology.

Inkjet printers are used for many applications including mass mailings as well as home usage.
Ink jet printing uses jets of ink droplets driven by digital signals to print the same or variable
information directly onto paper without an imaging system. The ink is sent out of the print
head either by a pumping action, by a piezo electric crystal, or by vapor pressure. In the
continuous process, electronic deflectors position the drops, while drop-on-demand places the
ink only when needed. The bubble-jet printer you may own at home just drools the ink onto
the paper. Once the ink is dropped onto the paper, the ink sets through absorption, spreading,

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and evaporative drying. Inkjet currently is the key contender for low-speed, low-cost desktop
full colour. The main categories of inkjet systems are listed in the following chart:

Inkjet inks are made of water-soluble dyes, polyethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, N-methyl
pyrrolidone, biocide, buffering agent, polyvinyl alcohol, tri-ethanolamine, and distilled water.
Since the dye must be water-soluble, this leads to poor water fastness on paper. Hewlett-
Packard changed their ink formula in their HP DeskJet for a large improvement in water
fastness. A problem is that of wicking, which is ink spreading away from the dots along the
fibers of the paper. One way to reduce this problem is to change to hot melt/phase change
inks.

Hot melt/phase-change inks are used in drop-on-demand desktop printers, but are aimed at
high-quality full-colour printing on a range of substrates. The phase change refers to the fact
that the ink dye or pigment is contained in a binder that is solid at room temperature.

This principle requires a low viscosity ink. The inks are jetted as a hot liquid but cool almost
instantly upon hitting the surface. Inkjet technology is really not one technology, but two. The
first is continuous as mentioned before. This method produces small characters at high speeds
(up to 2000 characters/second). This method allows the printer to apply variable data to a job.
The basic idea of this method is called oxillography. Using oxillography, ink is pressurized
through a small nozzle, about the diameter of a human hair, and pulsed to form a uniform
stream of regularly sized and spaced drops. These drops pass an electrode, which can induce
an electrostatic charge on any droplet. Only drops that are used for character formation are
charged. As the drops continue, they pass through an electrostatic field induced by two

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deflector plates. These plates deflect the path of the droplets by an angle proportional to the
charge. By changing this degree of applied charge (changing the degree of deflection),
characters can be formed on a moving substrate.

Uncharged drops are deflected back and collected to be used again. There are some problems
that are associated with this method of inkjetting. These problems are as follows:

• The need for sophisticated equipment for dry conditions to avoid loss of ink solvent in
nozzle.
• Stationary items cannot be printed.
• The print is not solid and looks a lot like a bad dot matrix.

The second technology is drop-on-demand. This technology produces images using water-
based inks for on-line printing of bags, boxes, and other items used for distribution. The
drops are not deflected from one head, but from multiple heads, otherwise known as a raster.
The firing of the ink is computer controlled to form the character. Drop-on-demand is slower
than continuous jet, and the water-based inks require an absorbent substrate. There are
limitations on this method of inkjetting
• coarse printing
• slow speeds
• only print on absorbent substrates

Rapid development is taking place in the area of continuous jet printers. These printers will
be able to do quality multi-coloured graphics, although at low speeds. More developments
also seem to be taking place in continuous multiple inkjet systems. This system prints with
100 nozzles. In this system it is the uncharged droplets that are placed onto the paper, not the
charged droplets. This should increase
print accuracy, as there is no deflection between particles. Drop-ondemand developments are
focusing in on smaller dot sizes in order to achieve smaller characters that in the traditional
method. In order to do this, the number of heads is increased, though it prints at slower
speeds. The latest technology includes the touch dry ink jet which uses 32 jets to apply
thermoplastic ink, which eliminates problems associated with solvent-based inks. The
medium is held in the reservoir in the form of dry pellets, which are heated just before
printing.

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Inkjet has many benefits as well as problems. Benefits include low price for equipment, high
print quality, use of plain paper, and lowcost consumables. Problems include that of having
water-based inks which are too volatile and dry in the nozzle and dry slowly. In the future we
can look forward to high resolution at a low cost, reliability, fast drying black ink, speed, and
possible continuous tone colour.

Inkjet printers transfer colour to a page by squirting ink onto the paper. The different methods
of applying the ink are known as liquid and solid inkjet. Both of these methods apply ink only
where it is needed; this results in a variable cost per page. Liquid inkjet uses liquid ink that
drys on the paper through evaporation. Liquid inkjet consists of two techniques known as
pulsed inkjet and thermal inkjet. Pulsed inkjet uses hydraulic pressure to control the ink sent
to the print heads and then to the paper. Thermal inkjet uses a heating element normally
located in the ink nozzle that causes the ink to form bubbles. Once the bubbles become large
enough, they are forced from the nozzle onto the paper. The problems with this technology
are non-uniform spot shape and colour density that is lost when ink is absorbed into the
paper. Another shortcoming is that the ink remains water soluble and will smear if exposed to
moisture.

Solid inkjet uses ink that is solid and must be melted before it is sprayed onto the paper. This
ink solidifies quickly when exposed to room temperature and results in a better dot than
liquid inkjet. The ink is dropped on the page using a print head which contains nozzles of

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each colour. The ink hardens as soon as it makes contact with the paper. Once the page has
been completely covered, a cold roller applies pressure to flatten the ink and strengthen its
bond to the paper.

Inkjet has has two major subcategories: drop-on-demand [DOD] and continuous, further
defined by the size of the finished product. Dropon- demand ink jet heads have an array of
tiny jets (240, 300, 600 per inch, depending on resolution) that each emit a single droplet of
ink at an extremely high rate. Pressure difference caused by reducing the volume of ink in a
reservoir causes this phenomenon. There can be multiple heads for printing process colours;
however print speed is relatively slow (under ten ppm) because of the difficulty controlling
each droplet and amount of time needed for the ink to dry.

A variation in the drop-on-demand technology is bubble-jet, where the ink is actually boiled
and the resulting drop fired at the substrate. Still another variation is solid inkjet. Ink is
contained in solid sticks which melt when heated. The resulting liquid is fired in the same
way as the water based ink products, but instead of absorbing into the substrate, the ink
resolidifies on contact. The printed piece is often three dimensional. This process works on
almost any substrate.

With continuous ink jet, ink is fed as a continuous stream. The stream is separated into
droplets which are then electrostatically charged and deflected by magnetic fields to control
the placement on the substrate. Unused ink is recycled.

Toner

Electrostatic, electrophotographic, and xerographic printers all use electrical charges


transferred to a nonconducting surface that either attract or repel the toner. There are several
types of electrostatic processes: direct electrostatic, colour xerography, and ElectroInk. The
imaging material is a thermoplastic material (containing lampblack) that is used to create an
image. The first toners were used in 1938 when Chester Carlson and Otto Kornei performed
their experiments with electrophotography using a powder to transform printed images to a
paper sheet. These experiments were conducted from 1944 until 1948.

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In 1950, Xerox released the product of these experiments, the first xerographic reproduction
equipment. Since the introduction of the equipment, toner has become one of the most widely
used reproduction vehicles.

There are three major groups of toners:


• dual component
• mono component
• liquid

Dual-component is the most common type of toner used today. It is made up of two
distinctive parts—toner and carrier beads. There are three major ways of developing dual
component toners, the most common of these being cascade development. It is based on
triboelectrification, which is the process of exciting toner particles by causing an electrical
charge (static) through the use of friction. The triboelectrification process causes excited
particles to cling to read carriers. Toner is 3–30 μm in size, depending on the desired
resolution of the printed image. The higher the resolution is, the smaller the toner particles
needed. Dual-component toner is used in over 90% of the current xerographic copiers and
digital printers. Printers such as Xeikon and the Xerox Docutech use dual-component toners
for the development of their images.

Colour xerography uses a pre-charged drum or belt that conducts a charge only when exposed
to light. The scanning laser is used to discharge this belt or drum which creates an invisible
image. Toner containing small iron particles is magnetically attracted to the appropriate areas
of the image and repelled from others. This image is then transferred to a roller which collects
all four colours. The image is then electrostatically transferred to plain paper where it is fused
by heat and pressure.

The mono component toners differ from dual-component toners in that they do not require
the use of carrier beads for development. There are several ways to charge mono component
toners, induction, contacting, corona charging, ion beam, and traveling electric fields. The
easiest and most commonly used of these is induction charging. Through induction charging,
a conducting particle sitting on a negative surface becomes negatively charged. Because the
opposite charges repel each other, the negatively charged particle is repelled by the negative
plate and drawn to the positive plate. Through this process, particles lose their negative

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charges and become positively charged. Once toner particles become charged, they can be
transferred to the substrate. Most low-end printers use one of these monocomponent toner-
charging methods.

Direct electrostatic printers apply a charge directly to specially coated paper. Liquid toner
particles are then swept across the paper and stick to the charged regions. Repelled toner is
removed from the page before the next colour pass. After all colours have been placed, the
toner is then fused. This technology can be easily modified for large format printing. Liquid
toner provides the advantage of finer toner particles that can be used to achieve high
resolution output.

Liquid toners are comprised of toner and solvent. It is the use of solvent instead of developer
that causes them to be liquid. Liquid toner solvents are nonconductive and primarily made up
of thermoplastic resin particles, which are suspended in a saturated hydrocarbon. In many
respects liquid development is related to or considered with powder-cloud development. In
both cases, freely moving charged toner moves under the action of an electrostatic field.

Indigo ElectroInk is a variation of xerography that uses liquid toner. The liquid toner is
charged electrostatically and brought into contact with the photoconductor where it is either
attracted or repelled. The colours are imaged to an offset blanket from which the composite
colour image is then transferred to the paper media. This liquid toner offers the advantage of
delivering very small dots that can produce very high resolutions. The Indigo E-Print 1000 is
based upon this technology.

Thermal transfer devices include thermal wax transfer and dye sublimation. Thermal transfer
technologies use a three- (CMY) or four- (CMYK) colour ink-coated ribbon and special
paper which are moved together across a thermal head. Wherever the thermal head applies
heat, the ink fuses to the paper. This technology requires 3 to 4 passes across the thermal head
depending on the use of a 3 or 4 colour ribbon of ink. The result of this process is single-bit
dots of the primary colours. The QMS ColorScript 230 is an example of a thermal wax
printer.

Dye sublimation uses a similar technology, except that the inks used change to a gaseous
state. This requires the thermal head to deliver a much higher temperature but results in finer

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control and smaller dots which can deliver multi-bit colour. This results in continuous tone
colour. The gas that carries the colour and tone entirely covers the dot being imaged. If less
ink is carried, the dot changes in tone. In contrast, thermal wax would cover only half the dot
area and the rest of the cell would remain white. Fresh consumables (a ribbon in most cases)
used for each image result in a constant cost per page, regardless of the number of colours
used.

For several decades, ink manufacturers have sought new raw materials which address
economic and environmental considerations. For example, vegetable-derived oils such as soy
and linseed oils have been used in place of petroleum-based oils in some formulations, water
is replacing volatile solvents in others, and pigments are selected to eliminate heavy metals
from inks, particularly those used for food or toy packaging. The adaptation of technology to
individual process or product needs can be complex. The successful implementation of
electronic printing technology requires an appreciation of a wide range of scientific
disciplines. The interaction of ink or toner with the print mechanism and substrate needs
careful consideration. The prediction of final print quality and its control will need
evaluation. With all of the variables in printing press, substrate, and end-use requirements,
inkmakers face an exciting challenge.

Will inkjet printing ink and toner compete commercially with offset lithography ink? There is
an appeal here because it eliminates rollers, dampeners, and plates; it requires no film. On the
negative side, however, are the costs of the equipment, the limited resolution of the currently
popular ink jet printers, and limitations in inks. The graphic industry anticipates continued
improvement in inkjet equipment in the areas of ink technology and costs.

Digital printing is becoming very popular since the introduction of the Indigo and Xeikon
presses in 1993. These digital devices use toner, which is similar in principle to that used in a
copy machine. But how does the fine powder stay on the page? Chester F. Carlson created the
photocopier methodology. He found that in order to get copies of something it either needed
to be rewritten or photographed, and knew there had to be a better way. He first looked at
photoconductivity for the answer, and realized that if the image of an original were projected
onto a photoconductive surface, current would only flow in the area the light hit. In October
of 1937, his first patent was created for what he called electophotography. Chester hired Otto
Kornei to help him out. Otto took a zinc plate and covered it with a coating of freshly

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prepared sulfur and wrote the words “10- 22-38 Astoria” on to a slide in India ink. The sulfur
was given a charge and the slide was placed on top of the sulfur and under a bright light. The
slide was removed and the surface was covered with lycopodium powder. The powder was
blown off and there was an almost exact image of “10-22-38 Astoria.”

In order to preserve the image, Carlson took wax paper and heated it over the remaining
powder. The wax was cooled and was peeled away, creating the first photocopy. This method
created a blurry image though and Carlson wanted better dry ink. A fine iron powder was
substituted and mixed in with ammonium chloride salt and a plastic material. The ammonium
was to clean the image and the plastic was designed to melt when heated and fuse the iron to
the paper. This was the first toner and in order to produce different colours, different tones
were used. Toners are pigmented bits of plastic about ten micrometers in size. The
manufacturing of toner is a multistep process consisting of mixing pigments and internal
additives with the base toner polymer, which breaks the pigmented polymer into particles of
the desired size. The most important step is blending the pigments and other internal additives
with the polymer binder at the right temperature so that it flows, but has a high viscosity. If
the temperature is too high the pigment will not disperse as well.

The name electophotography is classified under patent class 355, subclass 200. It is defined
as a device wherein the electrical conductivity, the electric charge, the magnetic condition, or
the electrical emissivity of a light-responsive medium is selectively altered directly by light
reflected from or transmitted through an original, whereby a visible or latent image is formed
on the medium and persists after exposure. In simpler terms, a photoconductor acts as an
insulator, retaining a charge of electricity. Areas of the surface contacted by light lose their
charge. The remaining areas with charge attract oppositely charged particles of toner that is
transferred to the paper. For most printers using this method, the drum is re-imaged for each
sheet, unlike in lithography where the same image is produced multiple times.

There are various types of toners and development systems available on the market. Dry
toner printers use a form of magnetic brush system to carry toner/developer from the supply
to the development zone. These utilize non-magnetic toners carried on a magnetic iron which
provides charge by rubbing contact or magnetic toners which contain a proportion of
magnetic oxide. Dry powder toners are made up of the following components:

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Constituent Function

With these toners there are significant temperatures necessary in xerography. The first is the
temperature at which the image is fixed to the paper. Anywhere above this temperature the
toner is very fluid and splits apart. Once it splits, it then is left on the fuser roll and attaches
itself to the next page. Toner also has some problems that differ from those of inks. Particle
size also has a lot to do with the quality that you can get from a machine using a dry toner.
Particle size usually ranges from 10–20 mm in diameter. Particle size any larger than this will
usually produce jagged lines and dots. Toners which produce smaller dots take longer to
make, and cost more.

Another type of toner is liquid toner. These toners are charged, coloured particles in a
nonconductive liquid. Liquid toner particles are much smaller than those of dry toners, and
are capable of smaller particle sizes ranging from 3 mm to submicrometer sizes. Liquid
toners are used in copiers, colour proofing printers, electronic printers, and electrostatic
printer-plotters. Liquid toners are made up of dispersants, resins, charge control agents, and
pigments. The dispersants must be non-conductive in order to not discharge the latent image
as well as interact with any other materials used in the process.

The resin is used as a vehicle for the pigment or dyes to provide stability, and aids fixing of
the final image. The charge control agents are added to the toners to impart charge on the
toner particles. Metal soaps are a common material used as a control agent. Finally, the
pigment controls the colour of the toner.

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Important factors of the pigment include particle size, dispersibility, and insolubility in the
toner dispersant. Liquid toners could be combustible, rather than flammable because of their
high flash point. If evaporation does not occur and comes in contact with flesh, slight
irritation may occur. Devices that use liquid toners are well-ventilated, or re-cycle any
hydrocarbons through an internal system.

A major imaging problem is that charge voltage decay between the time of charging the
photoconductor, exposing, and toning can affect image density and tone reproduction, as the
amount of toner transferred is dependent on the exact voltage of the charge on the image at
the instant the toner is transferred. The second deals with the toner chemistry. Because the
chemistry is not understood, variations in batches of the same toner occur. In liquid toners the
isopar that is used to disperse the toner is a volatile organic compound, which may require
venting and is subject to Environmental Protection Agency regulations.

The process and the product dictate what type of inks you can use. A conventional
lithographic press, an inkjet system, or a digital printing press are not only used for different
applications, the inks used are all different. This will affect the quality and the other printing
attributes. In almost every electronic printer, the consumable (the ink) is specific to the
device.

Digital presses

Variable data

Digital presses have one unique capability that conventional printing processes cannot
deliver. In a digital printing device, every copy that is printed is imaged that many number of
times. Which also means that the printing surface is imaged once for every copy that is
printed.

This is in contrast to the conventional printing process where the printing surface is imaged
once, and multiple copies are generated from that printing surface. It is this feature in a digital
press that slows down its production. But the uniqueness of this feature opens up a new
opportunity, which is exploiting the necessity to image every time for a copy. Since every
copy needs to be imaged on the printing surface, every copy can also be varied on the
printing surface.

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Which opens up a whole new world of printing capability— variable data printing. Imagine
all that one could do with variable data. Specially targeted messages can be printed for a
select audience, instead of printing static data that may not be completely targeted to a
particular audience. You can now have your brochure specially printed for you. The press will
print your name, address, and even have contents in the copy that have been personalized to
suit your tastes. Variable data includes images. The key to producing efficient variable data is
handling powerful databases. There are off-the-shelf programs like Print Shop Mail, and
Darwin (Scitex) and extensions to QuarkXPress like Datamerge that promise to exploit the
potential of variable data. We have to keep in mind that though the potential of variable data
is humongous, we are at an evolving stage of this great possibility. Digital presses provide
this capability, which conventional printing processes can never do.

Digital printing features

• Digital printing is a rapidly growing segment of printing.


• Principal applications: short-run, on-demand printing.
• A digital printer can be defined as one that inputs a digital data stream and outputs printed
pages.
• The broad categories of digital printers include electrostatic, inkjet, and thermal. But we can
also say that any printing process that takes digital files and outputs spots is also digital.
• Interdependency with digital presses will likely create major changes in the operation of the
printing industry and increase the volume of digital printing.
• Xerox DocuTech, Xerox Docucolour, Indigo E-Print, Xeikon DCP, Scitex, Agfa,
Chromapress, and Canon CLC-1000 are among current major electronic systems.
• Digital masters made directly on press, printed with waterless offset lithographic process,
characterize short-run direct imaging printing presses.
• Cost of digital presses and consumables impact competition between digital printing and
offset lithography. Run length, turnaround time, and bindery needs/solutions are major cost
factors in this competition. On-demand printing involves short notice and quick turnaround.
In the printing industry, print-on-demand can be defined as “short notice, quick turnaround of
short, cost-competitive print runs,” which all results in lower inventory costs, lower risk of
obsolescence, lower production costs, and reduced distribution costs. Most traditional
printing does not satisfy this criteria and does not result in these advantages. The
disadvantage of traditional long-run printing is that the reproduced information becomes

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obsolete, which requires the disposal and re-manufacture of new material. In the United
States, approximately 31% of all traditional printing is thrown away because it is outdated.
This number includes 11% of all publications, 41% of all promotional literature, and 35% of
all other material. Although print-on-demand is a more sophisticated phrase for the printing
industry, there is no specific technology that is used to perform such a job. On-demand
printing (also known as demand printing) can be produced with a traditional press because
the customer does not care so long as the quality is acceptable, and it is done quickly and
economically.

Digital printing is any printing completed via digital files. A digital press may be capable of
printing short runs economically, but digital printing on printing presses is well-suited for
slightly longer runs. When comparing on-demand printing and digital printing, demand
printing is economical, fast, and oriented to short runs. On the opposite end, digital printing is
printing from digital files, but is not restricted to short runs. Demand printing can be done
with digital files or conventional film or plates; however, digital printing is done only with
digital files.

Variable printing

Variable information can be printed by digital presses, which are presses that print digital
data. On different pages you could have different names and addresses. This cannot be
accomplished by traditional printing. With traditional printing, the prepress work is
performed, the plates are made, and they are run on the press. The end result is thousands of
pages that are identical. The information is static.

The capacity to print variable information, which results in variable printing, is the key factor
of customized printing. To accomplish customized printing today, conventional pages or
static pages are run through high-speed inkjet devices for variable information. Many digital
presses offer this ability. Unlike inkjet devices, digital presses are not limited to six or twelve
lines of copy, but some can customize the entire page. The basics of customized printing is
the combination of variable information with output devices that do not require intermediate
films or plates. They are true digital printing systems in that all or part of the image area can
be changed from impression to impression.

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Short run can best be defined as one that is less than 5,000 impressions. Almost 56% of
commercial, book, and office printing, including duplicating and copying, falls in the
category of run lengths from 500 to 5,000 impressions. Presently, only 2.8% of this printing
is done in four or more colours. By the year 2000, the amount of four-colour printing in this
run-length market will increase to approximately 11.5%.

Traditional printing presses usually operate in the long-run category; however, this trend
seems to be changing. In order to stay competitive in this growing industry, printers are
attempting to compete with moderate or even short-run categories. While most traditional
presses will have difficulty meeting the needs of the short-run category, this is where a new
market is developing. It is projected that the short-run wars will take place in the 100- to
3,000-copy range. The on-demand process consists of the client supplying electronic files or
camera-ready materials and specifying how many copies of the publication will be needed.
The printer produces the publication directly from the disk or camera-ready artwork and
delivers it within an specified timeframe.

Currently there are three specific on-demand strategies in our industry: on-demand printing,
distributed demand printing, and on demand publishing. “On-demand” means that the data is
stored and printed in electronic form. It does not necessarily have to be an electronic file, but
usually it is a digital file which provides the effectiveness of the short run. The second
strategy, distributed demand printing, requires that the electronic files be transmitted to other
locations, printed, and distributed locally.

These publications can then be stored, printed, and shipped locally as needed. The third and
final strategy is on-demand publishing (also known as demand publishing), in which the data
is stored in paginated form and transmitted for immediate printout. This is done by large-
volume magazines. Portable Document Formats, such as Adobe Acrobat, are being used to
distribute the print-ready document files.

Electronic printing allows variable data printing. Traditional printing does not. Let us now
compare the major features of the three traditional printing processes as we move into a
discussion of packaging:

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LESSON 3 : PACKAGING

Packaging graphics are the last and possibly the most important advertising many products
receive. Flexographic printing technology is used on a wide variety of materials for a great
variety of packaging applications. Arguably, it is the flexographic process’s “flexibility” that
is its greatest advantage. Soft compressible printing plates, fast-drying fluid inks, and a
simple, efficient ink delivery system give the flexographic printer the ability to reproduce
high quality graphics on many different surfaces.

During the last decade, the dollar volume of products produced by the use of the flexographic
printing process has been growing at a rate of approximately eight percent a year, a rate
unparalleled by any other printing technology. Some of this growth is due to the increased
need for packaging and packaging graphics. However, another source of new business for
flexography is products that have traditionally been printed by the other major printing
processes— gravure and offset lithography. Print buyers are beginning to recognize
flexography as an economical, high-quality alternative to gravure and lithographic printing.

Packaging buyers have begun to hold the flexographic printer to the same high quality
standards as lithography and roto-gravure. This means that the flexographic printers will have
to consistently deliver high quality graphics. Specifically, tone reproduction is expected to be
the same resolution in flexography as that printed by lithography and gravure. Historically,
the flexographic printing process has been used for low-cost/low-quality packaging graphics.
In fact, the stigma of being a “cheap” printing process has caused some packaging buyers to
ignore flexography when selecting a process for higher quality graphics. Even within the
industry a culture shift from lowcost/ low-quality to low-cost/high-quality has been slow to
come about. Adding to the problems flexographers find when competing with other printing
processes is the fact that there are no established standards for flexographic printing. Some
standards that may be helpful include trapping, dot gain, and specific values for process
colour inks. The fact that the flexographic industry is without these standards complicates
communication between buyers, suppliers, and printers, and makes quality consistency very
difficult.
The recent move to “desktop” design has also introduced new problems for flexographic
printers. With the use of the computer it has become relatively simple for the novice to create
attractive new package designs. Unfortunately, many of the novice designers are ignorant of

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the limitations of the printing technology that will be used to mass-produce their designs.
Also, many designs that appear attractive on a computer monitor are impossible to reproduce
on a flexographic printing press due to press registration problems and ink limitations. When
a designer who has experience creating a package design to be printed by offset lithography
or gravure applies the same design principles for a flexographically printed graphic, they may
be creating problems for the flexo printer. Without the benefit of research into production
methods and equipment, an otherwise simple design for gravure or offset would pose many
printing problems for flexo.

Traditional printing processes


The three most commonly used printing processes are lithography, flexography, and gravure.
Each of these processes has its own inherent advantages and disadvantages. To better
understand the primary differences in each process, one needs to compare three key areas: the
ink, the ink delivery system and the image carrier. The most commonly used printing process
(based on the number of printing presses currently in production) is lithography, sometimes
called offset lithography. Lithography is used heavily in the publication industry for printing
magazines, catalogs, and many daily newspapers as well as a number of other applications
like annual reports, advertising, and art reproduction. Lithography is also often used for
packaging such as folding cartons, labels, and bags.

Offset lithography is classified as a “planographic” process. That means the printing plate or
image carrier used for lithographic printing holds both the image and non-image on one flat
surface or plane. The image areas of a lithographic plate are chemically treated to be
attractive to the lithographic paste ink, while a fountain solution or ink-repellent chemical
protects non-image areas from inking.

In a lithographic printing press, a paste ink is applied to the image areas on the plate, the
image is then transferred to a blanket (hence the term offset), and then to the substrate.
Lithography has been a favored process because it can reproduce soft tonal values on coated
substrates. Another highly prized feature of lithography is its ability to print 300-line screen
images with excellent fidelity.

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Gravure packaging
Gravure, sometimes known as roto-gravure, is the second most commonly used process in
Europe and the Far East, and the third most commonly used process in the US. The gravure
process prints perhaps the widest variety of products of all processes. Gravure is heavily used
in the magazine printing industries and also prints many of the inserts in the Sunday
newspaper. Vinyl flooring and woodgrain desktops and paneling are also printed by gravure.
An offset gravure process is used to print the M on M&M candy and the printing on many
medicine capsules. Gravure is used for many of the same packaging applications as those of
flexography.
Gravure is used for:
• Publications
• Products
• Packaging

The gravure printing process is classified as an “intaglio” process. An intaglio printing


process recesses the image below the level of the non-image areas. A gravure image is etched
or engraved into a copper plate or copper-plated cylinder. All gravure images are etched in a
cell format on the gravure cylinder. By varying the size and depth of each cell, the gravure
press can vary tones. Often, after the copper is etched or engraved, the plate or cylinder is
plated with chrome to add durability and run-length to the gravure cylinder.

In a gravure press, a fast-drying fluid ink fills the recessed cells, a thin metal strip called a
doctor blade clears the non-image area of ink, and then the image is transferred directly to the
substrate under heavy impression pressure from a rubber-covered impression roll. Gravure
has been an outstanding choice for printing process colour for mass-circulation magazines
and newspapers. Gravure-printed postage stamps are another example of the fine print results
of rotogravure.

Many plants have blended flexography with gravure to produce exceptional print results on
packaging materials. The flexographic printing process is classified as a relief process. A
relief printing process is characterized by the image areas being raised above the surrounding
non-image areas. Letterpress is also a relief printing process, the primary differences between
letterpress and flexographic printing technologies are:

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1. Plate hardness—the letterpress plate is hard and noncompressible; the flexographic plate is
soft and compressible.
2. Ink—the letterpress ink is a paste consistency; the flexographic ink is a fluid, about the
same consistency as paint.
In a flexographic press, an ink metering roll called an anilox is brought into light contact with
the raised image areas of the flexographic plate by an adjustment controlled by the
flexographic press operator. The flexographic press operator then moves the plate into light
contact with the substrate to cause image transfer.

Flexographic packaging

Flexographic printing units in use today are simple in design and easy to understand. The
following components makeup a flexographic printing unit:

• Fountain roll
• Anilox roll
• Doctor blade
• Dual doctor ink chamber
• Plate cylinder
• Impression roll

There are three types of flexographic printing units being used today: two roll, two roll with
doctor blade, and dual-doctor chambered systems. The two roll units are usually found on
older flexo presses, and on narrow web presses. Narrow web presses doing process colour
work will probably be equipped with two roll units and doctor blade, and more modern wide-
web presses are equipped with the dualdoctored chambered system. Each of these printing
units may perform acceptably; however, a doctor blade system should be used when doing
screens and process colour flexographic printing.

To understand each of these printing units, it is important to first understand the “heart” of the
unit, the anilox roll. The surface of every anilox roll has been engraved with a tiny cell
pattern, cells so small they can only be seen under magnification. The size and number of
these cells determines how much ink will be delivered to the image areas of the flexographic
plate, and then to the substrate. An anilox roll is either copper engraved and then chrome
plated, or ceramic coated steel with a laser engraved cell surface.

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On a two-roll flexographic printing unit, the rubber-covered fountain roll rotates in a bath of
fluid flexo ink. As the fountain roll rotates, it drags a supply of ink from the ink pan and
delivers it to the cells of the anilox roll. The relatively soft, rubber-covered fountain roll is
held in tight contact (nipped) with the anilox roll. As the anilox rotates past the nip point,
excess ink is “wiped” from the non-cell area by the fountain roll. Once past the nip point,
each cell is filled with ink, and a measured, repeatable amount of ink is available to the
printing plate. On the press, the flexographic press operator moves the “metered” anilox roll
into light “kiss contact” with the image areas of the flexo plate, and then moves the plate
cylinder into light “kiss contact” with the substrate to achieve ink transfer. The steel
impression roll supports the substrate during ink transfer. When a doctor blade is used with a
two-roll unit, the nip between fountain and anilox roll is opened to allow the ink to flood the
anilox and fill the cells. The doctor blade, a thin metal or polyethylene blade, then comes into
contact with the anilox to sheer excess ink from the non-cell areas. When the flexographic
press is equipped with chambered doctor blade inking units, the fountain roll and inking pan
can be eliminated, and ink is delivered directly to the anilox through an enclosed chamber.

Anilox cells
The best flexographic printers select anilox rolls for their press after carefully evaluating the
type of printing they intend to do, and the type of substrate they will be printing on. Often the
flexographic printer will perform test runs to determine the ideal type of anilox roll in an
effort to maximize graphic elements related to screen ruling, solids and spot colour, type, and
substrate.

These are the important characteristics of an anilox roll:

• Cells Per Inch (CPI)—The number of cells in a linear inch. CPI counts will range from 140
CPI to 1200 CPI. A general rule of thumb is as the cell count increases, the ink delivered to
the plate decreases. To achieve adequate ink densities, a flexographer printing linework on
absorbent corrugated linerboard would be using anilox rolls at the low end of cell count (160,
180, 200).

If the corrugated printer was required to print halftones at 55 or 65 linescreen, the anilox roll
would have to be replaced with a roll of higher cell-per-inch count (280, 300, 360). Another

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important concept is that as line screen resolution increases, cell per inch count should also
increase. For instance, a process colour graphic on a polyethylene frozen food bag may be
printed at 133 lpi. For best results, and in order to avoid “flooding” the halftone dots with ink,
the cell count of the anilox roll that inks the 133 lpi printing plate should be at least 550 or
600 cells per inch.

• Cell Volume—Cell count and cell volume are related. As a general rule, as CPI increases,
cell volume decreases. Anilox cell volume is described by a theoretical or measured volume,
and reported as Billion Cubic Microns (BCM) per square inch ofcells. Typical BCM ratings
for printing applications range from a low of 1.8 to a high of 14.

Using our example of the flexographer printing linework on absorbent corrugated linerboard,
the low cell count anilox being used may have a cell volume of 10.0 BCM, and the process
colour on polyethylene at 133 lpi, and a 600 linescreen plate may be inking with an anilox
cell volume of 2.8 BCM.
• Cell Angle—Anilox cells are engraved in a linear pattern, and at various angles. Typical
anilox cell angles are 30°, 45°, and 60°. It is important to understand that the screen angle of
the printing plate and the cell angle of the anilox roll can combine to cause an objectionable
moiré pattern, even if only one-colour halftones are being printed. Many anilox roll suppliers
produce a random cell (no-angle) anilox that may be used for limited applications.

While an anilox cell angle may be selected to help avoid moiré, the problem of moiré is
usually avoided by angling the separation screens. Research and experience has shown that
the 60° angle allows for more complete ink transfer, and is becoming the preferred cell angle
for flexographic printers. There is currently no other single component of the flexographic
process that will have as significant an effect on flexographic print quality as the type of
anilox roll being used.

Plate cylinders and repeat length

All flexographic presses, with the exception of corrugated and newspaper presses, have a
variable repeat length capability. This variable repeat length is possible because the plate
cylinder on a flexographic printing unit is removable and interchangeable with plate cylinders
of different diameters. The flexographic package printer can minimize substrate waste by

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having an adequate inventory of plate cylinders of various diameters, and choosing the
cylinder size that best fits the print dimensions. Most lithographic presses are limited to a
fixed repeat length (often called a “fixed cutoff”). The plate cylinder used for most
lithographic presses cannot be changed to conform to various package sizes. In this case each
package layout and design must fit into the “fixed” dimensions dictated by the press and plate
size of the specific lithographic press.

Flexographic plates can be mounted around the entire circumference of the plate cylinder,
and images can be arranged to print a “continuous repeat,” void of any seam area where the
plate ends butt. Continuous repeats can also be accomplished by using laserengraved design
rolls. Flexographic presses can be built in several basic configurations: Stack Press, In-line,
Common Impression Cylinder (CIC), and Corrugated. Stack Press One to eight colour units
Web can be printed on both sides with some stack presses Traps should be no less than 1/32”
for thin films.

Often in line with other converting operations, including polyethylene extrusion, lamination,
rotary and flatbed die cutting, and sideseal bag converting. In-Line Up to twelve colour units
Often used for printing thick substrates, like corrugated, paperboard Can print two sides (with
the aid of a turn-bar). Often in line with other converting operations Not recommended for
printing thin packaging film materials CIC Four to eight colour units limited to one-sided
printing Ideal press for hairline register at high speeds on thin, stretchable films Longer
make-ready times required because of the inaccessibility of the printing units Corrugated
Usually no more than four colours All corrugated presses are sheet fed Widths up to 120"
Less accurate register capabilities Limited to one-sided printing

Multicolour capabilities

Flexographic presses commonly come with multicolour capabilities. Recently the


flexographic industry has experienced an increase in installations of six and eight colour
presses. In some limited applications, as many as twelve colours can be applied in one pass
through a flexographic press. From a creative design perspective the possibilities for eye-
catching colour are greatly enhanced by a printing process offering so many colour
capabilities. Combinations of four colour process and spot colours, multiple spot colours
alone, or high fidelity process colour printing allow the designer a great deal of creative
latitude when designing a graphic to be printed by flexo.

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It is important to note that for transparent film substrates, the chances are good that one of the
colour stations will be required to apply a white backup or “choke” plate. Without the white
backup, colours would appear flat and transparent. The white plate is a characteristic unique
to processes utilizing clear or coloured substrates. Another important colour characteristic of
flexographic inks is that they are usually made from opaque or semi-opaque pigments. The
colour sequence usually adhered to for flexographic printing is lightest to darkest colours in
the press units. Overprinting two or more spot colours will most likely result in the creation
of an objectionable “mystery” third colour in the overprint areas.

Reverse-side printing

An exception to the rule of lightest-to-darkest colour sequence occurs when a spot colour or
line art job calls for “reverse-side printing.” Reverse-side printing means the job is reversed
laterally and printed on a clear substrate like polyethylene, polypropylene, or polystyrene.
After printing, the graphics will be displayed from the “reverse” or substrate side, rather than
the side of the substrate where ink has been applied. This technique is often used for non-food
packaging, or for applications where another film will be laminated to the printed film.

Flexographic plates

There are a many types of flexographic printing plates, with the primary differences being the
material from which the plate is made and the plate thickness. The type of plate material to be
used to print a flexo job is decided by the flexographer after consideration of the graphic
elements they are asked to reproduce. Although few flexo printers print from both rubber and
photopolymer plates, many have two or three types of rubber or photopolymer materials for
platemaking.

Another important characteristic of all types of plates is durometer (a measure of the hardness
or softness of a plate). Printing plates (rubber or photopolymer compound) are soft and are of
concern to graphic designers. Dot gain is affected by the durometer of the plate being used.
Plates of higher durometer (harder), will print with less dot gain than softer plates. However,
lower durometer plates transfer solid images more smoothly and completely than high
durometer plates. The plate thickness is dictated by the flexo printer’s type of press and plate

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cylinder inventory. Generally speaking, wide-web printers print from thicker plates than do
narrow-web printers.

Molded rubber plates

The molded rubber plate has been used for flexographic printing since the 1930s. However,
the introduction of the photopolymer plate in the 1970s marked the beginning of a period of
steady decline in the use of the rubber plate. From a design perspective, the important
characteristics of molded rubber plates include:

• Molded rubber plates shrink shortly after they are removed from the molding press;
consequently, plate films should be adjusted to compensate for shrinkage. The amount of
shrinkage depends on the type of rubber being molded, but is typically 1.5%–2.0% along the
grain of the rubber and .5%-1% across the grain of the rubber. To ensure accuracy, the exact
shrink factors should be communicated between production artists and plate makers.
• Resolving capability of a rubber plate is limited to the 120-line screen.
• Molded rubber plates may be more difficult to register in the plate mounting step than
photopolymer plates.
• Prints from molded rubber plates can only appear to be continuous repeat if images are
nested in the job layout design, to hide the plate seam.
• It is difficult to mold accurate rubber plates larger than 24"x 36", consequently designs
larger than 24"x36" must be done by piecing together multiple plates for each colour.

Laser-ablated plates and design rolls

A design roll is a rubber-covered roll that has been imaged by laser ablation. The design roll
is seamless, and can carry images around the entire circumference. The laser ablation imaging
process is direct-to- plate. This process can also improve register capabilities. The specified
trap between colours can be accurately achieved, bleed can be handled, registration marks
can be provided as part of the design and eyespots or other devices can be placed precisely.
Laser-ablated design rolls are often used for long-run jobs that require continuous printing,
and can be run in combination with other flexographic plates. Direct-to-plate laser ablation
can also be used for imaging plates rather than an entire roll. However a laserablated plate

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must be mounted on a plate cylinder and will not be seamless. Laser-ablated plates are often
used for short-run jobs and for spot coating on flexo or offset presses.
From a design perspective, the important characteristics of laserablated plates and design
rolls include:
• Resolution is limited to a 100-line screen for tone reproduction, but can be a 200 to 300 line
screen for tints.
• Laser-ablated image carriers do not require film output.
• Laser-ablated design rolls can be a truly continuous repeat design; laser-ablated plates
require nested images to give the appearance of continuous repeat.
• Plates or design rolls imaged on a circumference do not require distortion.
• Laser ablation can be performed on both rubber and sheet polymer materials.

Photopolymer plates

Today, the photopolymer plate is the most frequently used plate for flexographic printing.
There are two general categories of photopolymer plates available, sheet and liquid. The main
difference between the two is the physical state of the raw material from the supplier. Sheet
photopolymer is supplied in a solid state, while the liquid plate is supplied as a liquid which
has about the same consistency as honey. The liquid solidifies when exposed to ultraviolet
light. From a design perspective, the important characteristics of photopolymer plates
include:
• Photopolymer plates have guaranteed resolving capabilities of a 150-line screen. Some
high-end flexo printers have actually printed from plates with a 200-line screen.
• Prints from photopolymer plates can only appear to be continuous repeat if images are
nested in the job layout and design to hide the plate seam.
• Most of the newest plate positioning and register devices rely on a ”one piece” flexographic
photopolymer plate.
• Some service bureaus and flexographic plate makers presently have the capability of
filmless, direct digital imaging for conventional (non-laser-ablated) sheet photopolymers.
Platemounting systems
Offset lithography has long been able to take advantage of pin register for quick accurate
colour-to-colour registration. The first commercial device for mounting and proofing rubber
printing plates was probably developed in the 1940s by Franklin Moss, founder of the
Mosstype Corporation. Until the recent adaptation of pin register and micro-dot register
systems to flexographic plate mounting, colour-tocolour register was entirely dependent upon

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the skill level of the plate mounter. Many platemounters became highly skilled, while others
were less accurate in plate positioning and registration, resulting in poor registration on the
press.

The concepts of pin register and micro-dot register were developed to make accurate plate
mounting fast and easy for everyone, even the beginner. Pin register requires a systems
approach. That is to say that each prepress station, right up to the critical plate making and
mounting stage has to adopt pin register or micro-dot line-up techniques. Pin positions or
micro-dot targets must be accurately transferred through each step of prepress.

Mounting tapes
Mounting tape is the two-sided adhesive used for affixing flexo plates onto the plate
cylinders. Mounting tapes also come in a variety of types and thicknesses. Two general types
of mounting tapes are “hard” tapes and compressible tapes. A compressible tape is actually a
thin layer of foam coated on both sides with an adhesive. The thin foam layer acts as a shock
absorber to minimize over-impression on the flexographic plate. By contrast, hard tapes offer
no shock absorbing characteristic and are only used to adhere the plate to the cylinder.

Research of various mounting tapes has shown surprising findings. For instance, one test of
five different mounting tapes found solid ink density variations from 1.34 to 1.66 by simply
changing mounting tape. Dot gain is greater with harder tapes than with softer tapes; usually,
the less dot gain the better. Soft cushion tapes, however, do not provide for a uniform ink
transfer in solid printing areas, often causing pinholes.

Cylinder preparation
Each cylinder should be checked for condition and accuracy before a plate is mounted on it.
Cleaning, checking for defects, and checking for accuracy before mounting the plate will
often save material waste, press time, and extra work.

• Cleaning—Plate cylinder surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned to provide the best possible
surface for plate mounting. Improperly cleaned cylinders can cause inaccurate plate pressures
by trapping ink or other foreign matter between cylinder surface and mounting tape. A
cylinder surface with oil, grease or any other residue on it will not allow proper adhesion of
the mounting tape and will eventually lead to plate lift. When cleaning a cylinder, it should be

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noted that many water-based inks require some type of detergent to rewet dried ink for
cleaning purposes. Often these detergents leave an invisible residue or film on the surface of
the cylinder that inhibits adhesion of tape to metal. Final cleaning of the cylinder surface
should be done with a solvent that will leave no residue.
• Gears—Gears should be kept clean and well lubricated. Make a practice of noticing the
condition of each with each job change. If they are removable, make sure they are tight when
replaced.

• Total Indicated Runout (TIR)—Good pressroom practices includes the use of a dial
indicator to check cylinder circumferences and bearing accuracies. Runout of each plate
cylinder is important. Recommended tolerances for runout have been +/–0.001” for line work
and +/-0.0005” for halftones; however, with today’s more demanding quality requirements a
good practice is to always work at halftone tolerances.

Substrate and substrate influence on flexographic printing

Substrate is a generic term for the packaging materials printed by flexography and other
printing processes. These materials aren’t necessarily chosen for their printing characteristics,
but because they’re functional. Thanks to flexography’s versatility, there is almost no material
that has not or cannot be printed by it. It has been said that if any material can be put in a roll,
it can be printed by flexography.

The quality of a printed product is affected more by the substrate than the type of process that
applies the graphics. Packaging industries utilize a wide variety of substrates to satisfy the
demands of a wide assortment of packaged products. Substrates can be classified into three
general categories:
Paper/paperboard
kraft linerboard (corrugated)
clay coated kraft (corrugated)
solid bleached sulfate (SBS) (folding carton)
recycled paperboard (folding carton)
coated paper (labels, gift wrap)
uncoated freesheet paper (paperback books)
Polymer films
polyethylene (PE) (dry cleaner, bakery, and textile bags)

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polypropylene (PP) (snack packages, candy wrappers, cookie
packaging labels)
polyvinyl chloride (vinyl films) (labels, wall coverings)
Multilayer/laminations
metallized papers (gift wraps)
metallized film (snack food bags)
polyethylene coated SBS (milk cartons)

The important characteristics of substrates as they relate to the packaging printing process
are:

Colour

A printing ink is significantly influenced by the colour of the substrate on which it is applied.
The flexographic process is often used to print corrugated containers with unbleached brown
kraft linerboard exteriors. Colour matching on these types of material surfaces is difficult to
achieve.
Paper/paperboard—White, brown kraft, and a variety of coloured papers.
Polymer films—Can be clear, white, combinations of white and clear, or coloured.
Multilayered/Laminations—The colour characteristics are decided by the topmost layer with
reflective qualities. Foils and metallized papers or films are silver, or tinted to a coloured
finish.
Whiteness/brightness
The whiteness or brightness of a paper is the paper’s light reflective qualities. Even on
bleached or coated papers there are differences in the whiteness or brightness of a sheet.
Paper containing a high percentage of recycled fiber may appear to be more off-white than
paper made from 100% virgin fiber.

• Paper/paperboard—Whiteness and brightness increases with bleached and coated papers.


Optical brighteners may also be added to paper to increase brightness

• Polymer films—White films can vary in opacity, which will affect brightness. Clear films
require a printed opaque white ink under colour images. Coloured films are not be included in
this measurement.

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• Multilayer/laminations—Decided by the topmost layer of film or paper with reflective
qualities. Foil and metallized printing surfaces require a printed white ink under colour
images.

Opacity

All substrates have a measurable opacity rating. Opacity is the ability of a substrate to prevent
light transmission. The more opaque a substrate, the less light will pass through. Acolour
printed on paper or film with a low opacity rating will be influenced by what lies beneath the
substrate.

• Paper/paperboard—Thin lightweight papers have lower opacity and will be more prone to
ink show-through.

• Polymer films — On clear substrates, opacity depends on the opacity of the printed white
ink layer. The opacity of white or coloured films depends on the film manufacturing process;
films may be made white or coloured by adding the appropriate coloured resin to clear resin
during the extrusion process. Darker films may tend to be more opaque than lighter films, but
all films can be manufactured with high opacity.

• Multilayered/laminations—Usually high opacity is achieved by the multiple layers of


opaque or semi-opaque substrates.

Smoothness
Smoother substrates allow for the printing of higher line screens. Rough, irregular surfaces
such as newsprint and corrugated liner board require coarse screen rulings. Defects in
smoothness can be described as either macro or micro. Macro refers to irregularities that can
be seen with the naked eye; micro refers to a very small area with defects not readily seen
with the naked eye. Because the flexographic ink is fluid and generally not regarded as tacky,
fiber pick (a problem common to lithographic printing) is not an issue.

• Paper/paperboard—Newsprint, corrugated linerboard, and paperboard are relatively rough.


Calendered and coated papers are the smoothest.

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• Polymer films—Polymer films are the smoothest printing surfaces, consequently roughness
is not a problem; however, ink adhesion sometimes is a problem.
• Multilayered/laminations—The smoothness is dependent on the substrate used as a printing
surface.
Absorption
On substrates with little or no absorption characteristics, the ink will dry at the surface
providing more saturated colour and less dot gain for halftone printing. Papers with low
absorption rates are referred to as having high “hold-out.” This means the paper holds or
prevents the ink from being absorbed into the sheet.
• Paper/paperboard—Corrugated, newsprint, and paperboard are very absorbent. Calendered
and coated papers are less absorbent and exhibit high ink hold-out.
• Polymer films—Polymer films are non-absorbent and exhibit the highest ink hold-out.
• Multilayered/laminations—Absorption characteristics are dependent on the substrate used
as a printing surface.
Gloss
Coated papers and films have gloss characteristics that influence the gloss of the inks that are
applied to them. High gloss finishes are very shiny, and tend to be reflective. Matte or low-
gloss finishes can be applied to all substrates by matte coatings, and uncoated and
uncalendered papers have low gloss.

• Paper/paperboard—Calendered and coated papers are highgloss while corrugated


linerboard, uncalendered newsprint, and paperboard have low-gloss qualities. Gloss can be
increased after printing by applying an overprint varnish or lamination.

• Polymer films—Films are higher gloss than the highest gloss papers. Films can also be
produced with a matte finish.

• Multilayered/laminations—The gloss of the printing surface is dependent on the substrate


used as a printing surface; gloss can be increased after printing by applying an overprint
varnish or lamination.

Caliper

Caliper is the thickness of a substrate. Caliper is usually measured with a micrometer. Thin
sheets of paper may have a caliper as small as 0.002”, and thicker sheets may have a caliper

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of 0.010”. Paper with caliper readings greater than 0.010” are often referred to as paperboard.
The caliper of paperboard may be as much as 0.030”. Polymer films are by definition thin.
Dry cleaner bags are 0.00065”.

The thickest calipers used for flexible packaging are 0.005” to 0.006”. Thin films require
printing conditions with very accurate tension controls. Paperboard caliper should be uniform
and free from low spots that will lead to print skips (voids) on the flexo press. For all
substrates, caliper uniformity is critical.
• Paper/paperboard—Thinner papers are more consistent in caliper, paperboard may have
inconsistencies in caliper.
• Polymer films—Thin films are susceptible to stretch during printing. Caliper inconsistency
will cause misregistration, and print wrinkle problems.
• Multilayered/laminations—Caliper increases as layers are added. Extremely thin layers may
be laminated together to attain required barrier and printing surface properties.

Flexographic design considerations

Trapping

Trapping is the overlap of colour to avoid misregistration during printing. Misregistration is


caused by substrate handling and tension problems on the press, irregular or inconsistent plate
elongation from one colour to the next, inaccuracies in the plate mounting, and limited
register capabilities. A preliminary test run and analysis of the press will determine the
registration tolerances. Typically, a designer will build traps into the file if the job is a simple
one, otherwise trapping will be handled by using an option in a drawing or trapping software
program like Trapwise or DKA Island Trapper, or handled entirely by the prepress service
bureau. The best trapping applications allow for partial traps—where only the areas of an
image that require trapping are affected, while leaving all other areas at their original
dimensions. Traps serve the same purpose in packaging as in commercial printing.

There are two primary differences: 1) in packaging there are generally more colours, and 2)
with flexographic printing, larger traps are required to compensate for misregister. Guidelines
when designing for flexography would include avoiding tight registration requirements,
creating sufficient trap for anticipated misregistration, designing with the dominant colour
printing over the lighter colour, and avoiding trapping of gradations.

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Trapping may cause a dark line where the colours overlap. A label printed on a narrow-web
press should be trapped at a minimum of 0.005”—some require as much as 1/32", or 0.031"
compared to average traps of 0.002"–0.005" for lithography.

A typical trap area for a job on wide-web polyethylene might be 1 point (1/72", or 0.014").
However, if an objectionable dark trap line is created by the 1 point overlap, the designer may
plan for a trap of .5 points. Trapping for linerboard or corrugated may require 1/64" to 1/8".

Typography

The soft flexographic printing plate, irregular substrate surfaces, and the fluid flexo ink can
have a profound negative impact on text-sized type printed by flexography. The line strokes
of smaller point sizes of type often increases during the printing process because of the
compressibility of the printing plate and the fluid nature of the flexo printing ink. Negative or
reverse type often tends to become pinched or fills in. In extremely adverse situations (poor
press equipment or rough irregular substrates), lettershapes may begin to appear rounded and
lose their shape.

It is the problem of impression pressure on the printing plate in the printing nip that causes
most of the deformation of type. Smaller point sizes of type are most adversely affected and
require attention. For wide-web polyethylene printing, typical minimum type sizes are:

• Positive type—six point for sans-serif fonts and eight point for fonts with serifs.
• Reverse type—nine point minimum (it may be a good idea to spread 9 point reverse
minimum type). For narrow-web printing, some fonts may be printed as positives as small as
three point type, while others may lose shape at six or eight points. Use bolder fonts instead
of light-weight versions.
When designing a job to be printed on corrugated, it is best to choose a medium weight
typeface, and to avoid serifs for any type that is smaller than 18 point. A good rule of thumb
is to avoid type that is made up of stroke widths less than 1/32" for positive type and 3/64"
for reverse type. All type should be set at normal letterspacing. To help compensate for the
“weight gain” of flexographic type, it may be possible to use the trapping technique of
spreads and chokes. Chokes are used on positive type, spreads are used on negative type.
Some programs, such as Freehand and Illustrator, allow the designer to adjust the thickness of
the type. This type effect can be achieved by selecting the text, converting to a “path” and

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then specifying a value for the“width” for the outer and/or inner “stroke” of the type. In
some cases, these programs allow the designer to simply select the type and choose a desired
effect such as “heavy” to thicken the selected type to print bolder.

In prepress design, some compensation can be done by choosing either a lighter face or a
bolder face. For example, if bold positive type is desired, use a medium weight face. If a
medium negative type is desired, specify bold face on the desktop. However, should this
technique of selecting style attributes be used, make sure the printer font selected is installed
on the output device to be used in the production process.

Letter spacing must be considered when designing for flexo. In offset, letters can be squeezed
together to form a denser appearance on the page. The same spacing printed in flexo may
cause the letterforms to merge together to become unacceptable. However, when printing
fine-serif type with major letterspacing, the serifs may begin to lose their shape. Ideal
letterspacing occurs when letters are close enough together to lend support to each other
while under the pressure of the printing nip, yet not so close that they begin to join together
under that same pressure.

Whenever possible, sans-serif fonts are preferred for flexo printing, however, the larger the
point size being printed the better the chances that the font will reproduce as desired.
Unofficial industry standards and recommendations for type:
• Six point minimum for positive type, nine point minimum for reverse or knock out on wide
web.
• Four point for positive, six for reverse on narrow web.
• When using small size type, avoid fonts with fine serifs or delicate strokes.
• Kerning may cause squeezing across cylinder. Avoid tight line spacing.
• Letterspacing and/or line spacing may increase slightly in the curve dimension due to plate
elongation during the platemounting phase.
• All positive text should be printed in a single colour if possible.
• Avoid placing fine type on the same colour plate with line work and solid printing areas.
• Specify type thoroughly and accurately to the service bureau or flexographic prepress
department.
• Avoid reversing type out of two or more colours unless a dominant colour outline is used.

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Plate distortion and elongation
From a prepress and design perspective, one of the most important characteristics to
understand about flexography is the phenomenon of plate elongation. As a flexographic plate
is mounted on a plate cylinder, a natural elongation occurs in the curve around the cylinder
direction. Consequently, if the printed design is meant to be a circle, the image must be
compensated by distorting (shrinking) the image in the around-the-cylinder or curve
dimension, and the image on the resulting plate films may appear to be oval. After proper
distortion factors have been applied and the plate has been mounted and printed, the oval will
elongate to form a circle. The same distortion requirements hold true for all images.

This means that for every linear inch of plate used in the around-the cylinder or curve
direction, the images will increase at the rate of 0.042"/inch. To apply the calculation to a
design measuring 12 inches in the curve dimension:
12" x 0.042" =0.509"

This means that plate films should output to measure 11.490" in the curve dimension, or
95.7% in the curve dimension, and 100% in the other dimension (ignoring any plate shrink as
discussed in the Flexographic Plates section). Software written specifically for flexography
can compute plate distortion factors and apply them to each colour separation.

This formula shows that as the plate thickness increases the stretch factor increases, and as
the cylinder repeat length decreases, the stretch per inch increases. The flexographic industry
is currently using a variety of plate thickness in combination with a variety of mounting tape

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thicknesses. The type and thickness of the plate being used is dictated by the type of press
being used and the type of work being printed on the press. Some typical plate thicknesses for
some of the larger flexographic printing markets are:

Combined board corrugated 0.250", or 0.107"


Wide-web flexible packaging, preprint, and folding carton
0.107", or 0.067"
Narrow-web label 0.067", or 0.045"
Newspapers 0.024"

These are only examples of plate thicknesses currently being used. Recently there has been a
trend toward thinner plate technology for flexographic printing. There exist today many
software packages with the capability of shrinking or distorting an image in one dimension.
To be sure that the design will be the correct size and shape, the design has to be output to
film after plate thickness has been determined and the proper distortion factor applied. The
plate distortion step should be performed as close to the film output or plate setting stage as
possible, and can be performed by the raster image processor (RIP) operator using distortion
software. The actual distortion process need not be of concern to the designer.

Halftones and screening

The flexographic printing process historically has been recognized for its ability to apply spot
colour and line art graphics to a wide variety of substrates, especially those used for
packaging. However, it is the recently improved capability of high-quality, economical four
colour process printing that has given the flexographic process an edge over other processes
for packaging graphic applications in full colour.

Dot gain

All printing processes are subject to the natural and unavoidable occurrence called “dot gain.”
Dot gain can be described as an increase in the diameter of halftone dots from the film to
plate and a further increase in size from plate to print. For example, when the image setter
outputs a 50% screen film dot, the flexographic platemaking exposure step may cause that
50% film dot to “grow” to become a 51% dot area on the plate. This is a small and relatively

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insignificant gain in comparison to plate-to-print gain, where a 50% film dot may eventually
print on a flexographic press as a 65% or greater print dot.

Halftone dots can be generated in a number of shapes including the square dot, the elliptical
dot, octagonal dots, and symmetrical and asymmetrical round dots. Square dots begin to join
at 50% (arranged in a checkerboard pattern), and the connected areas continue to increase as
the dot area increases. Dot gain occurs at the perimeter of the halftone dot; as individual dots
join, the perimeter area increases, causing a large density jump at the dot area where the
contact first occurs.

Dot shapes. Without question, a round dot screen is the ideal for the flexographic process.
There are however different versions of round dot screening software. Individual film dots on
the best round dot screens for flexography do not begin to touch until they reach the 70- 75%
region. Most design software can provide for a round dot; however, dot shape should be
determined as close to the platemaking step as possible, either at the film imagesetter or the
platesetter.

Consequently, the same type of dot should be available on the RIP and imagesetter, or
platesetter.
The fluid ink and compressible plate used for flexographic printing tend to increase dot gain,
making dot gain compensation an especially important step for high quality tone
reproduction. Each different substrate printed by flexography will also influence dot gain
characteristics.

It is important to understand that dot gain compensation is different for each printing process,
for many different substrate surfaces, and often for different printing presses within the same
process.
Fortunately, dot gain is predictable and compensated for by a colour separator, or adjusted for
compensation in Photoshop, or in RIP based calibration packages like Agfa Calibrator.

One of the most important considerations for a successful four-colour tone reproduction is an
understanding of the ink hue and dot gain differences that exist for the flexographic printer.
When high-quality tone reproduction is important, the best results are obtained by first
performing a preliminary press test run called a “fingerprint.”

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A fingerprint of the press will provide important information to the colour separator or the
desktop designer. By printing a target of this type under controlled conditions, colour
separation films can be adjusted to compensate for flexographic dot gain and ink hue.

Highlights

Another important consideration when colour separating for the flexographic process is the
placement of the minimum highlight dot. Most photopolymer flexographic plates are capable
of holding a two percent highlight dot. Since the highlight areas of a flexographic print show
the most dot-gain, it is extremely important that the minimum highlight dot capabilities be
discussed with the printer before separations are made.

Vignettes
Flexographic highlight dot gain makes it difficult (if not impossible) to print a fade-away to
white paper without a harsh break at the highlight edge. When designing for flexo, it is best
to fade off the end of the design, or border the highlight end of the vignette.

A vignette or blend
Screen ruling and substrate

The selection of the proper screen ruling is critical to four-colour process flexography. Screen
ruling capabilities are most often dictated by the type of substrate being printed. The
corrugated industry, for example, prints halftones screened at 45, 55, 65, or 85 lines-perinch.
Flexographic newspaper printers print halftones screened between 65 and 100 lines per inch.
Flexible packaging on film-based substrates is commonly done at 120 to 150 lines per inch,
and highquality label printers have the capability of printing 200 line screen images.

Anilox cell count and separation screen ruling should be correlated to achieve the best
flexographic print. Ageneral rule of thumb is that the separation screen ruling should be no
more than 25% of the anilox that will be used to apply ink to the plate. The ideal from an ink-
application-to-the-plate perspective is to have a minimum of four anilox cells on top of each
halftone dot.

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Screen angles

Cells are engraved on an anilox roll at one of three possible angles 30°, 45°, or 60°. To avoid
anilox moiré, film or plate screen angles should be at least 7.5° away from the anilox cell
angle. Cyan, magenta, yellow, and black screen angles should also be set at angles at least 15°
apart from each other.

Stochastic screening
Stochastic or Frequency Modulated (FM) screening for flexography may offer some
advantages over conventional half-tone screening. FM screening eliminates the possibility of
moiré, and also allows the flexographer to print high-fidelity colour. High-fidelity colour is a
technique used to extend the printed colour gamut by printing a total of six or sometimes
seven process colours. The multicolour capabilities of flexo and the random dot pattern of a
stochastic screen to avoid moiré make high-fidelity colour an excellent design option.

The dot size used for FM screening is extremely small and comparable in size to the highlight
dot of conventional screening. The flexo highlight dot is subject to excessive dot gain.
Consequently, FM screening for flexography should not be attempted unless the printer and
colour separator have performed press fingerprints to determine the ideal dot size to be used,
and accurate dot gain compensation curves.

A final point about films made for flexographic plate making: The polymer plate material is
very soft and will easily trap air between the film and the plate during the plate exposure.
Consequently, when making films for sheet photopolymer plates, a special “matte emulsion”
film must be used to avoid out-of-contact areas during plate exposure.

Step & repeat

The concept of printing the same image multiple times across the width of a web and around
the entire repeat length of a cylinder is known as “step and repeat.” Package printing
industries apply this concept in combination with variable repeat length and variable web
width capabilities. The ideal is to maximize substrate usage and productivity by fitting as
many repeated images on the flexographic plate as possible.

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Often, a technique called nesting will be required. By placing duplicate package layouts or
label graphics strategically between other layouts or graphics, the job can be designed for
maximum productivity and minimum material waste. The best method of nesting images is to
cut and paste original graphics. This step in the flexographic prepress process is done in the
production art stage. Most standard layout programs do not have the capability of step and
repeat. Step and repeat can be performed on some illustration programs and by specialized
software that will create templates to allow the production artist the ability to impose multiple
images for film output, while working within the confines of web width limitations and plate
cylinder repeat length.

In the past, multiple sets of flexographic plates were made from one set of films, and
imposition was performed in the plate mounting stage. Today, photopolymer plates and pin
register or micro-dot plate register systems require one-piece plates, and one-piece plates
should be made from one-piece films. The need for large one-piece films for wide web
flexographic printing applications has brought about the need for large format imagesetters
and film processors.

The flexographic printing process is sometimes prone to a quality problem known as “plate
bounce.” This problem is especially prevalent when lead edges of the printing plate run
parallel to the printing nip, and can be avoided by a layout technique called staggering the
plate. Not all designs will allow this technique, but when possible, staggering the plates may
provide for higher press speeds. Another technique used for minimizing plate bounce is the
use of “bearer bars” in the non-image areas. Bearer bars provide continuous contact between
the plate surface, the anilox, and the impression roll.

Die-cutting & converting

When designing graphics for a die-cut label or die-cut folding carton, an artist must take care
to place all graphical elements in the correct positions. A die-cut folding carton is an excellent
example to illustrate the fact that the first requirement for design is that it conform to the
shape of the package.
Packaging engineers often use computer aided design (CAD) systems to design folding
cartons, corrugated containers, or rigid paper boxes. CAD files can be exported to illustration
programs to provide the designer a two-dimensional layout of the job.

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The designer should remember that eventually the design will be converted to a package, and
each package forming process has special considerations that may be adversely affected by
the design of the package. Some important considerations when designing for a job to be a
die-cut box or converted to a bag include:
• Bar coding—Bar coding can be created on the desktop or provided through another outside
source. In either case, bar codes should run parallel with the web direction, and should be cut
back to compensate for flexo gain characteristics.

• Bleeds—For die-cut jobs it is important to have a copy of the die being used. This will
allow the designer the opportunity to see where packages fold and join, and where bleeds will
be required. The amount of bleed required depends on the press being used. Bleeds can be
created with standard illustration programs.

• Cut areas—Because flexographic printers do in-line flatbed or rotary die-cutting, the die
must be held in register with the colours being printed on the package. Important graphic
elements should not be placed too close to cut areas.

• Glue areas/seal areas—To assure sealing when forming a folding carton, glue areas should
be free of ink and varnish.

Polyethelyne bags are often heat sealed. All areas in or near a heat seal should be free of ink.
Heat sealing is also done on some folding cartons; for example, milk cartons are laminated
with polyethylene and will be heat sealed at the seams. The design should be void of ink in
the heat-sealing areas.

• Score lines—Die-cut folding cartons usually fold at score lines. The designer should
consider a score line a critical registration area.

• Varnish areas—Many folding cartons or labels require the application of an over-print


varnish. In some cases, variable information like freshness dating or product coding will be
added during packaging. Often these areas must be free of varnish. This application requires a
special “spot varnish” plate.

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• Windows—Die-cut windows should be clearly indicated. A window used for folding carton
or label work presents problems in the die-cutting operation. Before designing a window,
check with the printer or package convertor to make sure that windowing is within their
capabilities.

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LESSON 5 : PREPRESS OUTPUT

After a design has undergone the required production art trapping, distortion, and imposition
steps, it is ready for film output or, in some cases, it is ready to go directly to digital flexo
platemaking. Imagesetters used for the flexographic process have some unique requirements.

• Accuracy—The nature of the flexographic process includes a number of areas that might
lead to print misregister. When precise register is required, the imagesetter being used should
be the more accurate drum imagesetter, rather than its predecessor, the flatbed capstan
imagesetter. However, capstan devices are suitable for single-colour jobs with less demanding
register requirements and are especially useful for unusually long jobs.

Capstan devices can output film up to 80", while drum scanner lengths are limited to the
circumference of the imaging drum.

• Size—The imagesetter should be large enough to handle the largest films required for
platemaking.
• Film—The imagesetter must be capable of handling 0.007" matte emulsion film.
• Calibration—It is imperative that the imagesetter be properly calibrated. Film dot
percentages below 10% should not vary by more than 1% from the required dot area. Film
dot area over 10% should not vary by more than 3% from the required dot area.
• Uniformity—Light screen tints should be a uniform dot percentage, with no variation in
size between individual dots.
• Shape—The imagesetter and RIP screening information should be capable of outputting a
“hard” round dot.
• Resolution—Resolution should be adequate for the screen ruling to be output (1200–3600
dpi).
• Processor—Because flexographic plates require a relatively lengthy exposure, the film
density becomes an important factor. Imagesetter exposure levels and film processing
chemistry should be adjusted to provide D-Max areas of 4.0 and D-Min of 0.04 or less.

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Proofing
“Proofing” for a flexographic job is not always a clearly defined activity. Historically, a
flexographic proof had been a plate proof made on a mounter-proofer during the plate
mounting procedure. This practice continues today in many wide-web flexo applications. The
mounter-proofer proof is not appropriate for colour matching. Instead, this proof is used
internally to verify plate register, plate quality, and plate content. This type of proof is not
used for customer approval.

A “contract proof” is a facsimile of the job a printer agrees to reproduce; the customer and
printer sign a contract for printed material based on a contract proof. The typical “contract”
proofing system used for offset lithography is not suited for flexographic package proofing.
Basically there are three general problems associated with offset proofing when applied to
flexography.

• Substrate—Most proofing systems proof to a limited number of substrates. Flexographic


package printing is done on a wide variety of substrates, and colours proofed on any substrate
other than the one to be printed will show colour variation when compared to the live press
run.

• Spot Colour Matching—Film-based or digital proofing systems are based on CMYK toner
applications. Many of the packaging graphics are line art and spot colour, not screen tints of
CMYK.

• Halftone Dot Gain Compensation—When a proof of a process colour graphic is required,


most film-based proofing systems are not calibrated for flexography. Proofing systems like
Imation Matchprint and DuPont Chromalin were designed for offset lithography. These
systems were designed to replicate dot gain as it would typically occur in offset lithography.
To use these proofing systems, the flexographer has to output two sets of films: one set
compensated for flexographic dot gain (cutback dot percentages) and sent to platemaking,
and one set with increased dot percentages to replicate on-press dot gain, used for proofing.
Most flexographic printers use cutouts and “dummy” mock-up packages for proofing
purposes. Digital proofs can be made from an inkjet or dye sublimation printer and used as a
facsimile for the mock-up. When critical spot colour matching is required, the flexographic

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printer will often provide the client with a catalog of colours applied to the substrate to be
used. These colours may be variations of conventional colour matching systems like Pantone,
or Focoltone, they may be colours formulated by the printer, or they may be colours
requested by the buyer. In any case, spot colour matching should be visually evaluated and
numerically verified by colour measurement instruments.

Halftone film-based systems can be used for process colour flexographic proofs; however, the
current systems will continue to require that two sets of films be produced—one for plates,
and one for proofing. Digital proofing systems (both halftone and continuous tone), when
used within a colour management environment, can be manipulated to output contract proofs
for flexographic printing.

When used in a colour management environment, digital proofing can eliminate the need for
an extra set of films for proofing purposes.

Packaging conclusions

The flexographic printing process has evolved from letterpress to become the most adaptable
process currently used for packaging graphics applications. Because the process is unique,
there are many unusual design features that should be considered during the prepress stages
of a flexographic printing job.
.
Add to the unique flexographic design features the design features that are unique to
packaging requirements and those that are unique to various substrates and design can
quickly become a nightmare. In order to create successful designs for a flexographically
printed job it is useful for the design and prepress personnel to have a basic understanding of
the process, and its unique design considerations.

The design and prepress personnel may also find it useful to understand those features of a
flexographic printing system that offer a wider latitude of design considerations, like that of
multicolour capability. The most important areas of flexographic design are as follows:

Trapping. Generally speaking, traps need to be larger for flexographic printing than traps for
the other printing processes. The type of press being used for printing and the substrate being

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printed also should be considered when deciding what trap measurements are appropriate.
The best register (and so the least amount of trap requirements) can be achieved on a
common impression cylinder flexographic press. Traps for prints to be done on an in-line or
stack press should be larger than those intended for a CIC press. Thin films of polyethylene
are the most difficult substrates to print without stretch, consequently these films may require
larger areas of trap than designs to be printed on more stable films such as polypropylene.
Typography. The flexographic plate may cause type to distort somewhat during the printing
process. A natural and unavoidable stretch occurs in the web or machine direction when the
flexographic plate is mounted. This plate stretch may cause an increase in line spacing to
blocks of text composed in that direction, or an increase in letterspacing when text is
composed to run parallel with the web direction.

Abnormally high pressure in the printing nip can cause a significant increase in the weight of
type selected by the designer. Reverse type may be “pinched” by the excess pressure. Wider
webs and rougher substrates like paperboard are especially prone to excess pressure being
applied in the printing nip.

Plate elongation. Unlike any other printing plate, the flexographic plate will elongate or
“stretch“ during the plate mounting process. The elongation for each design must be
compensated for in the prepress stage. General axioms to apply are:
• The thicker the plate, the more the stretch.
• The smaller the cylinder to be used for platemounting, the more the stretch.

Halftones. The flexographic plate has its own dot gain characteristics; each substrate will
also contribute to differences in dot gain and tone reproduction. Highlights are also a
challenging area of print for the flexographic process. Special care should be taken when
generating film separations for flexographic printing. The best results for halftone printing
can be achieved by first performing a “fingerprint” test run of the flexographic press in
question. This test will provide the colour separator with the information necessary to apply
the correct gamma for the printing conditions. The rougher the substrate, the greater the dot
gain. The durometer of the plate being used and the type of mounting tape also have a
significant influence on dot gain.

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Screen angles. The cells of the flexographic anilox roll are engraved in either a 30°, 45°, or
60° angle; these cell angles make a one-colour moiré possible. Common practice when
screening for a flexo job is to re-angle screens by either adding or subtracting 7.5° from
standard offset screen angles.

Many unique packaging considerations are important to design and prepress for flexographic
printing. The following techniques are often used for packaging design and prepress. Step
and repeat. Many smaller packages or labels are often printed multiple times on wider webs.
When step and repeats are necessary, images may be turned 90° or 180° to allow for the best
fit and least amount of waste.

Stochastic screening. Stochastic screening may be used when printing high-fidelity colour or
when printing multiple screen tints. Halftones for corrugated are best suited to stochastic
screening techniques.
Die-cutting and converting. Package printing usually is only one step in a package
conversion process. When designing graphics for packaging, special requirements must be
considered. For polyethylene and other substrates that will be heat-sealed, it is important to
keep heat-seal areas free of ink. Afolding carton to be die-cut should have all image elements
located such that when the box is formed they will appear on the correct panel. It is also
important to keep glue areas free from coating or ink that may interfere with bonding.

Paper issues in reproduction


Runnability

Runnability is the ability of a paper to run through a press efficiently with no loss of
productivity or increase in downtime. Runnability affects the profitability of a job and is a
major concern to the printer. There is a difference between purchase price and user cost. A
paper can have the greatest print quality characteristics but if it can’t be run through the press,
it is of little value. This is because of the large area of surface contact with the rubber blanket
and stiff, tacky, paste inks.

Lithographic paper requirements. Conventional lithography uses a dampening or fountain


solution to wet the plate’s non-image areas so they stay ink-free or clean. Therefore, the paper

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must resist weakening of its surface strength due to repeated exposure to moisture from each
successive unit.
Water resistance. Excess water or poor water resistance can cause the coating of the paper to
soften, weaken and leach out onto the blanket. This causes piling and milking. Calcium
carbonate (limestone) is a common coating and filler ingredient. Being an alkaline, it will
increase the pH of the fountain solution and cause other print problems.

Offset litho paper requirements. Lithography, especially sheet-fed, uses thick, paste inks that
are very tacky. Therefore, the paper must have good bond strength to resist rupturing of its
coating or fibers from the surface. Of all the printing processes, lithography deposits the
thinnest film of ink—about one (1) micron thick when dry. Amicron is 10-9m or .00004 inch.
Therefore, any loose surface dirt or contamination such as fizz, lint, or slitting and cutting
dust will show as an aesthetic print defect.

Gravure paper requirement. Image areas are engraved below the surface of the cylinder so
paper must be very flat and smooth to make good contact with the well opening to transfer
(pull out) ink. Gravure inks are very fluid and have little tack to pick up coating and fibers.
Paper should have sizing so fluids inks don’t feather. Comparing coated and uncoated stocks:

Coated paper Uncoated


Has a mineral coating Has no coating, More expensive Less expensive, Smoother surface
Rougher surface, Higher gloss Less gloss, More holdout More absorbent, Better image
quality Poorer image quality, Stronger surface Weaker surface

Basis weight
Basis weight is a measurement of weight of some unit of area. It is the weight (in pounds) of
a ream (500 sheets) in the basic size for that paper grade. It is important because paper is
solid by weight, not linear distance or surface area by volume. Basis weight tolerances are +/-
5%. The US system of basis weight is very confusing because of the difference basic sizes for
each grade category:

Basic paper sizes

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Bond, ledger, writing 17"x22"
Cover 20"x26"
Bristol 22.5"x 28.5"
Index 25.5"x 30.5"
Newsprint, tag 24"x 36"
Coated, text, book, offset 25"x 38"

The metric system uses grammage, which is grams per square meter (g/m2). For a 25"x38"
basic size, the conversion factor to go from basis weight to grammage is to multiply by 1.48.
Multiply by 0.675 for g/m2 into lbs. A 100 lb book paper is equivalent to a 148 g/m2 and a 50
lb is 74 g/m2. Substance weight usually applies only to writing grades of paper (bond,
duplicator). It is the same as basis weight. “M” weight is the weight for 1,000 sheets, not 500.
M weight is twice the basis weight.

The thickness of cover grades is measured in thousanth of an inch. Ten (10) point is .010".
Thickness is often called caliper and it is measured in points or mills which is a thousandths
of an inch (.001"). Bulk for book papers is expressed in the number of pages per inch (ppi)
for a given basis weight. 50 lb book paper can vary from 310 to 800 ppi, .003" to .0013"
respectively.

Paper grain direction

The grain direction, or alignment of paper fibers, affects the feeding and transporting of paper
through the press. You want to handle paper on sheetfed presses at very fast production
speeds of 15,000 impressions per hour (iph).
The wrong grain direction can cause a loss in productivity.

If 25"x38", then the grain is long


Fold a sheet in both directions
Cleanest fold is with the grain
Tear a sheet in both directions
Cleanest tear is with the grain
Cut two strips in different directions
Most rigid or stiffer strip is with the grain

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Moisten only one side of a sheet of paper
The paper will immediately curl and roll with the grain
The grain should run parallel to the printing cylinders or along the longest dimension which
is called grain “long.”

Why grain long?


The sheet must follow a relatively tight “S” curve as it wraps around the impression cylinder
on its way to the transfer cylinder. If the sheet is grain long, it is more pliable and will gently
follow and conform to the “S” curve. If grain short, the sheet is stiff and rigid and will slap
against the cylinder. The wet ink surface will then mark and scratch. If the paper absorbs
moisture it will expand mostly in the cross-grain direction. This makes the sheet of paper
longer front-to-back. The packing beneath both the plate and blanket can be adjusted to
compensate for the size change so images will now register and fit properly.

Finishing & bindery


Substrate and printing issues affect bindery and finishing. When folding you want to fold
parallel with the grain to prevent cracking, especially on black solid colours. Perfect bound
(hot melt) books should have grain direction parallel with the spine or back bone.
Sheetfed presses require flat paper to prevent feeding, register, and printing problems. Paper
should lie flat and have no curls, buckles, waves, or puckers. Flatness is very related to
moisture content and relative humidity (RH). Mechanical curling on roll or reel set is greatest
near the innermost core or reel where paper is wound very tightly around a small diameter.
Tail-end hook is caused by forces of tacky ink splitting when the sheet is peeled off the
rubber blanket at a sharp angle. It is especially noticeable on heavy coverage near the tail end
of the sheet. At the wet end (headbox) of the papermaking machine, paper is almost 99.5%
water. At the dry roll end, paper is only about 5% water. The amount of water contained in a
sheet of paper is called its moisture content relative humidity (aka RH); the amount of water
or moisture in the air at a given temperature is called the relative humidity or RH. Cold
winter months are usually dry. Warm summer months are usually wet or damp. Many printers
have little or no control of the environmental conditions that affect paper.

Dimensional stability

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Paper is hydroscopic which means it breaths and acclimates with the surrounding
environment. The exposed outer edges of a pile or load can either absorb or release moisture
while the inside of the pile, which is protected, remains unchanged. This causes the paper to
swell and expand or shrink and contract in size. Wavy edges on paper is caused by an
increase in RH of the atmosphere in the pressroom. Wavy edged paper causes mis-registration
on press or poor fit between colours. It usually occurs at the back corners and gets
progressively worse, thus fans out. Severe cases cause wrinkles starting at the lower center
and progressing diagonally to the outer back corners.

Conditioning and trimming paper


Paper must first be brought into temperature equilibrium before it is opened up and exposed
to the humidity of the environment. Conditioning depends on the volume or amount of paper
and the relative difference in temperature between the paper and air. Six cubic feet of paper
takes 72 hours (3 days) to condition at 50 degrees difference.

Sheets should be both square and accurate to size. Front-to-back dimension is critical on
sheetfed perfecting presses. Many printers trim stock for accurate size.
Cleanliness
Paper should not have any loose surface contamination such as dust, lint or dirt. If it does, the
result will be voids in print areas called hickeys, fisheyes, or donuts. Many times this is
caused by a dull rotary slitter or flat blade knife. It shows up as contamination on the blanket
at the outer edges of the sheet only. Hickeys come from three different sources:
• paper
• ink
• dirt

Strength
Strength is primarily determined by how well the inner fibers are bonded or closely
intermingled together, more so than thickness. Web- or roll-fed presses that are under high
tension need a lot of tensile strength so web breaks do not occur. Weak surface strength tends
to pick and cause hickeys, or delaminate and split apart. Stretch (elasticity) is the amount of
distortion paper undergoes under tensile strain or tension. It is important in web or roll

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printing because paper is under a constant pulling stress. Stretch is generally greater in the
cross direction (CD) than in the machine direction (MD).

Print quality
Print quality is defined by those factors and characteristics that influence the appearance of
the printed image on the paper. Some print quality problems are unjustly blamed on the paper
when some other factors, such as ink, blanket, or press, are really the cause.

Whiteness
Whiteness is the ratio of red, green and blue reflectance. Likewise, it’s also the amount of
cyan, magenta and yellow density. It is important in full four-colour process printing that the
paper be as white as possible so it can reflect all the colours in the spectrum. Printing is a
subtractive process. White can be many different colours. White can be very neutral and
balanced or it can have a predominant cast or hue.
If the paper is “cold” it is toward the blue side (CIE + b*).
If the paper is “warm,” it is toward the red side (CIE + a*).

Brightness
Whiteness is the ratio of RGB reflectance. Brightness is how much blue light only is being
reflected. Adding blue to a yellow paper makes it whiter (neutral) but less bright. The TAPPI
(Technical Association for Paper and Pulp) specification calls for measuring brightness (%
Ref.) at 427 nm. If the brightness is over 87%, the paper can be classified as a number one
(#1) sheet. Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) is a popular additive that makes paper whiter, brighter
and more opaque. Calcium carbonate (limestone) is a more practical and less expensive
alternative for paper filler and coatings. Paper mills sometimes add fluorescent brightening
agents (FBA) to paper to make them look whiter than they really are. For a fluorescent
material to fluoresce, the light source much contain some ultra-violet (UV) energy. Natural
daylight is UV rich. Fluorescent agents are also used in specialty inks.

Opacity
If the paper is not opaqued but translucent, the image from one side can be seen on the other.
This is called show-through and can be very distracting to the reader. As the paper caliper or
weight increase, whether from fiber or filler, opacity increases because more light can be
absorbed. Calendering reduces opacity because air spaces, which act as light traps, are

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collapsed. Strike-through is when the ink physically penetrates through a sheet of paper, not
the light.

Smoothness
The smoothness or roughness of paper greatly affects printability. This is less so for offset
lithography because the pliable rubber blankets can easily transfer ink into the low valleys.
Surface texture can be measured, quantified, and profiled with instruments. Gloss is the
amount of specular or mirror reflection a surface has. The flatter or smoother a surface is, the
more gloss or shine it will have. Calendering increases smoothness and gloss because the
rough surfaces are polished flat. More calendering of coated papers changes the paper’s finish
from matte, to dull, then gloss, to finally ultra-gloss. Paper gloss is measured at a 75 degree
angle of geometry. Heatset web inks have poor ink gloss.

Formation
Formation is the term used to describe a paper’s fibrous structure, uniformity, and
distribution. Formation is judged by transmitted back lighting, such as a light table. Uneven
clumping of paper fibers is called “wild” and will cause mottled printing because of the
difference in ink absorption due to paper fiber concentration or density.

Back tap mottle is a sporadic problem where the paper is blamed. It usually occurs in purples
or blues. Pulling a single impression of just cyan or magenta shows no mottle, but together,
it’s mottled. The stillwet ink is non-uniformly back trapping onto subsequent blankets.

Two sidedness. Printers want paper to be as similar as possible for both sides of the sheet.
This is because of sheetwise, work & turn, and work & flop impositions and layouts. Colours
on facing pages (reader spreads) must match at the cross-over. Fourdriner-made paper is two
sided because of the effects of the felt and wire side on water drainage.

Absorbency & holdout. Paper, by its very nature, has an affinity for inks, especially the liquid
inks used in flexography and gravure. There must be a delicate balance or compromise
between the paper’s ability to absorb ink and its holdout. Too much of one and not enough of
the other will cause several different print quality problems to result.

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Too absorbent. If the paper absorbs too much ink then the solid images will appear weak and
flat with little gloss. Halftones and screen tints will have excessive dot growth or dot gain and
look dark, dirty, plugged up and filled in. Uncoated papers and newsprint may act like a
blotter.

Holdout. Holdout is the ability of a paper to allow a fresh, wet ink film to sit on the top
surface of the paper and not be quickly absorbed into the paper. If so, the ink will dry with a
higher density (darker), and more gloss (shine). The more fluid the inks or more absorbent
the paper, the less holdout there is.

Ink mileage

Paper holdout determines the mileage or ink consumption rate. It is very similar to an
automobile’s gasoline mileage. The more holdout, the better the ink mileage. One pound of
black ink should cover 360,000 square inches of area on coated paper, but covers only
150,000 on newsprint.

Set-off

Set-off occurs when the fresh, wet ink film on the top surface of a bottom sheet makes
physical contact with the bottom side of the next top sheet and the ink transfers. The image
will always be wrong reading. Set-off occurs when there is too much holdout, an ink film that
is too thick, an ink that dries too slowly, or cold paper.

Blocking

Blocking is a severe case of set-off. Blocking occurs when the wet inks dry in contact with
each other and effectively have been glued together. Because the sheets stick together they
cannot be easily separated without damaging the image areas. Usually, these sheets must be
thrown away.

Spray powder

A printer can prevent set-off and blocking by using a fine white powder that is sprayed onto
the top surface of the sheet. This anti-set-off spray powder prevents the sheets from making
any physical contact.

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It allows air and oxygen to flow between the sheets so they can dry faster. The powder is
usually a corn starch. If too much spray powder is used, it dries in the ink and makes it very
rough, almost like sand paper. This can cause abrasion when two pieces run up against each
other. It also detacts from the gloss of the inks. Excess powder can also cause problems on
the second pass through the press.

Racking or traying

Sheet-fed printers try to avoid set-off, blocking and excessive spray powder by running small
lifts in their press delivery. This is called racking or traying. Paper is very heavy and small
piles or lifts keep the weight and pressure to a minimum. These piles are separated and
supported by metal angle braces and plywood boards.

Chalking

If any ink takes too long to dry, the thinner viscosity vehicles, oils, solvents and other
ingredients that bind or adhere the ink to the surface drain into the paper. The result is a dry
ink that is mostly just pigment powder and can easily be rubbed or scratched off. This is
called chalking.

Blistering

Heatset web offset presses dry the inks by passing the web through a hot, open flame gas
oven. Blistering occurs on coated paper when there is heavy ink coverage that seals the sheet
closed. Any moisture trapped inside the sheet suddenly vaporizes, turning into steam and
rupturing the paper surface. Blistering is likely to occur when:

• The paper is coated


• There is a lot of heavy ink coverage on both sides of the paper or substrate
• There is too much moisture in the paper
• The dryer oven temperature is too hot
• The web speed is too slow

When you get right down to it, paper seems simple but it is rather complicated.

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The digital movement

The age of electronics and computers has changed the way printed products are created and
produced. Since the early 1980s, printing and publishing technology has been evolving new
methods for production digital imaging. Before going further, let’s define what exactly a
digital image is. The term digital literally means “composed of numbers,” so a digital image
is an image that is composed of numbers.

Every file, whether it be an image, a sound, or a text file, is nothing more than a string of
binary digits. By modern convention the binary digit 0 is used to represent an image element,
the binary digit 1 is used to represent a non-image element. Binary digits are called bits. A
byte is a binary numbers represented by eight bits, it can have 256 possible values ranging
from 1 to 255.

Digital images

Scanner

Images can be digitized by a scanner. A scanner captures an image and converts it into a
computer file of binary values (0s and 1s) that correspond to the brightness of the image at
various points, pixels. The ability of the scanner to “see” variations in brightness depends on
how much information is stored in a pixel, an amount called pixel depth. The deeper the
pixel, the more information it can store.

Digital image type Pixel size Tones/colours

Binary image 1 bit 2


Grayscale image 1 byte 256
RGB colour image 3 bytes 16,777,216
CMYK colour image 4 bytes 4,294,967,296

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LESSON 6: DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Digital photography is another way to digitize images. Digital cameras and cameras backs are
used to photograph subjects using charged couple devices (CCD) that record the coupled
images as electronic voltages. These analog voltages are converted to digital signals that can
be fed directly into colour correction software that produces images without the need for
films or scanners.

Digital type

All output devices today are raster-based. This means that they create type and images as
patterns of spots or dots on paper, film, plate, and other substrate. In 1985 Adobe introduced
PostScript as a language for driving raster-based output devices, and for producing typefaces
as vector-based outlines. Almost all digital fonts now fall into 2 main categories:

• PostScript or Type 1 fonts are scalable outline fonts which are defined using PostScript’s
bézier curves and work best with Raster Image Processors (RIP) because they do not need to
be converted to be RIPped and output.
• TrueType fonts are also scalable outline fonts but they are based on quadratic curves.
Created by Apple, these fonts must either be converted to Type 1 before being RIPped or a
True- Type Rasterizer must be used to create the bitmap for the output device. When data is
stored in a file, it is usually structured in a manner that is tailored to specific types of
information. It is also structured in a manner that allows recovery of the data with a
reasonable degree of efficiency. There are various document structures that feed into the
digital printing process.

Text data
In order to maintain effective and consistent results in the exchange of textual data across
multiple platforms, an encoding scheme must be used to represent alphanumeric characters as
a set of binary digits. ASCII eventually become the standard and is now used in most
personal computers. The ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
describes a coded character set which is primarily intended for the interchange of

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information. The character set is applicable to all Latin alphabets; eight bits are commonly
used to represent each character in ASCII code.

Graphical data

Bitmaps

A bitmap is described as a rectangular array of pixels, which are used to form an image. In a
bitmap, the pixel depth specifies the number of colours the pixel can show; 24 bits or 3 bytes
(RGB) is often used as a practical maximum for the number of colours that should be
required in any bitmap image. Once an input device such as a scanner or a digital camera has
captured a bitmap image, it can then be manipulated using different types of software tools.
These tools range from simple paint packages that offer a limited range of editing
capabilities, to sophisticated photo-editing packages that offer a suite of complex editing and
special effect tools. Common bitmap file types are TGA, BMP, PCX and TIFF (Tagged
Image File Format).

Vectors

In computer graphics, vector data usually refers to a means of representing graphic entities
such as lines, polygons or curves, by numerically specifying key points to control their
generation. There are
many common vector file types. Example: Auto CAD DXF, Auto CAD DWG and Wavefront
OBJ.

Metafiles

Metafiles usually contain both bitmap and vector data. Metafiles are widely used to transport
bitmap or vector data between hardware platforms. Some examples of the common metafile
types are RTF,
WGM, Macintosh PICT, and EPS (Encapsulated PostScript).

PostScript

The revolutionary product developed by Adobe Systems was a computer language called
PostScript and a process that could interpret PostScript page descriptions and generate a data
stream to drive a digital printing device such as a laser printer or film writer. The PostScript

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page description language has become the heart of desktop publishing and electronic
prepress. It standardized the language that each application program outputs by developing
RIPs for many different printers and output devices.

The RIP, or raster image processor, is really the PostScript programming language compiler.
It interprets the file and executes its commands, which are to draw objects on a page. The end
result of RIPping is a bitmap for the entire page that tells the output engine where to place
dots. Digital imaging makes all direct-to outputs possible by replacing photography when
used to image films, replacing films when imaging plates, and imaging plateless systems
directly.

Digital printing is divided into three main categories of technologies:


• direct-to-plate off-press
• direct-to-plate on-press
• direct-to-print

DIRECT-TO-PLATE

There are two categories of direct-to-plate technology, direct-to-plate off-press and direct-to-
plate on-press.

Direct-to-plate off-press

Direct-to-plate systems are the logical answer for longer run sheetfed and web offset printing,
at least for now. That’s why we are most likely to find commercial and publication printers,
who use special cylinder-to-press approaches, print runs in the millions. Offset printing has
been a bit behind because the CTP equipment hadn’t been available. Direct-to-plate or
computer-to-plate (CTP) means that electronic information from a file is sent in PostScript
form to an off-press platemaking device. There plates are written, exposed, and processed so
they are ready to hang on an offset printing press. The
platesetter exposes the plate using a precisely guided and focused laser beam to deliver the
data. CTP can save time and money, and can yield improvements in quality and consistency.

Direct-to-plate on-press

Direct-to-plate on-press, called direct imaging presses, is a system that uses plates that have
already been “hung” or put in place on the plate cylinders on a press. Once hung, these plates

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are then imaged with the digital information for the print job. Before the plates can be
imaged, the digital information has to be prepared. The electronic files, generated on the
desktop computer and delivered in their native applications, first go to the printer’s desktop
workstation.

There the operator performs a flight check, final imposition, and conversion to PostScript.
Next, the PostScript files are digitally separated and bitmaps are generated via the RIP to a
server and subsequently transferred to plates on press. Each plate is mounted on each press
unit and imaged simultaneously. In direct imaging press, the prepress steps of film output and
off-press plate are eliminated. The technology used to image digital information from the
press computer directly to each plate is called laser dot imaging. It was developed by
Presstek. Laser dot imaging was first brought to the market on the GTO-DI from Heidelberg.

DIGITAL PRINTING

Once the plate is made, however, the image reproduction process is a purely analog affair. Ink
is transported from reservoir to plate, and then from plate to substrate by mechanical means.
Modern printing process may incorporate a number of digital subsystems to monitor and
control colour register, paper tension, paper density, and other important variables. However,
the image information that the press transfers to the substrate does not have to exist in a
digital form. Analog printing presses often employ computers to help them do their job more
efficiently, but they do not need computers to tell them what to print. We do not consider
modern lithography or gravure processes digital, even though the images they reproduce
almost certainly were in digital form at some point earlier in the process.

Direct to print

Direct-to-print or digital printing is the production of printed materials directly from digital
information residing in an electronic file in a computer. Put another way, it’s the output of
digital information from an electronic file onto a substrate of some kind. Until now, most
direct digital printing devices, with the exception of imagesetters, produced continuous tone
output. Imagesetters use lasers to expose graphic arts film, special paper, or plate materials
with digital information.

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When the film is reproduced, the halftone dot structure is in place and the project is ready to
be assembled into a film flat, which is then subsequently imaged to make a printing plate. If
plate materials are imaged, the job is ready to go to press. Images printed by one of the
traditional printing processes must have a halftone dot structure to be reproduced. Digital
printing has this capability, so it’s finally become printing to commercial printers as well;
they can have their dots and digital too.

Traditional printing does not allow us to print variable information. With traditional printing,
the prepress work is performed, the plates are made, and they are run on the press. The end
result is thousands of pages that look exactly the same. This information is not variable; it is
static. In contrast, many of the digital presses (presses that print from digital data) can print
variable information. On different pages we can have different names and addresses. The
ability to print variable information which results in variable printing is the critical
component of customized printing.

For years, printers have been reporting that press runs are becoming shorter each year. A
commercial printer’s average order fell from 20,000 press sheets in the early 1980s to 5,000–
10,000 press sheets today. No one talks about the customers who forgo ordering a printed
product because they really need about 1,000 copies or less. Shorter printing runs evidently
do not mean that people are buying less print—the printing industry is putting more ink on
paper every year; people seem instead to want to buy more of less—they want more short
runs than long runs.

On-demand printing

On-demand is a term that means different things to different people. In a general sense, the
concept of on-demand is basically one of short notice and quick turnaround. In the printing
industry, it is also associated with shorter and more economical printing runs. When all of this
is combined, the definition becomes “short notice, quick turnaround of short, economical
print runs.” When all criteria are met, it results in lower inventory costs, lower risk of
obsolescence, lower production costs, and reduced distribution costs.
Distribute and print

By combining digital printing with telecommunications, one can greatly reduce the delivery
timetable of printed product. Most printing plants today use a print-and-deliver approach; the

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job gets printed, loaded on trucks or put in the mail, and delivered to the customer or their
audiences. With digital printing and telecommunications, the customer or an electronic
service bureau can design the pages, assign them to forms, and send the images electronically
to many local printers for production. This new approach reverses the process of deliver-and-
print, and gets the message into the hands of audiences quicker.

Fast turnaround

A few years ago, turnaround time at a commercial printer was 14 to 21 days, today it is about
10 days. For many projects, even that time does not work. When we add that reality to the
decreasing size of the print orders, we can see why digital full-colour printing is the right
process at the right time. Digital printing is very fast—as a rule of thumb, two-sided full
colour print runs of 500 11"x17" sheets will take less than a half hour to go through these
machines. And when the printing is completed, the product is ready for finishing. What must
be factored is the time to flight and prepare the file for printing.

Personalization

One way a company can distinguish itself from the competition is to add perceived value to
its product or performance. It can do that with improvements, innovations, and pricing
options. Direct the message to the target audience as individuals (personalize it) and you also
add value. Marketers, especially cataloguers, would like to use their databases in more
sophisticated ways. Specially versioned catalogs, based on a consumer’s previous purchases,
credit history, and demographic information, are supposed to be the waves of the future.
Short run, personalized digital printing becomes a tool to test these pieces before a full-
fledged roll out. Shorter-run specialty catalogs, those with final print runs of 5,000 to 10,000
copies, can even be printed digitally in five or ten different editions of 1,000 each, with fewer
pages of well-chosen merchandise.

Post press Operations


Post press operations consist of four major processes:
Cutting, folding, assembling, and binding. Not all printed products, however, are subjected to
all of the processes. For example, simple folded pamphlets do not undergo binding.

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There are many additional lesser post press finishing processes such as varnishing,
perforating, drilling, etc. Some types of greeting cards are dusted with gold bronze. Printed
metal products are formed into containers of various sizes and shapes. Many metal toys are
prepared in the same manner. Containers may also be coated on the inside to protect the
eventual contents. Other substrates may be subjected to finishing processes that involve
pasting, mounting, laminating, and collating. There are also a number of post press operations
unique to screen printing including die cutting, vacuum forming, and embossing.

A limited number and volume of chemicals are used in post press operations. The major type
of chemicals used in post press are the adhesives used in binding and other assembly
operations. Because chemical usage is limited, only a brief overview of each of the four
major post press operations is provided.

Cutting
The machine typically used for cutting large web-type substrates into individual pages or
sheets is called a guillotine cutter or "paper cutter". These machines are built in many sizes,
capacities, and configurations. In general, however, the cutter consists of a flat bed or table
that holds the stack of paper to be cut. At the rear of the cutter the stack of paper rests against
the fence or back guide which is adjustable. The fence allows the operator to accurately
position the paper for the specified cut. The side guides or walls of the cutter are at exact right
angles to the bed. A clamp is lowered into contact with the top of the paper stack to hold the
stack in place while it is cut. The cutting blade itself is normally powered by an electric
engine operating a hydraulic pump. However, manual lever cutters are also still in use.

To assist the operator in handling large reams of paper which can weigh as much as 200
pounds, some tables are designed to blow air through small openings in the bed of the table.
The air lifts the stack of paper slightly providing a near frictionless surface on which to move
the paper stack.
The cutter operator uses a cutting layout to guide the cutting operation. Typically, the layout
is one sheet from the printing job that has been ruled to show the location and order of the
cuts to be made. Though cutting is generally considered a post press operation, most
lithographic and gravure web presses have integrated cutters as well as equipment to perform
related operations such as slicing and perforating.

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Folding
Folding largely completes post press operations for certain products such as simple folded
pamphlets. Other products are folded into bunches, known as signatures, of from 16 to 32
pages. Multiple signatures are then assembled and bound into books and magazines. Though
folding is generally considered a post press operation, most lithographic and gravure web
presses are equipped with folders.

Three different folders are used in modern print shops. They range in complexity from the
bone folder to the buckle folder. Bone folders have been used for centuries and are made of
either bone or plastic. These folders are simple shaped pieces of bone or plastic that are
passed over the fold to form a sharp crease. Today, they continue to be used, but only for
small, very high quality jobs.
Knife folders use a thin knife to force the paper between two rollers that are counterrotating.
This forces the paper to be folded at the point where the knife contacts it. A fold gauge and a
moveable side bar are used to position the paper in the machine before the knife forces the
paper between the rollers. The rollers have knurled surfaces that grip the paper and crease it.
The paper then passes out of the folder and on to a gathering station.
Several paper paths, knives and roller sets can be stacked to create several folds on the same
sheet as it passes from one folding station to another. Buckle folders differ from knife folders
in that the sheet is made to buckle and pass between the two rotating rollers of its own
accord. In a buckle folder, drive rollers cause the sheet to pass between a set of closely spaced
folding plates. When the sheet comes in contact with the sheet gauge, the drive rollers
continue to drive the paper causing it to buckle over and then pass between the folding
rollers.
Assembly
The assembly process brings all of the printed and non-printed elements of the final product
together prior to binding. Assembly usually includes three steps: gathering, collating, and
inserting. Gathering is the process of placing signatures next to one another. (A signature is a
bunch of printed sheets ranging from 16 to 32 pages.) Typically, gathering is used for
assembling books that have page thicknesses of at least 3/8 inch. Collating is the process of
gathering together individual sheets of paper instead of signatures. Inserting is the process of
combining signatures by placing or "inserting" one inside another. Inserting is normally used
for pieces whose final thickness will be less than one-half inch.

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Assembly processes can be manual, semiautomatic or fully automatic. In manual assembly
operations, workers hand assemble pieces from stacks of sheets or signatures laid out on
tables. Sheets or signatures are picked up from the stacks in the correct order and either
gathered, collated, or inserted to form bindery units. Some printers use circular revolving
tables to assist in this process. However, due to the high cost of labor, manual assembly is
used only for small jobs.

Semiautomatic assembly is completely automated except that stacks of sheets or signatures


must be manually loaded into the feeder units. During semiautomatic inserting, operators at
each feeder station open signatures and place them at the "saddlebar" on a moving conveyer.
The number of stations on the machine is determined by the number of signatures in the
completed publication. Completed units are removed at the end of the conveyer and passed
on to the bindery. Automatic assemblers are similar to semiautomatic units except that a
machine and not a person delivers the sheets or signatures to the feeder station and places
them on the conveyor. In order to improve efficiency, automatic assemblers are typically
placed in line with bindery equipment.

Binding
Binding is categorized by the method used to hold units of printed material together. The
three most commonly used methods are adhesive binding, side binding, and saddle binding.
Three types of covers are available to complete the binding process: self-covers, soft-covers,
and case bound covers.

Binding Methods
Adhesive binding, also known as padding, is the simplest form of binding. It is used for note
pads and paperback books, among other products. In the adhesive binding process, a pile of
paper is clamped securely together in a press. A liquid glue is then applied with a brush to the
binding edge. The glue most commonly used in binding is a water-soluble latex that becomes
impervious to water when it dries.

For note pads, the glue used is flexible and will easily release an individual sheet of paper
when the sheet is pulled away from the binding. Adhesive bindings are also used for
paperback books, but these bindings must be strong enough to prevent pages from pulling out
during normal use. For paperback book binding, a hot-melt glue with much greater adhesive

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strength than a water-soluble latex is applied. A piece of gauze-like material is inserted into
the glue to provide added strength.

In side binding, a fastening device is passed at a right angle through a pile of paper. Stapling
is an example of a simple form of side binding. The three other types of side binding are
mechanical, loose-leaf, and side-sewn binding. A common example of a form of mechanical
binding is the metal spiral notebook. In this method of binding, a series of holes are punched
or drilled through the pages and cover and then a wire is then run through the holes.
Mechanical binding is generally considered as permanent; however, plastic spiral bindings
are available that can be removed without either tearing the pages or destroying the binding
material. Mechanical binding generally requires some manual labour.

Loose-leaf bindings generally allow for the removal and addition of pages. This type of
binding includes the well known three-ring binder. Side-sewn binding involves drilling an
odd number of holes in the binding edge of the unit and then clamping the unit to prevent it
from moving. A needle and thread is then passed through each hole proceeding from one end
of the book to the other and then back again to the beginning point. This type of stitch is
called a buck-stitch. The thread is tied off to finish the process. Both semiautomatic and
automatic machines are widely used to perform side-stitching. The main disadvantage of this
type of binding is that the book will not lie flat when opened.
In saddle binding one or more signatures are fastened along their folded edge of the unit. The
term saddle binding comes from an open signature's resemblance to an inverted riding saddle.
Saddle binding is used extensively for news magazines where wire stitches are placed in the
fold of the signatures. Most saddle stitching is performed automatically in-line during the
post press operations. Large manually operated staplers are used for small printing jobs.

Another saddle binding process called Smythe sewing is a center sewing process. It is
considered to be the highest quality fastening method used today and will produce a book that
will lie almost flat.

Covers

Self-covers are made from the same material as the body of the printed product. Newspapers
are the most common example of a printed product that uses self-covers. Soft covers are

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made from paper or paper fiber material that is somewhat heavier or more substantial than the
paper used for the body of the publication. This type of cover provides only slight protection
for the contents. Unlike self-cover, soft covers almost never contain part of the message or
text of the publication. A typical example of the soft cover is found on paper-back books.
These covers are usually cut flush with the inside pages and attached to the signatures by
glue, though they can also be sewn in place. Case bound covers are the rigid covers generally
associated with high-quality bound books. This method of covering is considerably more
complicated than any of the other methods. Signatures are trimmed by a three-knife trimming
machine to produce three different lengths of signature. This forms a rounded front (open)
edge to give the finished book an attractive appearance and provides a back edge shape that is
compatible with that of the cover. A backing is applied by clamping the book in place and
splaying or mushrooming out the fastened edges of the signatures. This makes the rounding
operation permanent and produces a ridge for the case bound cover. Gauze and strips of paper
are then glued to the back edge in a process called lining-up. The gauze is known as "crash"
and the paper strips are called "backing paper." These parts are eventually glued to the case
for improved strength and stability. Headbands are applied to the head and tail of the book for
decorative purposes. The case is made of two pieces of thick board, called binder's board, that
is glued to the covering cloth or leather. The covering material can be printed either before or
after gluing by hot-stamping or screen methods. The final step in case binding consists of
applying end sheets to attach the case to the body of the book.

In-Line Finishing

Historically, the finishing operations described above were labor-intensive operations handled
either in-house or by trade shops. Even when performed in-house, finishing operations
generally were not integrated with the presses or with each other. Today, web presses are
often linked directly to computer controlled in-line finishing equipment. Equipment is
available to perform virtually all major post-press operations including cutting, folding,
perforating, trimming, and stitching (Adams). In-line finishing equipment can also be used to
prepare materials for mailing. The computer can store and provide addresses to ink-jet or
label printers, which then address each publication in zip code order (Adams).

One of the most important results of computer in-line finishing is the introduction of
demographic binding, the selective assembly of a publication based on any one or more of a

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number of factors including geographic area, family structure, income, or interests. For
example, an advertisement will appear only in those copies of a magazine intended for
distribution in the advertisers selling area. Demographic binding has proven to be a
successful marketing tool and is already widely used, especially by major magazines
(Adams).

One comparison found that the use of in-line finishing equipment can reduce the number of
operators and helpers required for an off-line finishing operation by almost half, while at least
doubling the rate of production (Adams). In-line finishing, an automated process that links
the press directly with post press operations, is also discussed.

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UNIT IV
LESSON 1 : DESK TOP PUBLISHING

‘Publishing’ traditionally conjures up visions of only composing and printing. However, it


encompasses a whole range of tasks that go much beyond typesetting and printing. Publishing
includes everything from origination of the message to generation of text and graphic design
and assembly of text and graphics into a functional form. Copy-editing, proof-reading, and,
finally, converting the assembled page into a camera-ready copy-all this is a long labour-
intensive process, involving various specialists and expensive equipment. The traditional,
labour –intensive process of publishing had a high incidence of errors and required more and
time. Computers are now being increasingly used in all significant aspects of publishing, not
only removing most of the bottlenecks in publishing but also offering tools and techniques for
carrying out all the tasks related to printing. Above all, all the phases of publishing can now
be controlled by one person directly with the help of computer commands.

Desktop publishing (DTP) has provided entirely new means to create a print document in less
time, with less cost and less bother. Desktop publishing is so called because, in a DTP
system, most of the publishing tasks can be carried out on relatively small equipment that can
be placed on a table. The advantages of DTP over the traditional methods of publishing
include increased control over the end-product and savings in turnaround time as the product
can be created and printed at the same place.

Desktop publishing can be said to have begun with the advent of early phototypesetters
(second generation) which were a combination of typesetting and computing. Traditionally,
typesetting is an expensive and labour-intensive process for producing high quality print
documents. It involves cutting and pasting jobs to combine type with headlines, charts,
diagrams, and other graphic elements. The inevitable last-minute changes are difficult to
incorportate in traditional typesetting when type must be reset, a redrawn, and headlines,
type, and art shuffled around on a paste-up board. Desktop publishing goes beyond
typesetting, as it produces typeset matter and graphics, and a combination of the two.

Pasting is done electronically in DTP. It is far easier to draw several geometrical shapes using
DTP than to draw them by hand. Also, undergoing a mistake electronically is far easier than
to draw them by hand. Also, undergoing a mistake electronically is far easier than using an

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eraser or white-out manually. Perhaps the most important advantages of DTP is that it
possible to re-arrange a page with a simple computer command.

Capabilities

Almost anything that can be achieved on a dedicated publishing system can also be achieved
on a DTP system. This includes handling of text, generation of graphics, editing of images
and outputting.

Handling of text

DTP allows one to compose text in a manner that comes close to the requirement of
typesetting. It is possible to compose text with well-designed, proportionately spaced
characters along with justified lines, if desired, and automatic and customized hyphenation.
Type composition in a DTP system allows the use of more than one type of font and size, and
a character set more varied than that available on a typewriter or with hot metal composing
methods.

An in-built dictionary helps in checking spellings. Desktop publishing also takes care of the
setting of tabular matter, indents of all kinds, and aesthetics character kerning. They system
accepts processed words from pen drives, disks, tapes, OCRs, or directly from the keyboard.
It also alerts the user to grammatical mistakes in the text.

Desktop publishing also enables the user to create a particular style for the word processing
document as per the look or image desired for the publication. The style may include
elements such as font size, leading, space before and after paragraphs, alignment, and
indention. The style created can easily be exported to the application of desktop publishing.
Every detail of the style can be reproduced accurately through DTP.

Generation of graphics

Artwork and design can be created with the commands of the operator in DTP. Business
graphics can be generated by programs that use figures from the data and convert them into
required charts or graphics.

Other than text, graphics may be either free-hand graphics or drawings made by using
computer aided design (CAD) programs. Graphics may also be scanned through a peripheral
device such as a scanner or drawn with the help of a digitizer. The pictures used in the

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publication do not need to be derived from photographs and the screened to convert them into
halftones for the purpose of reproduction. The system performs a variety of manipulative
tasks, such as sizing, cropping, and image rotation. Image can also be enhanced using several
visual effects-strokes, washes, and textures that simulate conventional are techniques.

Editing of images

The visual documents created by the user can easily be viewed on the computer
monitor/VDU. It is also convenient to edit and shift around composed matter in a DTP
system. Illustration areas can also be edited by cutting, cropping, deleting, superimposing,
and colouring. The image quality of the on-screen matter is as fine as the output quality.

Desktop publishing clearly demands an effective and experienced editor and an imaginative
designer who can make good use of the various facilities available in a DTP system.

Outputting

The DTP system must be able to produce output on at least one of the devices available.
Today’s publishing standards require the output of a DTP system to be at least 600 dpi or
more for the master to be camera ready, or for the film in positive form.

Laser printers can produce acceptable outputs for many users. For some, however, laser
output is of too a quality to be used for publishing. In such cases, the master copy for printing
is created through image setters, which produce higher resolution output. Printouts of 300 dpi
or less serve as proofing copies in these cases. Since a DTP system requires a small area and
less of running around, one person can easily take control of the entire process and keep of
both the creative and the production aspects.

USERS OF DESKTOP PUBLISHING SYSTEMS


DTP systems can be used by an individual or by small groups and organizations. The
individual may be an author, a journalist, or an artist. Authors and journalists can prepare
their manuscripts on their personal computers. A low –cost printout of the same can be
obtained as per the publications format, thus avoiding the need for costly and time-consuming
typesetting.

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Artists, with their basic skills of drawing and layout designing, can use the DTP system to
create graphics, illustration, etc., and arrange them aesthetically on page along with the text
created by other individuals.

Magazine editors use DTP to test their ideas, producing near typeset quality pages showing
the layouts, graphics, etc. Corporate or business houses can produce brochures, direct mail or
communication materials, and other promotional tools quickly and easily with data-base
assisted publishing solutions, eliminating the involvement of any third party.

Public relations department of organizations can use DTP to produce consumer newsletters,
press material, etc., much more efficiently, which help to enhance the organization’s image.
Advertising departments and advertising agencies also use DTP to produce advertisements,
test new ideas, and to make presentation for clients. Alterations and change of design
elements are now a matter of pressing a keyboard button, eliminating the need for manual
cutting and pasting that earlier used to take several hours a day. Some agencies are using
DTP not only in their creative departments but also in their media and administrative
departments to take care of campaign scheduling, accounting, and other aspects of
advertising.

Equipment required for Desktop Publishing

A typical DTP system needs two basic components-hardware and software. Hardware
includes a computer, a printer, and an optional peripheral such as scanner. Software includes
the programs that interact with the hardware. The hardware performs various tasks under
software instructions and manipulation.

Graphics software

Graphics software is used for creating and editing freehand drawings, charts, graphs,
illustrations, diagrams, etc. Here, again, the capabilities of a program depend on it
compatibility with the computer and the features the software contains. Graphics software
gives the designer access to hundreds of possible choices that he/ she might never have
thought of. Myriad tools of an artist are available in a few minute icons. The same pictures
can instantly be ‘tired’ in different sizes and styles and moved to a new layout. The designer

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needs to make the aesthetic choice and is in control of the images that are produced by
various manipulations on such software. Graphics software may be an object-oriented
drawing program or a pixels form paint program.

Object-oriented drawing programs


Object oriented drawing programs are those which clearly define each element of a graphic
formed by lines and curves. In computer language, these programs are referred to as vector
programs. Types and thickness of lines created on such programs can be manipulated. Logos
can be created with tint and shade on these programs. Graphics formed on object-oriented
programs can be reproduced accurately on a high-resolution laser printer. These images,
when stored on a computer, do not occupy much memory space.

Usually, images drawn on object-oriented programs tend to have an artificial and unrealistic
appearance they are made up of lines and objects. They are easy to draw but difficult to edit,
especially with gradation tones. Graphics made up of pixels reproduced with less clarity on
vector programs. Macromedia free Hand; Adobe Illustrator and MacDraw; Corel DRAW; and
Microsoft Line Art Tool are some commonly used drawing programs.

Point-oriented graphics
Compared to drawing programs, sophisticated paint programs can store much store
information about each pixel. They can also provide fine quality photo-realistic printouts.
Corel PHOTO-PAINT, Microsoft image Composer, Jasc Paint shop pro and Metacreations
Painter are some examples of paint programs. Adobe photoshop is used for touch-ups of
images. Paint programs allow coloured painting to be electronically created on the computer
screen. The layering options allow the user to combine several images that are edited part by
part and layer by layer. The layers are then merged or flattened for further use.

A number of sophisticated features are available on paint programs. Paint software provides
tools such as different brush shapes and sizes, pencils, and erasers. It also has tools for
spraying, shading, images rotation, scaling, and sizing, and the option of choosing from
hundreds of colour shades. Several screen patterns are available on paint programs. An artist
can change his/her painting in a few seconds with the help of cut and paste features available
in paint programs. AutoCAD, PC Paint, Lotus, Photoshop, and Symphony are examples of
software used in a Windows environment. Today, most software is being developed for cross-

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platform use, which enables the user to open a file created in Windows in Macintosh or vice
versa.

Layout software

Layout software allows the user to create test based pages in many styles and format- they
may be multi-column and multiple-font pages with special indents, drop letter, and ruling
lines between columns. These programs normally features style sheets.

Style sheets are a type of pre-formatted page layout where all parameters like the number of
column; type style and size for body text, headings, subheadings, and headers and footers;
alignment; and other controls are defined. All that one needs to do once the style sheet has
been finalized is to import the word-processed text from another program and apply the style
sheet, and the text is automatically laid out. Layout software accepts graphics created in other
applications or scanned images with the help of import facility or data file transfer of the
system. It can build a spread the runs across the gutter between two pages. Layout software
can even be used to prepare the layout of a tabloid or broadsheet newspaper page. For such
jobs, printouts are taken in more than one A4 size paper by tiling. Each sheet contains a little
matter of other sheets. A big single-sheet page is prepared by overlapping and pasting the
sheets together.

The first true layout software was a program called Page Maker, which was developed on the
classic design studio environment of a drawing board and paste-up tools. The page is the
basic unit on which the user operates. Page Maker was initially available only to IBM-
compatible machines. Another popular layout software which is available only to IBM
machines and compatibles is Corel Ventura. It works almost like PageMaker although the
basic way of operating Ventura is different from that of Page Maker. QuarkXpress is a
software that is used for multi-lingual page making and typesetting and has proved quite
effective in India. It is available to both Macintosh and IBM machines, and is deal for
newspaper edits and art rooms. Adobe InDesign is the favourite layout software of many
artists. With its near-natural colour display and design and production controls, the software
is a better choice for page layout at the professional level.

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Features of Some Specific Software Programs
There are many software programs with hundred of features developed by various
companies. Some of them work in a similar manner, but some programs have very specific
features. We shall now look at some specific features-document setup, typographic controls,
image manipulation, and printing-of some commonly used software.

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LESSON 2 : CORELDRAW

Some basic features of CorelDRAW are discussed here. A basic knowledge of these features
will help the user to draw images on this software with ease.

Create an object
CorelDRAW documents are made up of separate elements called objects. An object’s edge is
called a path. Paths can be closed or open. An object with a closed path can be filled with
colour, but this is not possible in the case of an object with an open path. The path of an
object passes through nodes that shape the path. Some CorelDRAW tools automatically
create closed path objects.

Modify an object
In order to modify an object, it must first be selected. When an object is selected, handles
appear in a rectangular formation around it. Objects can be modified using a variety of
program features, such as menu commands, dialog boxes, and tools. For instance, an objects
path can be shaped by moving its nodes and control points with the Shape tool.

Fill an object
An object can be uniformly filled with a spot or process colour. Objects can be filled with
patterns, textures, and foundation fills with the interactive fill tools. They can be rotated,
skewed, scaled, and mirrored with the Pick tool.

Special effect
Special effects add a professional touch to drawings. Envelopes are used to distort the shape
of objects. Blends create a number of intermediate objects, perspectives lets the user add the
illusion of distance and depth, shadows can make drawing look three dimensional , and the
power clip can be used to place one object inside another.

Handling text
CorelDRAW lets the user be creative with text. Text can be artistic or it can be in a paragraph.
It can float free on the page as text object or fellow the path of an object. Text can also be

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converted to curves, changing it into a graphic object whose outline can be modified like any
other outline.

Change view

The view of a drawing can be changed to make editing easier. One can zoom in to get a close
look and work with small details or zoom out to see the drawing as a whole. CorelDRAW
also allows the user to view a drawing in the enhanced mode or as a full-screen preview.

Place objects
One can use precision tools such as guidelines, grids, rulers, and the align and distribute
dialog box to place objects exactly where he/she wants them.

Import and export


Many types of files, such as clip art, text and graphics, can be imported into a drawing.
Drawing can also be exported in a format that enables them to be read by another program or
be used on web page.

Print document
When a drawing is completed, it can be printed or saved to file for a high resolution output.
The Print preview mode allows the user to see what the printed document will look like.

Photoshop
Photoshop is a powerful graphics program, primarily used for photo re-touching image
manipulation. It can also be used to create original art, either from scratch or from a base
such as a photograph or painting.

Starting a new page


The Photoshop New Page dialog box allows the user to indicate the image size, resolution,
and colour mode. On opening the window, a large white area appears with the toolbox at the
corner.

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Toolbox
The toolbox, like an artist’s workable or paint box, holds all the tools that are used to draw,
paint, erase, and otherwise work on a picture. There are four types of tools in the box-
Selection, Painting, viewing, and Specialized.

Working on window
One can start working with the menu displayed on the top of the screen. The File menu lets
the user work with files-opening, closing, saving, exporting, printing the same. The Edit
menu is for actions such as cut, copy, paste, and undo. The image menu is for choosing a
colour mode, changing image size, rotation, etc. The Filter menu can bring dozens of physical
changes to an image.

Working with layers


The most powerful feature of Photoshop is the layering option. This tool allows the user to
combine images and create collages by working on one part of an image at a time.

Merging layers
One needs to merge the layers or flatten the image if the file is to be used for anything else. It
should be kept in mind that no change or alternation is possible once the image is flattened.

Selection tools
There are several ways to select a specific piece of a picture. Any of the selection tools-
Marquee, Lasso, or Magic Wand-can be used for the purpose.

Cutting, copying, and cropping


The Cut and Paste options enable the user to borrow from one picture to add to another.
Cropping is an artist’s term for trimming the unwanted parts of a picture.

Image scanning
Usually, flatbed scanners are used for digital scanning. A flatbed scanner works by making a
bit-by-bit image of a document, photo, or piece of artwork fed into it. Scanned documents can
be imported into Photoshop, where they can be worked upon.

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Digital painting
Photoshop allows the user to choose and apply colour to the picture in different ways. The
Colour Picker is a colour palette that contains all the colours that one can paint with. At the
beginning, one can work with two available colours-foreground and background colour: One
serves as the colour of a brush /pencil on the painting and the other serves as its canvas.

Image alteration
Images in Photoshop can be turned into an imitation of an oil painting, water colour, or
drawing by using the various filters and brushes available in this software. Filters are also
used to improve an image, distort it, and to make it artistic and achieve other special effects.

Masking
This option enables the user to apply changes to an image selectively, protecting parts of the
image that he/she does not want to change.

Adding type
In photoshop, type images are in pixel form. They can be given special effects using all the
attributes of Photoshop.

Saving files
Photoshop can save documents in all the formats it can open. Besides PSD, its native format,
JPEG, TIFF, and EPS are some examples of formats in which Photoshop can open and save
files. Different formats have different purposes and file sizes. Some are specially intended for
web users while others are more appropriate for printing.

Printing
Obtaining printouts of Photoshop images involves quite a few variables and decisions-
choosing a printer, setting the page up, deciding on paper quality, etc.

PageMaker
PageMaker is a layout software program that automates all the steps in developing a printed
document.

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Requisites for creating new document
Before one begins to work on a document in PageMaker, it is important to feed in data about
the paper size, margin, and page extent of the document.

Creating master pages


For multi-page documents, it is important to create master pages. PageMaker displays a two-
page spread, labelled L and R Headers, footers, graphics, and column grids applied on the
master pages appear on all the pages of the layout automatically.

Changing page size view


On this software, it is possible to shrink an image to see the whole page or to see varying
enlargements on the page up to 400 per cent of its actual size.

Using rulers
PageMaker allows the user to draw horizontal and vertical rulers on the page. Measurement
of ruler can be changed into millimetres, inches, and picas. Rulers provide accuracy in laying
a page.

Using guidelines
A fundamental aid to page layout is the grid, which helps one to visualize the basic format of
a page and provides an accurate reference for positioning text and graphics

Entering text
TEXT can be typed directly or placed/pasted from word documents, Text is typed in text
blocks in PageMaker. The blocks can be moved like any other graphic object. Text blocks
have sizing handles that allow the user to resize their width.

Formatting type
PageMaker offers highly accurate typographic contents of letters, words, limes and
paragraphs. With PageMaker, one is free to experiment with different formats.

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Changing font families
A font family consists of the basic typeface and (usually) the bold, normal, and italic forms of
the typeface. The type can be changed by selecting a section of the text and applying the
required type attributes to it.

Character specification
This involves specifying the space between lines-known as leading- and between letters,
which is adjusted by tracking.

Editing text
One can add, change, or delete words in the document layout window in PageMaker. The
view size of the windows can be enlarged to make the text easier to read.
Adding Graphics
Graphics can be added anywhere in a document by drawing with PageMaker drawing tools or
by importing images from other programs or scanned photographs.

Text wrap
PageMaker normally considers graphics to be independent objects on the page. If the graphic
is inserted on the text page, it can make room for itself by shifting the text around it with the
help of the text wrap command.
Adding colour
Colour can be added to text as well as graphics. Colour are displayed and activated with the
colour palette which contains default colour and custom colours defined by the user.

Saving a document
While working on a document, it should be saved every ten minutes. The first time one saves
a particular document, he/ she needs to use the Save dialog box to assign a file name and
directory path.

Printing a document
One should select the printer according to the quality requirement for the job. He/she should
ensure that the printers can recognize the fonts used on the page. If the job is meant for
commercial printing, one should discuss the page information with the service bureau.

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LESSON 3 : QUARKXPRESS

QuarkXPress is a layout program like PageMaker. It is known for its box-based interface. It is
known for its box –based interface. It contains three types of boxes-text, picture, and fill.
Pages and spread
The most basic concept in QuarkXPress is the page-all documents are made up of one or
pages, which can face each other to create a spread.
Pasteboard
The work surface of QuarkXPress is the pasteboard, which is as big as a document.
Using the pallets
QuarkXPress has several floating palettes such as tools, measurement, style, colour, etc.
Handling text and Graphics
Any object created on QuarkXPress can be moved, resized, reshaped, locked, and grouped
with other objects.
Importing text
One can create a text box in QuarkXPress and import the text from a Word document. Any
overset text will flow into another box if both the boxes are linked.
Editing text
QuarkXPress has tools that allow the user to replace text and check spelling. It also has the
standards cut, copy, and paste commands
Formatting text
There are two ways to apply text formatting in QuarkXpress locally and by using a style
sheet.
Importing graphics
QuarkXPress lets the user import scanned images and images created in other applications.
They can be manipulated to some degree and integrated into the design in QuarkXPress
Use of Master page
One must have a master page when all the pages need to look alike in terms of style and
database information.
Use of Colour
Every QuarkXpress document starts with a set of default colours including the four basic
colours. One can also combine colours one has defined to create multi-ink colours.

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Trapping
Trapping consists of making sure that different coloured elements overlap enough so that
there will be no gaps between them. QuarkXpress has built in trapping system.

Printing
As with most modern software, printing is easy and works in the same way. The Quality of
prints sometimes depends on the output medium, such as film or paper. At other times, it
depends on the output medium, such as film or paper. At other times, it depends on the
purpose of the prints, such as obtaining proofs or final outputs.

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UNIT V
LESSON 1: MAGAZINE DESIGN PRINCIPLES

If the design strategy serves as a plan or blueprint for a publication, it can be useful to think
of the elements of design as structural components and the design principles as the tools.
Principles help a designer determine the relationship between the parts or design elements
involved and serve as rules that a designer can follow when combining these elements in a
design. Within the realm of publication design, these elements and principles are combined in
a layout.
In publication design, a layout is a composed page or cover design. In any given layout, some
principles will likely have a more dominant function, whereas others serve a supporting role.
Before design decisions can be made, it is important to understand what each of these
principles involves.

Hierarchy
Hierarchy is achieved by determining dominance or emphasizing one design element over
another. In some cases, it is obvious which elements in a layout need to be most dominant,
such as the photograph of a new car on the cover of a brochure that promotes it. However,
often the designer determines which elements will dominate and which will be subordinate,
and develops an arranged order by controlling size, placement, colour, and balance of these
elements.
This arrangement determines the path the viewer’s eye will take as it scans a layout. Lack of
clear visual hierarchy is the reason many designs fail to attract and hold a viewer’s attention.
It is important that one element be dominant to give the viewer’s eye a focal point. There
should also be an underlying order of emphasis for other elements in the design. There should
never be a “power struggle’’ between design elements.

Balance
We strive for balance in all aspects of our lives. A diet of too many starchy foods is not
balanced. If we work too hard and don’t take time to relax, our lives feel out of balance.
Balance is also an important component in design. When design elements are not in balance,
the viewer feels uncomfortable. Balance in a design refers to the equal distribution of visual

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weight in a layout. In any layout, some visual elements have more optical weight or
dominance than others. It is the designer’s role to arrange these visual elements so that they
are in optical balance.

There are two approaches to achieving balance in a layout: symmetric and asymmetric. In a
symmetrically balanced layout, identical or similar design elements are aligned in an equal
way on either side of a vertical axis. Symmetrically balanced layouts tend to be more formal
and static in their appearance.

In an asymmetrical layout, balance is achieved with an unequal arrangement of elements.


Asymmetrical layouts tend to look more casual than those that are symmetrically balanced.

However, achieving asymmetrical balance is more difficult and complex because the visual
weight of each element and their arrangement needs to be carefully considered. Balance can
often be achieved by balancing positive with negative space, or form with counter form.

Proximity

The placement of design elements together and apart from one another is a function of
proximity. Equal spacing between elements in a composition often results in a static, boring
design. However, proportional variation in the placement of elements results in a kinetic
tension that brings interest and excitement to a layout. The space between two or more
elements affects their relationship. Visual tension results as they move together, and when
they touch, hybrid shapes can form. Proximity groupings of several design elements can
create patterns, a sense of rhythm or other relationships, such as ambiguity between figure
and ground. Groupings where elements are layered or one element overlaps another can
create the illusion of depth.

Rhythm, Pattern, and Texture

In music, rhythm refers to a pattern of alternating occurrences of sound and silence. Rhythm
in design is similar in that it is a pattern that is created by repeating visual elements and
establishing a sense of movement from one element to the next. Sound and silence are
replaced with form and space. Texture is closely related to pattern in that texture is a bi

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product of repetition, but it differs from pattern in that the perception of the shapes, lines, or
typographic forms that were used in its creation are overridden by the sense of texture that is
achieved.

Texture is not a design principle or element on its own, but can enhance the quality of
elements in a layout by giving them surface characteristics. Texture can imply tactile
characteristics by simulating surfaces such as fur or granite. Texture can be created by
digitally scanning actual objects or by using markers, pen-and-ink, paint, and pencil to create
textural effects. Designers use texture to achieve richness, variety, and depth in a composition
and to help differentiate figure from ground.

Scale
Scale is the size relationships between the various elements in a layout and can be used to
control emphasis and hierarchy. A sense of perspective, or the illusion of depth, is an aspect
of scale. Spatial depth can be achieved by placing large elements in the front and smaller
elements in the back. Overlapping shapes can increase the illusion of spatial depth.

Scale is often relative to what we are accustomed to seeing and experiencing. Because we are
used to thinking of an elephant as large and a fly as small, a scale reversal, where a fly is seen
as large and imposing, can create visual interest and surprise by presenting the viewer with
something unexpected. Using contrast of scale, where one element in a layout overpowers
another, can result in intriguing relationships between design elements.

Unity and Variety


Unity is achieved by choosing and organizing design elements in a way that creates a sense of
wholeness and harmony. Unity can be easily achieved when all elements in a composition are
the same. However, too much sameness can result in a boring composition.

As a complementary principle, variety involves choosing and adding different elements for
visual interest. Too much variety, or random use of it, can cause confusion. The most
effective design solutions achieve a balance between unity and variety by arriving at a
harmonious combination of design elements that are similar in subtle ways, yet varied enough
to be visually stimulating.

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Design Elements

Design elements are the components or the parts that make up a design composition. The
formal elements of design, shape, line, and colour, are abstract in nature, meaning that they
do not describe anything. However, they can be used to represent an object. A circular shape,
for instance, can represent the moon in a composition. Designers arrange elements in a layout
in support of the publication’s goal and give them order using the principles.
Shape
Shape is the form or outline of something. It can also be described as form or mass. In
computer programs, shape is often described as a closed form or closed path. In two-
dimensional design, a shape has width and length but not three-dimensional mass. A shape
can be described by a line that defines its edge, or it can be defined by an edge that is clear
and distinct.

Shapes exist as figures in or on a ground. Although they are generally considered as positive
figures displacing space, the negative space, or the space around a figure, has shape as well.
Harmonic relationships occur when a designer pays attention to both of these aspects.
Dynamic visual activity develops when ambiguity exists between positive shapes and the
negative spaces surrounding them.

Line
A line is a path connecting two or more points. Although computer programs describe lines as
paths, a line can also be a mark made by a tool that is drawn across a surface to describe a
path. Lines can be straight or angular, or they can meander and curve.

The quality or look of a line is an aspect of the tool that makes it, and it can communicate a
mood or attitude. For instance, a line drawn with charcoal has a soft, organic quality. One
drawn with pen-and-ink is crisp and precise.

Lines can also indicate direction. Horizontal lines in a composition guide a viewer’s eye from
left to right. Vertical lines direct a viewer’s gaze downward and upward. Lines are often
implied. Alignment of type or shaped elements in a composition can create implied linear

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relationships. Linear relationships can activate compositional space by helping to direct the
viewer’s eye.

Colour
Like texture, colour enhances the elements in a layout by helping to activate shapes and space
and by creating emphasis and supporting hierarchy. Designers who understand how to use
colour effectively can use it to create a sense of special depth and emphasis, and guide a
viewer’s eye through a layout. Colour can also be a powerful means of communicating
emotion and can be a useful unifying device in publication design.

Type

The principles that apply to the other formal design elements also apply to type. Type is a
component in page and cover layout that is controlled and arranged with other elements in
support of the publication’s communication goal. However, type plays a dual role in that
typographic forms also contain verbal meaning. It is as important for typography to
effectively communicate a verbal message as well as function well in a design composition.
Text, whether it is set in a rectangular format or configured to form a shape, functions as a
design element in a layout. The amount of emphasis that a text-filled shape has in a layout is
largely a result of its scale and the size, weight, and style of the typeface that is used.

Imagery
Although not a formal element of design, imagery can function as a design element in page
and page layout. Imagery can take the form of a photograph or illustration. It can be framed
in a rectangular or circular format, or it can function as an outlined shape (without
background) in a layout. A designer may be given imagery to work with, be given the task of
supplying an image, or be given the option to decide whether or not imagery is important to
meeting the design objective.

Typographic forms can be used to create shapes and harmonious figure/ground relationships
in a layout. Many typographic forms, by themselves, are beautiful and appealing to the eye.
The positive and negative shapes that occur between arrangements of letterforms and

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numerals can also yield many intriguing visual possibilities. Typographic forms can also be
layered to create spatial depth.
Type also performs as a linear element in a composition, helping to guide a viewer’s eye.
Typographic forms can be arranged in a way that implies linear direction, or they can be
configured into a straight line or a curve to direct a viewer’s gaze.
Just as a block of text serves as shape in a composition, the quality of the text within that
block can lend texture to that shape. Textural effects or patterns can also be created by
repeating typographic forms. Type can also be used to support attitude or mood.

Organizing Content
Earlier in this chapter you learned about the importance of emphasis and hierarchy in page
and cover layout. Understanding which design element should receive the most emphasis and
which ones should play a supportive role is the first step in determining an arrangement.
From there, the next step involves developing an underlying structure for organizing this
arrangement.
Proportional Systems and Grids
Over the years, architects, artists and designers have used proportional systems or grids to
give organization and structure to visual elements in a design. A grid supplies an underlying
structure or a transparent framework for determining where to align graphic elements,
imagery. and text in a layout. A grid can be as simple as an invisible guide line running
through a layout, or it can be more a complex system.

Proportion is how a page is segmented. Proportional systems determine how a grid will be
developed. Historically, optically pleasing arrangements have been based on proportional
relationships found in nature. The golden mean, for instance, is based on a harmonic
arrangement that has been found in plants and other life forms. It even exists in the human
body. If you measure your body from foot to navel, then from navel to the top of your head,
you will find the ratio between these measurements is 1 to 1.6. This mathematic ratio can be
expressed in a proportionately sectioned rectangle. The Ancient Greeks understood this ratio
and applied it to the proportions of the Parthenon. Designers often apply this principle today
to serve as a guide for organizing text and visuals in a layout.

Other alignment principles commonly applied to page layouts are based on similar
proportional relationships that have been proven, over time, to be optically pleasing. The line

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of golden proportion, for instance, is based on dividing a page into eighths and placing a
design element or single line of text at a point so it is at three-eighths from the top of a page.

It is the designer’s job to develop a grid that will support the publication’s content and
visuals. Complex grids comprised of a series of horizontal and vertical lines provide a system
for determining mathematically precise, modular units of text, visuals, and other graphic
elements that comprise a page layout.

Directing Eye Movement


After a grid or method of alignment has been decided upon, hierarchy and emphasis play an
important role in guiding a viewer’s eye through a layout. The designer determines which
element is most important and will be the first to catch a viewer’s attention. From there,
design elements with secondary importance (followed by those with even less importance)
lead the viewer’s gaze through a layout so that the eye moves in a way that takes in all of the
visual content.
The positioning of elements on a page, their size, colour, and visual weight, as well as their
relationship to one another all affect hierarchy. Here are some guidelines to keep in mind
when determining what elements will be seen first and which will play a subordinate role:
• Position—In Western culture, we tend to read from left to right and from top to bottom. As a
result, elements in a layout that are positioned at the top and to the left are likely to be seen
first.
• Scale—Large items in a layout tend to draw the eye. The smallest elements tend to be seen
last.
• Contrast—Areas of high contrast tend to dominate in a layout, whereas areas of low
contrast tend to recede.
• Implied direction—Linear elements, edges, elements in a line, or even an image such as a
face in profile, can direct a viewer’s gaze.

LESSON 2 : TYPES OF PAPER

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Paper is often characterized by weight. The weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream
(500 sheets) of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end
customers.

Density of Paper: The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m3 (16 lb/ft3) for tissue paper to
1500 kg/m3 (94 lb/ft3) for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m3 (50
lb/ft3).

Bank Paper
Bank paper is a thin strong writing paper of less than 50g/m2 commonly used for typewriting
and correspondence.

Bond Paper
Bond paper is a high quality durable writing paper similar to bank paper but having a weight
greater than 50 g/m2.It is used for letterheads and other stationery and as paper for electronic
printers. Widely employed for graphic work involving pencil, pen and felt-tip marker. It is
largely made from rag pulp which produces a stronger paper than wood pulp.

A book paper (or publishing paper) is a paper which is designed specifically for the
publication of printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off white or low white papers
(easier to read), are opaque to minimize the show through of text from one side of the page to
the other and are (usually) made to tighter caliper or thickness specifications, particularly for
case bound books. Typically, books papers are light weight papers 60 - 90gsm and often
specified by their caliper/substance ratios (volume basis).

Construction Paper / Sugar Paper

Construction paper or sugar paper, is a type of coarse coloured paper typically available in
large sheets. The texture is slightly rough, and the surface is unfinished. Due to the nature of
the source material from which the paper is manufactured, small particles are visible on the
paper’s surface.

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Cotton Paper

Cotton paper is made from 100% cotton fibers. Cotton paper is superior in both strength and
durability to wood pulp-based papers, which may contain high concentrations of acids. May
also be known as cotton rag or ragged paper.

Cotton fiber papers is known to last several hundred years without fading, discolouring, or
deteriorating; so is often used for important documents such as the archival copies of
dissertation or thesis. As a rule of thumb, each percentage point of cotton fiber, a user may
expect one year of resisting deterioration by use (the handling to which paper may be
subjected).(reference - Southwest Paper Co). Legal document paper typically may contain
25% cotton.Cotton paper is also used in banknotes.

Electronic Paper/ E- Paper

Electronic Paper is a display technology designed to mimic the appearance of ordinary ink on
paper.Electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper and is capable of holding text and
images indefinitely without drawing electricity, while allowing the image to be changed
later.E-paper can be crumpled or bent like traditional paper. Pixels on e-paper are image
stable, or bistable, so that the state of each pixel can be maintained without a constant supply
of power.

Inkjet Paper

Inkjet paper is paper designed for inkjet printers, typically classified by its weight, brightness
and smoothness, and sometimes by its opacity.

Photo Paper

Photo paper is a category of inkjet paper designed specifically for reproduction of


photographs. The best of these papers, with suitable pigment-based ink systems, can match or
exceed the image quality and longevity of traditional materials used for printing colour
photographs, such as Fuji CrystalArchive (for colour prints from negatives) and

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Cibachrome/Ilfochrome (for colour prints from positive transparencies). For printing
monochrome photographs, traditional silver-based papers are widely felt to retain some
advantage over inkjet prints.

Kraft Paper

Kraft paper is paper produced by the Kraft process from wood pulp. It is strong and relatively
coarse. Kraft paper is usually a brown colour but can be bleached to produce white paper. It is
used for paper grocery bags, multiwall sacks, envelopes and other packaging.

Laid Paper

Laid paper is a type of paper having a ribbed texture imparted by the manufacturing
process.Laid paper is still commonly used by artists as a support for charcoal drawings.

Tyvek / Tyvex

Tyvek is a brand of flash spun high-density polyethylene fibers, a synthetic material; the
name is a registered trademark of the DuPont Company. The material is very strong; it is
difficult to tear but can easily be cut with scissors or any other sharp object. Water vapor can
pass through Tyvek, but not liquid water, so the material lends itself to a variety of
applications: medical packaging, envelopes, car covers, air and water intrusion barriers
(housewrap) under house siding, labels, wristbands, mycology, and graphics. Tyvek is
sometimes erroneously referred to as "Tyvex."

Paper Towel
A paper towel is a disposable product made of paper. It serves the same general purposes as
conventional towels, such as drying hands, wiping windows and dusting. Because paper
towels are disposable, they are often chosen to avoid the contamination of germs.

Wall Paper

Wallpaper is material which is used to cover and decorate the interior walls of homes, offices,
and other buildings; it is one aspect of interior decoration. Wallpapers are usually sold in rolls

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and are put onto a wall using wallpaper paste.Wallpapers can come either plain so it can be
painted or with patterned graphics. Wallpaper printing techniques include surface printing,
gravure printing, silk screen-printing, and rotary printing."Wallpaper" is also a term for
computer wallpaper.

Washi
Washi or Wagami is a type of paper made in Japan. Washi is commonly made using fibers
from the bark of the gampi tree, the mitsumata shrub (Edgeworthia papyrifera), or the paper
mulberry, but also can be made using bamboo, hemp, rice, and wheat. Washi comes from wa
meaning Japanese and shi meaning paper, and the term is used to describe paper made by
hand in the traditional manner.Washi is generally tougher than ordinary paper made from
wood pulp, and is used in many traditional arts.

Wax Paper

Wax paper (also called waxed paper) is a kind of paper that is made moisture proof through
the application of wax.The practice of oiling parchment or paper in order to make it semi-
translucent or moisture-proof goes back at least to medieval times. Thomas Edison claimed to
have invented wax paper in 1872, but what he really invented was a cheap and efficient
means to manufacture such paper.Wax paper is commonly used in cooking, for its non-stick
properties, and wrapping food for storage, as it keeps water out or in. It is also used in arts
and crafts.

Wove Paper
Wove paper is a writing paper with a uniform surface, not ribbed or watermarked.

Coated Paper

Coated paper is paper which has been coated by an inorganic compound to impart certain
qualities to the paper, including weight and surface gloss, smoothness or ink absorbency.
Kaolinite is the compound most often used for coating papers used in commercial printing.
One function of coating is to protect against ultraviolet radiation.

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LESSON 3 : BROCHURE DESIGN

A brochure is an informational pamphlet or leaflet advertising an organization, business,


event, product, or service. Brochures are great way the package information in a simple, eye-
catching design that attracts potential clients by offering basic information. A well-made
brochure will grab attention of the reader and provide needed information while inspiring the
reader to take action.

Do you Need a Brochure ?

There are many different print and media products that can be used successfully to promote
an organization, business, event, product, or service. Before spending time and money on one
or more, consider the characteristics of your audience and decide which method(s) will be
most appealing.

A brochure is professional, effective, and inexpensive way to provide information to your


target audience. They are designed for people to pick up. Brochures placed in a rack at
tourism information outlets, hotels, motels can publicize a tourism or retail business.
Brochures also can describe a program or class that is being offered. While brochures do get
the word out, they are not as pervasive as a print, radio, or television advertisement.

Getting Started

Before you begin to write, plan your brochure. Consider the following to help you gather the
information needed.

Target your audience by answering following questions:

* Is your audience specialized or familiar with your subject, or are they a general audience,
not in the field or trade?

* How will your audience use your brochure? For example, is it a “how to” that people will
keep, or is it to promote a one-time event?
* How will the brochure be used with other marketing tools?

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Determine the purpose of your brochure. Are you persuading or informing? Having one
primary purpose or approach can be more effective than producing a generalized brochure
that tries to say everything and therefore says too much.

Stand out from your competition. Emphasize what makes your business unique. What do
you offer that other companies, services, or experiences do not?

Determine the call to action. A call to action is wording that tells the reader to do
something. It could be to make reservations, sign up as a volunteer, visit a store, plant water
wise landscaping plants, or fill out and mail in order form. In your call to action, provide the
reader with specific examples and or detailed instructions to help them take the next step. If
you do not include action steps, the reader may lose the point of the brochure or the
motivation to take the next step.

Creating your Brochure

A brochure should be clear, attractive, and brief . Before starting the design process,
consider:

Grab attention. If the brochure in a rack among many, it has to stand out. Make sure the
front panel will attract attention by using catchy phrases or images.

The entire look. Attractiveness determines how likely a potential consumer is to pick up your
brochure. The design, including colours, fonts, graphics, and layout, all impact attractiveness.

The 5W’s and one H. The reader needs to understand the information and not be left with
any questions. To accomplish this, provide answers to the 5W’s – who, what, when where,
and why and the H-how?

* Who is the business or sponsor?


* What is the service or event?
* When is the event? Give the date, time of the event or business operation hours
* Where is it located? Include map that shows major highways.
* Why should anyone attend, use your service, shop at your store, visit your websites, or take
action if this is a public service?
* How can they take the action you want

Be brief

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Most people don’t want to read lengthy text. Wordiness can cause many to put a brochure
down. To help determine how much text to include:

* Think of your brochure as an appetizer. It should offer a small taste that makes the reader
want more. Share only important and interesting key points.
* Include five or fewer key points. Only use than words when possible.
* Use bullets to break copy into small, easy- to –scan-chunks

Create Interest.

While getting a reader’s attention may be most important, keeping their interest is hardest.
This is where most brochures fails, thus losing a prospective customer. Create interest by
appealing to potential clients’ emotions and needs.

Long-term effectiveness.

Make your brochure worth keeping. Give your audience a reason to hang on to it, even if they
decide not to call or buy right now. Informational brochures containing brief, useful
instructions will be kept longer than brochures containing brief, useful instructions will be
kept longer than brochures that do not contain any “how to” details. For example a brochure
that provides people with instructions on how to xeriscape their yard is more likely to be kept
than one that tells to xeriscape without explaining how. A brochure that describes your
business, showcases what you offer, and includes contact information and directions also will
kept longer than one that does’t include this vital information.

Organize information

Use subheadings, textboxes, and bullets to break up text and organize information. Readers
like brochures that are easy to scan and read in sections.

Avoid copy right infringement. With information readily available on the interest, it’s easy
to break copyright laws, often without realizing it. To avoid violating copyright, seek photos
from digital commons areas, obtain permission to use images, be sure the copy right holder is
appropriately cited. Obeying copyright holder is appropriately cited. Obeying copyright laws
and intellectual property rights is a must.

Check the facts. The information you put into your brochure will be in the public eye. Before
you hit print, be sure to have other review the facts. If you are uncertain about the

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information, use your resources, including local libraries and professionals, to review your
brochure before you distribute it to the public.

Layout

At this point you have :

* Selected a business, service, or event to publicize with a brochure, and


* Decided upon the information to include in the brochure

Next, determine the layout. The way the information is presented helps determine how useful
the brochure will be to a reader. Good brochures present a logical pathway through the
panels.

Size and format

The size of a brochure is usually determined by the amount and type of information you need
to include, your budget. You might select.:

* A simple rack card that is printed front and back but has no folds
* A brochure with four panels or six panels, or
* A very detailed brochure with eight panels or more.

Remember, making your brochure longer is not always a good idea. People often prefer brief
information and may not be motivated to read something lengthy. Also, be aware that
increasing the number of panels increase the paper size, thereby increasing cost. The number
of folds (or staples) also increase costs for machine or hand folding. Generally speaking, 81/2
x 11 paper works well with a two fold, four panel design or with the typical three-fold, six
panel design.

Back Panel

The back panels are an easy-to-find place for contact information. Adding a map next to
contact information. Adding a map next to contact information is very helpful for potential
visitors. Make sure the map shows major high ways or cities so it is easy for out-of-area
visitors and new residents to get their bearings.

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Mailing information also can be placed on the back panel, allowing the brochure to be mailed
without an envelope, which saves money and trees. The post office has regulations for
mailing items without envelope: be sure your brochure meets all postal regulations.

To print the back panel like an envelope, place your return address at the top left and leave
space for a forwarding address and postage. The fold must be at the bottom, and the opening
at the top must be taped closed. Always use tape. Never staples.

Graphic Design

Effective graphic design helps grab attention. Consider these design elements when creating
your brochure :

 Emphasis * Levels of information


 Repetition * Typography
 Alignment * White space
 Proximity * Balance

Developing a Functional Strategy

Brochures are often expected to accomplish multiple tasks as they can be presented to many
different audiences with different needs. They should be designed to get consumers exited
about your products or services, provide information to influence a purchasing decision and
motive to them act. While brochures commonly illustrate a product, product line or service
they can serve many functions:
 Direct mailer to potential or existing customers
 Handout to attract new customers
 Included in a press kit or business proposal
 Marketing piece used at fairs, festivals, trade shows or speaking engagements
 Promotional piece left at other businesses with similar target audience(s)

Before designing a brochure, consider the following to develop its functional strategy:

1. Primary Purpose
What is the primary purpose of your brochure?
2. Primary Benefit

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What unique benefit can you offer customers? What primary customer value or need
can your enterprise meet?
3. Secondary Benefit
What other key benefits will customers receive from your products or services?
4. Target Audience
At whom (what target market) are you aiming this brochure?
5. Audience Reaction
What response do you want from your audience (come to the operation, visit a
website, call an information line)?

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1. Company Personality

What image do you want to convey in your brochure?

If you only plan to develop one brochure, but have multiple target audiences, then the
brochure should be designed in terms of its highest potential financial outcome. Simply put,
which audience is most likely to generate the most revenue for your business. The vast
majority of the information provided in the brochure should focus on that group.

Collect Useful Information

After determining a functional strategy, the next


step is to collect useful information to include in • Hours of operation
the brochure. Consider the following: • Special events or seasonal calendar
• Descriptions of your enterprise • Directions / map
• Descriptions of your products or services • Visual elements
• Contact information 0 Logo
0 Mailing address 1 Photographs
1 Phone number 2 Illustrations or clip art images
2 Fax number 3 • Testimonials
3 E-mail address 4 • Recent publicity or news articles
4 Website address

Once the information and materials to include in the brochure have been gathered, it is often
helpful to either draft an outline or create a mock-up version of the brochure on a folded sheet
of paper so that it represents the layout of your brochure.

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Components of a Brochure

Common components such as headlines, copy and signature information can be found in
most brochures. Additional elements which may be included are subheadings, disclosures and
illustrations. Let’s take a closer look at each component:

Headline

Headlines should promote consumer benefits. The headline located on the top third of the
front panel of a brochure is the most important element. If it fails to grab the reader’s
attention then the entire brochure will likely go unnoticed. This is especially true when it is
placed in a brochure rack and the top third is the only portion that may be seen. Headlines
may be presented as a statement, question, warning, or as a news alert. They should also be
used throughout the brochure to create a balanced design, breaking up too much content
making it easier for the reader to skim the page.

Subheading

The subheading is an answer or support to the question or curiosity that the main headline
evokes and is designed to further draw the reader in. It can act as a break between the
headline and the body copy and makes it easier for the reader to skim the brochure for
pertinent information.

Body Copy

The body copy contains descriptive text that should create a visual image of your product or
service. Create excitement by using action words. The copy should persuade the reader to
take action. Highlight product features, key benefits and include supporting facts. Keep
paragraphs as short as possible. It is best to limit paragraphs to only two or three sentences.
Delete extra words or sentences that are not absolutely necessary.

In the body copy talk to your audience and not at them as if you are addressing only one
person instead of a mass of people. Use the words “you” and “your” while avoiding the
words “we,” “they” and unclear generalities. The use of subheads and numbered or bulleted

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lists can break up a sea of type, highlighting a number of ideas quickly. However, overuse of
this technique will reduce contrast and balance therefore losing its effectiveness.

When writing copy remember to keep messages positive and avoid negative connotations or
comments about competitors. Grammar and spelling are important. Run the spelling and
grammar check functions on your software. It is also advisable to have several other people
read over your materials to find mistakes that might have been missed.

Signature

The signature is where the business name, logo and contact information such as an address,
phone number and website address are located in the brochure. Placement of the signature is
most often located in the back panel of the brochure.

Disclosures, Terms or Conditions

When offers contain special stipulations to the sale; all disclosures, terms or conditions
should be included in your brochure. This is often referred to as the fine print. Additional
offerings such as warranties, options, incentives or financing terms should be included in this
section.
Illustrations

Though visual elements are not required, incorporating them will help draw attention to your
brochure. There are various types of visual elements used in brochures such as photographs,
hand-drawn illustrations and graphic designed imagery. When possible, visual elements
should show action or a product in use rather than static. This design strategy is even more
effective when the action features people or other living things. Additionally, using captions
along with photos help promote the overall message of the brochure.
Quality is essential when working with photographs. They should be of a high resolution and
sizable. Crop photographs to showcase their best light if necessary. Consider hiring a
professional if you are unable to provide quality photos of your products or services. Another
alternative is to purchase stock photos for use in your marketing materials. Stock photos are
professional quality photos which represent a common product or service. For example, if

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you owned a pick-your-own apple orchard then a stock photo of a child picking an apple
would be considered a good option for use in your brochure.

Design Considerations
Before developing a brochure consider the following design principles:

The Rule of Thirds


When laying out your brochure use the rule of thirds. Divide the page into thirds both
vertically and horizontally. Areas where the lines cross are excellent points on your page for
important visual elements such as a headline or image. Use the other lines to line up body
copy, graphics or other page elements as needed. Note that a tri-fold design automatically
incorporates the rule of thirds, but it is still possible to crowd the space by putting too much
content along the fold so use the horizontal lines to aide with important graphical elements.
Type
1. The typeface or font used in a brochure can make a big difference to the results you
achieve. Limit brochures to two types of font. A san serif font such as Arial for headlines
and a serif font like Times New Roman works best for text located in the body copy. Sans
serif fonts are clean and look modern but can be hard to read. Serif fonts have tiny serifs
or lines on the edges of the letter which reduces eyestrain among readers and makes
words easier to read.
2. Use no more than three different font sizes. The size of the font is measured in points
which simply refer to the font’s height. A good rule of thumb is for the heading text to be
twice as large as the copy text and the subheading text should be half-way between. For
example, in a brochure, set the headlines font size to 24 points, subheadings at 18 points
and copy text at 12 points. Remember, it is best not to use a font size smaller than 10
points.
3. Upper and lower case typeface has been shown to make headlines more readable.
4. Do not mix too many type styles such as words in all capital letters, italics, bold-face or
underlined. Overuse of these styles will deemphasize the message.

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White Space

White space is the area on a page without words or that is left blank. This term applies even if
the background has colour. Crowding a brochure with too many visual elements or
information will make it look cluttered and difficult to read, therefore reducing its overall
effectiveness.

Brochure Layout

While a basic tri-fold design with six panels is the most common layout used, brochures
come in many shapes and sizes. Other typical layouts include the bi-fold layout with four
panels, z-fold layout with eight panels, or rack cards with only a front and back panel.
Examples used throughout the remainder of this publication will focus on a standard tri-fold
design; however the information can be adapted and applied for use with other layout designs
as well.

(1) Outside Front Cover

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1 Attention getting headline should be placed on the top one-third of the page
2 Business name, logo and other key information should be placed lower on the page
0 Visual elements such as photographs or illustrations are encouraged but should not
1 overshadow your message
(2) Inside Front Cover

2 • Include a brief synopsis of information about business, product or service Focus on


customer benefits Use bulleted lists (3) Inside Middle Panel and (4) Inside Back Flap

• Expand on customer benefits, products and services you summarized on inside front cover
• Include detailed information
1 Contact information
2 Website address
3 Special events
4 Map
5 • Use brief statements and bulleted lists
6 • Include visual elements
7 5. Outside Back Flap
8 • Generally the second panel viewed by the reader
9 Summarize most important information for a quick reference
10 Days and hours of operation
11 Pricing
12 Phone number
13 Website address
14 • Favorable location for a promotional coupon or event registration
15 6. Outside Middle Panel
16 • Business logo
17 • Website address
18 • If using as a direct mailer
19 Space for customer address
20 Return address
21 • If using as a direct hand-out
22 Map or directions

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Summary

Brochures can be an effective marketing tool when time is taken to carefully develop a proper
strategy. Special attention should be given to the layout and other design considerations.
When done correctly a brochure’s front cover will grab a reader’s attention by appealing to
their needs. Focusing on the benefits will persuade them to open the brochure for further
investigation. Communicating your company’s unique advantage will motivate readers to
take action, thus resulting in your communication objective being met.

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LESSON 5 : LAYOUT STAGES AND FORMATS

The Design of Advertising

Ten Basic Formats


Whether you start right off on a comprehensive or try some thumbnails and rough layouts
first, you will be trying to put the elements of the ad into a pleasing and useful arrangement.
The number of arrangements and patterns you can come up with as a designer are almost
endless, but it is possible to fit most print-medium advertisements into ten basic categories or
formats, if you interpret them loosely enough. A professional designer might balk at such
categorizations, saying that the art is too lively, too full of surprises to pin down so abruptly.
And some other writer on design might come up with a different set of categories. But a set
like the one that follows may help the beginner see some new possibilities for design.

1. Mondrian Layout. Let us start with one of the most widely recognized formats: Mondrian
layout, named after the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian. Involved in a lifetime affair with
proportion, Mondrian, using black bars and lines and solid areas of primary colour, divided
his canvases into vertical and horizontal rectangles and squares.

Mondrian reworked his designs many times before he was satisfied with the sizes and
relationships of each of the rectangles to be painted. He carried this concern to the decor of
his studio: an out-of-place ashtray greatly disturbed him. To Mondrian, beauty was
exclusively geometric. He avoided the colour green because it is too close to nature. ÒAll in
all,Ó he is quoted as saying, Ònature is a damned wretched affair. I can hardly stand it.Ó

The advertising designer, while not sharing MondrianÕs intensity, nevertheless freely applies
MondrianÕs principles to the printed page. The designer uses rectangles of type or art much
as Mondrian used solid blocks of colour. Sometimes the designer retains the lines or bars
Mondrian used to separate elements; sometimes the designer leaves them out. Mondrian ads
appear everywhere for a few months, then die out,

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D. CenciÕs ÒDetails, DetailsÓ ad selling menÕs high-style clothing makes use of a
Mondrian design approach, putting elements into a near-formal balance. Agency:
Severin Aviles Associates. Art director and designer: Anthony Aviles. Copywriters:
James Severin and Kathleen Cooney Severin.

then come back again. And no wonder the style returns to popularity: A Mondrian
arrangement is an easy, logical, workable, effective way to display type and art.
The designer of Mondrian ads, like the master himself, is more interested in proportion as a
design principle than in eye travel or emphasis or any of the other principles. There is nothing
wrong with this. For some advertising, proportion deserves chief consideration, if for no other
reason than to set the ad apart from other ads whose designers have stressed some other
design principle.

Designers with newspaper backgrounds take naturally to Mondrian layout because of their
experience with column rules and cutoff rules and boxes on the newspaper page. But
Mondrian layout is considerably more subtle than newspaper makeup. The idea is -to come
up with a fitted set of vertical and horizontal rectangles (with perhaps a square thrown in)-all
in different sizes. Lines separating the rectangles can be of even or varying widths; at their

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thinnest they are bolder than ordinary newspaper column rules. Sometimes the designer uses
Ben Day or colour.rules in combination with solid black rules.
One or two of the rectangles may be filled with halftones; others may contain copy; others
may be blank. If the ruled lines are heavy, typefaces should be bolder than normal.
Sans serifs or gothics are appropriate types to use. Mondrian layouts are used more frequently
in magazines than in newspapers, because the multiplicity of lines and resulting rectangles
tend to break the- ad into sections that may be scattered optically when smaller ads are placed
alongside, as on a newspaper page.
Large reverse L-shape ads (or step ads) in newspapers sponsored by department stores or
womenÕs fashion stores, however, make use of the Mondrian principle with considerable
success.

In arranging the rectangles, the designer lightly rules a series of horizontal and vertical lines,
then eliminates some of them, either entirely or partially, and strengthens others, striving to
leave rectangles of varying sizes and dimensions. The balance is almost always informal.

Swiss design, with its orderly approach, has some ties to Mondrian layout. But in Swiss
design, lines or bars are not shown; they appear only in the mind of the designer. And the
design is based often on a grid of squares instead of rectangles.

2. Picture-Window Layout. More popular than Mondrian and especially suited to magazines
is the format known in the trade as ÒAyer No. I,Ó after the agency that pioneered its use. We

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will call it ÒPicture window. Ó Doyle.Dane Bernibach for Volkswagen had particular success
with this format, but probably theme and copy brilliance and wit were more important than
layout. The least you can say for picture window layout is that it does not get in the way of
the adÕs message. No Òart for artÕs sakeÓ here, just generous display of picture and tight
editing of copy so it will fit the small space remaining.

The designer often bleeds the picture and crops close, almost overpowering the reader. Below
the picture is a one-line, centered headline; copy may be broken into two or three short
columns. The logo may be worked into the last column of the copy, thereby saving some
space.

To tie the picture with the copy, the designer may overprint or reverse some of the headline
onto the picture. Or the designer may line up the copy with some-axis within the picture. The
picture is usually at the top, but nothing prevents the designer from pushing it down a bit,
placing the headline and even the copy above. A smaller picture-or perhaps a line drawing for
contrast-can be placed near the copy.

The nature of the picture will affect the designerÕs decision on placement and type style for
the headline. Leading the body copy from 2 to 6 points helps keep the copy

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3. Copy-Heavy Layout. The advertiser chooses a mostly-copy format for two reasons:
(1) What is to be said is too involved, too important, too unique, too dignified to be put in
pictures; (2) most other ads in the medium will be picture-window or at least heavily picture-
oriented, so a gray, quiet, copy-heavy approach makes a good change of pace.

Because copy-heavy advertising takes itself rather more seriously than other advertising, it
usually puts its elements into formal balance. Lines of the headlines, set in@roman, are
centered; copy begins with a large initial letter and is broken into two or more columns. The
logo is centered underneath. But a more interesting arrangement can result from less formal
balance, with the ad retaining the dignity it would have in a more formal arrangement. The
designer should plan for a blurb or secondary headline as well as a main headline.

Even though the copy is voluminous, there may be room for a few quiet illustrations. When
copy is long, it must be broken somehow into easy-to take segments. The beginning designer
often makes the mistake of marking such copy to be set solid, because it is so long. But long
copy, even more than short copy, should be leaded, by at least a point or two. Furthermore,
the copy at logical breaks should be refreshed with subheads of one kind or another.

Subheads can be flush right, flush left, or centered, in a typeface slightly larger or bolder than
the body type, or in all caps. Extra space should frame such subheads. Subheads can also be
formed from the first two or three words of a paragraph, set in boldface. Extra space should
be provided to separate the bold beginning from the paragraph above.

4. Frame Layout. A photographer can get-a pleasantly composed picture by taking the shot
from one of natureÕs nooks, with foliage and a rock formation in the foreground, dark and
out of focus, framing the heart of the picture. In advertising, the designer easily frames a
layout with a border, doing it sometimes with artwork that is drawn to leave room in the
middle for headline and copy.

Frame layout, used more in newspaper advertising than in magazine advertising, keeps
elements within bounds, preventing their being associated with some other ad on the page.
There is something cozy about frame layout. But it does tend to decrease the optical size of
the ad.

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Furthermore, the ad, if placed at the edge of a page, loses additional white space between the
edge of the ad and. the edge of the page that an unframed ad would pick up. A variation of the
frame layout is the one in which kidney-shaped artwork is spread over a large portion of the
layout, creating a cul-desac of white in which the headline and copy are placed. Another
variation is the layout using a picture a photograph, usually that completely covers the area.
Type is either surprinted or reversed in non-patterned or plain-toned areas.

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5. Circus Layout. An orderly approach in design is probably more important to the editorial
than to the advertising side. The reader is already interested in editorial. The purchase of the
newspaper or magazine proves this. Advertising has to work harder for attention. And to set
itself apart from the staid editorial material, it takes more liberty with basic design principles.

It does not mind standing on its head or wearing a lampshade. Moreover, there is something
to be said for some disorder in an ad. It slows down the reader, making things more difficult
to take in. And in the process of working through the disorder, the reader may remember
more.

We can call design of this type Òcircus layout.Ó Filled with reverse blocks, oversize type,
sunbursts, tilts, and assorted gimmicks, it may not win prizes in art directorsÕ competitions,
but apparently it does sell merchandise-at least a certain kind of merchandise to a certain
class of customers.

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Its apparent disarray (actually, under a good designer its elements are thoughtfully arranged)
is sometimes found in advertising for lofty clients. It was this kind of layout, in the capable
hands of art director Otto Storch, that helped bring McCallÕs out of its ÒTogethernessÓ rut
to the number-one position among womenÕs magazines in the late 1950s. Circus layout takes
in a wide range of layout approaches and deals usually with a larger-than-average number of
components.

The secret of good circus layout lies in the dedication of the designer to basic principles of
design. Elements are organized into units, which in turn are organized into a unified pattern.
Faced with many elements of equal weight, the designer achieves a pleasing proportion by
bunching some into a particularly heavy unit, to contrast with other units in the ad. Variety is
a main concern, and the designer gets it chiefly through size, shape,- and tone changes within
the ad.

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Retail advertisers find circus layout especially useful. Because retail ads are often directed to
bargain hunters, prices played up in large sizes become an important element, ranking with
headlines and art units.
One of the contributions of the underground press of the late 1960s was the attention it gave
to the circus approach in graphic design. Thanks Ô to the flexibility of the offset printing

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process, circus. layout became the predominant format. Often self-conscious and amateurish,
it nevertheless influenced the design thinking of the establishment press. In the hands of
designers who knew what they were doing, it resulted in some engaging, if complicated,
advertising in the 1970s.

6. Multipanel Layout. Breath-purifying toothpaste, body-building iron tablets, and pimple-


restricting yeasts started multi-panel layout a couple of generations ago with their ads in
Sunday comic sections, made to look just like the regular fare. Today this Òcomic stripÓ
layout technique is more useful than ever, although it has grown a bit more sophisticated,
with photos replacing the drawings, in most cases, and with conversation set in type beneath
the pictures rather than ballooned within.

The designer often plans for panels of equal size, feeling that the staccato effect keeps the
reader moving effortlessly through the ad. A proportional difference is achieved by keeping
the block of panels larger than the block that remains to house the headline, explanatory body
type, and signature. The panels can be used to tell a story, or they can be used simply to
display a series of products, pretty much in checkerboard fashion.

7. Silhouette Layout. In another kind of layout the designer arranges elements in such a way
as to form one imposing and interesting silhouette. Professor Hallie J. Hamilton has
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explained to students at Northern Illinois University that silhouette layout evolves from the
unique shape created by the design of the ad, not by the shape of the elements used.

The more irregular the silhouette, the better. To test a silhouette, the designer tries to imagine
the elements in the ad blacked in.

To illustrate the superiority of an irregular silhouette over a regular one, consider the ancient
art of paper-cutting portraiture. The scissors artist always works from a side View, never a

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front view. Otherwise, no one would recognize the portrait. One portrait would look just like
the next. The outline of a front view of a face is never as interesting as the outline of the side
view. Silhouette layout is Òside viewÓ layout.
Just combining a silhouette photograph with some almost touching copy will give you a
silhouette ad. But you can use regular square or rectangular photographs, too. The way they
are put together Ð staggered rather than stacked-gives the ad its silhouette look.

Too much white space separating elements within the silhouette destroys the unity of the ad;
so the designer usually pushes white space to the outside, forming a sort of border. In
silhouette layout many designers arrange elements so that something in the ad touches each
of the adÕs edges, preferably at spots unrelated to each other. This accomplishes two things:

(1) It prevents the white frame from turning into an even halo that could diminish, optically,
the adÕs size; and (2) it prevents the mediumÕs encroaching on white space the client has
paid for. Another way in a silhouette ad to guarantee that the client gets all the space
purchased is for the designer to place dots at all four corners of the paste up.

Checking tear sheets of the ad and finding that both dots at the top, say, are missing, the
advertiser is alerted to the possibility that the medium has taken away some of the space.

8. Big-Type Layout. Type manufacturers, typesetting houses, printers, and periodicals all issue
type-specimen sheets or books for their clients, so that the clients can look over the selection
and marvel at it and pick those types that may be appropriate for a given job or use. In their
largest sizes, types hold particular appeal to the artist and the designer, who derive an almost
sensual pleasure through study of typeÕs peculiar curves and corners and serifs and stroke
variations.
Suspecting that type beauty might also be appreciated by the lay reader, or knowing that big
type commands greater attention than small type, designers sometimes turn to a type
specimen approach in their layouts. ÒSecond comingÓ type pushes boldly through the ad,
leading to a small amount of body copy; or the body copy itself is set in a type that is well
beyond the normal 10- to 12-point sizes used in ordinary ads.

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Type overpowers art in layouts like this. Art may not even be needed. Ordinarily we associate
big-type ads with hard-s-ell retailers; but well-designed or graceful types, used large size,
perhaps screened to a percentage of black, serve image-conscious clients as well.

Some of the best big-type ads use lowercase letters rather than all caps because lower case is
more interesting. If only a few words are involved, the designer takes some liberties with
readability. Lines may ride piggyback on each other; they may overlap; they may be doctored
to intensify the mood of the ad.

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9. Rebus Layout. The Beef Industry Council an d Beef Board ad nearby serves as a good
example of rebus advertising: advertising with copy broken up into small sections by
illustrations. In most rebus advertising, the illustrations-and there are often many of them-
take on such importance that the copy is set to wrap around them or to be interrupted by
them.

Communicators in semi-primitive societies developed rebuses to stand for difficult words or


phrases. Rebuses are small, simple drawings inserted at various places in text matter, sort of
as visual puns. A puzzle-maker, Sam Loyd, popularized rebuses in America in the nineteenth
century, but they found use in many societies before then. They are still used, although not
widely, in word-and-picture puzzles for children.

A modified rebus is one in which an occasional word or phrase is omitted and a picture
substituted. An advertiser will not make a puzzle of an ad-clarity is too important-but may
want to amplify the copy by inserting a series of illustrations. They can be all the same size,
for a staccato effect; or they can be in various sizes to add variety to the ad. The ÒcopyÓ in
some cases is nothing more than picture captions.

10. Alphabet-Inspired Layout. The beauty of letterform, established by scribes and type
designers over a period of several centuries, provides one other source of inspiration for

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designers. The basic shape of letters, both capitals and lower case, can serve as the basic
pattern for the arranging of elements within an ad.
An ad designed to approximate the shape of a letter of the alphabet-or a number, for that
matter-usually is strong in unity and eye travel, two important design qualities. The designer,
however, should avoid an arrangement that too closely suggests a particular letter. The letter
should serve only as the starting point. The reader ordinarily would not be conscious that the
ad took off from a letter or number. It may be helpful to consider each of the ten basic
formats described here before beginning your assignment. Choosing one, you will find
innumerable variations occurring to you as you doodle. Combining two of them into a single
format, you will find your explorations even more fruitful.

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LESSON 6 : THE PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF PUBLICATION
DESIGN

Design is a visual language built on fundamental principles and elements. The elements
(shape, line, and colour) are governed by principles or rules that create order and visual
interest or appeal. A publication designer works with these design principles and elements
and combines them with words (in the form of type) and imagery to achieve a publication’s
purpose or goal. The goal may be to inform, persuade, sell, or entertain. The designer’s role is
to manage the design process in an informed way by fully understanding the publication’s
goal and how it can be achieved using the principles and elements of design.

Communication and Design

Design is basically giving form and visual meaning to a publication, based on its purpose.
But before the design process can begin, it is necessary to have a full understanding of a
publication’s goal, its intended audience, and where it will be seen and read.

Understand the Goal

Publications are conceived and developed for any number of reasons. However, the goal of
most publications can be broken down into four categories. Publications exist to (1) inform,
(2) persuade, (3) sell, or (4) entertain.

1. Inform: This textbook was conceived as an instructional aid for students who want to learn
about publication design. Simply put, the goal of this book could be stated as “help students
learn how to design publications.’’ In addition to textbooks, other publications that educate or
inform include instruction manuals, newspapers, encyclopedias, dictionaries, and directories.

2. Persuade: Publications that persuade try to convince the reader to make a decision or act in
a deliberate way. Examples of persuasive publications include campaign literature, travel
brochures, and other promotional literature that persuades its audience to buy or invest in a
product or service.

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3. Sell: Sales literature is different from persuasive publications in that it serves as a sales
vehicle. Publications that sell allow the reader to see merchandise, make informed choices,
and then follow through with a purchase. Catalogs, for instance, allow a reader to read about,
select, and order merchandise.
4. Entertain: Publications that entertain include novels, comic books, or any other publication
that exists solely for the purpose of entertaining the reader. Although some publications have
just one goal, many publications have more than one goal.

For instance, magazines contain useful information, provide some entertainment value, and
include ads that attempt to persuade the reader to buy advertised products and services.
Identifying the primary goal of a publication is the first step in conceiving an effective design
approach. A good way to be sure you understand a publication’s primary goal is to put it in
your own words. Write it down on a piece of paper to be sure you can articulate it.

Know Your Audience

Another crucial component in the design process is understanding a publication’s target


audience and how to design in a way that will appeal to this audience. The target audience is
the group of individuals to whom a publication is directed.

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The goal of this annual report for Zumtobel, a European manufacturer of lighting
systems, was to convey a message of prosperity and success to its shareholders. Its cover,
(a) a sculpture molded in plastic relief, reappears on the report’s interior pages (b,c) as
a means of demonstrating the different lighting effects that Zumtobel’s products can
create. Showing different lighting effects supports the publication’s goal by giving
shareholders a demonstration of the product’s effectiveness. The unexpected surprise of
an actual molded cover also supports the goal by sending a message that Zumtobel is
creative and innovative—attributes that are important to continued success in this
market. (Annual report design by Sagmeister, Inc.)

It is important to know the psychological foundations of the members of the group (their
behavior, how they think and feel and interact) before a design concept can be formed.
Combining these psychological foundations with statistical information, or demographics,
such as age, gender, ethnicity, geography, and income, forms a basis for determining what
types of messages, imagery, and visual approach will appeal to an audience.

Consider the Venue

Venue refers to the place where a publication will be seen and read. Both
aspects influence a publication’s design and format, however they differ
from each other in that a publication’s cover may perform in one venue,
while its interior pages perform in another. When a publication is first seen
in the retail venue, such as a book store or newsstand, its cover acts as a
point-of-purchase display. A book cover, for instance, must catch the
attention of a potential reader and instantly communicate what the
reading experience will be like.

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The portability, ease of use, and reader friendliness of a book are also
important factors in determining its format and design. Reference manuals
and cookbooks are made more useful when they are bound in a way that
allows them to be laid open on a flat surface. Books directed at
preschoolers usually have lots of pictures and few words so that they will
engage their audience and encourage them to try to understand what
they read.

YM is a lifestyle magazine for teenage girls. Like many magazines directed at this
audience, the content of YM includes fashion features that keep readers informed about
the latest trends. To connect with its audience on a more intimate level, YM
personalized the experience for them by picking a teenage girl named “Sophie’’ and
treating the feature as though it was a segment from her diary. The graphic treatment of
the pages and their pictures connects with readers on a personal and meaningful level
because they mirror their real-life experiences. (YM magazine design by Amy Demas)

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A Badly Flawed Election is about the 2000 presidential election and its controversial
outcome. Because the butterfly ballot was at the core of the confusion over how to count
the ballots in the pivotal state of Florida, it proved to be the perfect symbol as a visual
theme for this cover design. With this graphic treatment on its cover, the book’s subject
matter is communicated in an instant to those who encounter it in a bookstore. (Cover
design by Gary Tooth, Empire Design Studio)

Do the Research

After the primary goal, audience, and venue for a publication have been determined, research
follows to determine what direction the design will take. It often helps to make comparisons
with similar or competitive publications as well as products or other materials with similar

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goals and audiences. Research, done at the library or through the internet, can provide many
opportunities for inspiration. It can help a designer make social and cultural connections, and
arrive at appropriate colour schemes, typeface choices, and stylistic approaches that will
appeal to a targeted audience. Research can also yield sources for imagery, stylistic, social,
and cultural references as well as additional information on a publication’s goal and audience.

Other Considerations

In the “real world,” a publication’s production budget and time line have a major
impact on its design. Budget affects the size of a publication, (its dimensions and
number of pages) as well as the number of images it includes and the colour that is
printed. Budget also has an impact on the degree of quality that is perceived,
affecting the choice and grade of the paper that is used as well as the durability of a
publication’s cover and binding. A tight deadline can also affect a publication’s
design. Certain types of cover and binding treatments require more lead time than
others. Publications with many pages, lots of imagery, and colour also require more
time to produce.

Develop a Strategy

The design phase begins only when all of the preceding factors have been
considered and research has been done. Concepts for an overall look or attitude
usually begin to emerge as a result of going through these steps. Unlike posters or
other single-page design projects, publications are complex in that they consist of
many pages contained within two covers. The pages within a publication may be
similar or different, depending on the content and goal of the publication. For
instance, most magazines have a table of contents, column or department pages,
and a feature section. The pages in each of these sections have a distinct
appearance that helps the reader differentiate one section from the next, but they
are unified by a similar look or attitude that satisfies the publication’s goal.

Design Principles

If the design strategy serves as a plan or blueprint for a publication, it can be useful to think
of the elements of design as structural components and the design principles as the tools.
Principles help a designer determine the relationship between the parts or design elements
involved and serve as rules that a designer can follow when combining these elements in a

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design. Within the realm of publication design, these elements and principles are combined in
a layout. In publication design, a layout is a composed page or cover design. In any given
layout, some principles will likely have a more dominant function, whereas others serve a
supporting role. Before design decisions can be made, it is important to understand what each
of these principles involves.

Hierarchy

Hierarchy is achieved by determining dominance or emphasizing one design element over


another. In some cases, it is obvious which elements in a layout need to be most dominant,
such as the photograph of a new car on the cover of a brochure that promotes it. However,
often the designer determines which elements will dominate and which will be subordinate,
and develops an arranged order by controlling size, placement, colour, and balance of these
elements. This arrangement determines the path the viewer’s eye will take as it scans a
layout.
Lack of clear visual hierarchy is the reason many designs fail to attract and hold a
viewer’s attention. It is important that one element be dominant to give the viewer’s
eye a focal point. There should also be an underlying order of emphasis for other
elements in the design. There should never be a “power struggle’’ between design
elements.

Balance

We strive for balance in all aspects of our lives. A diet of too many starchy foods is
not balanced. If we work too hard and don’t take time to relax, our lives feel out of
balance. Balance is also an important component in design. When design elements
are not in balance, the viewer feels uncomfortable.

Balance in a design refers to the equal distribution of visual weight in a layout. In any
layout, some visual elements have more optical weight or dominance than others. It
is the designer’s role to arrange these visual elements so that they are in optical
balance.
There are two approaches to achieving balance in a layout: symmetric and
asymmetric. In a symmetrically balanced layout, identical or similar design elements
are aligned in an equal way on either side of a vertical axis. Symmetrically balanced
layouts tend to be more formal and static in their appearance.

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In an asymmetrical layout, balance is achieved with an unequal arrangement of
elements. Asymmetrical layouts tend to look more casual than those that are
symmetrically balanced. However, achieving asymmetrical balance is more difficult
and complex because the visual weight of each element and their arrangement
needs to be carefully considered. Balance can often be achieved by balancing
positive with negative space, or form with counter form.

Proximity

The placement of design elements together and apart from one another is a function of
proximity. Equal spacing between elements in a composition often results in a static, boring
design. However, proportional variation in the placement of elements results in a kinetic
tension that brings interest and excitement to a layout.

The space between two or more elements affects their relationship. Visual tension results as
they move together, and when they touch, hybrid shapes can form. Proximity groupings of
several design elements can create patterns, a sense of rhythm or other relationships, such as
ambiguity between figure and ground. Groupings where elements are layered or one element
overlaps another can create the illusion of depth.

Rhythm, Pattern, and Texture

In music, rhythm refers to a pattern of alternating occurrences of sound and silence. Rhythm
in design is similar in that it is a pattern that is created by repeating visual elements and
establishing a sense of movement from one element to the next. Sound and silence are
replaced with form and space.

Texture is closely related to pattern in that texture is a biproduct of repetition, but it


differs from pattern in that the perception of the shapes, lines, or typographic forms
that were used in its creation are overridden by the sense of texture that is achieved.
Texture is not a design principle or element on its own, but can enhance the quality
of elements in a layout by giving them surface characteristics. Texture can imply
tactile characteristics by simulating surfaces such as fur or granite. Texture can be
created by digitally scanning actual objects or by using markers, pen-and-ink, paint,
and pencil to create textural effects. Designers use texture to achieve richness,
variety, and depth in a composition and to help differentiate figure from ground.
Scale

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Scale is the size relationships between the various elements in a layout and can be used to
control emphasis and hierarchy. A sense of perspective, or the illusion of depth, is an aspect
of scale. Spatial depth can be achieved by placing large elements in the front and smaller
elements in the back. Overlapping shapes can increase the illusion of spatial depth.

Scale is often relative to what we are accustomed to seeing and experiencing. Because we are
used to thinking of an elephant as large and a fly as small, a scale reversal, where a fly is seen
as large and imposing, can create visual interest and surprise by presenting the viewer with
something unexpected. Using contrast of scale, where one element in a layout overpowers
another, can result in intriguing relationships between design elements. As a complementary
principle, variety involves choosing and adding different elements for visual interest. Too
much variety, or random use of it, can cause confusion. The most effective design solutions
achieve a balance between unity and variety by arriving at a harmonious combination of
design elements that are similar in subtle ways, yet varied enough to be visually stimulating.

Design Elements

Design elements are the components or the parts that make up a design composition. The
formal elements of design, shape, line, and colour, are abstract in nature, meaning that they
do not describe anything. However, they can be used to represent an object. A circular shape,
for instance, can represent the moon in a composition.

Shape

Shape is the form or outline of something. It can also be described as form or mass. In
computer programs, shape is often described as a closed form or closed path. In two-
dimensional design, a shape has width and length but not three-dimensional mass. A shape
can be described by a line that defines its edge, or it can be defined by an edge that is clear
and distinct. Shapes exist as figures in or on a ground. Although they are generally considered
as positive figures displacing space, the negative space, or the space around a figure, has
shape as well. Harmonic relationships occur when a designer pays attention to both of these
aspects. Dynamic visual activity develops when ambiguity exists between positive shapes and
the negative spaces surrounding them.

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Colour

Like texture, colour enhances the elements in a layout by helping to activate shapes and space
and by creating emphasis and supporting hierarchy. Designers who understand how to use
colour effectively can use it to create a sense of spacial depth and emphasis, and guide a
viewer’s eye through a layout. Colour can also be a powerful means of communicating
emotion and can be a useful unifying device in publication design.You’ll learn more about
how to use colour to support a design or layout in Chapter Three: Using Colour Effectively.

Line

A line is a path connecting two or more points. Although computer programs describe lines as
paths, a line can also be a mark made by a tool that is drawn across a surface to describe a
path. Lines can be straight or angular, or they can meander and curve.

The quality or look of a line is an aspect of the tool that makes it, and it can communicate a
mood or attitude. For instance, a line drawn with charcoal has a soft, organic quality. One
drawn with pen-and-ink is crisp and precise.
A discussion of colour theory is limited to a brief glossary of colour-related terms to
refamiliarize you with basic colour attributes and terminology. Because a thorough
understanding of colour theory is an important part of any designer’s education, study other
resources that will give you a more complete understanding
of colour if you have not had a formal introduction to colour theory.

Hue—The essence of name of a colour (e.g., red, blue, green.).


Value—The darkness or lightness of a colour. Colours with black added are called shades.
Tints are colours to which white has been added. Light colours such as yellow are called
high-key. Dark colour such as violet are called low-key.
Saturation—The brightness or dullness of a colour.When black, white, gray, or a colour’s
complement is added, a colour becomes less saturated. (Also called chroma or intensity))
Primary hues—Red, yellow, and blue.
Secondary hues—Green, orange, and purple.
Complements—Colours that are directly opposite one another on the colour wheel (e.g., red
and green).

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Type
The principles that apply to the other formal design elements also apply to type. Type is a
component in page and cover layout that is controlled and arranged with other elements in
support of the publication’s communication goal. However, type plays a dual role in that
typographic forms also contain verbal meaning. It is as important for typography to
effectively communicate a verbal message as well as function well in a design composition.
Text, whether it is set in a rectangular format or configured to form a shape, functions as a
design element in a layout. The amount of emphasis that a text-filled shape has in a layout is
largely a result of its scale and the size, weight, and style of the typeface that is used.

Typographic forms can be used to create shapes and harmonious figure/ground relationships
in a layout. Many typographic forms, by themselves, are beautiful and appealing to the eye.
The positive and negative shapes that occur between arrangements of letterforms and
numerals can also yield many intriguing visual possibilities. Typographic forms can also be
layered to create spatial depth.

Type also performs as a linear element in a composition, helping to guide a viewer’s eye.
Typographic forms can be arranged in a way that implies linear direction, or they can be
configured into a straight line or a curve to direct a viewer’s gaze. Just as a block of text
serves as shape in a composition, the quality of the text within that block can lend texture to
that shape. Textural effects or patterns can also be created by repeating typographic forms.
Type can also be used to support attitude or mood.

Imagery

Although not a formal element of design, imagery can function as a design element in page
and page layout. Imagery can take the form of a photograph or illustration. It can be framed
in a rectangular or circular format, or it can function as an outlined shape (without
background) in a layout. A designer may be given imagery to work with, be given the task of
supplying an image, or be given the option to decide whether or not imagery is important to
meeting the design objective.
Organizing Content

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Earlier in this chapter you learned about the importance of emphasis and hierarchy in page
and cover layout. Understanding which design element should receive the most emphasis and
which ones should play a supportive role is the first step in determining an arrangement.
From there, the next step involves developing an underlying structure for organizing this
arrangement.

Proportional Systems and Grids

Over the years, architects, artists and designers have used proportional systems or grids to
give organization and structure to visual elements in a design. A grid supplies an underlying
structure or a transparent framework for determining where to align graphic elements,
imagery. and text in a layout. A grid can be as simple as an invisible guide line running
through a layout, or it can be more a complex system.

Proportion is how a page is segmented. Proportional systems determine how a grid will be
developed. Historically, optically pleasing arrangements have been based on proportional
relationships found in nature. The golden mean, for instance, is based on a harmonic
arrangement that has been found in plants and other life forms. It even exists in the human
body. If you measure your body from foot to navel, then from navel to the top of your head,
you will find the ratio between these measurements is 1 to 1.6. This mathematic ratio can be
expressed in a proportionately sectioned rectangle .

The Ancient Greeks understood this ratio and applied it to the proportions of the
Parthenon. Designers often apply this principle today to serve as a guide
for organizing text and visuals in a layout. Other alignment principles
commonly applied to page layouts are based on similar proportional
relationships that have been proven, over time, to be optically pleasing.
The line of golden proportion, for instance, is based on dividing a page
into eighths and placing a design element or single line of text at a point
so it is at three-eighths from the top of a page.

It is the designer’s job to develop a grid that will support the publication’s
content and visuals. Complex grids comprised of a series of horizontal and

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vertical lines provide a system for determining mathematically precise,
modular units of text, visuals, and other graphic elements that comprise
a page layout. In Chapter Five, “Page Layout,” you will learn more about grids and
how to use them in support of a design.

Directing Eye Movement

After a grid or method of alignment has been decided upon, hierarchy and
emphasis play an important role in guiding a viewer’s eye through a
layout. The designer determines which element is most important and will
be the first to catch a viewer’s attention. From there, design elements with
secondary importance (followed by those with even less importance) lead
the viewer’s gaze through a layout so that the eye moves in a way that
takes in all of the visual content.

The positioning of elements on a page, their size, colour, and visual


weight, as well as their relationship to one another all affect hierarchy.
Here are some guidelines to keep in mind when determining what
elements will be seen first and which will play a subordinate role:

• Position—In Western culture, we tend to read from left to right and


from top to bottom. As a result, elements in a layout that are positioned at
the top and to the left are likely to be seen first.
• Scale—Large items in a layout tend to draw the eye. The smallest elements tend to be seen
last.
• Contrast—Areas of high contrast tend to dominate in a layout, whereas areas of low
contrast tend to recede.
• Implied direction—Linear elements, edges, elements in a line, or even an image such as a
face in profile, can direct a viewer’s gaze.

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LESSON 7 : LAYOUT DESIGN ; NEWSPAPER, MAGAZINE

Page layout is the process of composing text, image and negative space on the page to
produce a balanced, and harmonious visual impact that would allow for a collaboration of the
author of the text, the artist of the design and the reader to construct collectively a meaning
and a message for the text. No text has a single meaning or a unique message, and different
designs create different meanings and different messages for the same text. A layout designer
usually uses a grid system to subdivides a page into geometrical spaces that would constitute
the grammar of layout design made up of vertical, horizontal, oblique and curved borders,
margins, columns, inter-column spaces, lines of type, and negative spaces between blocks of
type and images. The visual grammar of layout design forms its visual message.
Layout design is more than just design it is visual communication. Newspaper, magazine,
book and other paper media layout designers not only must make the layout visually
appealing to the eye, but also tell and show the importance of the story, the text, and the
message through their designs. Stories and photographs are not the only elements that convey
a context to a reader; a good design suggests a context too. The layout design of a book, on
history; science or art has also a significant effect on how a reader would be informed about a
subject. The designs can have different looks about them. They can occupy just one narrow
vertical column, many columns, or they can spread over an entire page, Similar to the

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grammatical impacts of various tenses of a verb in a sentence, these visual grammatical
variations change the dynamics of the visual meaning in the space and time. Gutenberg,
Ludovico degli Arrighi,Johannes Itten, László Moholy-Nagy, Theo Van Doesburg, Kurt
Schwitters, Johannes Molzahn, Max Burchartz and the other authentic layout artists are the
ones whose works establish the new standards and criteria for the future. They can abandon
all the aesthetically established conventions, except one; their new designs must balance the
overall compositions of the page taking into considerations all elements of design namely; the
composition of image, text, white space the effects of color and texture of its paper.

Of course. the amount of space available will dictate a designer's ability to layout the text.
Creating a bold design, judiciously allotting areas of contrast and selecting appropriate
typeface the composition should lead the reader's eyes towards various parts of the page in a
harmonious and unintrusive journey. In any layout, the negative space, that is the space
without any content, plays a key role in this journey. The designer style should include an
appropriate amount of negative space that would support the text arrangement in the
composition. Whether the design is simple or complex, the way the story, photos, typeface
and negative space are composed is a part of the visual communication package as a whole. If
a page is designed poorly, the reader may miss the whole or the major part of content. A bad
design may create fatigue, stress, and even provoke hostility towards the text or the author.

At its most basic, the composition of a layout is determined by the two dimensional geometry
of its typography, image, color scheme and the nature of its textual content; namely whether
it is technical, mathematical, poetical, philosophical, scientific or anything else . Various
design choices; starting from geometric dimensions of pages, sizes of type, texture of the
paper, column widths, their spacing and alignment would exert subtle but important impact
on the nature and quality of the communication.

From manuscripts to the early prints

Layout design appeared on the pages of manuscripts in the medieval time well before the
emergence of typesetting and printing. A scribe hand-copied an entire book composed very
often in a beautifully designed layout. Many scribes were monks who would complete the
task of writing a book, usually made from vellum, in a year or so. In fact, monasteries
produced most of books until the 13th century. But as literacy diffused among the populace,

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and major universities were expanding, secular scribes outside the monasteries began to take
up the work of bookmaking to increase the supply of written material.

When each script was finished, it was decorated with an artist’s ornamental design—known
as illumination. The composition of these layouts most often were surprisingly modern, using
various page format, with different number of columns, applying artistically composed
lettering in harmonic colors and variations in letter size for emphasis. After the invention of
the printing press, the first printed page layouts were modeled on the manuscript layouts. But
over time one major difference was introduced—justified setting. In this, spaces between
words in continuous text are adjusted in each line so that columns align on both left and right
sides. Although manuscript pages were symmetrical when viewed as spreads, the ranged-left
lettering made them essentially asymmetric.

A Roman Breviary of French origin [1450 to 1470] verso, The elegant page layout of this
Medieval manuscript is of timeless quality.

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The simple design of this Spanish Breviary's two columns layout, written in the mid-1400s,
utilized the full visual impact of negative space. The designer's faint blue lines of a grid to
achieve such an exquisite composition is still traceable.
Incunabula's layout Design

Before the year 1501 in Europe, the printing technology was not at the stage to be able to
publish texts on both sides of a page. An incunabulum (plural; incunabula) is a book printed
on a single sheet. In Latin "incunabulum" translates literally to "swaddling clothes" or "bands
holding the baby in a cradle." The word first appeared in English in the 19th century,
referring retroactively to those books produced in the first decades of printing press
technology. However, the first recorded use, as a printing term, is in De ortu et progressu
artis typographicae, Of the rise and progress of the typographic art, a pamphlet by Bernard
von Mallinckrodt, published in Cologne in 1639. Mallinckrodt's pamphlet was to mark the
bicentenary invention of printing by movable type in Europe, in which he defended the
pioneering role of Gutenberg; and includes the phrase prima typographicae incunabula, the
first cradle of printing. The ad hoc cut-off date of 1501 was also selected by Mallinckrodt.

Famous incunabula include the Gutenberg Bible of 1455 and the Liber Chronicarum of
Hartmann Schedel, printed by Anton Koberger in 1493. Other well-known incunabula
printers include Albrecht Pfister of Bamberg, Günther Zainer of Augsburg, Johann Mentelin
of Strasbourg and William Caxton of Bruges and London.

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Incunabula from Germany. Late 15th century

There are two types of incunabula: the xylographic (made from a single engraved woodblock
for each page) and the typographic (made with movable type on a printing press in the style
of Johann Gutenberg). Some authors reserve the term incunabulum for the typographic ones
only. Most of the early typefaces were modeled on local styles of writing or were derived
from various European Gothic scripts. As well, there were also some that stemmed from
manuscript documents; such as most of Caxton's types. In Italy, in particular, types were
modeled on humanistic typefaces, which in digital formats are still in use today.

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This facsimile page is from the Gutenberg's Bible, also known as the 42-line Bible. It is an
edition of the Vulgate, printed by Johannes Gutenberg, in Mainz, Germany, in 1455. The
overall layout, modeled on classical two-columns layout of manuscripts, is elegantly
balanced. The composition is positioned slightly toward the left side of the page, with a
wider right-hand margin that aesthetically anchors the negative space of the page
rendering the visual impact exquisite and pleasing.

Vicentino Ludovico degli Arrighi, Type Specimen Sheet, Vicenza: Tolomeo Janiculo, 1529
Ludovico degli Arrighi began his career as a printer and publisher in 1524 in partnership
with Lautizio Perugino, a goldsmith who may have been his punch cutter. This stunning
layout is a rare specimen sheet showing type based on Arrighi's italic hand, containing a
set of complete alphabet, as well as the Lord's Prayer and Hail Mary in Italian.

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Vicentino Ludovico degli Arrighi, The second edition of an early writing manual, Venice:
(Nicolo d'Aristotile detto Zoppino), 1533.

Ludovico degli Arrighi, Vicentino, fl. 1522. Il modo de temperare le penne con le uarie
sorti de littere ordinato per Ludouico Vicentino. Roma, 1523.

The early layout designs were based on standard works in Latin inherited from the medieval
time, however as printing costs declined, because of technological advances, more books
were printed, particularly in translations from Latin and other languages.

Nevertheless, the layout designs still resembled the medieval compositions using classical
ornamentation, initials and bordering. However, with a greater use of white space they were
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no longer as dark and dense as the medieval illuminated manuscripts. Some of this can be
attributable to the advance of paper manufacturing technologies which created whiter and
lighter papers. The incunabula layout designers made a grater use of columns for aesthetical
effects.

France. Grand Conseil. Arrest dv Grand Conseil donné sur la reformation de l’imprimerie,
le vnziéme septembre 1544. [Lyon, 1548].

The elegance of this one-column layout with floral header design for its title has been
compromised by the paucity of its available negative space.

Aubert, 16th century. Plaidoyez povr la reformation de l’imprimerie. [Paris, 1571?] Bound
with Rosenwald 1034.

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Compare the dramatic impact of the white space in this layout relative to the preceding one

Heinric en Margriete van Limborch, Een schoone historie va[n] Margariete[n] va[n]
Limborch en[de] va[n] Heyndric hare[n] broeder broeder ...,Tantwerpen, Gheprint bi
W. Vorsterman, 1516.

This idealized and mathematically organized layout with symmetrical forms of typography in
a series of grid systems, harnessing the startling classical world view of balanced design and
typography.

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Pyramus ende Thisbe. [Thantwerpen, Gheprint by H. Peeterssen, van Middelburch, ca
1540].

This late-sixteenth-century English Bible, shows how a tasteless layout, and the chaotic
interference of negative spaces can drastically affect the character of a text.

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This spread from The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, published in 1792, uses the
golden section to determine the text area, and the Fibonacci sequence to arrive at relative
margin sizes (inner margin 3 units; top and outer margins 5 units; bottom margin 8 units). The
gutter is treated as the central axis, and there is one column of text. The outer and bottom
margins are larger than the inner and top. These optical adjustments ensure that the text
doesn’t appear to be falling off the bottom of the page.

Canonical Structures of classical design

From the the mid-fifteenth century, when printing press emerged, until the late eighteenth
century, when the Industrial Revolution created the consumer society and hence generated a
demand for advertising posters, leaflets, magazines catalogs and newspapers; the printing
process was exclusively used to produce books. During this relatively long period book
printing was considered a true art form. Typesetting, or the placement of the characters on the
page, including the use of ligatures, was passed down from master to apprentice. In the
classical layout type was generally set in one justified column per page, placed symmetrically
on the spread with larger outer margins than inner, and a larger margin at the foot than at the
head. From the start, printers understood the importance of the relative relationships of
various elements of layout. The mathematical proportions of various segments and margins
were determined by geometry, and designers adhered to the aesthetic rules that governed the
harmonious relationships of points, lines, surfaces, and solids to one another. Perhaps it was
because of such rules that in Germany the art of typesetting was termed the "black art".

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The layout of Leonardo da Vinci's famous study of the proportions of man in his Uomo
vitruviano (Vitruvian Man) , is based on Golden Rectangle, which provides the design its elegant
mathematical balance.

Leonardo Fibonacci

Fibonacci's Golden proportions

When artists think of shapes with golden ratios they typically think of a golden rectangle
where one side divided by the other is 1.618. This is the value of what is called the golden number
φ or Phi, which is defined as;

(a+b)/a = a/b = φ
its value is;

φ = (1 + √5)/2 = 1.6180339887...

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The Golden Rectangle's status as an eye-pleasing divider of space is well established. The
Golden Spiral is made from quarter-circles tangent to the interior of each square.

The Golden Section is an aesthetically pleasing division of space that is often used by artists
as the basis for measurements within their compositions. The mathematics behind the golden
ratio is heavily connected to the Fibonacci Sequence, which by definition begins with the
numbers 0, 1 and then each successive number in the sequence is the sum of the previous two
numbers.

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55…

Taking any number in this sequence and divide it by the previous number the result
approximates Phi or the golden ratio. Of course, the first few numbers in the sequence give a
rough approximation , but as we continue along the sequence the division approaches 1.618
rather quickly.

2/1 = 2.0
3/2 = 1.5
5/3 = 1.67
8/5 = 1.6
13/8 = 1.625
21/13 = 1.615
34/21 = 1.619

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55/34 = 1.6176

As the following chart shows, designers can partition their layout space in a much simpler
way than calculating the length of the sides which satisfy the golden proportion.

The construction of a golden rectangle is very easy and straightforward. First, construct a
simple square. Then draw a line from the midpoint of one side (point A) to an opposite corner
(point B) and use that line as the radius to draw an arc that defines the width of the rectangle.
Finally, complete the golden rectangle.

There are many geometrical constructions that can produce a beautiful page, but the golden
section is usually cited as the most successful. By adding a square, with sides equal the long
side, to the long side it is possible to arrive at the next measurement in the sequence to give a
bigger rectangle of the same proportions. This also works in reverse in order to make a
smaller rectangle, that is subtracting a square with sides equal to the short side of the
rectangle, and extending it to become a rectangle one can produce a smaller golden triangle.

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The Argentinian typographic design artist, Raúl Mario Rosarivo (1903–1966), who held the
position of Talleres Gráficos de la Provincia de Buenos Aires , General Director of the
Buenos Aires Provincial Graphic Workshops, was the first scholar to analyze Renaissance
books with the help of compass and ruler and concluded that Gutenberg applied the golden
canon of page construction to his work.

Rosarivo's conclusion that Gutenberg used the "golden number" or "secret number" to
establish the harmonic relationships between the diverse parts of a work, was analyzed by
experts at the Gutenberg Museum and re-published in the Gutenberg Jahrbuch, its official
magazine. Historian John Man points out that Gutenberg's Bible's page was based on the
golden section shape, based on the irrational number 0.618.... (a ratio of 5:8) and that the
printed area also had that shape. This was indeed the case.

The above chart depicts Rosarivo's reconstruction of the Golden rule geometry, which is the
source of the striking balanced composition of Gutenberg's bible. As the page on the right
hand side shows, the ratio of the width of the page (made up of the width of 9 tiles) to the
width of the textbox (equal to the width of 6 tiles) is 9/6 = 3/2. The same proportion is
satisfied in the ratio of the length of the page to the length of the textbox. Moreover, the
width of the inner margin of the page is made up of the width of 1 tile, while the width of the
outer margin is twice as large. Thus the total width of the page-spread is equivalent to width
of 4 tiles relative to width in the middle. The same proportion is satisfied in the ratio of the
lower marine to the upper one. As well, the left and right margins, are 2/9 and 1/9

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respectively for the left page, and the left and right page together form a center margin of 1/9
+ 1/9 = 2/9, equal to the outside edges. The textbox sits in the upper section of the page,
consistent with the reader's line of sight on a page, and giving space at the bottom (equivalent
to the surface of 18 tiles relative to only 9 tiles in the upper margin -- 18/9 = 6 : 3 = 2), for the
reader's hands to hold the book open without covering any content.

Printing Press and Page Layout in the Ninteenth Century

European book production increased enormously, from somewhat more than 12,000
manuscripts per century (or 120 per year) in the six to eight centuries, to more than one
billion books published during the eighteenth century (the peak year is 1790, when more than
20 million copies were printed). Nevertheless, even four centuries after the introduction of
movable type, scientists and men of letters still were publishing their works in the form of
manuscript during the eighteenth century. For example, early in that century, there were many
clandestine manuscripts circulating in the French society and in the discussions that took
place in the salons and cafés of Paris. The rise of the print and publishing industry in the early
19th century stemmed from the need for communications in the modern industrial age.

The invention of the steam powered press, in 1812, credited to Friedrich Gottlob Koenig and
Andreas Friedrich Bauer, made it possible to print over a thousand copies of a page per hour.
In 1803, Koenig, a 27-year-old German printer who had studied mathematics, physics, and
mechanics at Leipzig University traveled throughout Europe in search of funding for his
project, but was only greeted with deep-seated skepticism and rejections. In November 1806,
he traveled to England where he was able to sell his idea to Thomas Bensley, the country's
most prominent book printer. Koing built the press with the help of a fellow named Bauer, a
German precision instrument maker whom Koenig had met in London. In April 1811 the
machine, for which Koenig had received a patent a year earlier, was first presented at a
printing trade show in London. The Times of London bought two of their first models in
1814, which was capable of producing 1,100 impressions per hour.

Later on, Friedrich Koenig traveled to Germany in search of new customers where he was
able to sell two presses to the Berlin-based publishers Decker and Spener, in 1822. Soon
after, Germany's top printing establishments became interested in the new technology. As

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well, Koenig traveling in Europe, brought in orders from Denmark, Switzerland, the
Netherlands, Spain, and France. Koenig and Bauer went on to perfect the early model so that
it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began to make newspapers available to a
mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature
of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata.

In 1875, the company started making so-called web-fed presses, or web presses. First
introduced in the United States, the new presses printed on paper from rolls instead of paper
sheets. In 1886, Wilhelm Koenig, Friedrich's son, invented a web press that was able to cut
the paper fed from a roll into sheets before they were printed. The machine also allowed for a
variety of sheet sizes. Two years later, he constructed the first web press that was able to print
in four colors. In 1890, Koenig & Bauer launched another novelty web press with two
integrated printing units, a twin web press. In the early 1890s, Wilhelm Koenig laid the
groundwork for two other of Koenig & Bauer's important product lines. He began to design
presses for printing luxury color products and for printing securities and bank notes.

An advertisement page from the Feb. 9, 1884 issue of Harper's Weekly, which contains a
description of the book, and an engraved portrait of Confederate General Beauregard.

By the end of the nineteenth century the need for a more imaginative and flexible approach
towards design had became quite clear. As this ad demonstrates, the explosion of ads,
competing for the readers attention, created visual chaos caused by undisciplined and
tasteless layouts. Even the message of a well crafted ad such as the ad for the book about
General Beauregard was often lost in the clutter of a randomly determined composition.

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Designers, journals, and clients realized the need for a solution and began to explore and
experiment with new approaches to layout..

Layout Design in 20th century

At the beginning of the 20th Century, modern art movements such as Futurism, Dadaism and
Constructivism revolutionized the European layout and typography. Germany was at the
epicenter of this revolution, where young layout designers distanced themselves from the
traditional approach of the publishing houses and printing companies, whose layout design
and typographic culture was rooted in Art and Crafts movement or Art Nouveau style of the
eighteenth century. At the same time Cubism departed from Realism and opened the vista for
abstract art. Cubists analysed the representational art in three-dimensional view points and
added a fourth dimension, time, which rendered the composition complex and rather
unwieldy. But upon a more careful study they revealed a deconstruction of the geometry of
space into rectangles, triangles and ellipses in a dynamic trajectory that redefined the
aesthetics of perspective.

In the aftermath of World War I, the German Die Neue Sachlichkeit, The New Objectivity,
movement that was founded by Otto Dix and George Grosz may be characterized as an anti-
war realistic style that was informed by their cynical stance towards the existing European
socio-political power structure. The spirit of a "New Objectivity" and its ideological stance
influenced layout designers like Karel Teige, El Lissitzky, Herbert Bayer, Laszlo Moholy-
Nagy, Marcel Breuer, Jan Tschichold, Paul Renner, Kurt Schwitters and others. They fell in
love with the "new" Grotesk typography, or what in the English speaking world is known as
Sans-Serifs, and was supposed to represent the proletarian spirit of socially-oriented
internationalism and fraternization of the new industrial society.

These young artists recognized the power of layout and broke with all previous design
traditions, using type in the spirit of cubism, at unexpected angles or on misplaced curves;
introducing extreme variation in type sizes; using drawn, abstracted letterforms; and
generally ignoring the vertical and horizontal nature of type. For the first time, space was
used as a dynamic component in typographic layout.

The Italian Futurist layout designers who were literary enthusiast, called into question the

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typographical philosophy of simplicity, clarity and transparency which dominated print
culture since the advent of the printing press. Led by F. T. Marinetti's 1909 manifesto, they
used the metaphor of "second-hand clothes," to describe the traditional layout designs of
visual communication, particularly the layout of the book itself, which Marinetti called
"stale" and "oppressive," a symbol of the old guard that the Futurists were working against.
He began experimenting with unusual layout and degenerated typography, creating poems
that were simultaneously textual and visual, such as the 1919 work "SCRABrrRrraaNNG.

Around the same time, Dada was gaining strength as a coherent artistic movement in Europe.
Their layout design aimed at accentuating the sound of words, even the sound of individual
letters or numbers, both by unconventional composition and typographic innovations similar
to those of Italian Futurists.

This page is from an issue of the Futurist magazine Lacerba, published in 1914.The post
WWI ambiance, so different from the often decadent fin-de-siecle life, ensured there was no
return of any decorative tendency. The Futurists, were writing about modern life, particularly
its noisy or violent aspects. They wanted to convey personal, sometimes physically painful,
experiences, and thus they broke with previous approaches to layout and design, and by doing
so they revolutionized the development of the grid. The words in the Futurist layout were

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there to create a visual image, both by the way they were used typographically and by their
literal meaning. The Florentine newspaper Lacerba, with Giovanni Papino and Ardengo
Soffici as main contributors, ran from 1 January 1913 to 22 May 1915, with a total of seventy
issues.

The Futurists were poets, not designers; they strove to weld the literary word with the visual
word in order to express ideas beyond words. Their layout was often intentionally chaotic,
but as they discarded old conventions, a new aesthetics was given the space to develop.

Johannes Itten, Mein Vorkurs am Bauhaus, My Preliminary Course at the Bauhaus, 1963

Bauhaus and Moholy-Nagy's 'typofoto'


Rethinking the approach to layout design started with Johannes Itten's expressionist layout at
Bauhaus. Itten's designs were strikingly bold and original. He took a dramatically different
path towards typography and abandoned the prevailing classical layout conventions. He was
a trailblazer for powerful 'typofoto' ideas of the Hungarian painter László Moholy-Nagy, who
arrived at the school in 1923, the year after Itten's departure.

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Bauhausbücher 5, Neue Gestaltung Piet Mondriaan. attributed to László Moholy-Nagy,
1924

In collaboration with Walter Gropius, Moholy-Nagy designed and published a series of 14


‘Bauhausbücher’ (Bauhaus Books) that acted as a platform for his layout and topographic
ideas .

Staatliches Bauhaus Weimar 1919-1923, László Moholy-Nagy, Printer: Bauhaus Verlag,


Weimar. 1923.

In 1923, Moholy-Nagy wrote a short treatise on the new typography for the Bauhaus
exhibition catalog Staatliches Bauhaus in Weimar, Munich. In it he firmly grounded his
argument for the design of layout which he later dubbed 'typofoto', which he defined as a new
form of expression using type and photographic images. In fact, Moholy-Nagy's tenure as a
teacher at the Bauhaus (from 1923 to 1928), played a crucial role in the development of
modern page layout which was reflected in the design of a number of publications embodying
the tenets of his treatise for the Bauhaus press. Moholy-Nagy wrote:

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'Typography is a tool of communication. It must be communication in its most intense form.
The emphasis must be on absolute clarity since this distinguishes the character of our own
writing from that of ancient pictographic forms. Our intellectual relationship to the world is
individual-exact (e.g.,this individual-exact relationship is in a state of transition toward a
collective-exact orientation). This is in contrast to the ancient individual-amorphous and later
collective- amorphous mode of communication. Therefore priority: unequivocal clarity in all
typographical compositions. Legibility-communication must never be impaired by an a
prioriaesthetics.

Letters may never be forced into a preconceived framework, for instance a square. The
printed image corresponds to the contents through its specific optical and psychological laws,
demanding their typical form. The essence and the purpose of printing demand an uninhibited
use of all linear directions (therefore not only horizontal articulation). We use all typefaces,
type sizes, geometric forms,colors,etc. We want to create a new language of typography
whose elasticity, variability and freshness of typographical composition is exclusively
dictated by the inner law of expression and the optical effect. ...

An equally decisive change in the typographical image will occur in the making of posters, as
soon as photography has replaced poster-painting. The effective poster must act with
immediate impact on all psychological receptacles. Through an expert use of the camera, and
of all photographic techniques, such as retouching, blocking, superimposition, distortion,
enlargement, etc., in combination with the liberated typographical line, the effectiveness of
posters can be immensely enlarged.

The new poster relies on photography, which is the new story telling device of civilization,
combined with the shock effect of new typefaces and brilliant coloreffects, depending on the
desired intensity of the message.

The new typography is a simultaneous experience of vision and communication


At the time these were revolutionary ideas.

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The Law of Series. (Das Gesetz der Serie), László Moholy-Nagy,
1925

De Stijl; van Doesburg's introduction of diagonal axis

Two years before the appearance of Moholy-Nagy's treatise, Theo Van Doesburg, leader of
Dutch De Stijl group and editor of its journal, had moved to Weimar. In 1920 De Stijl
magazine had published a Dada poem by a certain IK Bonset. In a genuine Dadaist tradition
"IK Bonset" was actually a Spoonerism for "I am a fool" in Dutch (Ik ben sot): it was a nom-
de-plume for Theo van Doesburg, who from 1912 had published a large number of articles,
revealing himself as a committed artist engaged in a constant dialogue between the visual
theory and practice and exploring the structural relationship of various elements of design. He
signed his work under various names, including I. K. Bonset (as a Dadaist poet) and Aldo
Camini (as a Futurist), as well as his own. As editor of De Stijl, he published the seminal Call
for Elementary Art, urging the artist to be “the interpreter of energies that shape the world’s
elements”. In his manifesto of 1918 he wrote:

"There is an old and a new consciousness of the age. The old one is directed towards the
individual. The new one is directed towards the universal. The struggle of the individual
against the universal may be seen both in the world war and in modern art."

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Theo van Doesburg, Dada Ismus in Holland

Theo van Doesburg, De Stijl,


1920

Theo van Doesburg made a distinctive contribution to the avant-garde layout by introducing
the diagonal axis.The effect of diagonal lines on layout was dramatic due to the tensions
between them and vertical lines of composition, and enhanced emphasis on horizontal

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vertical axis of the layout. In a letter written by Mondrian to van Doesburg in 1919 he refers
to diagonal impetus of rectangular composition and indicates that this oblique lines, indeed
heightened his awareness of the contrapuntal relationship between the composition and the
frame.

I hang several pieces now like this <>, in order that the composition become like this +,
whereas in this way [] the composition is like this X.

van Doesburg celebrated the tenth anniversary of De stijl with an exceptional cover design,
intended to mark the periodical’s influence. On the front cover was a grey portrait photograph
of van Doesburg, with a laudatory text by Sigfried Giedion printed in blue; on the back cover,
also in blue, the development of De stijl was symbolized by a grey tinted photograph of a
globe, with ‘Neo-plasticism’, the starting point of De stijl, printed horizontally, and
‘Elementarism’ printed diagonally across it.
The Congress of Constructivists and Dadaists at Weimar

In 1922, Van Doesburg organized the Congress of Constructivists and Dadaists in Weimar,
which included such luminaries as Hans Arp, Kurt Schwitters, Tzara, Moholy-Nagy, Max
Burchartz, Werner Graeff and El Lissitzky, the Russian constructivist. All these artists
contributed significantly to the creation of new layout. While both Constructivists and
Dadaists were committed to revolutionize the conventional approach to art in general, and to
layout in particular, they approached the task from two diametrically opposing perspectives.
Constructivism was an invention of the Russian avant-garde that found adherents across
Europe. It was, basically an ideologically driven art that aimed at addressing the Proletarian
concerns. Their theory of aesthetics was an amalgam of Russian Suprematism, Dutch Neo
Plasticism (De Stijl) and the German Bauhaus. Their outlandish aim was to integrate art and
society so that art would disappear! Infatuated by the age of science, and scientific
materialism, they believed artists were to experiments like scientists in a laboratory
environment in order to construct the new world.

The Constructivist and Suprematist rejected easel painting as an expression of bourgeois-


dominated society. Its most famous representative, Vladimir Tatlin, announced the death of
traditional art and constructed three-dimensional, machine-inspired, abstract sculptures and
reliefs. Other Constructivists designed utilitarian products (chairs, clothes, dishware) with a

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distinctly industrial veneer to help “urbanize the psychology of the masses” and usher in the
new Communist stage of civilization. Suprematism was born with Kazimir Malevich’s
painting “Black Square” (1915) and other geometrical abstractions, which were supposed to
lead proletariat towards liberation and away from capitalist exploitation. An Idealist,
Malevich believed that his two-dimensional forms provided a cerebral “passage into the
fourth dimension,” comprehension of which was vital if mankind were to imagine a higher
reality and thereby alleviate earthly suffering.

Alexander Rodchenko, 1920s

Alexander Rodchenko, Resinotrest Russian Shoes,

A poster for the organizations galoshes, with the text: Little Rain, Big Rain, don't try so hard/
Im not leaving without my galoshes./ With the help of Rubber Trust/ the earth is dry wherever
I go. At the very bottom: Sold Everywhere. Rodchenko left his studies in applied arts and
established himself as a free-lance artist among the avant-garde of Moscow. By 1920 he was
in the forefront of the Constructionist movement. In 1923 he entered into a wide-ranging

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artistic partnership with Mayakovksy, the multi-talented artist, poet and playwright who is
most closely associated with the creation of the Rosta windows. Under the name
Mayakovsky-Rodchenko Advertising Designers, the pair produced about 50 posters. 100 or
so signs, commercial notices, package designs and illustrations for magazines and
newspapers.

Constructivists; the idealogical layout of Production Art

During the early years of the Russian Bolshevik regime, the artists led by their idealist visions
became the staunch supporters of Lenin. This artistic attitude originated from the Utopian
expectations generated by the Revolution and the desperate conditions of the Civil War
during the 1918–21 period. Anatoly Lunarcharsky, the new Bolshevik Minister for
Enlightenment, became an enthusiastic patron of the avant-garde art, supporting the artistic
activities from theatrical performances to establishment of museums of modem art, and the
design and commissioning of monuments. In particular, the regime fostered a debate
concerning the role of art in industry, dubbed Production Art, proizvodstvennoye iskusstvo, to
which critics such as Osip Brik and Nikolay Punin contributed, arguing that the bourgeois
distinction between art and industry should be abolished and that art should be considered as
merely another aspect of manufacturing activity.

Everyone to the Elections together! The Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics was

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born in the fire of October - a stronghold of international revolution. Long live the All-
Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks!, C.1922

The artists themselves had been encouraged to believe they had a wider public role to play by
their participation in the many official commissions to execute such propaganda tasks as
decorating Russian cities for the Revolutionary festivals and designing agitational and
educational posters. A brief period of brotherly love permeated throughout the land in which
artists, architects, writers, poets, and critics joined in the quest to create a new egalitarian
society. After 1917, industry and the machine came to be seen as the essential characteristics
of the working class and hence of the new Communist order. In practical terms, industrial
development was also regarded by the state authorities as the key to political and social
progress. Hence, the machine was both metaphor for the new culture under construction and
the practical means to rebuild the economy as a prelude to establishing Communism. During
the chaotic Civil War period, the avant-garde had also helped to run artistic affairs on behalf
of the government and seemed to have become a vehicle for expressing the Communist
Party’s political objectives. The utilitarian ethos of Constructivism was a logical extension of
this close identification between avant-garde art and social and political progress.

The First Working Group of Constructivists was set up in March 1921 within Inkhuk, Institute
of Artistic Culture, in Moscow. The group comprised Aleksey Gan, Aleksandr Rodchenko,
Varvara Stepanova, Konstantin Medunetsky, Karl Ioganson, and the brothers Georgy
Stenberg and Vladimir Stenberg. The impetus for the group came from theoretical
discussions concerning the relationships between composition and construction at Inkhuk
between January and April 1921. ‘Construction’ was seen as a positive force of change
towards the new society, characterized by technology and engineering and therefore a source
of efficiency, economy of materials, precision, clarity of organization and the absence of
decorative or superfluous elements.

In their programme of 1 April 1921, written by Gan, the Constructivists characterized their
work as ‘intellectual production’ grounded on ‘scientific communism, based on the theory of
historical materialism’. Proclaiming their ideological belief, they emphasized that they no
longer saw an autonomous function for art and that they wished to participate in the creation
of a visual environment appropriate to the needs and values of the new Socialist society:

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‘Taking a scientific and hypothetical approach to its task, the group asserts the necessity to
fuse the ideological component with the formal component in order to achieve a real
transition from laboratory experiments to practical activity’
.

: El Lissitzky, Poster for the Russian Exhibition at Zürich,


1929.

Amidst this heady artistic euphoria El Lissitzky and Alexander Rodchenko became the most
prominent representatives of Constructivism and Supremacists. Lissitzky in visual design and
architecture and Rodchenko in the areas of furniture design and photography. But their most far-
reaching innovations were in the layout design. They created many of the Soviet propaganda posters
and advertisements using geometrical shapes and bold, block lettering that combined the
functionality of Constructivism with the visual elements of Symbolism. Their goal was to subliminally
alter the mentality of the proletariat, infusing in them the values of both artistic movements and
Communism. To achieve this they wantd to give their work the quality of ‘construction’. The
Constructivists sculptors who participated in the Second Spring Exhibition of Obmokhu, Society of
Young Artists, opening on 22 May 1921, demonstrated their strong commitment to the materials and
forms of contemporary technology. The Stenbergs, for instance, created skeletal forms from made of
glass, metal and wood, to evoke engineering structures such as bridges and cranes, and Rodchenko
displayed a series of hanging constructions based on mathematical forms; they consisted of
concentric shapes cut from a single plane of plywood, rotated to create a three-dimensional
geometric form. As one of their German followers put it, these designs “little by little…hammered
into the mass soul.” Despite their rigid ideology, the contribution of Constructivists to layout was
significant. As they introduced an antithetical order and discipline to the chaotic experiments of
Dadaists and the Italian Futurists. The Russians were the ones who created the New Typography, and
inspired many of the young European progressive layout designers of the twentieth century.

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Die Kunstismen (The isms of art), El Lissitzky and Hans Arp, Zurich: E. Rentsch, 1925

Die Kunstismen was published simultaneously in Zürich, Munich and Leipzig in


German, French and English. Its bold and revolutionary spatial layout, using Grotesk
type, is one of the earliest example of the modern layout.

Lissitzky also worked with Kurt Schwitters in coediting and layout design of Nasci, Nature,
which was the double issue 8 and 9 of Merz, produved in Hanover, using Grotesk type.

Merz, 8-9, Special issue, Nasci (Nature), April-July, 1924, Edited by Kurt Schwitters and
El Lissitzky, No. 8/9, Hanover, April-July 1924, cover

Merz, 8-9, Special issue, Nasci (Nature), April-July, 1924, Edited by Kurt Schwitters
and El Lissitzky, No. 8/9 (Hanover, April-July 1924, back cover

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Dadaists: The destruction of the old order and the rising of a new order

Dadaists on the other hand wanted to embrace spontaneity and risk. They were adventurous and
anarchistic. Van Doesburg belonged to both camps. His layout design and the integration of
typography and image was a forerunner in the avant-garde movement.

Wohnung und Werkraum, Johannes Molzahn (1892–1965), Printer: Friedrichdruck,


Breslau. 1929. Offset lithograph

Bruno Taut:, Die Neue Wohnung – Die Frau Als Schöpferin; The new apartment, The
woman as Creator , Leipzig (4. auflage, 1926), 1924, printer: Julius Klinkhardt, Designer:
Johannes Molzahn

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.
Cover Design by Johannes Molzahn , an avant-garde artist, designer and professor in
Magdeburg who was loosely associated with the Bauhaus. Using hand-written sans-serif
type

Johannes Molzahn(1892-1965), was the most influential avant-garde theorist for layout
design. In 1919, he and Schwitters were actively promoted by gallery Der Sturm, Berlin. A
second generation expressionist, he frequently exhibited in Der Sturm, and his articles were
appeared often in the journal of the same name.In September issue he published his Das
Manifest ties absoluten. Expressionismus,The Manifesto of Absolute Expressionism, in
which, in highly colorful language, he proclaimed the destruction of the old order and the
rising of a new order in the aftermath of destruction: “We want to pour oil onto the fire—fan
the tiny glow into flame—span the earth—make it quiver—and beat more fiercely—living
and pulsating cosmos—steaming universe.”

Landing a designing job for the Fagus Shoelast factory, designed by Walter Gropius in 1911,
brought Molzahn to a working relationship with the famous architect, who was among the
leaders of Berlin's Arbeitsrat für Kunst, the first postwar artists’ group in Germany to issue a
call to all artists to unite. The group was a highly structured association. It held regular
meetings, circulated minutes, issued manifestos, and organized exhibitions, and its members
contributed to periodicals. The group leaders were the architects Adolf Behne, Walter
Gropius, and Bruno Taut, and the membership included publishers, critics, dealers,collectors,
and historians, many of whom were socialists. Molzahn became the layout designer for some
of Bruno Taut's books such as Die Neue Wohnung – Die Frau Als Schöpferin; The new
apartment, The woman as Creator. In his 1926 essay, Ökonomie der Reklame-Mechane ,
Economics of Advertising Mechanics, published in Die Form in Berlin 1926, Molzahn

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strongly plead for advertising to be recognized not only as the engine of manufacturing
growth, but also as a capital equipment, in its function and mode of operation.

Orion,Max Burchartz, Printer: C.L. Krüger GmbH, Dortmund.


1926.

Rheinlandfahrt des BDG, Max Burchartz, Peter Wollbrandt and Wilhelm Heuschen,
Printer: A. Bagel A. G., Düsseldorf. 1926.

Max Burchartz (1887-1961) was another expressionist layout designer turned Constuctivist
who also wrote articles for Die Form . Burchartz became well-known for developing his
innovative and bold layout style that blended typography, photography, and photo collages. In
1923, he assumed the joint editorship of the German edition of Von Doesburg's Die Stijl
magazine. A year later he established, Neus Relame Gestaltung, New Publicity Design, a
design studio in Weimar, but soon joined Johannes Canis( 1895 – 1977) to set up yet a new
design firm Werbe-bau, Advertising Construction, in Ruhr.

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Johannes Canis. Johannes Canis Werbefachmann. c.
1928

Burchartz was among the first layout designers who understood the importance of branding
and corporate identity. In a leaflet for his new company, entitled 'Publicity Design' he wrote ;
Advertising is the handwriting of every enterprise! Like handwriting, it shows up a firm's
character, its strength and potential ... watch out for every leaflet with orange square "
The leaflet was embellished with a simple orange square.

This spread and throw-out is from Jan Tschichold’s seminal work Asymmetric Typography,
originally published in 1935. In it Tschichold argued that typographic consistency is a
necessary precursor to understanding, and described designers as akin to engineers. His work
was nevertheless aesthetically refined and dynamic. Here he explains the parallels between

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abstract art and typographic layout.

Tschichold; Revisiting the Canonical Layouts

neue Typographie, Jan Tschichold, page layout, 1928

Jan Tschichold saw the new art of layout design as a metaphor of the modern world design. In
1925 he had published a manifesto arguing that typography must be precise, without
ambiguity: “A communication should have the 1) briefest, 2) simplest, 3) most urgent form.”
Three years later he published Die neue Typographie, The New Typography in which he
advocated for systems of typographic layout and printing that would align with the new
thinking brought to culture through the Dada, Bauhaus, De Stijl, and Futurist movements. He
believed that society was on the verge of a great leap forward, born of the machine age.
“These objects, designed without reference to the aesthetics of the past, have been created by
a new kind of man: the engineer!” he wrote. Two years later reflecting on the impact of the
white space in the layout composition he wrote; ‘White space is to be regarded as an active
element, not a passive background,’ and in 1937; ‘The real role of the New Typography
consists in its efforts towards purification and towards simplicity and clarity of means.’

Tschichold who not only was a skilled calligrapher but also a passionate and thoughtful
layout designer examined classical layouts carefully in order to understand the structural
canons “of book page construction as it was used during late Gothic times.” He was

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interested to decipher "the Secret Canon" that was used in many medieval incunabula. As we
saw, the Golden rule was used by Gutenberg, to create the proportional dimensions of 1/9,
2/9 for the margins and a textbox of the same proportions with respect to the page. Arriving at
precisely the same results as those of Raúl Rosarivo, Tschichold recommended a 2:3 page-
size ratio. Here is how he decoded this seemingly complicated canonical layout, .

Tschichold argued that; "Book pages come in many proportions, i.e., relationships
between width and height. Everybody knows, at least from hearsay, the proportion of the
Golden Section, exactly 1:1.618. A ratio of 5:8 is no more than an approximation of the
Golden Section. It would be difficult to maintain the same opinion about a ratio of 2:3." To
be pragmatical, and at the same time as close as possible to the Golden section rule he
suggested certain proportions that in his words were clear, intentional and definite. He
wrote; "The geometrically definable irrational page proportions like 1:1.618 (Golden
Section), 1:√2, 1:√3, 1:√5, 1:1.538, and the simple rational proportions of 1:2, 2:3, 5:8 and
5:9 I call clear, intentional and definite. All others are unclear and accidental ratios. The
difference between a clear and an unclear ratio, though frequently slight, is noticeable. ...
Many books show none of the clear proportions, but accidental ones.

To create a 2:3 proportion, Tschichold suggested this geometrical division with circular
arcs, which depicts the proportions in most medieval manuscripts, that a feature a "Page

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proportion 2:3. Margin proportions 1:1:2:3. Text area in accord with the Golden Section.
The lower outer corner of the text area is fixed by a diagonal as well." Tschichold's
method provided precisely the same results as the one by Rosarivo's with a 2:3 page ratio.

Merz 11, Typoreklame, Kurt Schwitters, Printer:


A. Molling & Comp., Hannover, Germany. 1924.

Perhaps the clearest early definition of layout design is provided by the Hanoverian layout
designer, Kurt Schwitters (1887 -1948). In 1917 the thirty year-old Schwitters was drafted
into military service, which he was discharged after four months, due to his suffering from
epilepsy. Nevertheless, impressions of the war and its economic devastation deeply affected
him. His layout design for Merz accompanied by literary texts became a Dadaist institution in
Hanover, but he also had strong ties with to the Bauhaus-artists, the Dutch Di Stijl movement
and constructivists, to whom he dedicated the first issue of the "Merz"-magazine in 1923. In
Mertz 11, 1924, he wrote;

The textually negative parts, the unprinted areas of the sheet, are typographically positive the
smallest piece of type matter has typographic value: letter, word, piece of typesetting,
puctuation mark

It is clear that, in this statement he was thinking of "aesthtic" value of layout, a word that was
'politically incorrect'to be used in Dadaist circles of the post WWI.

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Le Coeur a barbe, Cover, Kurt Schwitters, Edited by Tristan Tzara. Paris, 1922

In 1927 Schwitters joined Cesar Domela, Lázlo Moholy-Nagy and Friedrich Vordemberge-
Gildewart to found the ring neuer werbegestalter , circle of new commercial artists, in which
Willi Baumeister and Walter Dexel also joined. He contributed to the catalog of the group, in
which he thus defined werbegestaltung, advertising; to advertise means to draw attention to
something. And advertising designer draws the viewer's attention to what he is advertising
not by means of words, phrases or artificial artistic additions, but simply by designing the
printed matter as a unified whole. Design is the creation of a consciously unified gestalt, and
the designer can do this using accepted conventions - rather like the musician. This is because
we human beings are all the same and function in the same way."

It is again quite clear that by"designing the printed matter as a unified whole" he must have
meant layout design -- and I must say that I am always deeply touched by the humanity of its
last sentence. Schwitters then went on to clarify that he is talking about a balanced layout
composition, as the 'unified whole' is created by balancing the elements of design in a state
of tension in such away that, when they are added or subtracted from the result is zero. ...
Design consist not of the forces themselves, but of putting them in equilibrium. In printed
matter, the forces are; image, lettering the typographic material used, printed and unprinted
areas, etc, in a state of tension with one another. Everything is equally important.

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The American layout design revolution

In the 1930's, Alexey Brodovitch revolutionized the world of periodical publications by


changing the accepted notions on the relationship between text and images in magazine
spreads. Brodovitch was also a trailblazer in commercial and fashion photography, alongside
such well-known photographers as Irving Penn (1917-2009) and Richard Avedon (1923-
2004). Some of Brodovitch's double-page spreads are considered classical magazine layouts.

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Man Ray (photographer) and Alexey Brodovitch. An article spread from a Harper's
Bazaar issue from the 30's

Brodovitch studied the visual integration of text, image and negative space in his many
double-page spreads, experimenting with compositional juxtaposition of photo, text, and
white space. He understood the aesthetic value of negative space and utilized it with
maximum impact, reducing the visual cluttering of pages in layouts with images, texts, and
advertisements. According to him; many designers are afraid of blank spaces; they cram the
page with image and text and hide it with shading colored backgrounds .

A 1982 issue of Harper’s Bazaar with Brodovitch layout and photograph by Richard
Avedon

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A Vogue 2011 article inspired by and about Brodovitch and his layout

The Americanization of Paris Match

Paris Match, the French weekly magazine that once had its own unique style of visual
journalism, with photo reportages, and a clever mixture of news, analysis, commentary. In
2008, decided to change its style of layout and commissioned Garcia Media. Mario Garcia
the leader of García Media, apparently supervises the work of all the company's projects.
Trained as a journalist, he claims that he is strongly committed to the idea that content is what
determines the success of a brand. He calls his philosophy “WED”, an acronym he derives
from combining writing, editing and design as basic principles for effective communication
of ideas.

Garcia has consulted and redesigned publications such as The Wall Street Journal, The
Washington Post, South China Morning Post (Hong Kong), New Straits Times (Malaysia),
the business weeklies of American City Business Journals, The Philadelphia Inquirer,
Handelsblatt (Germany), Die Zeit (Germany) and RIA/Moskovskiye Novosti (Russia); to
medium-size newspapers, such as The Charlotte Observer and Göteborgs-Posten (Sweden);
to smaller ones such as the Lawrence (Kansas) Journal-World and the weekly of the oil and
energy industry, Upstream (Norway). At Paris Match, working with editor Olivier Royant and
art director Michel Maiquez, Garcia Media took a look at the magazine from cover to back
cover and analyzed storytelling processes, content flow and how the robust journalistic and
photographic content of this 64-year-old magazine could be made more interesting, easier to
find and more enjoyable to read. According to company:

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Working in workshop settings with Michel and his talented group of young designers we did
it the old fashioned way: listen to the editor of each section, then sketch ideas, turn those
ideas into page dummies for discussions, and make the necessary changes and corrections to
adapt suggestions. Isolated in a “design” room , the designers went to work, and, at the end of
the day, we had a perfect gallery of pages on the wall, ready for the editors to evaluate. Here
are the results, a very Americanised style, reminding me of the layout of People magazine
and the like:

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The Case against capital letters

In the 19th century, one of the brothers Grimm, Jacob's philological research had led him to a
history of the German language, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, in which he attempted to
drop capital letters. After researching into names and dialects, he used roman type and
advocated spelling German nouns without capital letters. His ideas was supported, in the
1920s, by Benthverlag, the publishers who later issued the DIN standards. Soon it turned into
an euphoria surrounding the New Typography, again the conventional practice in German
texts of using capitals for initial letters of nouns was called into question, and in 1925
Bauhaus dropped them on some silly rationalizations.

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Herbert Bayer, one of the instructors in the school's typography workshop asked: " why
should we print with two alphabets? Both a large and a small sign are not necessary to
indicate a single sound. Capital A equals small small a." Obviously, it didn't occurred to him
that capital letters can play an important role in visual communication. For example signaling
the start of anew sentence, among other functions. Soon at foot of the Bauhaus letterhead a
bizarre statement appeared:

We write everything in lower case to have time, and besides, why two alphabets, were one
will do? why use capital letters if we don't use them when we speak? I wonder if anybody
told them that when we speak we use enunciations and various intonations which we don't
use them when we write. It was asserted that lower case alphabet is easier to learn and to
read! It took less space and was more economical. The only argument that appears to me
reasonable was that the operating machinery, such as mechanical type writer, could be
simplified, (a reason that with the advent of digital technology also has become a rather mute
point).

The Bauhaus typographers, being interested in machines and mathematics wanted typography
to assume the precise logic of the new industrial age, and somehow this brave new world of
theirs could not accommodate capital letters. The Bauhaus books, set in sans serif, set a new

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standard for layout designs. The new style was called Functional typography on the ground
that it was free of any conventional restrictions or obsolete clichés. The Russian avant-garde
designers called it Constructivists typography because it was supposed to have architectural
properties.

In 1929, Vanity Fair magazine, the most important of Condé Nast’s publishing empire,
jumped over the bandwagon of the European modern design trends, and under the direction
of its art director Dr. Mehemed Fehmy Agha decided to switch its typefaces to Paul Renner's
Futura. As well, the magazine decided to eliminate all the capital letters in its feature articles
headlines.

This qusi-innovation, as was intended by Agha and Frank Crownishield, the editor of the
magazine, visually redefined Vanity Fair as an avant-garde publication. However, it's lifespan
was really short, and after a trial period of only five issues was abandoned in the March 1930
issue. The editors explained their decisions in a full-page editorial titled, A Note on
Typography.

A Note on Typography

Vanity Fair presents the case pro and con capital letters in titles, writing finis to an
experiment.

Vanity Fair has for the past several months omitted capital letters in the titles and subtitles of
its articles and illustrations. The hawk-eyed reader will note that this issue of Vanity Fair
returns to capital letters. Posterity anyway will be grateful for a review of the considerations
that have led Vanity Fair, first to dispense with capital letters in its headings and now, after a
trial period of five issues, to return to them.Typography without capital letters was introduced
in Europe soon after the Great War and has been working westward ever since. It has not
been used so much in text, but in all situations where the value of display is paramount it has
been extremely popular. Thus, the intense competition of advertising, where the least optical
advantage makes itself felt at once, has already made some modern typography familiar to
Americans.

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Capital letters are obviously Roman in origin, going back to the beginnings of our era. Small
letters, on the other hand, are derived from the alphabet of medieval script, of scholarly
longhand, dating from the time of Charlemagne, about 800 A.D. Its characteristics are
governed by the natural movements of freehand writing and therefore in stylistic opposition
to the simple stone-engraved capitals of the Roman alphabet. With the Renaissance and the
revival of classical learning in the fifteenth century, the Roman alphabet was merged into
writing, and later into printing, wherever capital letters were indicated. It would now seem
illogical to continue to submit to what was simply an historical accident, a symbol for the
conceit the Renaissance felt in its newly acquired sophistication in the culture of Rome.
Probably, as a matter of fact, the mere omission of a capital letter to indicate the beginning of
a sentence or a title is the least significant or permanent item in the program of the new
typography. Any art, particularly any art with a function as utilitarian as that of typography,
consciously or unconsciously conforms itself in the peculiar temper of the living and
contemporary civilization.The realization of this end takes the form of the arrangement of
pictures on the page, of various kinds of type, of new methods of photography, of decorative
treatment, of the massing of type on the page, and so forth. And incidentally the omission of
capital letters in titles. All this is really compulsory for any magazine that pretends at all to a
place in the modern parade. Nothing would amuse and shock the modern reader more than to
pick up a current magazine composed in the fussy and dignified convention of magazines of
the 1880’s.

The eye and the mind can adapt themselves to new forms with surprising ease. An innovation
stands out at first like a sore thumb but before it has passed its infancy it has become invisible
to the conscious eye. The unconscious eye, however, is another matter. It is vaguely dulled by
the stale and hackneyed, it is antagonized by the tasteless and inept, and it is completely
stopped by the involved and illegible. The unconscious eye is a remorseless critic of all art
forms, it awards the final fame and final oblivion. Thus, the conscious eye may endorse at the
very moment that the unconscious eye is absolutely condemning. And, on the other hand, the
conscious eye may continue to complain irascibly of innovations for some time after the
unconscious eye has given them its final approval.In using, and continuing to use, the new
typography, Vanity Fair believes that it knows very well what it is doing. In modifying one of
the conventions of the new typography by returning to the use of capital letters in titles, it is
obeying considerations that outlast any mere “revolution in style.”

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Three main factors dominate typography: first, appropriateness, as affected by the time, the
place and the function of the material; second, attractiveness, ingratiating the eye and so the
mind; and finally and most importantly, legibility. The page may look as handsome as you
please but if there is to be any authority in words and ideas the page must be read. A title set
entirely in small letters is unquestionably more attractive than one beginning with a capital or
with every word beginning with a capital, but, at the present time, it is also unquestionably
harder to read because the eye of the reader is not yet educated to it. The issue is thus one
between attractiveness and legibility, or between form and content, and Vanity Fair, not
wishing to undertake a campaign of education casts its vote by returning to the use of capital
letters in titles, to legibility, and to the cause of content above form.It may be said here that
Vanity Fair has always and will always cast its vote in that way. While it has tried to perfect
its appearance, it has continued to believe that to refuse to be a Magazine of Opinion is not
necessarily to be frivolous. Better things are said in one moment of even-tempered gaiety
than in a lifetime of spleen.

The notes on this page are not alone to announce a change in typographic style, an event sufficiently
self-evident and hardly worth announcing. They are even more particularly to re-affirm some old
pledges of Vanity Fair and to submit to the final tribunal of its readers the credo of present policies.
The assumption of its readers’ interest may be naïve but Vanity Fair rests in the belief that it is not
unwarranted and subscribes itself, your very obedient servant.

Photograph and layout by Walker Evans, Fortune, 1957

Walker Evans was Staff Photographer at FORTUNE from 1945 to 1965. According to Max

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Gschwind, assistant art director; Evans' earliest works appeared for The Communist Party
in September 1934, Evans' celebrated project that became Let Us Now Praise famous Men,
began as a Fortune assignment with James Agee who also had contributed to the magazine.
After 1954, Evans worked on the layout of some of the portfolios with Ronald Campbell,
using different sized photocopies of the intended images, he tweaked and teased to get the
exact reading. It was widely known that at times Evans would trim his negatives to render a
fait accompli.

Photograph and layout by Walker Evans, Fortune, 1961


"According to Evans; "[Fortune] is insidiously corrupt and its values are a hundred percent
the opposite of what any aesthetic or idealisticmind can ever conceive. But it’s hypocritical;
they do not admit that. And they play in a horribly dishonest and corrupt way this other
game. You know that. The history of “Life” you know, the psychology of Henry Luce all
comes from that. It’s a very one-man organization."

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Art Director Will Burtin, Layout Alexander Semenoick, Fortune, 1947

An elegant composition from V Magazine.

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Modern Design Magazine issue 13, July 2008
A bold layout, with a stunningly balanced composition. By placement of the typography on
the eyesight of the figure on the right page, the designer invites the reader to participate along
with the two dimensional figure in reading of the text.

Radical Magazine

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The design goal here is to make the content as accessible and readable for the reader as
possible. The use of images in the black and white format of the two columns achieves the
readability and accessibility of the classic layouts and allows the designer to provide greater
focus to contents.

The designer has succeeded in presenting an aesthetically pleasing composition, using a


combination of various typefaces and a harmonious color scheme to present a large
amount of information.

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The typeface and the simple geometry of space reminds us of Friedrich Poppl’s edict; ‘
Only in the contrast between black and white does form remain incorruptible.’ A playful
composition that provides a context for a reportage on Reza Abedini, an Iranian graphic
designer.

The geometric division of the left page enhances the visual energy of the layout and
supports the weight of the upper half of the page in a two columns layout over the three
columns at the bottom half of the page.

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A symmetrically balanced layout anchored by two photographs, and a judicious
utilization of white space.

An elegant integration of type and image via colour.

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The simple black geometric surface in the title aligned with the oblique left side of the letter
'A' balances the visual composition with the white lettering inside it echoing the white circles
on the image.

The two circular screens of the gadgets on the large image on the left and at the right hand
side corner provide a visual anchor for the layout, with the title being mirrored in the
image with two horizontal gray bars.

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A simple visual echo of text and image.

The intelligent choice of typeface, color, and white space renders the text an organic
extension of the image on the left.

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An elegant layout accentuating the power of itimage.

The simple white square with yellow lettering creates a balanced layout, allowing the
image to communicate with the reader.

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The yellow letter 'd' mirrors a sawed tree trunk and integrate the image with the text,

A powerful minimalist layout.


The end of paper-based design?

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In today's world it appears that paper-based journalism is in crisis. Daily newspapers are
going out of business at an alarming rate. Over the 2006-09 period, The New York Times,
The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, The Chicago Tribune, The Los Angeles Times
and The San Francisco Chronicle have trimmed their staffs. The number of American
correspondents reporting from abroad fell by 25 percent from 2002 to 2006, and only a
handful of American newspapers now operate foreign bureaus. Thousands of reporters and
editors have lost their jobs. The layout artists are perhaps among the first that are laid off, this
creates a vicious circle, as the design becomes less attractive, more readers would abandon
the paper based media and they in return would need to cutback more.

ParisMatch feature story on Dimitri Medvedev


An elegant and powerful design, with Paris Match Exclusif, being integrated in the "J"
the first letter of the paragraph

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New York Times magazine, Art Director: Janet Froelich

New York Times Op-Ed, Pafko at the Wall, 1992, Mirko Ilic

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New York Times Op-Ed, Russia Comes Apart, 1992, Mirko Ilic

It may be true that the new generation would like to take their news from the internet and
their iPods, and this may be the very cause of the plight of the paper-based media. According
to Pew, only 27% of those born after 1976 read newspapers, as opposed to 55% of those born
prior to 1946. Nevertheless, it appears to me that there is a limit to this free downfall, and
after certain point this trend would be arrested and would stabilize at some level, simply
because newspapers have certain characteristics and certain feel about them that cannot be
reproduced by the electronic media. The time would let us know if the electronic media can
replace the paper based ones, and if they can fulfill the same function that enticed Thomas
Jefferson to write in January 1787;

The basis of our governments being the opinion of the people, the very first object should be
to keep that right, and were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government
without newspapers or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate to prefer the
latter.

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Politiken, Copenhagen, Denmark

El Economista , Madrid, Spain

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El Economista , Madrid, Spain

Illustration by Adrian Clapperton

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Corriere della Sera, 2009

Expresso, Portugal

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Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Frankfurt, Germany

Bold and imaginative, the layout designer's smart choice of colour, accent, spacing,
column width and a modern typeface renders this striking design powerful and attractive.

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With some simple design, and play with the geometric spacing, the designer has created a
well balanced and attractive composition. The limited choice of typeface, however, is one
of the main deficiencies in the Iranian layout.

An stunning layout by an Iranian female graphic designer. She has created her own
typeface, in which the red-dots, as part of the Persian font, signify not only the title of the
article;Three Droplets of Blood, but also provide a beautiful accent.

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The layout of an interview with an Iranian film director in which the designer cleverly
has created the impression of a projected movie on a screen with wide tilted columns. The
typography. although conventional and uninspiring, has been well integrated into the
layout.

Brit Girls , Layout Rockstar-Töchter in Vanity Fair

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Vanity Fair’s design strives to be modern yet classic, simple yet sophisticated, minimal
yet full of restrained energy. Its layout is meant to feel daring, refined, and free of
pretense, always at the service of a story. .

Soviet era Pravda

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Pravda, 2009

After the collapse of the USSR, Pravda was closed down by the then Russian President Boris
Yeltsin. It suffered huge losses after its reappearance and was sold to a Greek business family.
Finally the Communist Party of Russian Federation acquired the newspaper in 1997 and
established it as its principal tribune. Pravda is still functioning from the same headquarters
on Pravda Street in Moscow where it was published in the Soviet days.

Soviet era Izvestia

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Soviet era Izvestia

Capitalist era Izvestia

Izvestia's Russian Grid


System?!

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