1. Enumerate the normal Ph of important body fluids (eg. Saliva, tears, blood, etc.).

The normal pH of blood running through arteries (large elastic-walled blood vessels that carry blood from the
heart to other parts of the body) is 7.4; the pH of blood in the veins (vessels that transports blood to the heart) is
about 7.35. Normal urine pH averages about 6.0. Saliva has a pH between 6.0 and 7.4. Semen = 7.5

Blood = 7.4

Gastric Juice = 0.7

Urine = 6.0

Pancreatic Juice = 8.1

Cerebrospinal Fluid = 7.3

Saliva = 7.0

2. Give the importance of knowing pH of these fluids in the body.

Essentially every function of the body is dependent on our bodies maintaining a precisely balanced pH in the
blood, and other critical bodily systems. We must remember that the changes in pH do not have to be major.
Most elements of the body have a very definite pH range and slight changes impact chemical reactions both
within and outside the cell. This is why maintenance of pH levels are critical to overall body balance

3. Give 5 examples each of foods that make the body fluids acidic and basic.

Acid forming foods include asparagus, barley, beans (dried), beechnuts, and beef.
Alkaline forming foods include agar, alfalfa (sprouts), almonds, APPLES(apple cider), and
apricots.

4. Explain the carbonic acid buffer system. Why is it considered the most important buffer in our blood?

By far the most important buffer for maintaining acid-base balance in the blood is the carbonic-acid-bicarbonate
buffer. The simultaneous equilibrium reactions of interest are

. (1
)

We are interested in the change in the pH of the blood; therefore, we want an expression for the concentration
of H+ in terms of an equilibrium constant (see blue box, below) and the concentrations of the other species in
the reaction (HCO3-, H2CO3, and CO2).

Review of acid-base concepts

To more clearly show the two equilibrium reactions in the carbonic-acid-bicarbonate buffer, Equation 1 is
rewritten to show the direct involvement of water:
 (10
)

The equilibrium on the left is an acid-base reaction that is written in the reverse format from Equation 3.
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is the acid and water is the base. The conjugate base for H2CO3 is HCO3- (bicarbonate
ion). (Note: To view the three-dimensional structure of HCO3-, consult the Table of Common Ions in the
Periodic Properties tutorial from Chem 151.) Carbonic acid also dissociates rapidly to produce water and carbon
dioxide, as shown in the equilibrium on the right of Equation 10. This second process is not an acid-base
reaction, but it is important to the blood's buffering capacity, as we can see from Equation 11, below.

(11
. )

The derivation for this equation is shown in the yellow box, below. Notice that Equation 11 is in a similar form
to the Henderson-Hasselbach equation presented in the introduction to the Experiment (Equation 16 in the lab
manual). Equation 11 does not meet the strict definition of a Henderson-Hasselbach equation, because this
equation takes into account a non-acid-base reaction (i.e., the dissociation of carbonic acid to carbon dioxide
and water), and the ratio in parentheses is not the concentration ratio of the acid to the conjugate base. However,
the relationship shown in Equation 11 is frequently referred to as the Henderson-Hasselbach equation for the
buffer in physiological applications.

In Equation 11, pK is equal to the negative log of the equilibrium constant, K, for the buffer (Equation 12).

(12
where K=Ka/K2 (from Equation 10). )

This quantity provides an indication of the degree to which HCO3- reacts with H+ (or with H3O+ as written in
Equation 10) to form H2CO3, and subsequently to form CO2 and H2O. In the case of the carbonic-acid-
bicarbonate buffer, pK=6.1 at normal body temperature.

Derivation of the pH Equation for the Carbonic-Acid-Bicarbonate

Buffer

We may begin by defining the equilibrium constant, K1, for the left-hand
reaction in Equation 10, using the Law of Mass Action:

(13
. )

Ka (see Equation 9, above) is the equilibrium constant for the acid-base

reaction that is the reverse of the left-hand reaction in Equation 10. It
follows that the formula for Ka is

(14
. )
 The equilibrium constant, K2, for the right-hand reaction in Equation 10 is
also defined by the Law of Mass Action:

(15
. )

Because the two equilibrium reactions in Equation 10 occur simultaneously,

Equations 14 and 15 can be treated as two simultaneous equations. Solving
for the equilibrium concentration of carbonic acid gives

(16
. )

Rearranging Equation 16 allows us to solve for the equilibrium proton

concentration in terms of the two equilibrium constants and the
concentrations of the other species:

(17
. )

Because we are interested in the pH of the blood, we take the negative log
of both sides of Equation 17:

(18
, )

Recalling the definitions of pH and pK (Equations 2 and 12, above),

Equation 18 can be rewritten using more conventional notation, to give the
relation shown in Equation 11, which is reproduced below:

As shown in Equation 11, the pH of the buffered solution (i.e., the blood) is dependent only on the ratio of the
amount of CO2 present in the blood to the amount of HCO3-(bicarbonate ion) present in the blood (at a given
temperature, so that pK remains constant). This ratio remains relatively constant, because the concentrations
of both buffer components (HCO3- and CO2) are very large, compared to the amount of H+ added to the blood
during normal activities and moderate exercise. When H+ is added to the blood as a result of metabolic
processes, the amount of HCO3- (relative to the amount of CO2) decreases; however, the amount of the change is
tiny compared to the amount of HCO3- present in the blood. This optimal buffering occurs when the pH is
within approximately 1 pH unit from the pK value for the buffering system, i.e., when the pH is between 5.1
and 7.1.

However, the normal blood pH of 7.4 is outside the optimal buffering range; therefore, the addition of protons
to the blood due to strenuous exercise may be too great for the buffer alone to effectively control the pH of the
blood. When this happens, other organs must help control the amounts of CO2 and HCO3- in the blood. The
lungs remove excess CO2 from the blood (helping to raise the pH via shifts in the equilibria in Equation 10), and
the kidneys remove excess HCO3- from the body (helping to lower the pH). The lungs' removal of CO2 from the
blood is somewhat impeded during exercise when the heart rate is very rapid; the blood is pumped through the
capillaries very quickly, and so there is little time in the lungs for carbon dioxide to be exchanged for oxygen.

5. Define the following conditions and give the probable causes of each as well as their possible treatments or
management.

a. Acidosis is a condition in which there is excessive acid in the body fluids. The kidneys
and lungs maintain the balance (proper pH level) of chemicals called acids and bases in
the body. Acidosis occurs when acid builds up or when bicarbonate (a base) is lost.
Acidosis is classified as either respiratory acidosis or metabolic acidosis. Respiratory
acidosis develops when there is too much carbon dioxide (an acid) in the body. This type
of acidosis is usually caused by a decreased ability to remove carbon dioxide from the
body through effective breathing. Other names for respiratory acidosis are hypercapnic
acidosis and carbon dioxide acidosis. Causes of respiratory acidosis include Chest
deformities, such as kyphosis, Chest injuries, Chest muscle weakness, Chronic lung disease, Overuse of
sedative drugs. Metabolic acidosis develops when too much acid is produced or when the kidneys cannot
remove enough acid from the body.

b. Alkalosis is a condition in which the body fluids have excess base (alkali). The kidneys and lungs maintain
the proper balance of chemicals, called acids and bases, in the body. Decreased carbon dioxide (an acid) or
increased bicarbonate (a base) levels make the body too alkaline, a condition called alkalosis. Respiratory
alkalosis is caused by low carbon dioxide levels in the blood. This can be due to Fever, Being at a high altitude,
Lack of oxygen, Liver disease, Lung disease, which causes you to breathe faster (hyperventilate), Salicylate
poisoning. Metabolic alkalosis is caused by too much bicarbonate in the blood. Hypochloremic alkalosis is
caused by an extreme lack or loss of chloride, which can occur with prolonged vomiting. Hypokalemic alkalosis
is caused by the kidneys' response to an extreme lack or loss of potassium, which can occur when people take
certain diuretic medications. Compensated alkalosis occurs when the body returns the acid - base balance to
normal in cases of alkalosis, but bicarbonate and carbon dioxide levels remain abnormal. Symptoms are
Confusion (can progress to stupor or coma), Hand tremor, Lightheadedness, Muscle twitching, Nausea,
vomiting, Numbness or tingling in the face or extremities, Prolonged muscle spasms (tetany). Treatment of
alkalosis depends on finding the specific cause. For alkalosis caused by hyperventilation, breathing into a paper
bag causes you to retain more carbon dioxide and improves the alkalosis. If your oxygen level is low, you may
receive oxygen to help the alkalosis. Some people need medications to correct chemical loss (such as chloride
and potassium). Your health care provider will monitor your vital signs (temperature, pulse, rate of breathing,
blood pressure).