DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the Practical
Training & Industrial visit report titled “SCADA &
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER” in partial fulfillment
for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical
Engineering and submitted to the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Poornima Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Jaipur is an authentic record of my own work carried out at “MOGU
ENGINEERS (JAIPUR) during the session 2019-20 (Even Semester).

I have not submitted the matter presented in this report anywhere for the
award of any other Degree.

Signature of the Student with Name & Reg. No.:

Place: ________
Date: _________

Enclosed: Training Certificate from Company

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Date:
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Practical Training & Industrial visit report titled SCADA &
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER has been submitted by
Raghunandan Dadhich (PIET16EE034) in partial fulfillment for the award of the
Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering during the session
2019-20, Even Semester. The Practical Training & Industrial visit work is found
satisfactory and approved for submission.

Dr. / Mr.……………………………………. Mr. Udit Mamodiya

Assistant Professor/Associate Professor/Professor, Assistant Professor
EE (Faculty Incharge - Industrial Training) Coordinator-Industrial
Training

Mrs. Shuchi Shukla

HoD, EE

Date: ________
Place: Jaipur

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 Acknowledgement

I would like to thank MOGU ENGINEERS, JAIPUR for providing

me exposure to the whole Scada & PLCs System. I’d also like to
thank, for their enduring support and guidance throughout the
training. I am very grateful to the whole Control and
Instrumentation Department for their support and guidance.

I am also very thankful to the workers and employees near the

machineries and the library in charge for their support to my
training.

Your sincerely
Raghunandan Dadhich
EE - 4th year
REG NO :- PIET16EE034

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CHAPTER PARTICULARS PAGE
NO. NO.
Title page i

Candidates declaration ii

Certificate by the company iii

Certificate by the department iv

Table Contents v

List of figures vi

1. 1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Characterstics 2-3
1.3 System Scale 4
1.4 Programming in Plc’s 5
1.4.1 User Interface 6
1.5 How does a Plc Operate ? 7
1.6 Other Auxiliary devices connected To
a PLC 8
1.6.1 Input devices 9
1.6.2 Output devices 10-11
1.7 PLC compared with other control 12-13
signals
1.8 Digital and analog signals 14
1.9Example 15
1.10 Ladder logic with example 16-17
1.11 Generally used instruction and symbol 18
1.12 More practical examples
1.13 Programming
1.13.1 For start of motor
1.13.2 For stop of motor

2. 2.1 Meaning of SCADA 19

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2.2 Architecture 19
2.3 Hardware architecture 20

2.4 Communication 20
2.5 Interfacing &Scalability 21
22-23
2.6 System Concept 24-25
2.7 Human machine interface 26-27
2.8 Remote terminal unit 28
2.9 Trend in Scada 29-30
2.10 Security issues 31-32
2.11 Application Development 33
2.12 Evolution 33
2.13 Engineering 34
2.14 Potential benefits

Conclusion
References

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 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGENO.

1. Basic PLC 1

2. PLC system 2

3. Wiring in a PLC 4

4. Input to PLC 5

5. Output to PLC 6

6. Programming 15

7. Start of motor by PLC 16

8. Stop of motor by PLC 18

9. SCADA Architecture 19

10. System concept (SCADA) 22

11. Human machine interface (HMI) 24

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 12. SCADA applications 31

13. Industrial Application 34

1.1 Introduction
A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC, or Programmable Controller is a digital
computer used for automation of industrial processes, such as control of machinery on
factory assembly lines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for
multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to
electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine
operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an
example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response to
input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
PLC and Programmable Logic Controller are registered trademarks of the Allen-
Bradley Company.
SCADA is Widely used in industry for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition of
industrial processes, SCADA systems are now also penetrating the experimental
physics laboratories for the controls of ancillary systems such as cooling, ventilation,
power distribution, etc. More recently they were also applied for the controls of
smaller size particle detectors such as the L3 moon detector and the NA48
experiment, to name just two examples at CERN.
SCADA systems have made substantial progress over the recent years in terms of
functionality, scalability, performance and openness such that they are an alternative
to in house development even for very demanding and complex control systems as
those of physics experiments.

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1
1.2 Characteristics
The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe
condition (dust, moisture, heat, cold, etc) and have the facility for extensive
input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators.
PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as temperature and
pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems. Some even use machine
vision. On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic
cylinders, magnetic relays or solenoids, or analog outputs. The input/output
arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external I/O
modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.
PLCs were invented as replacements for automated systems that would use hundreds
or thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers. Often, a single PLC can be
programmed to replace thousands of relays. Programmable controllers were initially
adopted by the automotive manufacturing industry, where software revision replaced
the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels when production models changed.
Many of the earliest PLCs expressed all decision making logic in simple ladder logic
which appeared similar to electrical schematic diagrams. The electricians were quite
able to trace out circuit problems with schematic diagrams using ladder logic. This
program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians.
Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based
logic solver.
The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential relay
control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems and networking.
The data handling, storage, processing power and communication capabilities of some
modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-like
programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop
computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications.
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based
programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential
Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers.

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1.3 System Scale
A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and outputs.
Typically, expansions are available if the base model does not have enough I/O.
Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into which is placed modules with
different functions. The processor and selection of I/O modules is customised for the
particular application. Several racks can be administered by a single processor, and
may have thousands of inputs and outputs. A special high speed serial I/O link is used
so that racks can be distributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring costs for
large plants.
PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication
between processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have
individual control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the
communication link. These communication links are also often used for HMI
(Human-Machine Interface) devices such as keypads or PC-type workstations. Some
of today's PLCs can communicate over a wide range of media including RS-485,
Coaxial, and even Ethernet for I/O control at network speeds up to 100 Mbit/s.

1.4 Programming in PLCs

Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary programming

panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function
keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Programs were
stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were very
minimal due to lack of memory capacity. More recently, PLC programs are typically
written in a special application on a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-
connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The very oldest PLCs used non-
volatile magnetic core memory but now the program is stored in the PLC either in
battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory.
Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were
programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay
logic. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder logic to
more traditional programming languages such as BASIC and C. Another method is
State Logic, a Very High Level Programming Language designed to program PLCs
based on State Transition Diagrams.
Recently, the International standard IEC 61131-3 has become popular. IEC 61131-3
currently defines five programming languages for programmable control systems:
FBD (Function block diagram), LD (Ladder diagram), ST (Structured text, similar to

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the Pascal programming language), IL (Instruction list, similar to assembly language)
and SFC (Sequential function chart). These techniques emphasize logical organization
of operations. While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to
all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction
sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different
makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models
may not be directly compatible.

1.4.1User Interface
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm
reporting or everyday control. A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is employed for
this purpose. HMI's are also referred to as MMI's (Man Machine Interface) and GUI
(Graphical User Interface).
A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text displays are
available as well as graphical touch screens. Most modern PLCs can communicate
over a network to some other system, such as a computer running a SCADA
(Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) system or web browser.

1.5 How does a PLC operate?

There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs; Input Scan, Program Scan,
Output Scan, and Housekeeping. These steps continually take place in a repeating
loop. Four Steps In the PLC Operations 1.) Input Scan Detects the state of all input
devices that are connected to the PLC 2.) Program Scan Executes the user created
program logic. 3.) Output Scan Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are
connected to the PLC. 4.) Housekeeping This step includes communications with
programming terminals, internal diagnostics, etc

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Fig. Operation of a PLC in basic stages

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1.6 Other Auxiliary devices connected To a PLC
Input devices -

Condition Sensors –
 Encoders
• Pressure Switches
• Level Switches
• Temperature Switches
• Vacuum Switches
• Float Switches

Switches and Pushbuttons

• Sensing Devices
• Limit Switches
• Photoelectric Sensors and proximity sensors

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Output Devices –

– Valves
– Motor Starters
– Solenoids
– Actuators

– Horns and Alarms

– Stack lights
– Control Relays
– Counter/Totalizers
– Pumps
– Printers
– Fans

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1.7 PLCs as compared to the other control Systems

PLCs are well-adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial
processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the
automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where
changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain
input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot devices and controls; little
electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the desired
sequence of operations in ladder logic (or function chart) notation. PLC applications
are typically highly customized systems so the cost of a packaged PLC is low
compared to the cost of a specific custom-built controller design. On the other hand,
in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control systems are economic due to
the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally chosen instead of a
"generic" solution, and where the non-recurring engineering charges are spread over
thousands of places.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used.
For example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical
cam timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities.
A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of
units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies and
input/output hardware) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would
not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions of
units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these
controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as transit busses economically use
PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the
development cost would be uneconomic. Very complex process control, such as used
in the chemical industry, may require algorithms and performance beyond the
capability of even high-performance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision controls
may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight controls.
PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a
"proportional, integral, derivative" or "PID controller." A PID loop could be used to
control the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example. Historically PLCs
were usually configured with only a few analog control loops; where processes
required hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would
instead be used. However, as PLCs have become more powerful, the boundary
between DCS and PLC applications has become less clear-cut

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1.8 Digital and Analog Signals
Digital or discrete signals behave as binary switches, yielding simply an On or Off
signal (1 or 0, True or False, respectively). Pushbuttons, limit switches, and
photoelectric sensors are examples of devices providing a discrete signal.
Discrete signals are sent using either voltage or current, where a specific range is
designated as On and another as Off. For example, a PLC might use 24 V DC I/O,
with values above 22 V DC representing On, values below 2VDC representing Off,
and intermediate values undefined. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O. Analog
signals are like volume controls, with a range of values between zero and full-scale.
These are typically interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with various
ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits available to store
the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed binary processors, the integer values are
limited between -32,768 and +32,767.
Pressure, temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by analog signals.
Analog signals can use voltage or current with a magnitude proportional to the value
of the process signal. For example, an analog 4-20 mA or 0 - 10 V input would be
converted into an integer value of 0 - 32767.
Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e. from welders or electric motor
starts) than voltage inputs.As an example, say the facility needs to store water in a
tank. The water is drawn from the tank by another system, as needed, and our
example system must manage the water level in the tank.
Using only digital signals, the PLC has two digital inputs from float switches (tank
empty and tank full). The PLC uses a digital output to open and close the inlet valve
into the tank. When the water level drops enough so that the tank empty float switch
is off (down), the PLC will open the valve to let more water in. Once the water level
raises enough so that the tank full switch is on (up), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop
the water from overflowing.

1.9 Example
As an example, say the facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is drawn
from the tank by another system, as needed, and our example system must manage the
water level in the tank.
Using only digital signals, the PLC has two digital inputs from float switches (tank
empty and tank full). The PLC uses a digital output to open and close the inlet valve
into the tank.
If both float switches are off (down) or only the 'tank empty' switch is on, the PLC
will open the valve to let more water in. Once the 'tank full' switch is on, the PLC will
automatically shut the inlet to stop the water from overflowing. If only the 'tank full'
switch is on, something is wrong because once the water reaches a float switch, the
switch will stay on because it is floating, thus, when both float switches are on, the
tank is full. Two float switches are used to prevent a 'flutter' (a ripple or a wave)

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condition where any water usage activates the pump for a very short time and then
deactivates for a short time, and so on, causing the system to wear out faster.
An analog system might use a load cell (scale) that weighs the tank, and an adjustable
(throttling) valve. The PLC could use a PID feedback loop to control the valve
opening. The load cell is connected to an analog input and the valve is connected to
an analog output. This system fills the tank faster when there is less water in the tank.
If the water level drops rapidly, the valve can be opened wide. If water is only
dripping out of the tank, the valve adjusts to slowly drip water back into the tank.
A real system might combine both approaches, using float switches and simple valves
to prevent spills, and a rate sensor and rate valve to optimize refill rates. Backup and
maintenance methods can make a real system very complicated.

1.10 Ladder logic

Ladder logic is a method of drawing electrical logic schematics. It is now a graphical

language very popular for programming Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). It
was originally invented to describe logic made from relays. The name is based on the
observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical "rails"
and a series of horizontal "rungs" between them.
A program in ladder logic, also called a ladder diagram, is similar to a schematic for a
set of relay circuits. An argument that aided the initial adoption of ladder logic was
that a wide variety of engineers and technicians would be able to understand and use
it without much additional training, because of the resemblance to familiar hardware
systems. (This argument has become less relevant given that most ladder logic
programmers have a software background in more conventional programming
languages, and in practice implementations of ladder logic have characteristics —
such as sequential execution and support for control flow features — that make the
analogy to hardware somewhat imprecise.)
Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs, where sequential control of a process
or manufacturing operation is required. Ladder logic is useful for simple but critical
control systems, or for reworking old hardwired relay circuits. As programmable logic
controllers became more sophisticated it has also been used in very complex
automation systems.
Ladder logic can be thought of as a rule-based language, rather than a procedural
language. A "rung" in the ladder represents a rule. When implemented with relays and
other electromechanical devices, the various rules "execute" simultaneously and
immediately. When implemented in a programmable logic controller, the rules are
typically executed sequentially by software, in a loop. By executing the loop fast
enough, typically many times per second, the effect of simultaneous and immediate
execution is obtained. In this way it is similar to other rule-based languages, like
spreadsheets or SQL. However, proper use of programmable controllers requires
understanding the limitations of the execution order of rungs.

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6.1 Example of a simple ladder logic program

The language itself can be seen as a set of connections between logical checkers
(relay contacts) and actuators (coils). If a path can be traced between the left side of
the rung and the output, through asserted (true or "closed") contacts, the rung is true
and the output coil storage bit is asserted (1) or true. If no path can be traced, then the
output is false (0) and the "coil" by analogy to electromechanical relays is considered
"de-energized". The analogy between logical propositions and relay contact status is
due to Claude Shannon.
Ladder logic has "contacts" that "make" or "break" "circuits" to control "coils." Each
coil or contact corresponds to the status of a single bit in the programmable
controller's memory. Unlike electromechanical relays, a ladder program can refer any
number of times to the status of a single bit, equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely
large number of contacts.
So-called "contacts" may refer to inputs to the programmable controller from physical
devices such as pushbuttons and limit switches, or may represent the status of internal
storage bits which may be generated elsewhere in the program.
Each rung of ladder language typically has one coil at the far right. Some
manufacturers may allow more than one output coil on a rung.
--( )-- a regular coil, true when its rung is true
--(\)-- a "not" coil, false when its rung is true
--[ ]-- A regular open contact, true when its coil is true (normally false)
--[\]-- A "not" contact/close contact, false when its coil is true (normally true)
The "coil" (output of a rung) may represent a physical output which operates some
device connected to the programmable controller, or may represent an internal storage
bit for use elsewhere in the program.

1.11 Generally Used Instructions & symbol For PLC

Programming

•Input Instruction
--[ ]-- This Instruction is Called XIC or Examine If Closed.
ie; If a NO switch is actuated then only this instruction will be true. If a NC
switch is actuated then this instruction will not be true and hence output will not be
generated.

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--[\]-- This Instruction is Called XIO or Examine If Open
ie; If a NC switch is actuated then only this instruction will be true. If a NC
switch is actuated then this instruction will not be true and hence output will not be
generated.
•Output Instruction
--( )-- This Instruction Shows the States of Output.
ie; If any instruction either XIO or XIC is true then output will be high. Due
to high output a 24 volt signal is generated from PLC processor.
• Rung
Rung is a simple line on which instruction are placed and logics are created
E.g.; ---------------------------------------------
Here is an example of what one rung in a ladder logic program might look like. In real
life, there may be hundreds or thousands of rungs.
For example:
1. ----[ ]---------|--[ ]--|------( )--
X | Y | S
| |
|--[ ]--|
Z
The above realises the function: S = X AND (Y OR Z)
Typically, complex ladder logic is 'read' left to right and top to bottom. As each of the
lines (or rungs) are evaluated the output coil of a rung may feed into the next stage of
the ladder as an input. In a complex system there will be many "rungs" on a ladder,
which are numbered in order of evaluation.
1. ----[ ]-----------|---[ ]---|----( )--
X | Y | S
| |
|---[ ]---|
Z
2. ---- [ ]----[ ] -------------------( )--
S X T
2. T = S AND X where S is equivalent to #1. above

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This represents a slightly more complex system for rung 2. After the first line has
been evaluated, the output coil (S) is fed into rung 2, which is then evaluated and the
output coil T could be fed into an output device (buzzer, light etc..) or into rung 3 on
the ladder. (Note that the contact X on the 2nd rung serves no useful purpose, as X is
already a 'AND' function of S from the 1st rung.)
This system allows very complex logic designs to be broken down and evaluated.

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1.12 More practical examples

Example-1

------[ ]--------------[ ]----------------O---

Key Switch 1 Key Switch 2 Door Motor

This circuit shows two key switches that security guards might use to activate an
electric motor on a bank vault door. When the normally open contacts of both
switches close, electricity is able to flow to the motor which opens the door. This is a
logical AND.

Example-2
Often we have a little green "start" button to turn on a motor, and we want to turn it
off with a big red "Stop" button.

--+----[ ]--+----[\]----( )---

| start | stop run

| |
+----[ ]--+
run

-------[ ]--------------( )---

run motor

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1.13 Programming For Start/Stop of Motor by PLC
Often we have a little green "start" button to turn on a motor, and we want to turn it
off with a big red "Stop" button.

--+----[ ]--+----[\]----( )---

| start | stop run
| |
+----[ ]--+

The pushbutton switch connected to input X1 serves as the "Start" switch, while the
switch connected to input X2 serves as the "Stop." Another contact in the program,
named Y1, uses the output coil status as a seal-in contact, directly, so that the motor
contactor will continue to be energized after the "Start" pushbutton switch is released.
You can see the normally-closed contact X2 appear in a colored block, showing that it
is in a closed ("electrically conducting") state

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1.13.1 Starting of Motor
If we were to press the "Start" button, input X1 would energize, thus "closing" the X1
contact in the program, sending "power" to the Y1 "coil," energizing the Y1 output
and applying 120 volt AC power to the real motor contactor coil. The parallel Y1
contact will also "close," thus latching the "circuit" in an energized state:

• Logic for Continous Running of motor When Start Button is Released

Now, if we release the "Start" pushbutton, the normally-open X1 "contact" will return
to its "open" state, but the motor will continue to run because the Y1 seal-in "contact"
continues to provide "continuity" to "power" coil Y1, thus keeping the Y1 output
energized:

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1
1.13.2 To Stop the Motor

To stop the motor, we must momentarily press the "Stop" pushbutton, which will
energize the X2 input and "open" the normally-closed "contact," breaking continuity
to the Y1 "coil:"

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2.1 Meaning of SCADA
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. As the name indicates,
it is not a full control system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level. As such, it is
a purely software package that is positioned on top of hardware to which it is
interfaced, in general via Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), or other
commercial hardware modules.
SCADA systems are used not only in industrial processes: e.g. steel making, power
generation (conventional and nuclear) and distribution, chemistry, but also in some
experimental facilities such as nuclear fusion. The size of such plants range from a
few 1000 to several 10 thousands input/output (I/O) channels. However, SCADA
systems evolve rapidly and are now penetrating the market of plants with a number of
I/O channels of several 100 K: we know of two cases of near to 1 M I/O channels
currently under development.
SCADA systems used to run on DOS, VMS and UNIX; in recent years all SCADA
vendors have moved to NT and some also to Linux.

2.2 Architecture
This section describes the common features of the SCADA products that have been
evaluated at CERN in view of their possible application to the control systems of the
LHC detectors [1], [2].

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2.3 Hardware Architecture
One distinguishes two basic layers in a SCADA system: the "client layer" which
caters for the man machine interaction and the "data server layer" which handles most
of the process data control activities. The data servers communicate with devices in
the field through process controllers. Process controllers, e.g. PLCs, are connected to
the data servers either directly or via networks or field buses that are proprietary (e.g.
Siemens H1), or non-proprietary (e.g. Profibus). Data servers are connected to each
other and to client stations via an Ethernet LAN. The data servers and client stations
are NT platforms but for many products the client stations may also be W95
machines. .

2.4 Communications
Internal Communication
Server-client and server-server communication is in general on a publish-subscribe
and event-driven basis and uses a TCP/IP protocol, i.e., a client application subscribes
to a parameter which is owned by a particular server application and only changes to
that parameter are then communicated to the client application.
Access to Devices
The data servers poll the controllers at a user defined polling rate. The polling rate
may be different for different parameters. The controllers pass the requested
parameters to the data servers. Time stamping of the process parameters is typically
performed in the controllers and this time-stamp is taken over by the data server. If
the controller and communication protocol used support unsolicited data transfer then
the products will support this too.
The products provide communication drivers for most of the common PLCs and
widely used field-buses, e.g., Modbus. Of the three fieldbuses that are recommended
at CERN, both Profibus and World flip are supported but CANbus often not [3].
Some of the drivers are based on third party products (e.g., Applicom cards) and
therefore have additional cost associated with them. VME on the other hand is
generally not supported.
A single data server can support multiple communications protocols: it can generally
support as many such protocols as it has slots for interface cards.

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2.5 Interfacing
The provision of OPC client functionality for SCADA to access devices in an open
and standard manner is developing. There still seems to be a lack of
devices/controllers, which provide OPC server software, but this improves rapidly as
most of the producers of controllers are actively involved in the development of this
standard. OPC has been evaluated by the CERN-IT-CO group [4].
The products also provide
• An Open Data Base Connectivity (ODBC) interface to the data in the
archive/logs, but not to the configuration database,
• An ASCII import/export facility for configuration data,
• A library of APIs supporting C, C++, and Visual Basic (VB) to access data in
the RTDB, logs and archive. The API often does not provide access to the product's
internal features such as alarm handling, reporting, trending, etc.
The PC products provide support for the Microsoft standards such as Dynamic Data
Exchange (DDE) which allows e.g. to visualize data dynamically in an EXCEL
spreadsheet, Dynamic Link Library (DLL) and Object Linking and Embedding
(OLE).
The configuration data are stored in a database that is logically centralized but
physically distributed and that is generally of a proprietary format.
For performance reasons, the RTDB resides in the memory of the servers and is also
of proprietary format.
The archive and logging format is usually also proprietary for performance reasons,
but some products do support logging to a Relational Data Base Management System
(RDBMS) at a slower rate either directly or via an ODBC interface.

2.5 Scalability
Scalability is understood as the possibility to extend the SCADA based control system
by adding more process variables, more specialized servers (e.g. for alarm handling)
or more clients. The products achieve scalability by having multiple data servers
connected to multiple controllers. Each data server has its own configuration database
and RTDB and is responsible for the handling of a sub-set of the process variables
(acquisition, alarm handling, archiving).

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2.6 Systems concepts
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control
entire sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas (anything between an
industrial plant and a country). Most control actions are performed automatically by
remote terminal units ("RTUs") or by programmable logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host
control functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level
intervention. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part
of an industrial process, but the SCADA system may allow operators to change the set
points for the flow,and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow and high
temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The feedback control loop passes through
the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the overall performance of the
loop.

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Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and
equipment status reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then
compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI can
make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data
may also be fed to a Historian, often built on a commodity Database Management
System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.
SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as
a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents
a single input or output value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be
either "hard" or "soft". A hard point represents an actual input or output within the
system, while a soft point results from logic and math operations applied to other
points. (Most implementations conceptually remove the distinction by making every
property a "soft" point expression, which may, in the simplest case, equal a single
hard point.) Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value, and the
timestamp when it was recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp pairs
gives the history of that point. It's also common to store additional metadata with tags,
such as the path to a field device or PLC register, design time comments, and alarm
information.

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2.7 Human Machine Interface

Typical Basic SCADA Animations [1]

A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a
human operator, and through which the human operator controls the process.
An HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's databases and software programs,
to provide trending, diagnostic data, and management information such as scheduled
maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed schematics for a particular
sensor or machine, and expert-system troubleshooting guides.
The HMI system usually presents the information to the operating personnel
graphically, in the form of a mimic diagram. This means that the operator can see a
schematic representation of the plant being controlled. For example, a picture of a
pump connected to a pipe can show the operator that the pump is running and how
much fluid it is pumping through the pipe at the moment. The operator can then
switch the pump off. The HMI software will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe
decrease in real time. Mimic diagrams may consist of line graphics and schematic
symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the
process equipment overlain with animated symbols.
The HMI package for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that
the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are
represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen
traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as

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complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in
a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway.
An important part of most SCADA implementations are alarms. An alarm is a digital
status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM. Alarms can be created in
such a way that when their requirements are met, they are activated. An example of an
alarm is the "fuel tank empty" light in a car. The SCADA operator's attention is drawn
to the part of the system requiring attention by the alarm. Emails and text messages
are often sent along with an alarm activation alerting managers along with the
SCADA operator.

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2.8 Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical
signals from the equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status from a
switch or a valve, or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By
converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control
equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a
pump.
Supervisory Station
The term "Supervisory Station" refers to the servers and software responsible for
communicating with the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI
software running on workstations in the control room, or elsewhere. In smaller
SCADA systems, the master station may be composed of a single PC. In larger
SCADA systems, the master station may include multiple servers, distributed
software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the
system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-
standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a
server failure.
Initially, more "open" platforms such as Linux were not as widely used due to the
highly dynamic development environment and because a SCADA customer that was
able to afford the field hardware and devices to be controlled could usually also
purchase UNIX or OpenVMS licenses. Today, all major operating systems are used
for both master station servers and HMI workstations.
Operational philosophy
For some installations, the costs that would result from the control system failing are
extremely high. Possibly even lives could be lost. Hardware for some SCADA
systems is ruggedized to withstand temperature, vibration, and voltage extremes, but
in most critical installations reliability is enhanced by having redundant hardware and
communications channels, up to the point of having multiple fully equipped control
centres. A failing part can be quickly identified and its functionality automatically
taken over by backup hardware. A failed part can often be replaced without
interrupting the process. The reliability of such systems can be calculated statistically
and is stated as the mean time to failure, which is a variant of mean time between
failures. The calculated mean time to failure of such high reliability systems can be on
the order of centuries.
Communication infrastructure and methods
SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct serial or
modem connections to meet communication requirements, although Ethernet and IP
over SONET / SDH is also frequently used at large sites such as railways and power
stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often
referred to as telemetry.

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This has also come under threat with some customers wanting SCADA data to travel
over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other
applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.
SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact and many are designed to send
information to the master station only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical
legacy SCADA protocols include Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These
communication protocols are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and
used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3. These
communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA
vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP/IP. It is
good security engineering practice to avoid connecting SCADA systems to the
Internet so the attack surface is reduced.
RTUs and other automatic controller devices were being developed before the advent
of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their
management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors,
there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to "lock in" their customer
base. A list of automation protocols is being compiled here.
Recently, OLE for Process Control (OPC) has become a widely accepted solution for
intercommunicating different hardware and software, allowing communication even
between devices originally not intended to be part of an industrial network.

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2.9 Trends in SCADA
There is a trend for plc and HMI/SCADA software to be more "mix-and-match". In
the mid 1990s, the typical DAQ I/O manufacturer supplied equipment that
communicated using proprietary protocols over a suitable-distance carrier like RS-
485. End users who invested in a particular vendor's hardware solution often found
themselves restricted to a limited choice of equipment when requirements changed
(e.g. system expansions or performance improvement). To mitigate such problems,
open communication protocols such as IEC870-5-101/104, DNP3 serial, and DNP3
LAN/WAN became increasingly popular among SCADA equipment manufacturers
and solution providers alike. Open architecture SCADA systems enabled users to
mix-and-match products from different vendors to develop solutions that were better
than those that could be achieved when restricted to a single vendor's product
offering.
Towards the late 1990s, the shift towards open communications continued with
individual I/O manufacturers as well, who adopted open message structures such as
Modbus RTU and Modbus ASCII (originally both developed by Modicon) over RS-
485. By 2000, most I/O makers offered completely open interfacing such as Modbus
TCP over Ethernet and IP.
The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) has specified that
electrical system data should be time-tagged to the nearest millisecond. Electrical
system SCADA systems provide this Sequence of events recorder function, using
Radio clocks to synchronize the RTU or distributed RTU clocks.
SCADA systems are coming in line with standard networking technologies. Ethernet
and TCP/IP based protocols are replacing the older proprietary standards. Although
certain characteristics of frame-based network communication technology
(determinism, synchronization, protocol selection, environment suitability) have
restricted the adoption of Ethernet in a few specialized applications, the vast majority
of markets have accepted Ethernet networks for HMI/SCADA.
With the emergence of software as a service in the broader software industry, a few
vendors have begun offering application specific SCADA systems hosted on remote
platforms over the Internet. This removes the need to install and commission systems
at the end-user's facility and takes advantage of security features already available in
Internet technology, VPNs and SSL. Some concerns include security, Internet
connection reliability, and latency.
SCADA systems are becoming increasingly ubiquitous. Thin clients, web portals, and
web based products are gaining popularity with most major vendors. The increased
convenience of end users viewing their processes remotely introduces security
considerations. While these considerations are already considered solved in other
sectors of internet services, not all entities responsible for deploying SCADA systems
have understood the changes in accessibility and threat scope implicit in connecting a
system to the internet.

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2.10 Security issues
The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions
together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems and
office networks and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to attacks - see
references. Consequently, the security of SCADA-based systems has come into
question as they are increasingly seen as extremely vulnerable to cyber warfare/cyber
terrorism attacks.
In particular, security researchers are concerned about:
the lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and
operation of existing SCADA networks
the mistaken belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through
obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces
the mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are purportedly
physically secured
the mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are supposedly
disconnected from the Internet
SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of
which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water
distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The
security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of
these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original
compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA
system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from
that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to
be seen.
There are two distinct threats to a modern SCADA system. First is the threat of
unauthorized access to the control software, whether it be human access or changes
induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats
residing on the control host machine. Second is the threat of packet access to the
network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, there is rudimentary or no
security on the actual packet control protocol, so anyone who can send packets to the
SCADA device can control it. In many cases SCADA users assume that a VPN is
sufficient protection and are unaware that physical access to SCADA-related network
jacks and switches provides the ability to totally bypass all security on the control
software and fully control those SCADA networks. These kinds of physical access
attacks bypass firewall and VPN security and are best addressed by endpoint-to-
endpoint authentication and authorization such as are commonly provided in the non-
SCADA world by in-device SSL or other cryptographic techniques.
Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address these risks in a
basic sense by developing lines of specialized industrial firewall and VPN solutions
for TCP/IP-based SCADA networks. Additionally, application white listing solutions

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are being implemented because of their ability to prevent malware and unauthorized
application changes without the performance impacts of traditional antivirus scans
Also, the ISA Security Compliance Institute (ISCI) is emerging to formalize SCADA
security testing starting as soon as 2009. ISCI is conceptually similar to private testing
and certification that has been performed by vendors since 2007. Eventually,
standards being defined by ISA99 WG4 will supersede the initial industry consortia
efforts, but probably not before 2011 .
The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability
researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more
general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community. In
electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of
wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by
applying bump-in-the-wire devices that employ authentication and Advanced
Encryption Standard encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.

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2.11 Application Development

Configuration
The development of the applications is typically done in two stages. First the process
parameters and associated information (e.g. relating to alarm conditions) are defined
through some sort of parameter definition template and then the graphics, including
trending and alarm displays are developed, and linked where appropriate to the
process parameters. The products also provide an ASCII Export/Import facility for the
configuration data (parameter definitions), which enables large numbers of parameters
to be configured in a more efficient manner using an external editor such as Excel and
then importing the data into the configuration database.
However, many of the PC tools now have a Windows Explorer type development
studio. The developer then works with a number of folders, which each contains a
different aspect of the configuration, including the graphics.
The facilities provided by the products for configuring very large numbers of
parameters are not very strong. However, this has not really been an issue so far for
most of the products to-date, as large applications are typically about 50K I/O points
and database population from within an ASCII editor such as Excel is still a workable
option.

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On-line modifications to the configuration database and the graphics are generally
possible with the appropriate level of privileges.
Development Tools
The following development tools are provided as standard:
•A graphics editor, with standard drawing facilities including freehand, lines, squares
circles, etc. It is possible to import pictures in many formats as well as using
predefined symbols including e.g. trending charts, etc. A library of generic symbols is
provided that can be linked dynamically to variables and animated as they change. It
is also possible to create links between views so as to ease navigation at run-time.
•A data base configuration tool (usually through parameter templates). It is in general
possible to export data in ASCII files so as to be edited through an ASCII editor or
Excel.
•A scripting language
•An Application Program Interface (API) supporting C, C++, VB

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2.12 Evolution
SCADA vendors release one major version and one to two additional minor versions
once per year. These products evolve thus very rapidly so as to take advantage of new
market opportunities, to meet new requirements of their customers and to take
advantage of new technologies.
As was already mentioned, most of the SCADA products that were evaluated
decompose the process in "atomic" parameters to which a Tag-name is associated.
This is impractical in the case of very large processes when very large sets of Tags
need to be configured. As the industrial applications are increasing in size, new
SCADA versions are now being designed to handle devices and even entire systems
as full entities (classes) that encapsulate all their specific attributes and functionality.
In addition, they will also support multi-team development.
As far as new technologies are concerned, the SCADA products are now adopting:
•Web technology, ActiveX, Java, etc.
•OPC as a means for communicating internally between the client and server
modules. It should thus be possible to connect OPC compliant third party modules to
that SCADA product.

2.13 Engineering
Whilst one should rightly anticipate significant development and maintenance savings
by adopting a SCADA product for the implementation of a control system, it does not
mean a "no effort" operation. The need for proper engineering can not be sufficiently
emphasized to reduce development effort and to reach a system that complies with the
requirements, that is economical in development and maintenance and that is reliable
and robust. Examples of engineering activities specific to the use of a SCADA system
are the definition of:
•a library of objects (PLC, device, subsystem) complete with standard object behavior
(script, sequences, ...), graphical interface and associated scripts for animation,
•templates for different types of "panels", e.g. alarms,
•instructions on how to control e.g. a device ...,
•a mechanism to prevent conflicting controls (if not provided with the SCADA),
alarm levels, behavior to be adopted in case of specific alarms.

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2.14 Potential benefits of SCADA
The benefits one can expect from adopting a SCADA system for the control of
experimental physics facilities can be summarized as follows:
•A rich functionality and extensive development facilities. The amount of effort
invested in SCADA product amounts to 50 to 100 p-years!
•The amount of specific development that needs to be performed by the end-user is
limited, especially with suitable engineering.
•Reliability and robustness. These systems are used for mission critical industrial
processes where reliability and performance are paramount. In addition, specific
development is performed within a well-established framework that enhances
reliability and robustness.
•Technical support and maintenance by the vendor.

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CONCLUSION
SCADA is used for the constructive working not for the destructive work using a
SCADA system for their controls ensures a common framework not only for the
development of the specific applications but also for operating the detectors.
Operators experience the same "look and feel" whatever part of the experiment they
control. However, this aspect also depends to a
significant extent on proper engineering.

REFERENCES
• Note: this article is based on a very similar one that has been published in the
Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Accelerator and Large
Experimental Physics Control Systems, held in Trieste, Italy, 4 - 8 Oct. 1999.
[1] A.Daneels, W.Salter, "Technology Survey Summary of Study Report", IT-CO/98-
08-09, CERN, Geneva 26th Aug 1998.
[2] A.Daneels, W.Salter, "Selection and Evaluation of Commercial SCADA Systems
for the Controls of the CERN LHC Experiments", Proceedings of the 1999
International Conference on Accelerator and Large Experimental Physics Control
Systems, Trieste, 1999, p.353.
[3] G.Baribaud et al., "Recommendations for the Use of Fieldbuses at CERN in the
LHC Era", Proceedings of the 1997 International Conference on Accelerator and
Large Experimental Physics Control Systems, Beijing, 1997, p.285.
[4] R.Barillere et al., "Results of the OPC Evaluation done within the JCOP for the
Control of the LHC Experiments", Proceedings of the 1999 International Conference
on Accelerator and Large Experimental Physics Control Systems, Trieste, 1999,
p.511.