Solar-Powered Evaporative Air-Conditioner: by Jeffrey James Snelgar

Solar-powered Evaporative Air-conditioner
By
Jeffrey James Snelgar
A thesis submitted for the degree of

Bachelor of Electrical Engineering
I
II
SYNOPSIS
An evaporative air-conditioner has been constructed that can operate solely
off solar power. The air-conditioning unit is roof-mounted and designed to be
ducted to several rooms. It can operate under almost all conditions that a
conventional mains powered air-conditioner can operate, thus making it a
viable option for consumers. This thesis details the design, sizing, costing
and further possible improvements of the system.
III
Jeffrey James Snelgar
13 Market Street
Kensington, Perth WA 6151
rd
3 June 2005
Professor Dr Syed Islam

Head of Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Curtin University of Technology
Kent Street
Bentley
Perth WA 6102
Dear Sir,
I am submitting my final year thesis, as to partially satisfy the requirements

for the Bachelor of Electrical Engineering degree.
This thesis is the documentation of the design, simulation and construction of

a solar-powered evaporative air conditioning unit.
This thesis is entirely my own work outside of where acknowledgement is

given.
Yours faithfully,
_____________________
Jeffrey Snelgar
1204 5239
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Associate Professor William Lawrance for his support
and advice in the duration of this project.
Many thanks go to David Langridge from Solar Focus Pty Ltd for his helpful
advice and supply of a suitable air-conditioning unit for the project.
Last of all, I would like to thank Zibby Cielma and especially Russell
Wilkinson and for their invaluable assistance with the construction and testing
of the prototype, without which the project would have been far more difficult.
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................1
1.1 THE ENERGY CRISIS AND AIR CONDITIONING ...........................1
1.1.1 AIR-CONDITIONING DEMAND....................................................1
1.1.2 ALTERNATIVE POWER...............................................................1
1.2 SOLAR-POWERED AIR-CONDITIONING.......................................3
1.3 THESIS ORGANISATION................................................................5
2.0 EVAPORATIVE AIR-CONDITIONING.................................................7
2.1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................7
2.2 DIRECT EVAPORATIVE AIR-CONDITIONING................................8
2.3 CONSTRUCTION.............................................................................9
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................9
2.3.2 FAN MOTOR ..............................................................................10
2.3.3 WATER PUMP............................................................................11
2.3.4 COOLING PADS.........................................................................11
2.4 ADVANTAGES...............................................................................12
2.5 DISADVANTAGES.........................................................................12
2.6 SIZING ...........................................................................................13
3.0 MOTORS AND DRIVES....................................................................15
3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................15
3.2 PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTORS ..........................................15
3.3 PULLEYS AND DRIVES.................................................................17
3.3.2 BELT DRIVES.............................................................................18
3.3.3 PRELOAD...................................................................................18
3.3.4 V-BELTS.....................................................................................19
3.3.5 TOOTHED-BELTS......................................................................19
3.3.6 CONSTRUCTION.......................................................................20
4.0 PHOTOVOLTAIC THEORY...............................................................21
4.1 SOLAR RADIATION.......................................................................21
4.2 ENERGY FROM THE SUN.............................................................21
4.3 HISTORY OF SOLAR POWER.......................................................23
4.4 SOLAR CELL OPERATION............................................................24
4.5 SEMICONDUCTORS.....................................................................25
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................25
4.5.2 CRYSTALLINE SILICON............................................................25
4.5.3 BAND STRUCTURE AND DOPING...........................................26
4.5.4 P-N JUNCTIONS........................................................................27
4.5.5 LIGHT ABSORBSION BY A SEMICONDUCTOR.......................29
4.6 SOLAR CELLS...............................................................................31
4.6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................31
4.6.2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE....................................................33
4.6.3 EFFECT OF IRRADIANCE.........................................................34
4.6.4 EFFECT OF SHUNT AND SERIES RESISTANCE....................35
5.0 STAND ALONE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS..........36
5.1 BATTERIES....................................................................................36
VI
5.1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................36
5.1.2 LEAD-ACID.................................................................................37
5.1.3 NICKEL-CADMIUM.....................................................................42
5.1.4 BATTERY EQUATION................................................................44
5.2 CHARGE REGULATOR.................................................................45
5.3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKERS........................................47
5.4 OPTIMUM ORIENTATION AND TILT ANGLES..............................48
5.4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................48
5.4.2 FIXED ARRAY TILTING.............................................................49
5.4.3 TRACKERS................................................................................50
6.0 SYSTEM SIZING ...............................................................................52
6.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................52
6.2 SOLAR RADIATION LEVELS.........................................................52
6.3 SYSTEM LOAD..............................................................................53
6.3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................53
6.3.2 12V SYSTEM..............................................................................53
6.3.3 24V SYSTEM..............................................................................59
7.0 SIMULATION.....................................................................................64
7.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................64
7.2 ARRAY MODEL..............................................................................64
7.3 EVAPORATIVE AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM SIMULATION.....67
7.3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................67
7.3.2 INPUTS.......................................................................................67
7.3.3 BATTERY...................................................................................71
7.3.4 MATHEMATICAL OPERATORS ................................................72
7.3.5 OUTPUTS...................................................................................73
7.4 PRELIMINARY LOAD TESTING ....................................................77
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................77
7.4.2 TEST ONE: 8hrs continuous operation.......................................78
7.4.3 TEST TWO: Failure of one PV....................................................79
7.4.4 TEST THREE: One cloudy day...................................................80
7.4.5 PRELIMINARY SIMULATION CONCLUSIONS..........................82
7.5 12V PROTOTYPE SYSTEM TESTING ..........................................83
7.5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................83
7.5.2 TEST ONE: 8hrs continuous operation.......................................84
7.5.3 TEST TWO: Maximum daily usage.............................................86
7.5.4 TEST THREE: Failure of one PV................................................89
7.5.5 TEST FOUR: One cloudy day.....................................................91
7.5.6 CONCLUSIONS / FINDINGS......................................................94
8.0 PROTOTYPE MODEL.......................................................................95
8.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................95
8.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM .......................................................................95
8.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS..............................................................96
8.3.1 BREEZAIR EA70 AIR-CONDITIONING UNIT............................96
8.3.2 WATER PUMP............................................................................96
8.3.3 FAN MOTOR ..............................................................................98
8.3.4 BATTERY...................................................................................99
8.3.5 SOLAR MODULES...................................................................100
VII
8.3.6 CHARGE REGULATOR...........................................................100
8.4 BELT DRIVES AND PULLEYS.....................................................101
8.4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................101
8.4.2 PULLEY SELECTION...............................................................102
8.5 PROTOTYPE CONSTRUCTION..................................................104
8.6 FULL PROTOTYPE SYSTEM TESTING.....................................105
8.6.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................105
8.6.2 FAN SPEED..............................................................................105
8.6.3 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE...............................................106
8.6.4 AIR SPEED AND COOLING PERFORMANCE........................107
9.0 FEASIBILITY STUDY......................................................................109
9.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................109
9.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS............................................................109
9.2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................109
9.2.2 12V SYSTEM............................................................................109
9.2.3 24V SYSTEM............................................................................110
9.3 SYSTEM COSTING......................................................................110
9.3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................110
9.3.2 12V SYSTEM............................................................................110
9.3.3 24V SYSTEM............................................................................111
9.4 PAYBACK PERIOD......................................................................112
9.4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................112
9.4.2 12V SYSTEM............................................................................113
9.4.3 24V SYSTEM............................................................................115
9.5 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ...............................................................115
9.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS....................................................116
10.0 CONCLUSION.................................................................................118
10.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................118
10.2 SYSTEM LIMITATIONS ...............................................................118
10.2.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................118
10.2.2 BELT DRIVE LIMITATIONS..................................................118
10.2.3 TESTING LIMITATIONS.......................................................119
10.3 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY............................................................119
10.4 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT...........................................................120
10.4.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................120
10.4.2 HYBRID SYSTEM.................................................................120
10.4.3 SYSTEM VOLTAGE..............................................................120
10.4.4 BELT DRIVE .........................................................................121
10.4.5 WATER PUMP......................................................................121
10.4.6 FAN MOTOR.........................................................................122
10.4.7 FAN TYPE.............................................................................122
11.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................123
12.0 APPENDICES..................................................................................126
12.1 APPENDIX A................................................................................126
12.2 APPENDIX B................................................................................127
12.3 APPENDIX C................................................................................128
12.4 APPENDIX D................................................................................129
VIII
12.5 APPENDIX E................................................................................130
12.6 APPENDIX F................................................................................131
12.7 APPENDIX G................................................................................132
12.8 APPENDIX H................................................................................137
12.9 APPENDIX I..................................................................................144
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Estimated annual sales and stock of EACs in Australia................7

Figure 2.2: The cooling effect of EAC.............................................................8
Figure 2.3: Section of a typical evaporative air-conditioner...........................10
Figure 3.1: DC Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics....................................16
Figure 3.2: Torque-speed curves for two voltages........................................16
Figure 3.3: Pulley and belt configuration.......................................................17
Figure 3.4: Preload tension on belt...............................................................19
Figure 4.1: Solar radiation in the atmosphere...............................................22
Figure 4.2: Air mass relative to the zenith angle...........................................22
Figure 4.3: Diagram of azimuth, solar elevation and zenith angle ................23
Figure 4.4: Band structure in semiconductors...............................................27
Figure 4.5: Electric currents in a p-n junction due to an external bias...........28
Figure 4.6: The diode I-V characteristic........................................................28
Figure 4.7: Current flow in external connection.............................................30
Figure 4.8: Cell IV characteristics compared to a diode................................32
Figure 4.9: IV characteristics with MPP........................................................33
Figure 4.10: The effect of temperature .........................................................34
Figure 4.11: The effect of Irradiance.............................................................34
Figure 4.12: The Effect of a series resistance...............................................35
Figure 5.1: Lead-acid battery operation........................................................38
Figure 5.2: Discharge characteristics at two different discharge rates..........40
Figure 5.3: Charging Characteristics ............................................................40
Figure 5.4: Lifespan of lead-acid batteries…………………………………………………..42
Figure 5.5: Charging and discharging characteristics for a Ni-Cad cell ........43
Figure 5.6: Typical curve of battery voltage w.r.t Battery SOC ....................45
Figure 5.7: Shunt and Series Regulators......................................................47
Figure 5.8: MPPT system configuration .......................................................48
Figure 5.9: MPPT operation on IV curve.......................................................48
Figure 5.10: Summer tilt adjustment for 32 deg latitude ...............................50
Figure 5.11:Gas-powered solar tracker.........................................................51
Figure 7.1: Single diode equivalent circuit of PV cell....................................64
Figure 7.2: Hierarchical structure of PV array model....................................65
Figure 7.3: BP280 array model showing inputs and outputs.........................66
Figure 7.4: Model Parameter menu..............................................................66
Figure 7.5: Look-up tables used as inputs in simulation...............................68
Figure 7.6: Look-up table parameter menu...................................................68
Figure 7.7: Irradiance over 96 hours.............................................................69
Figure 7.8: Ambient temperature over 96 hours ...........................................70
Figure 7.9: Load current over 96 hours.........................................................71
Figure 7.10: Battery model using battery equation .......................................72
Figure 7.11: Mathematical operators used in the Simulink simulation..........72
Figure 7.12: The outputs methods used in the Simulink simulation..............73
Figure 7.13: Scope window displaying buttons.............................................74
Figure 7.14: Cell temperature over 96 hours ................................................74
Figure 7.15: Configuration of array power output..........................................75
Figure 7.16: Configuration of battery current................................................75
Figure 7.17: Configuration of energy balance...............................................76
Figure 7.18: Configuration of equivalent energy costing...............................77
X
Figure 7.19: Battery capacity over 96 hours .................................................79
Figure 7.21: Irradiance graph with initial cloudy day.....................................81
Figure 7.22: Battery Capacity with cloudy day and 150Ah battery................81
Figure 7.23: Battery Capacity with cloudy day and 110Ah battery................82
Figure 7.24: Load current profile over 96 hours............................................84
Figure 7.25: Energy balance over 96 hours..................................................85
Figure 7.26: Total energy generated and consumed over 96 hours .............85
Figure 7.27: Equivalent energy costing over 96 hours..................................86
Figure 7.28: Total energy costing over 96 hours...........................................86
Figure 7.29: Battery capacity if run for 11 hours per day..............................87
Figure 7.30: Battery capacity if run for 10 hours per day..............................87
Figure 7.35: Array Power over 96 hours.......................................................89
Figure 7.41: Array power over 96 hours........................................................92
Figure 8.1: Prototype system configuration...................................................95
Figure 8.2: A similar original evaporative system..........................................96
Figure 8.3: A similar centrifugal fan ..............................................................96
Figure 8.4: The original Tornado AC water pump.........................................97
Figure 8.5: The replacement Flojet 12VDC water pump...............................97
Figure 8.6: The old fan motor.......................................................................98
Figure 8.7: The new DC fan motor................................................................99
Figure 8.8: The 12V 150Ah Gel Cell Battery used in the prototype system..99
Figure 8.9: The BPSX60 60W module array...............................................100
Figure 8.10: Fan and motor pulleys connected by a V-belt drive................101
Figure 8.11: Various size pulleys tested.....................................................102
Figure 8.12: The completed prototype with air duct and “cooling pads”......104
Figure 8.13: The prototype test was run on a partially cloudy day..............105
Figure 8.14: Output air speed at different locations of the output ducting...107
Figure 9.2: Coal and CO2e emissions saved by use of solar system.........117
XI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Available Residential Evaporative Air-Conditioning Units..............9

Table 5.1: Seasonal tilt angles and adjustments for 32deg latitude..............49
Table 6.1: Monthly irradiation averages........................................................53
Table 6.2: 12V System load..........................................................................54
Table 6.3: PV module data ...........................................................................55
Table 6.4: 24V system load ..........................................................................60
Table 8.1: The effect of pulley size on load current and speed...................103
Table 9.1: Itemised costing of 12V system.................................................111
Table 9.2: Itemised costing of 24V system.................................................112
XII
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE ENERGY CRISIS AND AIR CONDITIONING
1.1.1 AIR-CONDITIONING DEMAND
Air conditioners are one of the largest consumers of electricity in the
home. The main electrical utility in Perth, Western Australia is Western
Power Corporation. It is estimated by Western Power that up to 40
percent of its baseload power generation on hot days is to supply air-
conditioning demand. In recent years Western Power has failed to
meet the high electricity demand of customers on some of these
extremely hot summer days. This has caused rolling blackouts across
the metropolitan area, in which consumers were ordered to refrain
from using air-conditioning altogether. It was stated that:
“Under a special law enforced after an emergency meeting of

th
Western Power officials on 17 February 2004, people in
homes and offices must not use air-conditioners on specified
hot days. Those who do not obey the instructions face a $1000
fine. Companies face fines of up to $10,000.” (Sustainable
Population Australia Inc., 2004)
This ban covered both refrigerative and evaporative air-conditioning
systems. Due to this crisis in supply, an alternative method of
powering air-conditioning would be greatly beneficial.
1.1.2 ALTERNATIVE POWER
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the main method of
generating electricity has been through the combustion of fossil fuels.
1
Alternative methods of generating electricity are becoming
increasingly necessary due to the over -consumption of these
resources. The level of remaining fossil fuels is declining rapidly
causing many power supply issues, whilst the detrimental effect that
their combustion is having on the environment is enormous. These
resources have now been abused to the extent where action must
now be taken to actively use alternative methods of power generation.
Fossil fuel fired generation accounts for over 50% of the annual
emissions of the principle greenhouse gases (CO 2) in Australia and
the world (Zahedi, 1998). Renewable sources of energy have the
potential to meet most of Australia’s demand of energy. Solar cells are
a clean, environmentally friendly method of producing electricity. The
extent of solar cell usage is still relatively small in comparison to fossil
fuels, but it is expected that solar power will play an important part in
supplying the electricity demand in the future.
Solar powered systems have the following benefits and advantages:
 The power is generated cleanly. There is no harmful emissions
from the production and has no impact on the environment.
 They require very little maintenance. They contain no moving
parts, reducing the problem of wear.
 They are reliable. Systems are generally designed to cope with
worst-case scenarios, such as poor sunlight for several days.
2
 They are durable. Systems are generally designed to last
between 20-30 years or longer.
 Excess power generated by the system can be sold back to the
utility grid.
 They are economically friendly, since there is no need to pay a
utility company for the power consumed.
 The operation of the system is silent.
 Power can be generated where it is required without the need
for transmission lines.
 The systems are modular and can be quickly installed.
The one major disadvantage with solar powered systems is:
 There is a large capital cost. Solar cells are relatively
expensive, making the initial outlay substantial. For a system
s u c h a s a s o l a r - p o we r e d a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g u n i t t o b e
economically feasible and to compete successfully with mains-
powered units, the costs need to be closely comparable. The
level of production would need to be high, thus reducing per-
unit costs.
1.2 SOLAR-POWERED AIR-CONDITIONING
An air-conditioning unit that is solar-powered would decrease the demand
on the electricity network, whilst simultaneously reducing power costs for
the consumer. This system would be able to operate irrespective of
3
whether Western Power has placed a ban on air-conditioning, making it
more versatile in this respect.
Whilst the high cost of energy from PV presently limits its applications,
there are still many applications for which PV provides the most
economical power supply solution. PV is also often chosen simply for its
low environmental impact. Australia has a vast domestic market of many
thousands of remote homesteads and small communities, with an
abundance of solar resources (Monsour, 2001). This poses an
opportunity to present the market with an alternative air-conditioning
product, in regions where a mains supply may not exist.
The challenge of this project was to design, simulate and construct a roof
mounted evaporative air-conditioning unit, which is powered purely by
photovoltaic cells. This unit would be ducted to more than one room
requiring a powerful, but efficient fan motor. The ability for th e
photovoltaic system to be easily mounted on any rooftop makes it ideal
for powering an air-conditioning system. A medium had to be found
between cooling output and power input, such that it was effectively
powered by solar, whilst also keeping construction costs to a minimum.
Matlab simulations were used to help size the system and to verify the
design proposal before the construction of the prototype. These
simulations further investigate the potential of the unit for further
improvements.
4
1.3 THESIS ORGANISATION
This thesis is the documentation of the design, simulation and
construction of a solar-powered evaporative air-conditioning unit.
Chapter Two explains the theory behind evaporative air-conditioning and
the principles relating to its operation.
Chapter Three briefly explains the theory of motor and drives as they are
crucial to the design of an efficient system.
Chapter Four introduces the background theory behind photovoltaics.
This chapter helps explain the basis behind solar technology that will be
used for this system.
Chapter Five describes the types of stand alone components required for
a system such as a solar-powered air-conditioner to operate.
Chapter Six displays the calculations and procedure required in order to
size a photovoltaic system such as the evaporative air-conditioner.
Chapter Seven contains documentation of the simulations that were
performed to test the system design prior to implementation. It documents
the results of several different performance scenarios which could occur.
Furthermore, it documents the simulation of the prototype system under
5
similar scenarios. It also includes a brief explanation of the simulation
tools that were utilised in the Matlab Simulink software.
Chapter Eight documents construction, testing and results of the
prototype air-conditioner.
Chapter Nine discusses the feasibility of the photovoltaic system. It delves
into the setup cost of the system and its effective usability.
Chapter Ten details conclusions that have been derived from the
construction of the system and comments on further developments and
improvements that are possible.
6
2.0 EVAPORATIVE AIR-CONDITIONING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Evaporative air-conditioning (EAC) is used widely in Australia, the south-
western United States, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Eastern
Africa, and northern Mexico. As these locations suggest, EAC works best
for comfort in locations that are hot and dry, and is best suited to arid and
semi-arid regions of the world. EAC is excellent for cooling applications
as well as commercial applications such as in schools, libraries, offices,
greenhouses, buses, laundries, warehouses, factories, kitchens, and
poultry houses (Bom, G., et al, 1999). EAC has significant environmental
benefits over refrigerative air-conditioning due to the reduction in CFC
and HCFC use, whilst preventing the emission of CO2 and other gases.
EACs also reduce the peak electrical demand since they are more energy
efficient than refrigerative units. Energy savings due to the use of EACs
are in the tens of millions of barrels of oil per year (Bom et al, 1999).
Figure 2.1: Estimated annual sales and stock of EACs in

Australia (Mark Ellis and Associates)
Evaporative air-conditioning harnesses the cooling effect on air due to the
evaporation of water. There are two common methods of evaporative air-
conditioning. These are direct and indirect cooling. Dartnell (2005) states
that with direct cooling, water evaporates directly into the airstream. It
therefore humidifies the air and reduces its dry bulb temperature. Indirect
cooling utilises a heat exchanger, whereby incoming air is cooled with no
7
moisture added to the supply air. Only one side of the heat exchanger is
cooled with the evaporating water. Since the unit constructed in this
project utilises direct cooling, only this method will be discussed further.
2.2 DIRECT EVAPORATIVE AIR-CONDITIONING
Direct EAC is the oldest, simplest, and most widespread form of air-
conditioning. They consume significantly less energy than refrigerative
air-conditioning systems since they only consist of a small water pump
and a fan motor. The performance of an EAC is dependant upon the wet-
bulb and dry-bulb temperatures of the location. The Office of Energy
Efficiency & Renewable Energy (2005) defines the wet-bulb temperature
is the temperature to which air will cool when water is evaporated into
unsaturated air. The dry-bulb temperature is the ambient temperature of
the location. Both of these are used to compute the relative humidity. The
actual savings will vary with the humidity and dry-bulb temperature of the
location. Savings over refrigerative units of 60-80% are typical in regions
that boast low humidity (Bom et al, 1999).
Figure 2.2: The cooling effect of EAC
8
The system uses a fan to draw hot outside air through a cooling pad
made from a porous material and then into the dwelling. Heat is
absorbed by the water as it evaporates from the cooling pads, resulting in
cooler air exiting the fan. The efficiency of the unit is heavily reliant on the
materials the cooling pads are constructed from and the fan that is used.
A critical component in EAC is the use of water. The amount of water that
is used by EACs depends on the size of the unit, ambient temperature,
relative humidity, and operating hours. An average to large residential unit
typically consumes between 5 and 100 litres a day (Bom et al, 1999),
which equates to around $20 to $25 worth of water per season (Breezair,
2004).
Table 2.1: Available Residential Evaporative Air-Conditioning Units

Type Space to be cooled Installation Capacities
Portable 1 room Window 15-40m3/min
In room 1 room Free Standing 15-40m3/min
Fixed 1 room Window 20-100m3/min
Two rooms 2 rooms Window 20-160m3/min
Home Whole house Rooftop or through wall 80-300m3/min
2.3 CONSTRUCTION
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Residential EACs typically consist of a cubical box of sheet metal or
plastic containing large vertical filter "pads," an electric-motor-driven
fan, a water pump, a water distribution system, and a water sump at
the base (Bom et al, 1999).
9
Figure 2.3: Section of a typical evaporative air-conditioner
As shown in the figure above, the fan draws warm outside air through
the wetted cooling pad, cooling the air. The water is pumped from the
sump through the distribution system to the top of the pads. It then
trickles down through the cooling pads by means of gravity and back
into the water sump. Since water is lost through evaporation, the water
level in the sump is maintained by use of a float valve. The cooled air
is delivered either directly through a grille into a single room or into a
duct distribution system. The cool air flows into the room/s displacing
the hot air. The room temperature can be controlled by adjusting the
fan speed, and hence the airflow into the room (Blanchard, 2003).
2.3.2 FAN MOTOR
The motors for most residential air-conditioners are two-speed, single-
phase, shaded-pole or four-pole induction motors. Variable speed
10
motors are also becoming more commonly used. They generally
range from 200 to 1000W. These motors should have a drip proof
construction due to the moist conditions in which they operate.
2.3.3 WATER PUMP
Most evaporative air-conditioners have a small submerged centrifugal
pump. The capacity is generally less than 20L/min with a head of
approximately lm. This pump runs continuously whilst the system in
running, and therefore a bleed/overflow valve is necessary to maintain
correct water level in the sump.
2.3.4 COOLING PADS
In the past, the most common type of cooling media was pads made
from "aspen". These were wood fibres packed together loosely that
allow air to pass through them. This was generally packed into 50mm
thick slabs within a cloth mesh and held together with a wire mesh
frame. The cooling efficiency of these pads was only about 50% and is
considered relatively poor. Slabs of expanded paper are also used to
make cooling pads. This type also has a low efficiency of about 50%.
These types of pads also have a random water flow pattern and only a
short useful life (Premier Industries Inc, 2005). There are now new
synthetic pads in the market that offer efficiencies around 90% and are
longer lasting than their predecessors. The higher the wetting ability
the cooling pad possesses, the higher the possible efficiency of the
air-conditioner.
11
2.4 ADVANTAGES
There are many benefits of evaporative air-conditioning as stated by Bom
(1999, p. 2), and some of these are as follows:
 Substantial energy and cost savings.
 No chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) usage.
 Reduced peak demand.
 Reduced CO2 and power plant emissions.
 Improved indoor air quality.
 Life-cycle cost effectiveness.
 Easily integrated into built-up systems.
 Wide variety of packages available.
 Significant local fabrication and employment.
 Provide humidification when needed
 Easy to use with direct digital control (DDC)
 Greater regional energy independence
2.5 DISADVANTAGES
EAC also has a few disadvantages over refrigerative air-conditioning
units. These are:
 They cannot be used in regions of high humidity.
 They use water, a scarce resource in some regions of the
world.
12
 Damage can occur to rooftops if proper maintenance is not
carried out to eliminate the problem of concentrated salts in the
overflow water.
 Use of systems at high speed can result in noisy airflow.
 Dust and pollen can be introduced to the residence through the
air-conditioner causing problems for allergy sufferers.
 Cooling pads must be cleaned and/or replaced annually to
prevent growth of dangerous micro-organisms that can cause
health problems.
2.6 SIZING
The capacity of an air-conditioner is given by the air displacement in
m3/min. Bom (1999) states that the general rule when sizing a system is
to provide a change in air between one and four times every four minutes.
This rate is dependant on the wet-bulb temperatures. The higher the wet-
bulb temperature, the more air change is required to maintain a
“comfortable” room temperature. The saturation efficiency of the unit also
varies the air change requirement. A higher efficiency requires less air
change. Building features also influence this variable. For instance, a
room with a large window area, high sun exposure and poor insulation
would require one air change every minute. However a well insulated,
shaded room with a single window which would only require air change
every four minutes. The other cases are obviously in between these
extremes
13
The following are recommended air change rates for different wet-bulb
temperatures by Bom (1999) to ensure “comfortable” cooling:
15.5C WB = One air change every 5 to 2 minutes
17C WB = One air change every 4.5 to 2 minutes
19C WB = One air change every 4 to 2 minutes
For wet-bulb temperatures greater than 21C, the EAC may not be able to
provide “comfortable” cooling, but rather “relief” cooling. The air change
rates required are as follows:
23C WB = One air change every 3 to 2 minutes
The air-conditioner must be sized according to the characteristics of the
dwelling and the temperature and humidity characteristics of the location
in order for it to perform acceptably.
14
3.0 MOTORS AND DRIVES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The correct utilisation of electrical motors and drives is essential to the
performance of a system since it is the conversion of electrical power into
mechanical power. By maximising the efficiency of this conversion, the
system will operate have optimum performance. This chapter details the
operating characteristics of DC motors and the theory behind pulleys and
belt-drives.
3.2 PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTORS
Permanent magnet DC motors are most useful where the required size is
less than 0.1 horsepower (74.6W), however they are more suitable for
applications where limiting power consumption is crucial. Permanent
magnet motors generally run cooler since there is no stator coil to
consume power. They are easily reversed by changing the polarity of the
voltage applied to the terminals. They are capable of high-stall torque and
function perfectly in long-duty cycle applications. Dynamic braking is
easily obtained by simply applying a short circuit to the motor terminals
after voltage is removed. The torque -speed characteristics of a
permanent magnet DC motor is shown in the figure below.
15
Figure 3.1: DC Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics
Each curve is a theoretical straight line since the permanent magnet field
and armature winding are constant in a given motor (Globe Motors,
2005). Furthermore, current varies in proportion to torque. The no load
speed varies inversely with field strength and the stall torque varies
directly with field strength. No load speed changes proportionally to
voltage, resulting in a family of parallel speed-torque curves. The voltage
determines the speed, and only torque will determine the current.
Figure 3.2: Torque-speed curves for two voltages
The operating speed can be calculated, based on the rated voltage and
actual voltage. The operating speed of a DC motor is linearly proportional
16
to the voltage applied to its terminals. For example, a DC motor that is
rated at 30VDC and 2000rpm, but operated at 12V will have an operating
speed of,
Voperating
noperating  nrated
Vrated
12V
noperating  2000 800rpm
30V
3.3 PULLEYS AND DRIVES
3.3.1 PULLEY RATIO
Pulleys are particularly useful for altering the speed at which the
driven shaft is rotating. The drive shaft speed can either be reduced
or increased by utilising suitably sized pulleys. The pulley ratio
equation is,
Motor pulley radius

Ratiopulley 
Load pulley radius
The speed relationship between two pulley sizes is,
Speedmotor
Speedload 
Ratiopulley
Figure 3.3: Pulley and belt configuration
As well as speed variation, the torque on the motor can also be
manipulated by careful sizing of the pulleys. Torque is a force applied
17
by a moment arm. In the case of a pulley, the length of the moment
arm is the radius. Therefore the torque is directly proportional to the
size of the pulley. If the load remains constant, but the pulley size
increases, the torque required to be supplied by the motor also
increases. Therefore a trade-off between torque and speed is crucial
to the design of an efficient belt drive system.
3.3.2 BELT DRIVES
Belt drives are one of the main methods of transmitting power in
machinery. They are useful when the speed of the driven shaft is
different from that of the driver shaft and when there is a distance
between the shafts.
3.3.3 PRELOAD
A belt drive requires residual tension in the "loose" span of the belt in
order to operate properly. This can never be allowed to get near zero
otherwise the belt drive will not function properly. To counter this
problem a static "preload" is established in the spans of the belt. This
is unlike chain drives that actually have loose spans. In V-belt drives,
the preload maintains the contact force between the belt and the
surface of the pulley so that friction can transmit the power. In tooth-
belt drives, the preload maintains the correct contact pattern between
the belt teeth and sprocket grooves. This is required to keep the teeth
f rom attempting to climb up the sides of the grooves in t he
sprockets. Preload can be established by means of adjusting the
18
centre-line distance between the pulleys or by using an idler which
imposes a side load on one of the spans. V-belt drives usually require
greater preloads than tooth-belt drives.
Figure 3.4: Preload tension on belt (EPI Inc, 2004)
3.3.4 V-BELTS
The transmission of force from a pulley to a V-belt depends on friction
between the belt and the pulley. The friction force between the belt
and the pulley depends on the size of the normal force between the
belt and the pulley; the coefficient of friction between the belt and the
pulley; and the arc of contact between the belt and the pulley. The
frictional force between two objects is the product of the coefficient of
friction and the normal force. The coefficient of friction is independent
of the shape of the belt, but the normal force between the belt and
sides of the pulley sheave depends on the angle between the sheave
sides and the tension on the belt.
3.3.5 TOOTHED-BELTS
In a static toothed-belt drive, the required preload is determined by the
number of teeth engaged on the driving sprocket, the diameter of the
19
s p r o c k e t , t h e m a xi m u m t o r q u e t o b e t r a n s m i t t e d , a n d t h e
recommended tension ratio.
3.3.6 CONSTRUCTION
Reinforced rubber flat belts of cordless construction can be made of
multiple layers of rubber-impregnated canvas. The fabric provides
strength, while the rubber gives a good coefficient of friction. Corded
construction rubber flat belts have better stretch resistance than plied
construction and can operate on smaller-diameter pulleys.
20
4.0 PHOTOVOLTAIC THEORY
4.1 SOLAR RADIATION
Careful assessment of the solar radiation at the site where the PV system
is to be implemented is crucial to the success of the design. Solar
radiation data is required to be analysed and processed before an
accurate estimate of available solar radiation can be found.
4.2 ENERGY FROM THE SUN
Irradiance is the total power from a radiant source falling on a unit area.
The average energy that strikes the Earth’s surface perpendicular to the
sun is known as the “solar constant”:

2
S = 1367W/m
However, not all of this energy reaches the Earth’s surface due to
scattering and absorption by air molecules, clouds and particulate matter
(aerosols). The energy that reaches the surface in a direct line from the
sun is known as the direct radiation. The scattered portion is known as
diffuse radiation. Some radiation can reach the receiver after it has
reflected from the ground, known as albedo. The total radiation of these
three components is known as global radiation.
21
Figure 4.1: Solar radiation in the atmosphere (Markvart, 2000)
The amount of radiation that reaches the ground is highly variable due to
yearly variations, the motion of the sun, climatic conditions, composition
of the atmosphere. The effect of atmosphere is characterized by air mass,
which is relative to the beam path length through the atmosphere.
Figure 4.2: Air mass relative to the zenith angle (Markvart,

2000)
An air mass of 1 (AM1) exists when it is a clear day at sea level and the
sun is at zenith. At most times, the sun is at an angle relative to zenith, z,
and will result in an air mass greater than 1. The standard air mass for
22
calibrating photovoltaic modules is AM1.5, since this is a typical solar
spectrum on the Earth’s surface on a clear day.
Due to the Earth’s rotation around the sun in an elliptic orbit, and its
apparent motion is at an angle of 23.35 degrees relative to the celestial
equator, the motion of the sun can be pictured as following this path
across the sky at this angle relative to the Earth’s equator.
Figure 4.3: Diagram of azimuth, solar elevation and zenith

angle (Markvart, 2000)
4.3 HISTORY OF SOLAR POWER
Energy from the sun has been used to generate electricity since 1861,
when a French mathematics teacher Augustin Mouchot patented a
machine which used sunlight to evaporate water, using the steam to run a
small engine (ThinkQuest, 2005). Since then, vast developments have
been made in this field resulting in the photovoltaic solar cells produced
today.
23
The discovery of the first photovoltaic effect in a liquid electrolyte was by
French scientist, Edmund Becquerel in 1839 (Monsour, 2001, p. 3).
Zahedi (1998) states that photovoltaic is the conversion of light directly
into electricity through a semiconductor material. It derives its name from
“photo” meaning light, and “voltaic” referring to electricity and voltage.
This effect was also observed in a solid-state device made of selenium in
1876. However, the first silicon cell was not produced until 1941, followed
by the first cell of similar structure to modern day cells in 1954, which was
6% efficient.
The first application for photovoltaics was as power sources for satellites
during the late 1950’s and 1960’s. A large amount of development
occurred in the 1970’s resulting in the volume of cells increasing and
reduced production costs. These costs continued to reduce during the
1980’s with the significant development of cells of greater size and
efficiency. The 1990’s featured a continued increase in the size of
commercially available cells, thus resulting in cells of higher power
ratings. A maximum cell efficiency greater than 30% has been
demonstrated in a laboratory, however commercially available cells are
still around half that figure, ranging from 13-16%.
4.4 SOLAR CELL OPERATION
Solar cell operation is based on the ability of semiconductors to convert
sunlight directly into electricity by the use of the photovoltaic effect. This
process involves the incident energy of the light creating mobile charged
24
particles in the semiconductor, which are then separated by the device
structure resulting in an electrical current.
There are many different solar cells commercially available, with many
more under development. The range spans different materials and
structures, which have been produced in the aim of extracting maximum
power from device, whilst simultaneously keeping costs to a minimum.
4.5 SEMICONDUCTORS
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION
P h o t o vo lt a i c c e l l s a r e p r o d u c e d f ro m m a t e r i a l s k n o wn a s
semiconductors. These materials have special electrical properties in
that they are somewhere between good conductors like metals, and
insulators such as glass or plastics. Silicon (Si) is the most commonly
used semiconductor for the manufacture of photovoltaics, but others
such as cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide are still being
investigated for future uses. Crystalline Silicon is used for electronic
devices such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits in the form
of “chips”. Crystalline silicon PV cells are essentially made from large
“chips” to create what is called wafers.
4.5.2 CRYSTALLINE SILICON
Crystalline silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor due to its
predictable, reliable, and uniform behaviour. It is however, the most
expensive type of silicon due to the slow and careful manufacturing
25
processes required (Markvart, 2000). Crystalline cells have a
relatively good power efficiency compared to other semiconductor
materials.
4.5.3 BAND STRUCTURE AND DOPING
The structure of silicon crystals is a diamond lattice structure, whereby
each atom has four its four nearest neighbours at the vertices of a
tetrahedron. This structure results in a bonding arrangement that
utilises the four outer valence electrons. Each bond contains two
electrons and all of the valence electrons are taken up by these
bonds. Most other semiconductors have similar arrangements.
Quantum theory states that the energy of an electron must fall within
certain well-defined bands. The electrons which form the bonds of the
lattice structure are in the energy band known as the valence band
(EV). The next highest band is known as the conduction band (E C).
This is separated from the valence band by what is known as a
bandgap (EG).
EG = EC - EV
26
Figure 4.4: Band structure in semiconductors
A pure semiconductor, referred to as intrinsic, contains just the right
number of electrons to fill the valence band and the conduction band
is empty. Electrons cannot move from the full valence band because
of their bond. However, if a semiconductor is alloyed with an impurity
in a process called doping, carriers are introduced into the conduction
band or removed from the valence band. Impurities such as
phosphorous, a group 5 impurity atom, are commonly used with
silicon, which promotes one electron from each impurity atom to the
conduction band. These impurity atoms are therefore called donors.
Electrons in the conduction band are mobile and the crystal becomes
a conductor. This is called an n-type semiconductor since the current
is carried by negatively charged electrons. Doping with a group 3 atom
such as boron, known as acceptors caused an electron deficiency in
the valence band. These missing electrons are referred to as holes.
They are mobile in the valence band, carrying current by positively
charged electrons and called a p-type semiconductor.
4.5.4 P-N JUNCTIONS
The principle of solar cell operation is based on the formation of a
junction between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor. This
combination creates a p-n junction diode. At this junction, a strong
electric field exists. The mobile n -type carriers in the donor
semiconductor diffuse into the acceptor semiconductor and fill the
holes that existed, resulting in practically no mobile charge carriers.
27
The banding is in equilibrium, and there is no current flow through the
junction.
Figure 4.5: Electric currents in a p-n junction due to an

external bias (Markvart, 2000)
However if an external voltage is applied to each side of the p -n
junction, a bias is created resulting in an alteration in the height of the
potential barrier between the two junctions. A forward bias results from
a positive voltage being applied to the p-side, reducing the potential
barrier, and thus causing a dramatic increase in the current through
the junction. On the other hand, a reverse bias causes an increase in
the potential barrier and only a tiny current is allowed to flow. This is
referred to as the dark saturation current.
Figure 4.6: The diode I-V characteristic
The I-V characteristics of a diode are given by the Shockley equation:
28
 qV  
I I0 exp 1
 kT  
where I is the current, I 0 is the dark saturation current, k is the

-23
Boltzmann constant (1.4 x 10 ), q is the magnitude of the electron
-19
charge (1.6 x 10 ), and T is the absolute temperature.
4.5.5 LIGHT ABSORBSION BY A SEMICONDUCTOR
Energy conversion via the photovoltaic effect relies on the quantum
nature of light. Light can be perceived as a flux of particles - photons -
which carry energy. Their energy is equal to:
hc
E ph () 

where h is the Planck constant, c is the speed of light and  is the
wavelength of light. The energy of a photon is therefore proportional to
its wavelength. Only photons with energy greater than the bandgap
can be converted into electricity by the solar cell. When a photon is
absorbed by the semiconductor, it may cause an electron to be
promoted from the valence band into the conduction band. A hole is
then left in the valance band and an extra carrier exists in the
conduction band, causing electron -hole pairs. The majority of
electrons promoted have energies exceeding the bandgap energy.
Immediately after the electron is promoted, the electron and hole
decay to states near the edges of the their respective bands. As these
shift, energy is lost as heat and therefore cannot be converted to
electrical power. This is one of the largest power losses in the
conversion process.
29
Figure 4.7: Current flow in external connection
If an external current path is provided from the n-side to the p-side,
then the junction will try to regain equilibrium by transmitting an
electron along the connection to the p-side to refill the hole left from
the displaced electron. This results in a net current and voltage to exist
between the two sides of the junction. Neglecting losses, each photon
co n t rib u te s on e e le ct r o n ch a rge t o th e ge n e ra t ed cu rre n t .

17
Approximately 4.4 x 10 photons strike a square centimeter of the
Earth’s surface every second on a clear day (Markvart, 2000). The
electric current generated due to the light is equal to
Il qNA
where N is the number of electrons with energies greater than the
bandgap, and A is the surface area of the semiconductor that is
exposed to light.
The maximum voltage that the semiconductor can produce is the
same as its bandgap energy in electronvolts as seen in the equation,
V Eg / q
30
4.6 SOLAR CELLS
4.6.1 INTRODUCTION
The electrical current produced by the semiconductor is extracted by
means of contacts at both the front and back of the cell. At the front
they are spaced widely and are made from very thin strips of metal to
allow the maximum amount of light to reach the semiconductor
surface. The current collected by these strips is then distributed to
larger conductors, known as bus bars. These then connect in
combination with other cells to form a module with two output
terminals.
The generation current of the cell due to light, Il can be represented
by a diode in parallel to a current source. The diode represents the
current through the p-n junction and the output current is therefore the
difference between the two current flows.
 qV  
I I lIo exp 1
 kT  
The effect that illumination has on the cell can be seen in the IV
characteristics of the cell compared to a diode. The IV curve is shifted
into the negative region of the graph by the illumination current. This
is where the current is extracted from the cell.
31
Figure 4.8: Cell IV characteristics compared to a diode
For a given irradiance and temperature and cell size, there are two
limiting factors of output. These are the short-circuit current and open-
circuit voltage. The short-circuit current, I SC is the maximum output
current and this occur when the voltage is zero. In an ideal cell, when
the voltage is zero, the short-circuit current would be the light
generated current, I l . ISC is directly proportional to the irradiation
levels. The open-circuit voltage, VOC is a maximum when the current
is zero, and increases logarithmically with increased irradiation. When
I=0,
kT  Il 
VOC  ln
 O 1
q I 
Maximum power output is achieved where the product of I and V are a
maximum. The fill factor, FF, is denoted by
Pmax Vm Im FFVOC ISC
where Vm and Im are the voltage and current at the maximum power
point. The quality of the solar cell can be referred to by the value of
32
the fill factor. The higher the fill factor is, the higher the quality of the
cell.
Figure 4.9: IV characteristics with MPP
A solar cell’s efficiency,, is the maximum power output of the cell at
standard test conditions, divided by the power of irradiation that strikes

2
it. These are an irradiance of 1000W/m , an air mass of AM1.5, and a
temperature of 25 degrees Celsius.
4.6.2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Since solar cells do not normally operate under standard conditions,
the effect of the ambient temperature around the cell must be allowed
for as it will affect its output characteristics. Temperature has a
significant effect on the output power of a solar cell. The most
affected factor is that of the voltage which decreases as the
temperature rises. This is typically around 2.3mV per degree Celsius.
The affect temperature has on the current can be considered
negligible.
33
Figure 4.10: The effect of temperature
4.6.3 EFFECT OF IRRADIANCE
The output power of a solar cell is dependant on the irradiance which
strikes it. As irradiance increases, the current becomes
proportionately higher. The short-circuit current is directly proportional
to the irradiance, and as can be seen in the diagram below, has a
significant effect on the maximum power output.
Figure 4.11: The effect of Irradiance
34
4.6.4 EFFECT OF SHUNT AND SERIES RESISTANCE
A series and shunt resistance exists inside solar cells. This resistance
is unwanted as it decreases the fill factor of the cell. A series
resistance is caused by the physical connection of the semiconductor
to the metallic contacts and other interconnections. A shunt
resistance is caused by impurities in the p-n junction which causes a
partial shorting of the junction. Their effects are shown in the IV
characteristics below.
Figure 4.12: The Effect of a series resistance
35
5.0 STAND ALONE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS
5.1 BATTERIES
5.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar modules are devices that can be utilised to generate power from
sunlight; however, they have no means of storing power. Sunlight is
only available for part of a day, and so the power output of solar
modules are severely limited. Even during daylight hours, the sun’s
irradiation levels can vary quite dramatically due to atmospheric
conditions and so the power output is not constant. In many
applications, electricity may be required in times when there is no
output from the solar cells, such as at night time. Energy storage
devices are therefore necessary in the PV system. Since a PV system
is generally setup to power a specific load, the energy storage device
can be sized accordingly, and the type of storage can be chosen. The
storage device should be sized such that it will cope with several
contingencies. It should be capable of supplying energy even if the
load is temporarily increased, or if the energy being supplied to the
load is varying. Electrochemical storage batteries are commonly used
d u e t o th e ir e xce lle n t sto ra ge cap a b ilit ie s a lo n g wit h t he ir
transportability, and modularity. These batteries operate on the
principle of converting electrical energy into chemical energy.
Solar systems generally use deep cycle batteries because they are
designed to be heavily discharged over a long period of time whilst
also being recharged many times. The depth of discharge (DOD) is a
36
crucial factor when determining the size of a battery required for a
system. The DOD in a deep cycle battery should not fall below 60-
70% to prevent a significant decrease in battery life. These batteries
are rated in Ampere-hours (Ah) and generally also include a discharge
rate. This is usually 20 or 100 hours and a current rating is given at
this length of discharge. A battery of 100Ah can be discharged at 10A
for 10 hours or 5A for 20 hours, and so on.
There are several different types of electrochemical storage batteries,
however the two most commonly used in PV system is lead-acid
batteries and Nickel-cadmium. Since these are the most common,
they will be discussed in further detail.
5.1.2 LEAD-ACID
5.1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
A lead-acid battery is made up of two electrodes of lead (Pb) and
lead dioxide (PbO2), and an electrolyte of sulphuric acid (H 2SO4)
which is diluted in water. The lead is positioned in the battery to
provide the largest surface area possible, such that it maximises
the amount of chemical reactions the lead can achieved with the
electrolyte. The positive plate is made from the lead oxide and the
negative from the lead. Two chemical reactions are created which
form the basis of how the battery works.
37
As can it can be seen from the chemical equations, during charge
Lead-Oxide, Lead and sulfuric acid is formed. The lead-oxide
forms at the anode, pure lead at the cathode and the sulphuric acid
is released back into the electrolyte. Upon discharge, lead
sulphate forms at both electrodes and th e sulphuric acid is
removed form the electrolyte.
Figure 5.1: Lead-acid battery operation (Markvart, 2000)
5.1.2.2 LEAD PLATE TYPES
Pure lead plates are used where low discharge is required and
deep cycle operations are only expected occasionally. Pure lead
has a long life span; however, they must be handled carefully due
to the soft nature of the plates. They are easily broken if care is
not taken.
Lead calcium plates are used where the battery is not frequently
deeply discharged. The life span of is slightly less than that of pure
lead plates. However, due to the doping of calcium they are not
38
only cheaper, but also much stronger and less susceptible to
damage.
Lead antimony plates are made from lead doped with antimony.
Similar to calcium, this also decreases the cost and adds strength
to the plates. However, they degrade rapidly when discharged
deeply, and thus require to be almost fully charged all of the time.
These type of batteries are not used in PV systems for this these
reasons.
5.1.2.3 CYCLING
The life span of a lead acid battery is greatly affected by the cycling
characteristics of the system. These must be accounted for when
designing a system. At low states of charge, sulphation can occur,
a process whereby lead sulphate forms on the plates. This
reduces the efficiency of the battery as it decreases the amount of
chemical reactions that can take place. If the discharge level is
kept below 50%, the concentration of sulphuric acid is kept at an
acceptable level and this process can be prevented.
Overcharging the battery can also cause damage to the battery
and can be a safety hazard. The reason for this is what is known
as gassing. This is a process whereby hydrogen and oxygen are
created at the electrodes and should be prevented. It results in
more maintenance being required for the battery. The voltage
39
characteristics for charging and discharging are shown in the
figures below.
Figure 5.2: Discharge characteristics at two different discharge

rates (Markvart, 2000)
Figure 5.3: Charging Characteristics (Markvart, 2000)
Methods of controlling a regulating the charge and discharge must
therefore be put in place in a system containing a lead acid battery.
A high voltage disconnect (HVD) and low voltage disconnect (LVD)
are used to prevent the battery from damage.
5.1.2.4 ADVANTAGES
 They are easy to manufacture and relatively inexpensive.
40
 When maintained and used properly, are long lasting and
durable.
 Self discharge is relatively low compared to other battery
options.
 They have no memory.
 They require very little maintenance, since electrolytes need
only be filled on unsealed batteries.
 They are capable of high discharge rates.
5.1.2.5 LIMITATIONS
 They cannot be left in an uncharged state. Damage will
result if the cell voltage drops below 2.1V.
 Full discharge is limited to only a few times and frequent
deep cycling is not recommended.
 They are inherently environmentally unfriendly due to their
construction of lead and electrolyte.
 They have a low energy density. They are quite heavy for
the amount of charge that they can store.
5.1.2.6 BATTERY LIFE
The life span of lead-acid batteries is highly dependent on the
depth of discharge. Deep-cycle batteries are designed to cope
with a DOD typically between 30 and 70% and have a life span of
5 to 6 years. In comparison, regular car batteries are not designed
41
for such large discharge characteristics and a deep discharge will
drastically reduce the lifespan of the battery.
Figure 5.4: Lifespan of lead-acid batteries (Photovoltaic systems)
5.1.3 NICKEL-CADMIUM
Nickel-cadmium batteries are made from nickel hydrate (NiOH),
Cadmium (Cd), and potassium hydroxide (KOH). The positive
plate is made from the nickel hydrate; the negative is from the
cadmium, whilst an aqueous potassium hydroxide forms the
electrolyte. The chemical reactions that are created are as follows
(Arizona Solar Center, 2005).
The life of Nickel-cadmium batteries varies with the application in
which they are used and the environment which they must operate.
The life of these batteries decreases with decreased discharge
depth. Unlike lead-acid batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries can be
42
overcharged and fully discharged over considerable time without
damage to the cells. The charging and discharging characteristics
are shown below.
Figure 5.5: Charging and discharging characteristics for a Ni-

Cad cell
5.1.3.2 ADVANTAGES
 They are capable of a high number of charge/discharge
cycles. If maintained correctly, they are capable of up to
1000 cycles.
 They are fast and simple to charge, even after lengthy
storage.
 They have a long shelf life since they are not affected by
self discharge.
43
 They have a low cost per cycle compared to other batteries.
5.1.3.3 LIMITATIONS
 They have a relatively low energy density.
 Unlike lead-acid batteries, they have a memory effect. They
must be regularly charged and discharged to prevent this.
 They have a relatively high self discharge rate. Recharging
will be required after storage.
 They are inherently environmentally unfriendly since nickel-
cadmium contains toxic metals.
5.1.4 BATTERY EQUATION
The characteristic behaviour of a typical 12V battery can be
approximated by linear equations. The battery state-of-charge (SOC)
is the percentage of the available capacity (Ah) referred to the
maximum battery capacity (Ah). The battery voltage can be
approximated by the following equation:
Capacitymax (Ah) Cbatt (Ah)

Vbatt 13.5V  2V
Capacitymax (Ah)
44
Figure 5.6: Typical curve of battery voltage w.r.t Battery
SOC (Lawrance, 2005)
5.2 CHARGE REGULATOR
Charge regulators are used for the purpose of regulating current flow from
the solar panels for the purpose of protecting the battery in a system
against excessive discharge or overcharge. Overcharging causes
gassing and loss of electrolyte, and can result in damage to the battery.
The device disconnects the load from the battery if the voltage drops
below a pre-set minimum. The load is not reconnected until the voltage
has risen significantly past the pre-set value. The purpose of this process
is to ensure that the battery has a chance to recharge before the load is
reconnected, thus extending its lifespan. Charge regulators are given an
Ampere rating so allowing them to be suitably sized for their application.
The charge regulator also limits the maximum voltage that is supplied by
the PV modules to charge the battery. This is to prevent overcharging of
the battery as well as excessive gassing. A limit on the charging current
is not necessary for most systems unless there is a vast contrast in size
between array and the battery capacity. Therefore the voltage regulation
45
that is required can be achieved by use of either a shunt or series
regulator.
Series regulators have a variable resistance in series with the PV arrays
and battery. As the battery is being charged and the battery voltage
increases, the resistance value is increased. This reduces the battery
voltage and current. Since the voltage across the resistor is only small
when the battery is charged, the power loss is quite small.
A shunt regulator also has a variable resistance; however it is connected
in parallel with the battery and PV array. However, this combination may
cause larger power losses since as the resistance is reduced, more
current from the PV array is diverted through the resistor and less through
the battery. For both types, the variable resistance element is generally a
MOSFET transistor.
46
Figure 5.7: Shunt and Series Regulators
5.3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKERS
A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is a device that ensures that the
output of a PV module is at the maximum possible. This enables the
system to harness as much energy from the PV as possible. Maximum
power output is achieved when the load resistance is matched with the
source resistance. The device is effectively a DC-DC converter which
controls the output of the PV by controlling the load resistance. A MPPT
in a system allows it to optimise output power during varying irradiation
and temperature. The voltage transformation performed by a MPPT is
shown below.
Vout  PMAX R
47
Figure 5.8: MPPT system configuration (Lawrance, 2005)
Figure 5.9: MPPT operation on IV curve (Lawrance, 2005)
5.4 OPTIMUM ORIENTATION AND TILT ANGLES
5.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The orientation of the photovoltaic array with respect to the sun
determines the intensity of the sunlight falling on the modules. The
system power output is therefore dependant upon this. The azimuth
angle and the tilt angle are two variables that need to be considered
when designing a system. The tilt angle is the angle between the
plane of the module and the horizontal. The azimuth angle is the
angle between the plane of the module and the shortest line to the
equator from the position. This is due n orth for the southern
hemisphere and due south for the northern hemisphere. The tilt angle
chosen should provide maximum power output from the system. This
48
is obtained when the array tilt angle is roughly equal to the latitude
angle. However, this varies seasonally due to the change in angle of
the sun’s path across the sky. The tilt angle can be fixed at a certain
angle all year round or seasonally changed, depending on the
necessity for maximum power output.
5.4.2 FIXED ARRAY TILTING
The system to be powered by PV modules will only be run during
summer months and so a tilt angle that maximises power output
during this time will be chosen. Perth is situated at latitude 31.830S
and longitude 116.70N. Ordinarily, a tilt angle of 32 degrees would be
chosen to give a maximum annual power output. However, since the
system will only be used in summer, the seasonal tilt adjustment of -10
degrees can be factored in. The resultant tilt angle is 22 degrees, as
can be seen in the table below.
Table 5.1: Seasonal tilt angles and adjustments for 32deg latitude
Site
Season Latitude Adjustment Tilt Angle
Summer 32 deg -10 deg 22 deg
Autumn 32 deg 0 deg 32 deg
Winter 32 deg +15 deg 47 deg
Spring 32 deg 0 deg 32 deg
49
Figure 5.10: Summer tilt adjustment for 32 deg latitude
This is the case the tilt angle of the photovoltaic array is fixed all year
round.
5.4.3 TRACKERS
A major issue problem encountered in the design of solar systems is
the issue of harnessing as much energy from the sun as possible.
Modules may be in fixed positions, or they may be designed to
continually follow the motion of the sun. Most arrays are fixed at a
specific tilt angle, whilst facing the equator. This option is the most
economical installation as it requires no moving parts and the
mounting structure is simple. However, the output of the cells is not
optimal since the maximum sunlight is not captured.
Tracking of the sun is particularly important in systems that need to
operate under concentrated sunlight. The use of a two-axis tracker
can increase the output of an array by up to 40%. This varies the tilt
angle based on the time of year and the inclination of the Sun’s path
50
across the sky, whilst also tracking it during the day from East to West.
A single-axis tracker only tracks the sun across the sky at a set tilt
angle and therefore must be manually altered at regular intervals of
the year in order to maintain a high output. This method yields almost
the same output as that of the two-axis system. Automatic systems
are available that consume no power to operate as they function on
the basis of a gas system. The Sun’s warmth causes the motion of
Freon gas from one vessel to another via a small pipe. This
proportionally changes the weight of each side of the array that is
mounted on a pivot, resulting in a movement that tracks the sun.
When the sun rises at dawn, the resultant warmth causes the module
to flip back to its starting position for another day of tracking. These
systems are quite expensive relative to a stationary system and
therefore the benefits of the extra output must be weighed against the
costs. For this reason, fixed arrays are more commonly used for solar
systems.
Figure 5.11:Gas-powered solar tracker
51
6.0 SYSTEM SIZING
6.1 INTRODUCTION
For a stand-alone PV system, the sizing of components is crucial to the
design. The capital cost of solar system is the largest component when
pricing solar electricity. The capital cost has a direct influence on the
effective cost of electricity that it produces. It is therefore important that
the correct size components are used to minimise the overall capital cost.
The initial information required for the suitable sizing of a PV system is as
follows:
 The solar radiation levels in the proposed site.
 The load profile.
 The importance of supply continuity.
 The economic constraints of the project.
From this information, an assessment on the correct PV sizing and
battery sizing can be achieved.
The following details the sizing of the solar evaporative air-conditioner for
two different system configurations. Firstly, a 12V system will be sized.
This has been implemented in the prototype built. Secondly, a 24V
system will be sized, due to the recommendations from the result of the
12V prototype test, which will be discussed in a later chapter.
6.2 SOLAR RADIATION LEVELS
The radiation levels will be based those of Perth, Western Australia.
52
The total average irradiation on an inclined plane at plane angle of 20
degrees and plane azimuth of 0 degrees for summer months is required.
The monthly averages for the summer months are as follows:
Table 6.1: Monthly irradiation averages

Ave. Daily Total
Month Irradiation (MJ/m2)
December 28.6
January 28.7
February 26.9
Therefore the average total daily irradiation for summer will be,
Dec Jan Feb 28.6 28.7 26.9 2

Esummer,ave   28.1MJ / m
3 3
6.3 SYSTEM LOAD
6.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The load is the combination of load currents from the electrical devices
in the system. In the case of the evaporative air-conditioner, the loads
are in parallel with the battery and can therefore be added to yield a
total system load. The load will be run for an average of 8 hours per
day.
6.3.2 12V SYSTEM
6.3.2.1 SYSTEM LOAD
The loads of the system are listed in the following table.
53
Table 6.2: 12V System load
PART QTY CURRENT (A) POWER (W)
Flojet water pump 1 1.3 15.6
EMP Fan motor 1 8.7 104.4
Totals: 10.0 120.0
The total power consumption of the load must be determined. This
can be found from the power equation:
Pdc Vdc Idc
If the average voltage of the battery under load is assumed to be
12V,
Vbatt Vdc 12.0V
The total power consumed is therefore,
Pconsumed 10.0 12.0 120.0W
Furthermore,
Energy Power Time
So if the system is run for eight hours per day, the total energy
consumed will be,
Econsumed 120.0 8 960.0Whrs / day
Therefore, the system must accommodate 960Whrs per day.
6.3.2.2 PV SIZING
A decision must be made, as to what size and type of PV modules
are most suitable to the system. The prototype will be tested using
BPSX60, 60W modules. Therefore the number of these that are
required will be determined. Also, a more cost effective sizing, by
means of other PV modules will be shown. However, if larger
54
modules are used, they have much higher Vmax voltages, since
they generally have 72 cells instead of 36 and they would require a
DC-DC converter. This would add extra cost to the system, and so
more of the smaller modules are a more economically viable option
for this system. The data for several modules sizes is shown
below.
Table 6.3: PV module data

Effective
Module Pmax Cells Voc Isc Vmax Imax solar surface
2
(W) (V) (A) (V) (A) LxW (m )
BPSX60 60 36 21 3.87 16.8 3.56 1.070x0.467
BP380 80 36 22.1 4.8 17.6 4.55 1.125x0.500
BPSX60
The number of BPSX60, PV modules required can be calculated
as follows.
The PV module surface area must be determined. This is the
amount of actual solar cell exposed to sunlight.
Area Length Width
Therefore for a BPSX60 PV module,
AreaPV 1.070 0.467 0.500m

2
The BPSX60 PV module output power is,
PPV max 60W
2
The power produced by 1m of BPSX60 PV module is,
PPV max 60 2
PPV,1m2   120.00W / m
AreaPV 0.500
The efficiency of the PV module can then be determined,
55
ElectricalPowerOutput
 100%
SolarPowerStrikingCell
120.00
 100% 12.0%
1000
Therefore the PV module is 12.0% efficient.
2
The electrical energy that is produced by 1m of BPSX60 at 12.0%
efficiency is,
EPV 28.112.0% 3.372MJ / m / day

2
Converted to kWhr from MJ,
3.372 1000 2
EPV  0.937kWhr / m / day
3600
2
Hence 1m of BPSX60 PV modules will produce
2
0.937kWhr/m /day of power. Therefore one panel will produce,
EBPSX 60 0.937 0.500 0.468kWhr / module / day
Since the air-conditioner load is 960Whrs/day, the number of
modules required can be found to be,
960
No  2.05
468
Therefore either two BPSX60 modules could be used with is
required. Therefore either 2 or 3 BPSX60 modules could be used
to power the system. Two modules would limit the system to being
run for slightly less than full 8 hours per day, and would be a more
economical option. However, if a third module was purchased, the
extent of usage would be substantially increased since the array
56
power would be greater than required. The decision is ultimately a
cost versus power requirement issue.
BP380
Alternatively, BP380 80W cells could be used. They will be sized
in the same fashion to determine the number of modules required.
The PV module surface area must be determined. This is the
amount of actual solar cell exposed to sunlight.
Area Length Width
Therefore for a BP380 PV module,
AreaPV 1.125 0.500 0.562m

2
The BP380 PV module output power is,
PPV max 80W
2
The power produced by 1m of BP380 PV module is,
PPV max 80 2
PPV,1m2   142.22W / m
AreaPV 0.562
The efficiency of the PV module can then be determined,
ElectricalPowerOutput
 100%
SolarPowerStrikingCell
142.22
 100% 14.22%
1000
Therefore the PV module is 14.22% efficient.

2
The electrical energy that is produced by 1m of BP380 at 14.22%
efficiency is,
EPV 28.114.22% 3.996MJ / m / day

2
57
Converted from MJ to kWhr,
3.996 1000 2
EPV  1.110kWhr / m / day
3600
2 2
Hence 1m of BP380 PV modules will produce 1.110kWhr/m /day
of power. Therefore one panel will produce,
Since the air-conditioner load is 960Whrs/day, the number of
960
No  1.54
624
Therefore a minimum of 2 BP380 modules is required.
6.3.2.3 BATTERY SIZING
A suitably sized battery must be found that can effectively run the
system, but without being too oversized. The following calculations
are used to determine a suitable battery size for the system.
The total Ampere-hours used by the system are required to be
determined.
Wh / day 960
Ah / day   80.0Ah / day
Vsystem 12
The number of days of autonomy that the system requires is 1 day.
It is not expected that there will often be two consecutive cloudy
days during the summer months in Perth, and so sizing for only
one day is acceptable.
58
Therefore the amount of ampere-hours the system is required to
store is,
Ah 80.0Ah 1day 80.0Ah
To avoid over draining the battery, the depth of discharge is limited
to 60%. Therefore the capacity required is,
80.0
Capacity  133.33Ah
0.6
A gel cell 12V 150Ah battery has therefore been chosen for the
system.
From this sizing method it can be seen that a 12V evaporative air-
conditioning system will consist of a 12V Flojet water pump, a
250W 30VDC EMP fan motor, a 150Ah 12V gel cell deep cycle
battery, and either three BPSX60 60W or two BP380 80W PV
modules.
6.3.3 24V SYSTEM
6.3.3.1 SYSTEM LOAD
The tot al po we r con sumpt io n of t he loa d mu st a ga in be
determined, since the power that will be consumed will be greater
than that of the 12V system. Several assumptions are made about
the system:
 Two 12V batteries will be used to in series to create the 24V
supply.
 The 30VDC motor will draw on average 8.7A as it did in the
12V system, however, it will operate at a faster rpm.
59
 The 12V Flojet pump could be powered from one of the 12V
batteries; however a 24V pump would be more suitable to
the higher output air-conditioning system. This would also
allow higher water circulation.
Table 6.4: 24V system load

PART QTY CURRENT (A) POWER (W)
Shurflo water pump 1 1.6 38.4
EMP Fan motor 1 8.7 208.8
Totals: 10.3 247.2
The total power consumed by the system can be found as follows:
Pdc Vdc Idc
If the average output voltage of the batteries under load is
assumed to be 24.0V,
Vbatt Vdc 24.0V
The total power consumed is therefore,
Pconsumed 10.324.0 247.20W
Furthermore,
Energy Power Time
So if the system is run for eight hours per day, the total energy
consumed will be,
Econsumed 247.20 8 1977.60Whrs / day
Therefore, the system must accommodate 1977.60Whrs per day.
60
6.3.3.2 PV SIZING
BPSX60
The number of BPSX60, PV modules required can be calculated
as follows.
From the previous calculations, one BPSX60 PV module will
produce,
Since the air-conditioner load is 1977.60Whrs/day, the number of
1977.60
No  4.23
468
Therefore a minimum of 5 BPSX60 modules is required.
BP380
Alternatively, BP380 80W cells could be used. They will be sized
in the same fashion to determine the number of modules required.
From the previous calculations, one BP380 PV module will
produce,
Since the air-conditioner load is 1977.60Whrs/day, the number of
1977.60
No  3.17
624
61
Therefore either 3 or 4 BP380 modules could be used to power the
system. Three modules would limit the system to being run for
slightly less than full 8 hours per day, and would be a more
economical option. However, if a fourth module was purchased,
the extent of usage would be substantially increased since the
array power would be greater than required. The decision is
ultimately a cost versus power requirement issue.
6.3.3.3 BATTERY SIZING
Two suitably sized batteries must be found that can effectively run
the system, but without being too oversized. The following
calculations are used to determine suitable battery sizes for the
system:
The total Ampere-hours used by the system are required to be
determined.
Wh / day 1977.60
Ah / day   82.4Ah / day
Vsystem 24
The number of days of autonomy that the system requires is 1 day.
It is not expected that there will often be two consecutive cloudy
days during the summer months in Perth, and so sizing for only
one day is acceptable.
Therefore the amount of ampere-hours the system is required to
store is,
Ah 82.4Ah 1day 82.4Ah
62
To avoid over draining the batteries, the depth of discharge is
limited to 60%. Therefore the total capacity required to be stored
in the two batteries is,
82.4
Capacity  137.33Ah
0.6
Since the batteries are in series, the current will be the same in
each battery. Therefore each of the batteries must be rated at a
minimum of 137.33Ah. Two gel cell 12V 150Ah batteries have
therefore been chosen for the system.
From this sizing method it can be seen that a 24V evaporative air-
conditioning system will consist of a 24V Shurflo water pump, a
250W 30VDC EMP fan motor, two 150Ah 12V gel cell deep cycle
batteries, and either five BPSX60 60W or four BP380 80W PV
modules.
63
7.0 SIMULATION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Matlab Simulink software was utilised for the simulation of the solar -
powered evaporative air-conditioner. A model was built based on a
representation of the BP 280 PV array. From this system model, many
tests could be run to assess the performance of the system in different
scenarios. Preliminary tests could be run to assist in the selection of a
suitably sized pump and fan motor. Furthermore, the model could be
used to simulate the operating characteristics of the prototype once the
components had been sized. The unit could be tested under differing set-
up characteristics as well as worse-case scenarios to view the potential of
the system. The schematic diagram of the simulated system can be
viewed in Appendix F.
7.2 ARRAY MODEL
A model for a BP280 PV array has been developed for the purpose of
simulating PV systems by Wenham et al., in 1995. The model is based
on the single diode equivalent circuit of a PV cell. This circuit is shown in
the figure below.
Figure 7.1: Single diode equivalent circuit of PV cell (Lawrance

and Wichert, 1994)
64
The model is broken down into a hierarchical structure that consists of all
the equations that exist in a PV cell. The governing equation for this
model is,
IC = ISC GN + IT (TC – TR) – ID – (VC + IC RS)/RSH
Where, IC = load current (A)

VC = load voltage (V)
ISC = short circuit current at STC (A)
GN = normalized radiation (W/m2)
IT = short circuit current temp. coef. (A/K)
TC = cell temp (K)
TR = cell reference temp (K)
ID = diode current (A)
RS = series resistance ()
RSH = shunt resistance ()
MS MP
Model Inputs Model Outputs
G Tc
Ta PV ARRAY
VPVA IPVA
Level 1
G, Ta , VPVM IPVM, Tc
NS
PV MODULE
NP
Level 2
G, Ta , VPVC IPVC, Tc
RS
PV CELL
RSH
ILG,Tc ID Level 3
G, Ta VPVC, IPVC, Tc
T RS
r Ior
I Calculation of Calculation of Tr
SCR I I
LG D EG
It A
Level 4
G, Ta Tc
NOCT Calculation of
Tc
Level 5
Figure 7.2: Hierarchical structure of PV array model (Lawrance

and Wichert, 1994)
65
The inputs to this equation are also a resultant of other input variables
that are consistent with the BP280 module, and the array formation
characteristics. The resultant level one hierarchical model can then be
utilised in the Simulink software to simulate various parallel and series
combinations of BP280 modules, as shown in the figure below.
Figure 7.3: BP280 array model showing inputs and outputs

(Lawrance and Wichert, 1994)
Variation of the number of series and parallel cells that form the module
can also be performed. These can be altered in the model’s parameter
menu as shown in the figure below.
Figure 7.4: Model Parameter menu
66
7.3 EVAPORATIVE AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM SIMULATION
7.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The prototype was powered with BPSX60 60W PV modules. However
the array model available is based on a BP280 80W PV module.
Therefore, the number of cells in parallel would be required to be
altered to achieve the desired PV array output. For instance, a 240W
array can be simulated by using three 80W modules, whilst an 180W
array can be simulated by entering 2.25 as the number of parallel
modules. There will be a negligible difference in output power
characteristics of the simulation model, thus making it a very flexible
model.
7.3.2 INPUTS
Look-up Tables
The system simulations were run over a period of four days or 96
hours. The inputs were based on hourly averages, and therefore
there were 96 different values for each input. These values were
entered into the simulation by means of a “direct look-up table”.
These are an nxD sized table, where n is the number of samples
and D is the table dimension. An nx1 table was used to implement
the hourly samples. In order to match up one hourly input with
another corresponding input, clocks were utilised to step through
all the samples sequentially.
67
Figure 7.5: Look-up tables used as inputs in simulation
Figure 7.6: Look-up table parameter menu
7.3.2.2 IRRADIANCE
The irradiance data was gathered from actual measurements of
Perth’s irradiation on a summer day and can be seen in Appendix
G. The values are averaged hourly and are in Watts per square
metre. The data has been used four times to represent four
68
consecutive fine days. As will be seen later, this data was also
manipulated in order to simulate days of poor sunlight.
Look-up table input data
[0 0 0 0 0 108 548 752 879 935 976 990 1004 1001 988 947 843
674 208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 548 752 879 935 976 990 1004
1001 988 947 843 674 208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 548 752 879
935 976 990 1004 1001 988 947 843 674 208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
108 548 752 879 935 976 990 1004 1001 988 947 843 674 208 0
0 0 0 0]
Figure 7.7: Irradiance over 96 hours
7.3.2.3 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
The ambient temperature data was gathered f rom actual
measurements of Perth’s ambient temperature on a summer day.
The values are averaged hourly and are in degrees Kelvin. The
data has been used four times to represent four consecutive days
with similar temperature.
69
[294.1 293.4 292.1 290.9 289.6 288.8 288.6 290.1 292.3 295.6
298.8 300.8 302.4 304.0 304.2 303.3 302.1 301.1 300.0 298.9
297.8 296.6 295.7 294.8 294.1 293.4 292.1 290.9 289.6 288.8
288.6 290.1 292.3 295.6 298.8 300.8 302.4 304.0 304.2 303.3
302.1 301.1 300.0 298.9 297.8 296.6 295.7 294.8 294.1 293.4
292.1 290.9 289.6 288.8 288.6 290.1 292.3 295.6 298.8 300.8
302.4 304.0 304.2 303.3 302.1 301.1 300.0 298.9 297.8 296.6
295.7 294.8 294.1 293.4 292.1 290.9 289.6 288.8 288.6 290.1
292.3 295.6 298.8 300.8 302.4 304.0 304.2 303.3 302.1 301.1
300.0 298.9 297.8 296.6 295.7 294.8]
Figure 7.8: Ambient temperature over 96 hours
7.3.2.4 LOAD PROFILE
The hourly air-conditioner usage varied depending on the amount
of usage that the air-conditioner is desired to have. It is assumed
that on a hot day, the average air-conditioning demand is eight
hours. This is simulated from 11am until 7pm in the evening.
However, to test the capability of the system to handle longer
usage, this was able to be changed to whatever time period was
desired. Also, a constant operating load current value could be
entered that was multiplied with the loading profile to give the
desired load profile.
70
[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
111111110000000000000000111111110000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0]
Figure 7.9: Load current over 96 hours
7.3.2.5 ARRAY VOLTAGE
The array voltage is dependent on the instantaneous battery
voltage. This is discussed further in Section 7.2.2.
7.3.3 BATTERY
The characteristic behaviour of a typical 12V battery can be
approximated by linear equations,
Capacitymax (Ah) Cbatt (Ah)

Vbatt 13.5V  2V
Capacitymax (Ah)
This equation can be used in Simulink to simulate the battery as
shown in the figure below. This model is however very limited and is
not a true representation of battery characteristics. It should be
71
understood that this only a very simplistic model and accurate results
cannot be achieved by its use.
Figure 7.10: Battery model using battery equation
7.3.4 MATHEMATICAL OPERATORS
Numerous mathematical operators are available for use in Simulink.
The following were utilised in the simulation of the system.
Figure 7.11: Mathematical operators used in the Simulink

simulation
Product - The product block is utilised to multiply two inputs and output
the resultant.
Integrator – The integrator block is used to sum inputs over the period
of the simulation and output the total. In the system simulation, this
was used to find total values for the 96 hour period.
Integrator with saturation limit – The integrator with saturation limit
block was used to simulate a charge regulator for the battery. The
upper limit is set to the maximum battery capacity, whilst the lower
72
limit is set to 20Ah to simulate a charge regulator disconnecting the
load from the battery at low capacity.
Sum – The sum block used to subtract one input from another, and
output the resultant.
Multiplexer – The multiplexer block was utilised to display more than
one output on a single graph (scope).
Function Blocks – The function block was used as a transfer function
to manipulate the input by a user-defined function, and then output the
resultant.
7.3.5 OUTPUTS
The system simulation displayed outputs of the cell temperature,
array current, array power, battery current, battery capacity, battery
voltage, power balance and equivalent power costs. These outputs
of the simulation were viewed by two different methods. These
were by means of a scope and/or a display block.
Figure 7.12: The outputs methods used in the Simulink

simulation
73
Display – The display block shows the final output in numerical
form.
Scope – The scope shows the outputs in graphical form.
Figure 7.13: Scope window displaying buttons
7.3.5.2 CELL TEMPERATURE
The cell temperature is a direct output from the array model and
was displayed using a scope. For the standard simulation, the
output was as shown in the following figure.
Figure 7.14: Cell temperature over 96 hours
7.3.5.3 ARRAY CURRENT
The array current was also a direct output of the array model and
was displayed using a scope.
74
7.3.5.4 ARRAY POWER
The array power was output from a product block which had an
input of both PV voltage and current.
Figure 7.15: Configuration of array power output
7.3.5.5 BATTERY VOLTAGE
The battery voltage is output from the battery voltage equation that
is defined in Section 7.2.2 and displayed using a scope.
7.3.5.6 BATTERY CURRENT
The battery voltage is the resultant output of a sum block that
subtracts the load current from the PV current. The resultant is the
charging current of the battery and can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 7.16: Configuration of battery current
75
7.3.5.7 BATTERY CAPACITY
The battery capacity is the output of the charge regulator block
since this is the instantaneous capacity. The battery capacity
ranges from a lower limit of 20Ah, to simulate a charge regulator
disconnecting the load at low capacity, to an upper limit defined by
the maximum capacity of the battery, which was 150Ah in this
simulation.
7.3.5.8 ENERGY BALANCE
The Simulink simulation included an energy comparison to display
the generated and consumed energy, as well as the excess energy
in the system over the period of 96 hours. A multiplexer was
utilised to display these three outputs in one scope. The
configuration of the energy balance is as shown in the figure
below.
Figure 7.17: Configuration of energy balance
7.3.5.9 EQUIVALENT ENERGY COSTING
The introduction of a feasibility factor in the simulation enabled the
system to be tested for equivalent economic outputs. The cost of
electricity was introduced into the simulation to display the
76
equivalent value of energy generated and consumed by the
system, and that which is excess to system requirements.
Hypothetically, excess energy could be sold back to the electricity
grid if an inverter is included in the system. This simulation
includes the value of this excess energy. The Western Power A1
tariff of 13.94 cents per kWh was multiplied by the energy curves to
yield the equivalent costs for the 96 hours period.
Also included in the simulation is the costing of a mains-powered
equivalent air-conditioning unit. A 500W unit has been simulated
for this purpose, and the costs are superimposed over the solar-
powered unit’s costs for comparison. The configuration of the
system to simulate these outputs is shown in the figure below.
Figure 7.18: Configuration of equivalent energy costing
7.4 PRELIMINARY LOAD TESTING
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The objective of the initial simulations was to test the maximum
allowable load current and power that could be utilised to run both the
77
water pump and the fan motor under various scenarios. As the fan
motor had not been purchased at the time, it was necessary to first
estimate the maximum power that the motor could draw so that a
suitable motor could be selected.
The following assumptions were made about the final system:
 In order to power this system, four 60W BP solar cells would be
used to give a total input power of approximately 240W.
However, that figure is under STC conditions and the expected
output will be slightly less.
 The system will utilise a 12V 150Ah gel deep-cycle battery.
 The water pump was rated at 1.3A constant.
 The average usage of the air-conditioner on a hot summer’s
day would be eight hours. The approximate usage times would be
from 11am until 7pm.
From these assumptions, the system could be simulated to determine
the maximum loading possible, and hence a maximum power rating
for the fan motor determined.
7.4.2 TEST ONE: 8hrs continuous operation
The maximum draw current possible without full battery discharge was
19A, assuming that there is four consecutive days of good irradiation.
78
Therefore the maximum current rating for the fan motor would be 19 -
1.3 = 17.7A. This corresponds to a power rating of,
Prated 17.7 12 212.4W
As shown in the figure below, the battery capacity regains its
maximum value each day under this loading; however any increase
will cause the battery to become discharged over time.
Figure 7.19: Battery capacity over 96 hours
7.4.3 TEST TWO: Failure of one PV
For this simulation the number of parallel modules simulated was 2.25.
This is because 2.25 x 80W modules in parallel yields 180W, which is
the same as 1 failed 60W PV. Once again, the system was tested to
the point where the battery capacity only just regains a maximum
value each day.
79
The maximum draw current possible without full battery discharge
when a PV module fails is 14.7A, again assuming that there is four
consecutive days of good irradiation. Therefore the maximum current
rating for the fan motor would be 14.7 - 1.3 = 13.4A. This corresponds
to a power rating of,
Prated 13.4 12 160.8W
7.4.4 TEST THREE: One cloudy day
As can be seen below, the first day’s irradiation levels have been
simulated at a quarter to simulate a cloudy day. This major factor in
determining the system capability under these conditions is battery
capacity. Since the battery will be receiving very little input power
during the first day of operation, the system will be running off the
battery for eight hours. The battery level should not fall below a depth
of discharge of 60% in order to not damage the battery. Therefore it
should not fall below,
150 - 0.6 x 150 = 150 – 90 = 60Ah
80
[0 0 0 0 0 13.5 68.5 94 109.9 116.9 122 123.8 125.5 125.1 123.5

118.4 105.4 84.3 26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 548 752 879 935 976 990
1004 1001 988 947 843 674 208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 548 752 879
935 976 990 1004 1001 988 947 843 674 208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108
548 752 879 935 976 990 1004 1001 988 947 843 674 208 0 0 0 0 0]
Figure 7.21: Irradiance graph with initial cloudy day
Figure 7.22: Battery Capacity with cloudy day and 150Ah

battery
This simulation showed that 12.7A can still be drawn from the battery
on a cloudy day and the system will still recover and not cause
damage to the battery. This corresponds to a power rating of,
Prated 12.7 12 152.4W
81
To test the necessity of a battery with such a high amp-hour rating, a
simulation was run using an 110Ah battery instead of 150Ah. Again
the maximum state of charge was,
110 – 0.6 x 110 = 44Ah
Figure 7.23: Battery Capacity with cloudy day and 110Ah

battery
This simulation showed that 9.7A can still be drawn from the battery
on a cloudy day and the system will still recover and not cause
damage to the battery. From this, it can be seen that a higher amp-
hour rated battery is required to extend the usabili ty of the air-
conditioning system.
7.4.5 PRELIMINARY SIMULATION CONCLUSIONS
From these three tests, a motor was chosen such that the maximum
output power could be gained, but the total load current was less than
the smallest maximum load current that met all three criteria. These
results have shown that the system should be successful even in the
event of a failure or lack of irradiation due to a cloudy day. So long as
82
the constant power draw of the fan motor does not exceed 152W, then
the system should work perfectly.
Tests revealed that there is very little difference in running the system
intermittently or constantly. So long as the current draw is no greater
than that which is being fed back into the system by the PV array
during the day, then the system will continue to operate. Even if there
is a cloudy day, 12.7A can still be drawn from a 150Ah battery for the
8 hours without damage being caused due to over discharging.
During simulations, the maximum load current was determined at the
point where the system can recover to a battery capacity equal to or
higher than the previous day. However, the system may actually be
loaded higher if the unit is not used on every one of the four days or if
it is used for less than eight on a particular day. If the system has time
to recover battery capacity then the maximum load current allowable
will be greater. It is unlikely that the system will be used for 8 hours a
day, for four consecutive days, and therefore higher load currents may
be drawn by the system if it is only used intermittently.
7.5 12V PROTOTYPE SYSTEM TESTING
7.5.1 INTRODUCTION
From these preceding simulations a motor was chosen that should
have yielded a sufficient torque output below a rated current of
approximately 11.4A. The motor chosen was an EMP 250W 30V
83
permanent magnet DC motor rated at 10A continuous and 2000rpm.
This was tested on the prototype under different pulley arrangements
and varied input voltage. This is documented in Chapter Eight.
Simulations were then run on the model, based on the resultant
operating current. The approximate total current draw of the fan motor
and pump is,
8.7 + 1.3 = 10.0A
This value was then simulated under different scenarios to determine
the extent to which the air-conditioner should be capable of operating.
Figure 7.24: Load current profile over 96 hours
From the system costing analysis in Section 9.2, the decision was to
use two BP380 80W cells to power the 12V system.
7.5.2 TEST ONE: 8hrs continuous operation
The system was simulated for eight hour daily usage and under
average irradiation and temperature. The battery capacity did not fall
below approximately 90% SOC and is therefore very capable of
maintaining this normal operation.
84
The energy balance showed that the system has ample generated
energy from the PV modules. The energy consumed is always lower
than the energy generated over the 96 hour period, and so the net
energy curve is ever increasing.
Figure 7.25: Energy balance over 96 hours
Figure 7.26: Total energy generated and consumed over 96

hours
85
The equivalent energy costing curve indicates that the system energy
will cost $2.23 less to run than a mains-powered unit, and the energy
generated by the PV array over the 96 hours period has an equivalent
value of $0.60.
Figure 7.27: Equivalent energy costing over 96 hours
Figure 7.28: Total energy costing over 96 hours
This simulation shows that the system would be very capable of 8
hour continuous operation so long as there is average irradiance and
temperature experienced.
7.5.3 TEST TWO: Maximum daily usage
The usability of the solar air-conditioning unit should be closely
comparable to a mains powered unit in order to be feasible. Therefore
it should also be capable of extended usage on an extremely hot day.
This loading characteristic was then tested.
86
It was found that the maximum daily usage is ten hours, rounded to
the nearest hour. The following figures show the battery capacity
curves for 11 hours usage and 10 hour usage respectively. It can be
seen that during 11 hour usage, the battery capacity falls away each
day and the system would not be able to maintain the demand.
However, under the 10 hour loading, the battery capacity is restored to
maximum capacity each day and the system would be capable of
maintaining this loading so long as the irradiation levels do not
change.
Figure 7.29: Battery capacity if run for 11 hours per day
Figure 7.30: Battery capacity if run for 10 hours per day
87
Since the loading period is at a maximum, the difference between the
energy generated and consumed becomes very small. Surplus energy in
the system is small as the system is near optimum performance.

hours
Consequently, the cost of energy generated and consumed is also
very similar. However, since the loading profile is longer than usual,
the cost of the equivalent mains-powered unit also increases and the
cost benefits of the system are consequently greater.
88
7.5.4 TEST THREE: Failure of one PV
If one of the PV modules were to fail, and the system only received
half the generated power the system would not be able to maintain
normal loading. The array power would halve due to the loss of the
module, as shown in the figure below.
Figure 7.35: Array Power over 96 hours
Since the energy consumed by the system is greater than that
generated by one module, the battery capacity would drop over the
period of a few days.
89
Consequently, the energy consumed can be seen in the figure below
to be greater than the energy generated. Also, the negative surplus
energy indicates that the battery is being discharged.

hours
Since the generation of energy has halved, the cost of the energy
generated has also halved. However, the cost of energy consumed
remains the same as before since the load has not altered.
90
This simulation has shown that the failure of one PV module will cause a
dramatic effect on the usability of the system. The loading profile will
need to be altered in order to maintain system stability. However, as PV
modules are inherently reliable and low maintenance, this issue should
never occur in most systems.
7.5.5 TEST FOUR: One cloudy day
The irradiation levels were limited to a quarter of a sunny day’s to
simulate a cloudy day. An occasional fully cloudy day is likely to occur
even in the summer months. For this reason, the system should be
capable of operating under these conditions. The array power
consequently drops dramatically during the period of poor irradiation,
as shown in the figure below.
91
Figure 7.41: Array power over 96 hours
The simulations found that the sizing of the battery was substantial
enough to allow normal loading even on a cloudy day. The battery is
used to power the system during the period of poor irradiation and falls
to just about half capacity. At this point it is recharged, assuming that
the following day has good irradiation levels. As can be seen in the
figure below, the system takes several days to recover full battery
capacity, whilst maintaining the load the entire time.
The energy balance shows that the energy consumed by the system is
greater than the energy generated for almost all of the 96 hour period;
92
however, the battery supplies the extra energy required by the system,
as represented by the negative nature of the surplus energy curve.

hours
Once again, energy costing indicated that the cost of energy
generated and consumed is almost identical over the 96 hour period.
93
7.5.6 CONCLUSIONS / FINDINGS
Simulink simulations have shown that the system is easily capable of
operating under normal conditions for eight hours. Assuming these
conditions, it can be used to a maximum of ten hours per day without
causing the battery to excessively discharge. Furthermore, it is also
capable of operating even after a cloudy day. However, if two
consecutive cloudy days are experienced, then the system loading will
be required to be decreased or the battery will fully discharge. The
failure of a PV module will also cause the battery to fully discharge
unless the loading is decreased. These simulations have shown that
the system is more than capable of maintaining normal summer
operating conditions and that the prototype is feasible. Further
simulation results for this system are shown in Appendix H.
94
8.0 PROTOTYPE MODEL
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A prototype model of the solar-powered evaporative air-conditioner was
constructed based on the system sizing that had been conducted. The
prototype was then tested to determine its performance characteristics.
This chapter details the construction and testing of the prototype system.
Problems were encountered with completing the prototype due to the
cooling pads and frames being stolen from the university. Due to the
limitation of time and money in this project, this posed a crucial problem.
Replacement pads and frames of affordable cost could not be found and
as such a makeshift replacement had to be implemented. This
replacement is also documented in this chapter.
8.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The prototype system was connected as shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Prototype system configuration
95
8.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS
8.3.1 BREEZAIR EA70 AIR-CONDITIONING UNIT
A second-hand mains-powered air conditioner was purchased for the
purpose of modifying it to operate from DC power rather than AC
power. The unit was a medium size roof -mounted evaporative
system, with a centrifugal fan and three cooling pads. The objective
was to replace the existing AC motor and pump with DC equivalents,
such that the output of the system would be comparable with the
original.
Figure 8.2: A similar original evaporative system (Seeley

International, 2004)
Figure 8.3: A similar centrifugal fan (Seeley International, 2004)
8.3.2 WATER PUMP
The original AC water pump was replaced by a similar DC equivalent.
Due to monetary constraints, the pump that was used in the original
96
room evaporative air-conditioner was utilised. This was a Flojet 12V
Water Pump that can displace 4.5L/min. The original AC pump
featured a Tornado 230V/50Hz 2-pole synchronous type motor
(Seeley International, 2004). This pump was capable of pumping
11L/min, and ideally this characteristic should be matched by the
replacement DC pump. However, since the current draw from this
pump was 1.3A and is relatively inefficient, this would simulate a more
efficient pump that can displace more water. The reduced water flow
would only have a small effect on the operation of the system, and
since the cooling pads require replacement, a lesser flow is m ore
appropriate. There are other pumps in the market that would be more
suitable, but for the purpose of this prototype it is acceptable.
Figure 8.4: The original Tornado AC water pump (Seeley

International, 2004)
Figure 8.5: The replacement Flojet 12VDC water pump
97
8.3.3 FAN MOTOR
The original fan motor was a Brook Crompton Parkinson 550W single-
phase induction motor with a rated speed of 2500rpm. The centrifugal
fan was connected to the motor by a belt drive and operated at 300-
500rpm (low/high).
Figure 8.6: The old fan motor
The new motor chosen for the system was an EMP 30VDC 250W
permanent magnet motor. The motor is rated at 2000rpm at 30VDC
with a 10A continuous rating. Since the motor would be powered by
12V, it will operate at a fraction of the rated speed. This motor is not
the most ideal for the situation, however due to the 30VDC rating; it
allows different operating voltages to be tested. Also, different pulley
sizes can be used to vary the fan speed.
98
Figure 8.7: The new DC fan motor
8.3.4 BATTERY
The prototype system was tested with a 12V 150Ah Gel Cel deep
cycle battery. The loads were connected in parallel with the battery,
and a charge regulator used to protect it from overcharge. Since the
system voltage would then be locked to the battery voltage, no MPPT
is required in the system. The MPP of the PV modules is very close to
this voltage and therefore there is minimal benefit in adding an MPPT.
Figure 8.8: The 12V 150Ah Gel Cell Battery used in the
prototype system
99
8.3.5 SOLAR MODULES
Four BPSX60 60W solar modules were utilised in the testing of the
prototype system. They were connected in parallel to achieve the 12V
desired output. They were tilted at an angle of 30 degrees, rather than
the summer optimum of 22 degrees. The prototype test could not be
run all day since the power output of the array is affected by shading
from neighbouring buildings in the late afternoon. This should not be
the case in a residentially implemented system.
Figure 8.9: The BPSX60 60W module array
8.3.6 CHARGE REGULATOR
A 12/24V 35A Trace Engineering charge/load regulator was used in
the prototype system. This charge regulator used a three stage pulse
width modulated method for charge control. This was connected in
series with the PV array to control the charge of the battery. However,
it was not used to disconnect the load if the battery capacity fell too
low. This will be controlled only by the main air-conditioner on/off
switch.
100
8.4 BELT DRIVES AND PULLEYS
8.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The original system utilised a V-belt drive to link the fan motor and the
centrifugal fan. A major aspect in the construction of the prototype
was the selection of an appropriate motor pulley size. The speed of
the motor was required to be stepped down to a suitable fan operating
speed. The optimum speed that was desired was around 500rpm and
so this was set as the target to achieve. The pulley size on the fan
was fixed as this was too hard to replace, due to its size and the
nature of its attachment to the shaft. This pulley was 232mm in
diameter, and so using this figure, a suitable fan pulley size could be
determined.
Figure 8.10: Fan and motor pulleys connected by a V-belt drive
The fan motor would operate at an approximate no-load speed of,
Voperating
noperating  nrated
Vrated
101
12V
noperating  2000 800rpm
30V
This rotational speed is then required to be stepped down to the
required operating speed of 500rpm.
8.4.2 PULLEY SELECTION
The pulley ratio required to achieve this is,
800
Ratio pulley  1.6 :1
500
Since the fan pulley is fixed at 232mm in diameter, the required motor
pulley diameter will be,
232
145mm
1.6
This motor pulley size was implemented and tested. However, it was
found that the current drawn by the motor was 16.7A, which is well in
excess of the rated current of 10A. An alternative pulley size had to
be chosen that would limit the current to less than 10A, whilst
maximising the fan speed. A variety of different pulley sizes were
tested to ascertain the optimum diameter. These are shown in the
figure below.
Figure 8.11: Various size pulleys tested
102
The pulley variations were tested initially on a 12V system, but also on
a 24V system. A 24V system would require a smaller motor pulley to
yield the desired fan speed. A problem arose whereby the motor
became highly loaded due to the tension of the V-belt. The V-belt was
re qu ire d t o be e xt re m e ly t igh t in o rder t o b en d a ro un d th e
circumference of the small motor pulleys. This added extra loading on
the motor and therefore a higher load current was experienced. The
24V system was not tested any further since the required fan speed
would not be able to be achieved. The results from the pulley
variations are shown in the table following.
Table 8.1: The effect of pulley size on load current and speed
Motor Motor Fan
Pulley Pulley Battery Load speed speed
Size Voltage Current
(mm) Ratio (V) (A) (rpm) (rpm)
12V
75 3.09:1 13.3 6.8 835 27
91 2.55:1 12.7 7.3 709 27.8
115 2.02:1 12.65 10.8 667 33
150 1.55:1 12.7 16.7 570 36.8

24V
75 3.09:1 25.1 16 1452 470
91 2.55:1 25.1 7.9 740 290
From these results, an approximate pulley size for a 12V system could
be determined that would result in optimum fan speed whilst remaining
below the rated current. Appendix B shows the graph of these results
and shows the selected pulley size, the theoretical fan speed and the
load current. From this it was clear that a pulley size of 110mm would
be optimal and would result in a fan speed of approximately 320rpm.
A 108mm pulley was selected for the unit as this was the closest size
103
available. This pulley selection proved correct, with the fan speed at
326rpm and the load current below rated at 9.7A.
8.5 PROTOTYPE CONSTRUCTION
The selected 108mm motor pulley was attached to the fan motor and a
suitable length V-belt was used to connect it to the centrifugal fan. The
motor position was then adjusted to give a suitable tension on the belt.
The water pump was mounted to the side of the fan housing to ensure
that it was in a semi-dry position. Hosing was then attached, with one
end inserted into the water sump and the other to the water distribution
system in the unit’s roof. The electrical wiring was then attached to both
the fan motor and the water pump and ducted out of the unit. Shade cloth
was then used as a replacement for the absent cooling pads, such that
the water would have a surface to flow down and into the water sump.
Shade cloth was chosen as the most appropriate alternative since it is
easily malleable and allows airflow through it. The completed air -
conditioning unit is shown in the figure below.
Figure 8.12: The completed prototype with air duct and

“cooling pads”
104
8.6 FULL PROTOTYPE SYSTEM TESTING
8.6.1 INTRODUCTION
The system was tested during a partially cloudy day in late April for a
period of two hours. Due to the lack of proper cooling pads, the
system inherently leaked water and could not be tested for any
extended length of time. The results however were promising and
proved that this system is feasible.
Figure 8.13: The prototype test was run on a partially cloudy

day
8.6.2 FAN SPEED
The desired centrifugal fan speed of 500rpm was not achieved, as the
actual speed ranged from 325-350 rpm. Event thought the system
was utilising a battery, a 25rpm variation was experienced. This is due
to the battery voltage varying slightly due to the instantaneous
irradiation levels. This can be seen in Appendix C and D.
105
8.6.3 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE
The results of the prototype test with four BPSX60 60W PV modules
can be viewed in Appendix A. The graph of this test can be viewed in
Appendix D.
The results of the prototype test with three BPSX60 60W PV modules
can be viewed in Appendix A. The graph of this test can be viewed in
Appendix C.
Overall the findings were as follows:
 PV Current – This was found as expected, to be directly
proportional to the instantaneous irradiance. As it can be seen
from the graphs, the PV current strictly follows the irradiance.
 PV and battery Voltage – These two voltages were very similar
to each other as expected. The battery voltage is always
slightly less than the PV voltage however, due to the charge
regulator ensuring that the charging voltage is slightly higher
than normal voltage. These voltages dip slightly upon low
irradiation levels; however they quickly recover when direct
sunlight returns.
 Load Current – The load current was approximately constant at
10A for the entire test, and had a maximum deviation of 0.5A.
This varied with direct respect to the instantaneous irradiation.
106
 Battery Charge – The rate of discharge and charge of the
battery can be viewed by comparing the load current and the
PV current. The battery charging current will be,
Icharging I PV Iload
The PV current is above the load current approximately 50% of
the sampled time, and can therefore be seen to be maintaining
a constant charge. However, under direct sunlight and during
the summer months, the charging rate would be much higher.
8.6.4 AIR SPEED AND COOLING PERFORMANCE
The output air speed was measured with an anemometer. Five
measurements were taken at different sections of the duct to give a
more accurate result.
Figure 8.14: Output air speed at different locations of the

output ducting
The resulting average air speed was,
3.9 3.8 5.0 4.6 4.5

Air speedave  4.36m/s
5
107
Since the output ducting is 0.4m by 0.355m, the cross-sectional area
is,
Acrosssection 0.400 0.355 0.142m

2
The system therefore outputs,
Air output 0.142 4.36 0.619m / s

3
In terms of output per minute this is,
Air output 0.619 60 37.15m / min

3
This method of output estimation is quite primitive and so a relative
comparison to the original unit needs to be established. Since the
original unit was designed to cool an area of around 150m3, it should
be able to output this quantity of air per minute. Using the same
methodology as previously, a unit with centrifugal fan running at
500rpm would have an output of,
500 3
Air output500rpm  37.15 57.15m / min
325
The equivalent output of the solar-powered unit will be approximately,
150 3 3
Air outputEquiv  37.15 98.42m / min 100m / min
57.15
Therefore, the solar-powered 12V system is only outputting
approximately two-thirds that of the original mains-powered unit.
However, this would still be capable of cooling a small house or two to
three large rooms.
108
9.0 FEASIBILITY STUDY
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Perth is an ideal location for a solar-powered air-conditioner. The load
profile in the summer months is almost identical to the irradiation profile.
During summer Perth commonly experiences days where the irradiation
levels are above 1000W/m2, thus making it an ideal location for a solar
power installation. With the power crisis of recent summers still in
people’s minds, and the ever increasing trend of converting to green
power, there is a great opportunity to market this system. This chapter
details the cost of setting up such a system in Perth, and analyses its
economic viability.
9.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS
9.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The two alternative systems will be discussed in regard to cost
estimation. The cost of the prototype 12V system will be discussed,
as well as the theoretical cost for a 24V system if it were to be
implemented.
9.2.2 12V SYSTEM
A 12V evaporative air-conditioning system will consist of a 12V Flojet
water pump, a 250W 30VDC EMP fan motor, a 150Ah 12V gel cell
deep cycle battery, and either three BPSX60 60W or two BP380 80W
PV modules.
109
9.2.3 24V SYSTEM
A 24V evaporative air-conditioning system will consist of a 24V Shurflo
water pump, a 250W 30VDC EMP fan motor, two 150Ah 12V gel cell
deep cycle batteries, and either five BPSX60 60W or four BP380 80W
PV modules.
9.3 SYSTEM COSTING
9.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The 12V system is far more economically viable than the 24V system
as it requires less PV modules. However, it doesn’t output as much
cooling power as the 24V system would.
9.3.2 12V SYSTEM
For the implementation of the 12V system, the capital cost for the
system will be between $2692 and $2932. The system can be
implemented at the minimal cost of $2692 using two BP380 80W PV
modules. The additional $240 to implement an extra 20W of power
using BPSX60 modules is not economically viable. The reasoning
behind this can be seen if the value of the module is considered as a
cost per Watt of power.
One BPSX60 60 W PV module costs $530, and so the cost per Watt
is:
$530
$8.33 /W
60
110
Therefore 20W of power would have a theoretical value of:
$8.33/W 20W $166.66
This is much less than the $240 that would otherwise have to be paid
to achieve the additional 20W of power.
The itemised costing for the 12V system is shown in the table below.
Table 9.1: Itemised costing of 12V system

Item Qty Unit Cost Total
BPSX60 60W Solar Panels 3 $530.00 $1,590.00
or
BP380 80W Solar Panels 2 $675.00 $1,350.00
Air-conditioning base unit 1 $100.00 $100.00
EMP 30VDC 250W Fan Motor 1 $550.00 $550.00
Flojet 12V Water Pump 1 $110.00 $110.00
12V 150Ah Deep Cycle Battery 1 $450.00 $450.00
WPA 12V 20A Charge Regulator 1 $132.00 $132.00
Total Cost: $2692-$2932
(Prices sourced from retailer websites: http://www.shurflo.com; http://www.solazone.com;
http://www.solarvalley.com.au; http://www.4lots.com; http://www.thesustainablevillage.com)
9.3.3 24V SYSTEM
The 24V system has a capital cost of between $4468 and $4518. This
system will operate with greater performance than the 12V system, but
will have an initial cost $1826 greater. An additional 20W of power
can be achieved by utilising four BP380 PV modules; however this will
cost an additional $50. Once again, the decision on PV module
choice can be made based on the cost per Watt equivalent.
Once again, 20W of power would have a theoretical value of:
$8.33/W 20W $166.66
111
This is far more than the $50 that would otherwise have to be paid to
achieve the additional 20W of power. Therefore the option to pay an
extra $50 for four BP380 PV modules would be more beneficial.
The itemised costing for the 24V system is shown in the table
following.
Table 9.2: Itemised costing of 24V system

Unit
Item Qty Cost Total
BPSX60 60W Solar Panels 5 $530 $2,650
or
BP380 80W Solar Panels 4 $675.00 $2,700.00
Air-conditioning base unit 1 $100 $100
EMP 30VDC 250W Fan Motor 1 $550 $550
Shurflo 24 V Water Pump 1 $136 $136
12V 150Ah Deep Cycle Battery 2 $450 $900
WPA 24V 20A Charge Regulator 1 $132 $132
Total $4468-
Cost: $4518
(Prices sourced from retailer websites: http://www.shurflo.com; http://www.solazone.com;
http://www.solarvalley.com.au; http://www.4lots.com; http://www.thesustainablevillage.com)
From this costing analysis, it can be seen that the opt imum 12V
system will cost $2692. The optimum 24V system will cost $4518.
9.4 PAYBACK PERIOD
9.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The economical viability of the system can be determined by
assessing its pay back period. This is the time that is required to pay
back the initial capital cost with the savings that the system produces.
112
9.4.2 12V SYSTEM
T h e p o we r co n su m p t io n o f t h e 1 2 V s yst e m o ve r 4 d a ys is
4.307kWhrs. This is equivalent to,
4.307
1077Whrs / day 1.077kWhrs / day
4
Assuming that the Western Power A1 Tariff, the cost per kWhr of
electricity is 13.94 cents, the cost of the power consumption per day
will be,
1.077kWhrs 13.94 15.01cents / day
The capital cost of implementing the 12V system is $2692. Therefore
the payback period is,
2692
17934days
0.1501
Assuming the unit is only used approximately 90 days per year over
the summer months, this would equate to,
17934
199.3years
90
From this analysis, it is clear that the unit will never recover its capital
costs in the life of the air-conditioning unit. However, the system
should be assessed by means of a different pay back analysis.
Since the system would be chosen over a mains-powered unit, a pay
back analysis should be conducted on the time it would take to pay
back the difference in cost between the two systems. Therefore, a
comparison needs to be made against the cost of a similar sized air-
conditioning unit. A similar unit would cost approximately $2500
113
(Bintec Pty Ltd, 2002). A comparison can be achieved by calculating
the average yearly cost of both systems. This will include capital
costs, operating cost and maintenance costs. For the purpose of
comparing the units on the basis of solar-power versus mains-power,
general air-conditioning maintenance cost have not been included as
this would be standard for both systems.
Figure 9.1: Equivalent cost per year compared to mains-powered

unit
A table of these costs can be viewed in Appendix I. It is assumed that
the average operating cost of an equivalent mains-powered unit is,
0.5kW 8 0.1394 $0.5576/day
Therefore the cost per year for operating for 90 days during the
summer months would be,
$0.5576/day 90 $50.18 / year
Therefore, the operating cost for a mains-powered unit is estimated to
be $50 per year. The operating cost of the solar-powered unit is nil,
114
however it requires replacement of the battery approximately every
five years.
By this cost analysis it can seen that the solar-powered unit becomes
th
cheaper on an average total cost per year basis at the 17 year.
9.4.3 24V SYSTEM
The power savings of the 24V system would be greater than that of
the 12V system; however the capital costs are much higher. The
resultant pay back period would be far greater than the 12V system.
9.5 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Further reduction in the pay back period could hypothetically be achieved
by selling excess energy back into the electricity grid. Since the load
would be zero in months other than summer, this energy is unused. This
energy could be utilised to help pay back the system costs faster.
However, the cost involved in the set up of such a grid connection would
be far too high to make it feasible for a small system such as this one.
Therefore, no analysis will be conducted on the revenue that could be
generated from such a system.
Ultimately the solar-powered evaporative air-conditioning unit is a stand-
alone, green alternative to regular mains-powered units. It would be
targeted at customers who have no grid connection, those who want more
115
reliability in their cooling demand, and/or those who wish to make a
commitment to a cleaner future.
9.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
A comparison of the greenhouse emissions of the solar and mains-
powered unit will show that the solar unit is far superior in an
environmental analysis. Neglecting the emissions and energy required in
manufacturing the units, the two units have been compared on several
factors. Firstly a comparison of the amount of coal required to produce
the required electrical energy was conducted. To produce 1kWh of
electricity, 0.461kg of coal is required to be burnt. Secondly, the amount
of greenhouse gases produced was compared. For simplicity,
greenhouse gases can be lumped together in a single measure of CO2
equivalent emissions, referred to as CO2e (Western Power, 2002). For
example, 1kg of Methane (CH4) produced converts to an equivalent of
21kg of CO2e.
The solar powered unit does not require any coal to be burnt and hence
does not produce any greenhouse emissions. Contrary to this is the
mains-powered unit which consumes,
0.5kW 8 90 360kWh/year.
This equates to,
360kWh 0.461kg 165.96kg of coal/year.
Since 1.114kg of CO2e is produced for 1kWh of electricity, this equates
to,
116
360kWh 1.114kg 401.4kg of CO2 gas/year.
The environmental benefits of the solar unit are therefore significant over
the life of the unit. A graph of these values over 20 years can be viewed
in below.
Figure 9.2: Coal and CO2e emissions saved by use of solar

system
117
10.0 CONCLUSION
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The solar-powered evaporative air-conditioning unit has been found to be
a very feasible concept. W hilst the prototype system tested was
successful in operation, it did not perform to the desired performance
level. Various changes to the design can be made to give the system far
better performance.
The 12V prototype system was capable of outputting sufficient cooling for
two to three rooms. This fell short of the desire to cool an entire
household.
10.2 SYSTEM LIMITATIONS
10.2.1 INTRODUCTION
There were several limiting factors that resulted in the mediocre
performance of the prototype system.
10.2.2 BELT DRIVE LIMITATIONS
The major limiting factor encountered was that of the belt drive. Since
the original mains-powered air-conditioner had a much more powerful
fan motor, the type of belt and pulley system utilised did not required
high efficiency. Due to the constraints of the solar-powered system,
the conversion of electrical to mechanical power is required to be as
high as possible. The prototype system used an A-section V-belt drive
to connect the fan motor to the centrifugal fan. V-belt drives are a
118
relatively inefficient means of delivering power to the load. The
problem occurs due to the inflexible nature of their construction, which
restricts their ability to bend around small pulleys. The additional
loading causes the motor to operate above rated torque and the
current is consequently too high. A larger pulley size was therefore
utilised in the prototype system, which restricted the centrifugal fan
speed to only 325-350rpm.
10.2.3 TESTING LIMITATIONS
The testing of the prototype system was limited due to the absence of
appropriate cooling pads. This meant that the system could not be run
for any extended length of time due to water leakage. It was sufficient
however to show that the electrical performance of the system is more
than capable of the desired operation.
10.3 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
The attractiveness of solar EAC depends largely on the availability and
cost of electric power. Power generated by PVs may cost $0.32/kWh or
more, compared with $0.1394/kWh for power from the grid. PV systems
are most likely to be cost effective where grid power does not yet reach.
Nevertheless, the solar-powered evaporative air-conditioning is a
technology that can be very useful and efficient in such circumstances.
The unit has a relatively comparable price to that of a mains-powered
unit. If the system was to be developed in a similar manner to that of the
119
prototype unit, whereby an old AC system is converted to DC, then the
cost is minimal. However, if the unit were to be manufactured on a large
scale and a mark-up placed on the system costs, then the unit may not be
as economically attractive to the consumer. The prototype system
constructed costs slightly more than that of an equivalent mains-powered
unit. The economic feasibility is sufficient that consumers searching for a
green alternative or a stand alone air-conditioning system that is
independent from the electricity grid would be attracted to the unit.
10.4 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
10.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Further improvements will be able to be made to the design to improve
the unit’s performance.
10.4.2 HYBRID SYSTEM
An investigation into the use of a hybrid system could be performed,
for periods of poor solar radiation. The unit could easily be connected
to the grid to top up battery levels if they fall below the required level
because of poor solar power output. Simulations can be run with solar
radiation levels and ambient temperatures from a winter month to
further determine the unit’s capabilities.
10.4.3 SYSTEM VOLTAGE
The system voltage utilised should be 24V rather than the 12V tested
with the prototype. This will allow the fan motor to be used to a higher
120
performance level, and increase the centrifugal fan speed to the
desired 500rpm. The system would require two 12V batteries and as
such would increase system costs. The 24V system would require an
smaller pulley on the fan motor and as such an alternative belt drive
will be required to be used.
10.4.4 BELT DRIVE
The belt should be a tooth drive rather than a V -drive. This will
decrease the additional load that the drive applies on the fan motor.
Tooth drives are more flexible and do not require much tension to
prevent the belt from slipping. They are therefore more efficient and
are capable of use on small pulleys.
10.4.5 WATER PUMP
The performance of the Flojet water pump was sufficient for the testing
of the prototype system. However, the current draw from the pump
was relatively high in comparison to similar flow rate pumps. Other
pumps with 4.5L/min rating could be sourced that have about half the
power rating. The water pump in the solar unit should be equivalent in
performance to a mains-powered unit. Therefore a flow rate of
11L/min would be desired. These are available, with rated current
similar to the existing Flojet pump.
121
Alternatively, the pump could be driven from the fan motor. This
would decrease the load current and increase the efficiency of the
system.
10.4.6 FAN MOTOR
A fan motor that has an optimised speed at the system voltage will
increase the performance of the unit. The prototype fan motor was
rated at 30VDC, whilst the system voltage was only 40% of this value.
Optimum performance of the motor could therefore not be achieved.
10.4.7 FAN TYPE
The unit design should be altered such that a large axial fan can be
utilised rather than a centrifugal fan. Axial fans are more efficient
since they are a direct drive from the motor. The efficiency
improvement would be quite substantial.
122
11.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arizona Solar Center, 2005, Nickel-Cadmium batteries. Retrieved:

May 3, 2005, from
http://www.azsolarcenter.com/technology/batteries/pdfs/ch4.pdf.
Bintec Pty Ltd., 2002, Airconditioners. Retrieved May 17, 2005, from
http://www.thisplace.com.au/priceguide/aircond.htm.
Blanchard, C., 2003, How An Evaporative Cooler Works. Retrieved:

May 9, 2005, from
http://www.coolmax.mx.com.au/evapcool/evapopn.htm.
Bom, G., Foster, R., Dijkstra, E., Tummer-s, A., 1999, World bank
technical paper No. 421, Evaporative Air-Conditioning Applications for
Environmentally Friendly Cooling. Retrieved: February 26, 2005, from
www.worldbank.org.
Breezair, 2004, Cost calculator. Retrieved: September 14, 2004, from

http://www.breezair.com.au/calculator.html.
Center for Innovation in Product Development, Understanding DC

motor characteristics. Retrieved: May 12, 2005, from
http://lancet.mit.edu/motors/motors3.html.
Dartnell, J., 2005, Air conditioning. Retrieved: May 9, 2005, from

http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/~johnd.
Electric Motor Products Pty Ltd, DC motors and gears. Retrieved:

March 23, 2005, from http://www.emppl.com.au.
EPI Inc, 2004, Properties of belt drives. Retrieved: May 21, 2005, from
http://www.epi-eng.com/BAS-BeltDrives.htm.
Globe Motors, 2005, DC motors. Retrieved: May 21, 2005, from

http://www.globe-motors.com/dc_motor.pdf.
Lawrance, W., 2005, Renewable Energy Principles - Introduction to

Maximum Power Point Tracking in Photovoltaic Systems, Curtin
University of Technology, Perth.
Lawrance, W., 2005, Renewable Energy Principles - Simulation

Laboratory 2, Curtin University of Technology, Perth.
Lawrance, W., Wichert, B., 1994, ‘A Versatile PV Module Simulation

Model based on PSI/e’, Solar Energy, vol 52, no. 2, pp. 191-195.
123
Leading Outdoor Technology Supply LLC, 2005, Deep cycle batteries.
Retrieved: April 27, 2005, from
http://www.4lots.com/index.asp?PageAction=VIEWPROD&ProdID=86
5.
Mark Ellis and Associates, 2001, Analysis of Potential for Minimum

Energy Performance Standards for Evaporative Air Conditioners.
Retrieved: April 17, 2005, from
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/tech-evapac2001.pdf.
nd
Markvart, T., 2000, Solar Electricity, 2 edn, John Wiley and Sons,
Brisbane.
Monsour, P., 2001, Photovoltaic Power Systems, Brisbane Institute of

TAFE, Brisbane.
Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, Glossary of Solar

Radiation Resource Terms, Dry -bulb temperature Retrieved: May 11,
2005, from, http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/glossary/gloss_d.html.
Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, 2005, Glossary of

Solar Radiation Resource Terms, Wet-bulb temperature. Retrieved:
May 11, 2005, from http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/glossary/gloss_w.html.
Premier Industries Inc, 2005, About evaporative cooling. Retrieved:

May 11, 2005, from http://www.piec.com/page3.htm.
Shurflo LLC, Water pumps. Retrieved: May 6, 2005, from

http://www.shurflo.com/pdf/rv/product_data_sheets/pds-2088-473-
143.pdf.
Seeley International Pty Ltd, 2004, Breezair evaporative air-

conditioning system. Retrieved: September 14, 2004, from
http://www.breezair.com.au/p_icon.html.
Seeley International Pty Ltd, n.d, Tornado Evaporative Cooler Pump

Technical Data.
Solar Valley Electronics, 2005, Solar panel pricing. Retrieved: April 24,
2005, from http://www.solarvalley.com.au/solarpanelspricing.htm.
Solazone, Cables, wiring and accessories. Retrieved: May 11, 2005,

from http://www.solazone.com.au/wiring.htm.
Solazone, Regulators and maximisers. Retrieved: May 11, 2005, from

http://www.solazone.com.au/Regulators.htm.
Sustainable Population Australia Inc., 2004, SPA Newsletter No 61.

Retrieved: March 31, 2005, from
http://www.population.org.au/pressrm/newslet/nl200403.pdf.
124
Sustainable Village, Shurflo water pump prices. Retrieved: April 27,
2005, from
http://www.thesustainablevillage.com/products/catalogs/vol1no1/scree
n/02_SV_2002_Water.pdf.
ThinkQuest, 2005, The history of solar power. Retrieved: April 8, 2005,

from http://library.thinkquest.org/26663/en/4_3_4.html.
Wenham, S., et al, 1995, Applied Photovoltaics, Centre for PV

Devices and Systems, Sydney.
Western Power Corporation, 2002, FAQ's for Earth Friendly.

Retrieved: 26/05/05, from
http://www.westernpower.com.au/html/home/green_energy/home_eart
h_friendly/earth_friendly_faq.html.
Zahedi, A., 1998, Solar Photovoltaic Energy Workshop ’98, Monash

University, Melbourne.
125
12.0 APPENDICES
12.1 APPENDIX A
Prototype Test - 4 PV modules - Run time: 12:50pm - 1:50pm

G PV Battery Load Motor
n (W/m2) V (V) I (A) P (W) V (V) I (A) P (W) I (A) P (W) (rpm)
1 246 12.84 3.17 40.70 12.86 3.12 40.12 10.40 133.74 697
2 990 13.26 12.95 171.72 13.23 11.70 154.79 9.85 130.32 722
3 650 13.26 5.17 68.55 13.12 6.50 85.28 9.79 128.44 701
4 290 13.17 4.64 61.11 13.20 5.65 74.58 9.97 131.60 707
5 190 12.85 2.75 35.34 12.85 3.05 39.19 9.35 120.15 698
6 181 12.83 2.67 34.26 12.83 2.94 37.72 9.30 119.32 700
7 226 12.83 3.19 40.93 12.81 3.20 40.99 9.31 119.26 701
8 908 13.62 12.32 167.80 13.25 13.12 173.84 9.80 129.85 727
9 902 13.88 11.82 164.06 13.49 12.63 170.38 10.02 135.17 738
10 918 14.01 11.06 154.95 13.65 12.35 168.58 10.09 137.73 745
11 947 14.11 11.46 161.70 13.73 12.42 170.53 10.26 140.87 751
12 973 14.13 11.88 167.86 13.76 11.86 163.19 10.32 142.00 752
13 962 14.13 11.34 160.23 13.79 11.38 156.93 10.25 141.35 754
14 988 14.16 11.75 166.38 13.80 11.69 161.32 10.22 141.04 756
15 901 13.90 9.38 130.38 13.69 9.26 126.77 10.08 138.00 743
16 507 13.54 5.90 79.89 13.43 5.62 75.48 9.74 130.81 734
17 891 13.62 10.02 136.47 13.32 9.93 132.27 9.66 128.67 731
18 889 13.69 10.08 138.00 13.40 10.07 134.94 9.81 131.45 737
19 919 13.70 10.11 138.51 13.41 10.11 135.58 9.79 131.28 737
20 270 13.10 4.06 53.19 13.15 3.69 48.52 9.63 126.63 717
21 848 13.45 10.15 136.52 13.16 10.15 133.57 9.65 126.99 724
22 817 13.50 9.15 123.53 13.23 9.75 128.99 9.77 129.26 726
23 805 13.50 9.52 128.52 13.23 9.45 125.02 9.75 128.99 726
Prototype Test - 3 PV modules - Run time: 2:12pm - 2:42pm

G PV Battery Load Motor
n (W/m2) V (V) I (A) P (W) V (V) I (A) P (W) I (A) P (W) (rpm)
1 745 13.05 6.36 83.00 12.90 6.36 82.04 10.34 133.39 706
2 750 13.03 6.46 84.17 12.89 6.46 83.27 10.28 132.51 705
3 751 13.02 6.48 84.37 12.68 6.48 82.17 10.35 131.24 705
4 723 13.01 6.30 81.96 12.87 6.30 81.08 10.28 132.30 704
5 733 13.02 6.34 82.55 12.88 6.34 81.66 10.26 132.15 704
6 712 13.00 6.23 80.99 12.87 6.23 80.18 10.28 132.30 704
7 710 13.01 6.26 81.44 12.87 6.26 80.57 9.58 123.29 706
8 686 13.00 6.10 79.30 12.87 6.10 78.51 9.64 124.07 705
9 668 12.99 5.98 77.68 12.87 5.98 76.96 9.52 122.52 703
10 671 12.99 6.97 90.54 12.87 6.97 89.70 9.56 123.04 704
11 632 12.97 5.68 73.67 12.86 5.68 73.04 9.48 121.91 705
12 646 12.98 5.83 75.67 12.86 5.83 74.97 9.51 122.30 707
13 651 12.98 5.83 75.67 12.86 5.83 74.97 9.57 123.07 705
126
12.2 APPENDIX B
Graph of the effect of Pulley size on load current and speed.
127
12.3 APPENDIX C
Prototype testing results over 1/2hr using 3 BPSX60 modules
128
12.4 APPENDIX D
Prototype testing results over 1hr using 4 BPSX60 modules
129
12.5 APPENDIX E
BPSX60 60W PV module characteristic data
130
12.6 APPENDIX F
Simulink System Schematic
131
12.7 APPENDIX G
Irradiation data
132
Irradiation data
133
Irradiation data
134
Irradiation data
135
Irradiation data
136
12.8 APPENDIX H
TEST ONE: 8hrs continuous operation
 8 hrs operation
 2 BP380 modules
 150Ah battery
 Good irradiation
137
138
TEST TWO: Maximum daily usage
139
140
TEST THREE: Failure of one PV
141
142
TEST FOUR: One cloudy day
 Poor irradiation on the first day
143
12.9 APPENDIX I
144

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Solar-powered Evaporative Air-conditioner

Jeffrey James Snelgar

A thesis submitted for the degree of

An evaporative air-conditioner has been constructed that can operate solely

off solar power. The air-conditioning unit is roof-mounted and designed to be

conventional mains powered air-conditioner can operate, thus making it a

and further possible improvements of the system.

Professor Dr Syed Islam

I am submitting my final year thesis, as to partially satisfy the requirements

This thesis is the documentation of the design, simulation and construction of

This thesis is entirely my own work outside of where acknowledgement is

and advice in the duration of this project.

advice and supply of a suitable air-conditioning unit for the project.

Figure 2.1: Estimated annual sales and stock of EACs in Australia................7

Table 2.1: Available Residential Evaporative Air-Conditioning Units..............9

1.1 THE ENERGY CRISIS AND AIR CONDITIONING

1.1.1 AIR-CONDITIONING DEMAND

Air conditioners are one of the largest consumers of electricity in the

home. The main electrical utility in Perth, Western Australia is Western

Power Corporation. It is estimated by Western Power that up to 40

percent of its baseload power generation on hot days is to supply air-

conditioning demand. In recent years Western Power has failed to

meet the high electricity demand of customers on some of these

the metropolitan area, in which consumers were ordered to refrain

from using air-conditioning altogether. It was stated that:

“Under a special law enforced after an emergency meeting of

homes and offices must not use air-conditioners on specified

fine. Companies face fines of up to $10,000.” (Sustainable

Population Australia Inc., 2004)

This ban covered both refrigerative and evaporative air-conditioning

systems. Due to this crisis in supply, an alternative method of

powering air-conditioning would be greatly beneficial.

1.1.2 ALTERNATIVE POWER

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the main method of

generating electricity has been through the combustion of fossil fuels.

increasingly necessary due to the over -consumption of these

resources. The level of remaining fossil fuels is declining rapidly

their combustion is having on the environment is enormous. These

now be taken to actively use alternative methods of power generation.

emissions of the principle greenhouse gases (CO 2) in Australia and

the world (Zahedi, 1998). Renewable sources of energy have the

potential to meet most of Australia’s demand of energy. Solar cells are

a clean, environmentally friendly method of producing electricity. The

extent of solar cell usage is still relatively small in comparison to fossil

supplying the electricity demand in the future.

Solar powered systems have the following benefits and advantages:

 The power is generated cleanly. There is no harmful emissions

from the production and has no impact on the environment.

 They require very little maintenance. They contain no moving

parts, reducing the problem of wear.

 They are reliable. Systems are generally designed to cope with

worst-case scenarios, such as poor sunlight for several days.

between 20-30 years or longer.

 Excess power generated by the system can be sold back to the

 They are economically friendly, since there is no need to pay a

utility company for the power consumed.

 The operation of the system is silent.

 Power can be generated where it is required without the need

for transmission lines.

 The systems are modular and can be quickly installed.

The one major disadvantage with solar powered systems is:

 There is a large capital cost. Solar cells are relatively