ENGINEERING LETTERS

The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

NUMBER SUBJECT
1 System Calculation
2 Fan Laws and System Curves
3 Understanding Fan Performance Curves
4 Temperature and Altitude Affect Fan Selection
5 Fan Performance - The System Effect
6 Increasing Fan Performance
7 Field Testing of Fan Systems
8 Proper Selection of Pressure Blowers
9 Pneumatic Conveying
10 Fans and Blowers for Combustion Process
11 Selection Criteria for Fan Dampers
12 Fan Acoustics
13 Fan Balance and Vibration
14 Stainless Steel Specifications for Fan Equipment
15 Practical Limits of Spark-Resistant Construction
16 Corrosion-Resistant Coatings for Fan Equipment
17 Coating Surface Preparation Specifications
18 Corrosion Resistance of FRP Fans
19 Design and Construction of nyb FRP Fans
20 Accessories and Construction Modifications for FRP Fans
21 Surface Veil for FRP Fans
22 Integral Motors for Centrifugal Fans
23 Electric Motor Codes and Standards
24 Fundamentals of Steam
25 Industrial Steam Heating Systems
E Miscellaneous Engineering Data
G Engineering Letter Glossary

Click on a Subject to open the corresponding Engineering Letter

 ENGINEERING LETTER
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530
SYSTEM CALCULATION
INTRODUCTION
A fan system is any combination of ductwork, hoods, filters,
louvers, collectors, etc., that relies upon a fan to produce
airflow. When the air moves past each of these components,
resistance is created which must be considered in system
calculations. It is also important to remember that fans are rated
independently of a system and that fan performance will vary
depending upon the accuracy of the system calculations. This
Engineering Letter will explain some of the basic fundamentals
of system design and calculation.
SYSTEM DESIGN
The purpose of the system will dictate the design criteria to be
used. Generally they will fall into one of the following two
categories:
Velocity is typically the primary consideration in dust
collection, dilute pneumatic conveying, fume removal, and
contaminant applications. In these applications, a capture
velocity is required to redirect the flow of airborne materials
into the duct system. In addition, a minimum conveying velocity
is necessary to maintain the flow of the materials within the
system.
Given these velocity requirements, system components can be
selected to maintain the appropriate air volume and required
velocity through the system.
Air Mass is the primary consideration in many drying,
combustion process, and ventilating applications. These
applications generally require a certain amount of air mass,
usually measured in pounds of air, to support the application.
Because fan manufacturers publish fan capacities in actual cubic
feet per minute (ACFM), the mass of air required must be
converted from standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM) to
ACFM.
Figure 1 – Typical System
1
The velocity through a system can be determined once the
ACFM is known. The relationship between velocity and airflow
is defined by the equation:
Q = VA
where: Q = ACFM
V = velocity in lineal feet per minute
A = cross-sectional area in square feet
To determine the airflow requirement, the cross-sectional area is
multiplied by the required velocity.
System design is really a matter of defining the required work in
terms of volume or velocity and then sizing and selecting the
necessary system components to accomplish that work. Of
course, this must be done within the economic and space
constraints of the installation.
DETERMINING SYSTEM RESISTANCE
System resistance is the sum of the resistance through each
component within the system. The system depicted in Figure 1
may appear complex, but dealing with each component
separately provides an orderly process for determining the
overall resistance.
HOOD LOSS
To determine hood or entrance losses, resistance calculations
must be made for both the acceleration loss and the entry loss.
Since the air or atmosphere surrounding the hood must be
accelerated from a state of rest, energy will be required to set
the air in motion. This energy is equal to the velocity pressure at
the entrance to the duct. Assuming the hood in this example
empties into a 7" diameter duct, the required 1165 ACFM
results in a velocity of 4363 FPM:
V=Q÷A where: Q = 1165 CFM
 (3.5 in. radius)2 x 3.1416 The hood in this example is most similar to item 2 in Figure 3.
A = = .267 ft.2
144 in.2 /ft.2 Therefore, the entry loss from atmosphere into the hood is .90
therefore: V = 1165 CFM ÷ .267 ft.2 = 4363 FPM times the entering air velocity pressure at 1000 feet per minute
or:
The velocity pressure (VP) at 4363 FPM is calculated by:
2
VP = ( Velocity 2
4005 ) Entry Loss = .90 x (1000
4005 )
= .06" W.G.

4363 2 This loss could have been reduced to .5 VP by simply adding a

therefore: Acceleration Loss = (4005 )
= 1.19" W.G. flange to the bottom edge of the hood as indicated by item 3 in
The same result can be obtained by interpolating from the data Figure 3.
in Figure 2. The total hood loss in the example is the acceleration loss added
The entry loss of a hood is a function of its efficiency. The to the entry loss:
efficiencies of several common entry conditions are shown in
Hood loss = .06" + 1.19" = 1.25" W.G.
Figure 3. The relative efficiencies are expressed as losses in
percentage of the duct velocity pressure. Consequently, the PRIMARY BRANCH
lowest percentage is actually the most efficient.
The duct loss from the hood to the branch junction can be
Outlet Velocity Outlet Velocity Outlet Velocity determined by using the equivalent length method. This run of
Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure duct includes 62' of 7" diameter duct and one 4 piece 90° elbow
800 .040 2800 .489 4600 1.32 of R/D = 2. According to Figure 4, the elbow has a loss equal to
1000 .063 3000 .560 4800 1.44 12 diameters of 7" duct, or 7'. Thus, the total equivalent length
1200 .090 3200 .638 5000 1.56 of straight duct is 69'.
1400 .122 3400 .721 5200 1.69
1600 .160 3600 .808 5400 1.82
1800 .202 3800 .900 5600 1.95
2000 .250 4000 .998 5800 2.10
2200 .302 4200 1.10 6000 2.24
2400 .360 4400 1.21 6200 2.40
2600 .422
Figure 2 – Acceleration Loss

Figure 4 - Loss in 90° elbows of round cross-section

Chart I on page 4 indicates a 4.0" loss for every 100' of 7"
diameter duct handling 1165 CFM. The loss for this run can be
determined as:
69
Duct Loss = ( 100 ) x 4.0 = 2.76" W.G.
Therefore, the total resistance of the hood branch to the junction
is:
Branch Loss = 1.25" + 2.76" = 4.01" W.G.
SECONDARY BRANCH
A secondary branch is calculated in the same manner as the
main branch. For example, a grinder hood handling 880 CFM
through a 6" pipe results in a velocity of 4500 FPM, which has a
1.26" VP.
According to item 1 in Figure 3, a grinder hood has a .6 VP loss,
so the total hood loss will be:
Figure 3 - Entrance Loss Percentage
Hood Loss = 1.26" + (.60 x 1.26") = 2.02" W.G.

Page 2
The duct branch from the grinder hood to the junction consists Chart II on page 4 indicates a resistance of 3.3" for every 100' of
of 27' of 6" pipe and (2) 4 piece 90° elbows of R/D = 2. With an 9" diameter duct handling 2045 CFM. According to Figure 4 the
equivalent length of 39' (27' + 6' + 6') the duct loss for this run two elbows are equal to another 18' of duct, so the total
is: equivalent length is 68' between the junction and the fan.
39 39
Duct Loss = ( 100 ) x 5.2 = 2.03" W.G. Duct Loss = ( 100 ) x 3.3 = 2.24" W.G.

See Chart I on page 4, which indicates a 5.2" loss for every 100' Note that all the losses to this point, up to the fan inlet, are
of 6" diameter duct handling 880 CFM. expressed as negative pressure. Also that only the branch with
The total resistance of the grinder branch to the junction is: the greatest loss is used in determining the total.

Branch Loss = 2.02" + 2.03" = 4.05" W.G. Therefore:

Note that the resistance in both branches is nearly equal. This is SP inlet = (-4.05") + (-.25") + (-2.24") = -6.54"W.G.
because the pressures in converging branches must be equal Assuming the same size duct from the fan to the collector, the
during operation or the system will automatically equalize by 30’ of duct and the one elbow will have a loss equivalent to the
adjusting the flow different than the design point. If the following:
variation in resistance between any two converging branches
exceeds 5%, further design is required to balance the loss in 39
both branches. Where necessary, balancing can be accomplished
Duct Loss = ( 100 ) x 3.3 + 1.29" W.G.
by altering duct lengths, duct diameters, or air volumes. The pressure drop across the dust collector, like coils or filters,
MAIN DUCT must be obtained from the manufacturer of the device.
Assuming a 2.0" loss for this example, the resistance at the fan
The main duct resistance calculations begin with the selection of outlet is:
the appropriate duct diameter. Assuming a minimum conveying
velocity of 4500 FPM and an airflow requirement of 2045 SP outlet = 1.29" + 2.0" = 3.29" W.G.
ACFM (880 + 1165) in the main, a 9" diameter duct will suffice FAN SELECTION
with a resulting velocity of 4630 FPM.
At this point enough information is known about the system to
The junction itself represents a loss due to the mixing effect of begin fan selection. Because fans are rated independent of a
the converging branches. The ratio of the CFM in the branch system, their ratings include one VP to account for acceleration.
(1165 ÷ 880 = 1.3) can be used to determine the loss in percent Since the system resistance calculations also consider
of VP in the main. Interpolating from the data in Figure 5 results acceleration, fan static pressure can be accurately determined as
in: follows:
4630 2
Junction Loss = .19 ( 4005 ) = .25" W.G. Fan SP = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet
In this example with 4630 FPM at the fan inlet, and a 1.33" VP
LOSS IN MAIN AT JUNCTION WITH BRANCH. (BASED
ON 45° TEE & EQUAL MAIN & BRANCH VELOCITIES.) Fan SP = 3.29" - (-6.54") - 1.33" = 8.5" W.G.
CFM in Upstream Loss in Main For this example, a fan should be selected for 2045 ACFM at
Main ÷ CFM in Branch in % of Main V.P. 8.5" SP and have an outlet velocity of at least 4500 FPM to
1 .20 prevent material settling. This presumes a standard airstream
2 .17 density of .075 lbs./ft.3 If the density were other than standard,
3 .15 the system-resistance calculations would have been the same but
4 .14 the resulting fan SP would have been corrected. Refer to
5 .13 Engineering Letter 4 for density correction procedures.
6 .12
7 .11 This example also assumes that the fan inlet and outlet
8 .10 connections are aerodynamically designed. Fans are sensitive to
9 .10 abrupt changes in airflow directly adjacent to the fan inlet or
10 .10 outlet. The effects of abrupt changes and other “system effect”
problems are discussed in Engineering Letter 5.
CORRECTION FACTORS FOR OTHER THAN 45° TEE.
Tee Angle 45° Loss X Factor CONCLUSION
0 0 It is the responsibility of the system designer to ensure that there
15 0.1 are adequate air flows and velocities in the system and that the
30 0.5 selection of duct components and fan equipment has been
45 1.0 optimized. While computer programs do the bulk of system
60 1.7 calculations today, this Engineering Letter should help to
75 2.5 provide a common set of methods and terminology to assist in
90 3.4 that effort.
Figure 5

Page 3
 FRICTION OF AIR IN STRAIGHT DUCTS
Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning Guide 1950
Copyright 1950
Based on standard air of 0.075 lb. per cu. ft. density flowing through average, clean, round,
galvanized metal ducts having approximately 40 joints per 100 ft.
No safety factor included. Caution: Do not extrapolate below chart.
Chart I Chart II

For m 50 7 D J K
 ENGINEERING LETTER 2
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

FAN LAWS AND SYSTEM CURVES

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to explain the basis
and application of the rules used to predict fan performance in a
given system. With a basic understanding of these rules, the
performance of a fan can be quickly calculated for various
conditions.
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
The three fundamental rules governing fan performance are
commonly called the “fan laws.” These rules are only valid
within a fixed system with no change in the aerodynamics or
airflow characteristics of the system. For the purpose of this Figure 1 - System Curve
discussion, a system is the combination of ductwork, hoods,
The same calculation using any number of varying CFM ratings
filters, grills, collectors, etc., through which air is distributed.
would result in a plotted curve as shown in Figure 1.
Therefore, these rules can also be referred to as “system laws.”
Regardless of fan type, fan size, or volume of flow through a
VOLUME AND PRESSURE system, the relationship of CFM to SP will not change unless the
system itself is altered in some way. SP always varies as the
The motion of any mass causes friction with its surroundings.
square of the change in CFM. The only exception to this rule is
The movement of air through a system causes friction between
found in a laminar flow characteristic where VP is of far greater
the air molecules and their surroundings (duct walls, filter
importance than SP. Such circumstances are not typical of fan
media, etc.) and any other air molecules. Energy is required to
systems.
overcome this friction, or resistance. The faster the air moves
the greater the resistance to flow and the more energy is required FAN LAWS
to push or pull the air through the system.
In air movement systems, it is the fan wheel that does the work.
This energy is stated in terms of pressure. The portion of the In a sense, the fan wheel acts like a shovel. As it revolves, it
pressure that results in air velocity is described as velocity discharges the same volume of air with each revolution.
pressure (VP). The portion necessary to overcome friction in the Working within a fixed system, a fan will discharge the same
air and in the system is described as static pressure (SP). The volume of air regardless of air density, (disregarding the effects
sum of the two is described as total pressure (TP). of compression at high pressures).
If the fan RPM is increased, the fan will discharge a greater
The law of physics, for motion, is expressed algebraically as: volume of air in exact proportion to the change in speed. This is
V = √2gh or V2 = 2gh the first “fan law.”
1. CFM varies in direct proportion to change in RPM
where V = velocity of flow
g = force of gravity RPM (new)
CFM (new) = x CFM (old)
h = pressure causing flow RPM (old)

As can be seen from the equation, the pressure necessary to

cause flow is proportional to the square of the velocity. In a
system, this means that SP will vary as the square of the change
in velocity or volume expressed in cubic feet per minute (CFM).
This makes it possible to predict all possible combinations of SP
at the corresponding CFM given any one such calculated
relationship of SP and CFM for a fixed system.
For example, a system is calculated to require a static pressure
equal to 2" water gauge at an airflow rate of 1000 CFM. If it is
desired to increase the flow to 1500 CFM without any physical
change in the system, the required SP would be:
2
(1500 ÷ 1000) x 2” = 4.5” SP
2
( CFM new
CFM old )
=
SP new
SP old
Figure 2 - A fan wheel is a constant volume device.
As shown earlier, in a system, the SP varies as the square of If the fan speed is increased or decreased, the point of
the change in CFM. Since CFM varies directly with RPM, operation will move up or down the existing system curve.
RPM can be substituted for CFM in the system equation. This is shown in Figure 4.
Therefore, SP varies as the square of the change in RPM. This The following are examples of how the fan curve can be used to
is the second “fan law.” calculate changes to flow and pressure requirements.
2
2. SP varies in proportion to the change in (RPM)
Example 1: A fan has been selected to deliver 35,530 CFM at
RPM (new) 2 8" SP. The fan runs at 1230 RPM and requires 61.0 BHP.
SP (new) = ( RPM (old) ) x SP (old)

The efficiency of a fan is a function of its aerodynamic design After installation, it is desired to increase the output 20%. At
and point of operation on its SP/CFM curve (see Figure 3). As what RPM must the fan run? What SP will be developed?
the fan speed changes, this relative point of operation remains What BHP is required?
unchanged as long as the system remains unchanged. Thus, the
fan brake horsepower varies proportionally as the cube of the 1. CFM varies as RPM
change in RPM. This is the third “fan law.” (1230) (1.20) = 1476 RPM
3
3. BHP varies in proportion to the change in (RPM)
2. SP varies as (RPM) 2
2
3
BHP (new) = ( RPM (new)
RPM (old) )
x BHP (old)
(1476/1230) (8) = 11.52" SP

3
It is important to remember that each of these “fan law” 3. BHP varies as (RPM)
3
relationships takes place simultaneously and cannot be (1476/1230) (61.0) = 105.4 BHP
considered independently.
Example 2: A fan was originally installed to deliver 10,300 CFM at
FAN CURVE AND SYSTEM CURVE 2 1 / 4 " SP and to run at 877 RPM, requiring 5.20 BHP.
As stated previously, a system curve can be plotted to show all
After installation, it is found that the system only delivers
possible combinations of SP and CFM for a given fixed
system. Any fan used on that system must operate somewhere 9,150 CFM at 2 1/2" SP and uses 4.70 BHP. This indicates the
original calculations were in error, or that the system was not
on that system curve.
installed according to plan. What fan RPM and BHP will be
Fan performance is determined by laboratory testing and is necessary to develop the desired 10,300 CFM? What SP
presented graphically in the form of fan curves. Unless it is should have been figured?
physically altered in some way, a fan must operate somewhere
on its SP/CFM curve. The relative shape of that curve will not 1. CFM varies as RPM
change, regardless of fan speed. (10,300/9,150) (877) = 987 RPM
Because the fan and system can each only operate somewhere
2
on their own respective curves, a fan used on a fixed system 2. SP varies as (RPM)
can only have one point of operation. The point of operation, as (987/877) 2 (2.50) = 3.17" SP
shown in Figure 3, is the intersection of the system curve and
the fan SP CFM curve. 3. BHP varies as (RPM)3
3
(987/877) (4.70) = 6.70 BHP

CONCLUSION

Figure 3 Use of the “fan laws” is based on a fixed system and a non-
modified fan. Adding or deleting system components such as
dampers, or incurring density changes, will create completely
new system curves. Changing fan accessories such as inlet
boxes, evases, or inlet dampers will alter the fan’s performance
curve from standard. These variables must be considered before
the fan laws can be applied.

During the process of system design, the fan laws can be

helpful in determining alternate performance criteria or in
Figure 4 developing a minimum/maximum range. If “safety factors” are
applied to system calculations, it should be recognized that a
10% factor on volume will result in an increase in horsepower
of 33% according to the third fan law. An evaluation should be
made weighing the necessity of the safety factor versus the
cost penalty incurred.
Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 3
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

UNDERSTANDING FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES

INTRODUCTION

One of the most important documents customers request from

fan manufacturers is performance curves. In addition to
graphically depicting the basic fan performance data of CFM,
RPM, and SP (on the static pressue curve) and BHP (on the
brake horsepower curve), these curves also illustrate the
performance characteristics of various fan types, like areas of
instability, or the rate of change between flow and pressure.
With some basic knowledge of performance curves, decisions
can be made concerning fan selection, fan and system alterations,
or the advisability of using a fan in a modulating system, for
example.

Except for very large fans, performance curve information is

generated by connecting the fan to a laboratory test chamber.
Very specific test procedures are followed as prescribed in the
Air Movement and Control Association’s Standard 210 to assure
uniform and accurate readings. Data points are collected at a
given RPM while the flow is slowly modulated from full closed
to full open. The information gathered is then used to develop Figure 1 - Static Pressure Curve
computer selection programs and published capacity tables for Assuming this same fan was intended to operate at 1200 RPM, the
use by system designers and end users.
fan laws can be applied to obtain performance at this lower speed.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE 1. CFM varies as RPM

The static pressure curve provides the basis for all flow and CFM (new) RPM (new)
=
pressure calculations. This curve is constructed by plotting a CFM (old) RPM (old)
series of static pressure points versus specific flow rates at a Therefore:
given test speed. While the static pressure curve depicts a fan’s
performance at a given speed, it can be used to determine the 1200
CFM (new) = (8750) = 6000 CFM
fan’s pressure capability at any volume. 1750
2. SP varies as (RPM)2
In addition, it is also possible to approximate the fan’s performance
at other speeds by applying the following fan laws: SP (new) 2
SP (old)
= ( RPM (new)
RPM (old) )
1. CFM varies as RPM
Therefore:
2
2. SP varies as (RPM)

3. BHP varies as (RPM)

3
SP (new) = ( 1200
1750 )
2
(12) = 5.6” SP

To locate a fan’s point of operation, first locate the required
static pressure on the SP scale at the left of the curve. Then draw
a horizontal line to the right, to the point of intersection with the
SP curve. Next, draw a vertical line from the point of operation
to the CFM scale on the bottom to determine the fan’s flow
capability for that SP at the given speed.
As shown in Figure 1, the performance for this fan is 8750 CFM
and 12" SP at 1750 RPM.
BRAKE HORSEPOWER CURVE
Once the CFM and SP have been determined, a BHP rating can
be established. An accurate BHP rating is necessary to properly
size the motor or to determine the operating efficiency of one fan
as compared to another. Performance curves contain a BHP
curve from which the BHP rating can be determined for specific
capacities. To determine BHP at a specific point of operation, a
horizontal line is drawn to the right from the point of
intersection of the vertical CFM line and the BHP curve.
 Figure 2 - Performance Curve
As shown in Figure 2, the fan operating at 8750 CFM and 12" SP
at 1750 RPM is rated at 30 BHP. By employing the third fan law,
the BHP rating can be determined for operation at 1200 RPM.
3. BHP varies as (RPM)3
BHP (new) = 3 1750 RPM as originally specified to achieve the desired 8750
BHP (old) ( RPM (new)
RPM (old) )
Therefore:
BHP (new) = ( 1200
1750 )
3
(30) = 9.67 BHP
SYSTEM LINES
Since fans are tested and rated independently from any type of
system, a means of determining the fan’s capabilities within a
given system must be provided. The fan laws apply equally to
any system; therefore, CFM and SP variations within the system
are predictable. This enables system lines to be superimposed on
performance curves to simplify performance calculations. The
system line is nothing more than the sum of all possible CFM
and SP combinations within the given system. Any combination
of fan and system must operate somewhere along that system line.
Because a fan must operate somewhere along its SP curve and
since the system has a known system line, their intersection is
the point of operation. If the fan speed is changed, the point of
operation must move up or down the system line. If the system is
changed in some way, the point of operation must move up or
down the SP curve. In practice, these principles can be used to
check the accuracy of fan performance and system design.
USING PERFORMANCE CURVES
Figure 3 illustrates the point of operation of a fan selected for
8750 CFM and 12" SP operating at 1750 RPM. Included in
Figure 3 are a number of different system lines. If the system
does not operate properly upon start-up, measurements can be
taken and compared against the available performance curve.
Page 2
Figure 3 - Performance Curve with System Lines
Let’s assume that a tachometer reading indicates the fan is
running at 1200 RPM instead of 1750 RPM, because of mistakes
in motor speed or drive selection, and an airflow check indicates
only 6000 CFM. These readings confirm that the system was
calculated correctly and that the fan speed must be corrected to
CFM. If the tachometer reading indicates the proper speed but
the airflow reading is down, additional system resistance beyond
that originally calculated is indicated. This additional resistance
could be caused by partially closed louvers/dampers, changes in
duct sizing from the original design, system effect losses, or just
an error in the system-resistance calculations. The deficiency can
usually be corrected by either altering the system or increasing
the fan speed.
Often, performance curves for one speed must be used to
determine the performance of a fan for use on systems requiring
more air or higher pressures. A performance curve such as
Figure 4 can be used to determine fan performance beyond the SP
scale shown by using the fan laws to obtain a reference point of
operation on the system line. This can be accomplished by
applying some suitable factor to the required CFM and the
square of that factor to the required SP.
For example, the performance curve shown in Figure 4 can be
used to determine fan performance requirements for a system
calculated at 15,000 CFM and 23.5" SP, even though that point
is beyond the curve. By determining a suitable reference
capacity using the fan laws, that falls within the curve data, fan
performance requirements can be obtained at the curve speed
and then projected up to the system requirements using the fan
laws once again.
The required 15,000 CFM and 23.5" SP is on the same system
line as 10,000 CFM at 10.4" SP which intersects the fan’s SP
curve drawn for 1750 RPM and has a corresponding BHP of
33.0 at 1750 RPM. Therefore:
15000
RPM (new) = (1750) = 2625 RPM
10000
3
BHP (new) = ( 15000
10000 )
(33.0) = 111 BHP
FAN PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

The performance characteristics of a fan can be determined

from the performance curve at a glance. These characteristics
include such things as stability, increasing or non-overloading
BHP, and acceptable points of operation.

Fan performance is based on certain flow characteristics as the

air passes over the fan wheel blades. These flow characteristics
Static Brake
are different for each generic fan or wheel type, (i.e. radial, Pressure Horsepower
forward-curved, backwardly-inclined, radial-tip, and axial).
Thus, the performance characteristics will be different for each of
these general fan types. Further, these performance characteristics
may vary from one manufacturer to the next depending upon
the particular design. The characteristics described in this letter
are based on nyb fan equipment.

The performance curves presented in Figures 1 through 4 are

typical of fans with radial-blade wheels. The SP curve is CFM in 1,000’s
smooth and stable from wide open to closed off. The BHP Figure 4 – Typical Radial-Blade Fan Performance Curve
curve clearly indicates that the BHP increases steadily with the
volume of air being handled as shown in Figure 4.

Fans with forward-curved wheels, such as shown in Figure 5,

also have a BHP curve that increases with the volume of air
being handled. The SP curve differs significantly from the
radial since it exhibits a sharp “dip” to the left of the static
pressure peak. This sharp dip (shaded area) indicates
unpredictable flow characteristics. Though not technically
Static Brake
accurate, this region is often referred to as the the “stall” region. Pressure Horsepower
It indicates that at these combinations of pressure and relatively
low volumes, the airflow characteristics across the wheel blades
change or break away so that the fan performance point is no
longer stable. Any fan with this characteristic SP curve should
not be selected for operation in the unstable area.

As shown in Figure 6, the SP curve for a backwardly-inclined CFM

fan has a sharp dip to the left of the static pressure peak. This
indicates an area of instability. However, the backwardly- Figure 5 – Typical FC Fan Performance Curve
inclined SP curve is generally steeper than that of the forward-
curved wheel indicating its desirability for use in higher
pressure systems. Therefore, variations in system resistance
will result in smaller changes in volume for the BI Fan when
compared to the FC Fan.

Even though New York Blower centrifugal fans with

®
AcoustaFoil wheels are stable in the area left of the peak, the
majority of fans with backwardly-inclined wheels exhibit an SP Static Brake
curve similar in appearance to that of the forward-curved fan. The Pressure Horsepower
SP curve shown (in Figure 7) for fans using AcoustaFoil (air-
foil, backwardly-inclined) wheels exhibits a much smoother
depression to the left of the static pressure peak. This indicates
that the overall fan design is such that internal flow
characteristics remain desirable or predictable even in the
region left of peak and that performance in this region is stable.

CFM

AcoustaFoil ® is a trademark of The New York Blower Company. Figure 6 – Typical BI Fan Performance Curve

Page 3
The BHP curve for all backwardly-inclined fans is the major
difference between them and all other fan types. As shown in
Figures 6 and 7, the BHP curve for backwardly-inclined fans
reaches a peak and then drops off as the fan’s volume increases.
With this “non-overloading” BHP characteristic, it is possible to
establish a maximum BHP for a given fan speed and select a
motor that can not be overloaded despite any changes or errors in
3
system design. Because BHP varies as (RPM) , this non-
overloading characteristic does not apply to increases in fan
speed, but it is very useful for motor protection against errors or
changes in system calculations and installation.

Figures 5 and 6 indicate certain unacceptable selection areas on

the SP curve. Although stability or performance may not be a
problem, a point of operation down to the far right on the SP
curve should be avoided. Selecting a fan that operates far down
to the right, eliminates the flexibility to compensate for future
CFM
system changes. Also, the fan is less efficient in this area as
compared to a larger fan operating at a slower speed. Figure 7 Figure 7 – Typical AcoustaFoil Fan Performance Curve
shows the best selection area on the SP curve and the area in which
the majority of capacity tables are published.

As is evident in Figure 8, the radial-tip fan design combines the

backwardly-inclined SP curve characteristics with the radial fan’s
BHP curve. The radial tip is often more efficient than radial fans
and typically best applied in high-pressure applications. As a result
of its efficiency and dust-handling capabilities, the radial-tip fan
can also be applied to lower pressure material conveying
systems.

The term axial fan is used to describe various propeller,

vaneaxial, tubeaxial, and duct fans. The performance curves of
these fans are characterized by the ability to deliver large
volumes of air in relatively low pressure applications. As can be
seen in Figure 9, the axial flow fan is distinguished by a
drooping BHP curve that has maximum horsepower at no flow or CFM
closed-off conditions. The axial fan SP curve exhibits an area of
Figure 8 – Typical Radial-Tip Fan Performance Curve
extreme instability to the left of the “hump” in the middle of the
curve. Depending upon the severity, axial fans are normally only
selected to the right of this area.

CONCLUSION

A good working knowledge of performance curves is necessary

to understand the performance characteristics and capabilities of
different fan equipment. Use of performance curves in the
selection of fan types and sizing will assure stable and efficient
operation as well as future flexibility.

CFM
Figure 9 – Typical Axial Fan Performance Curve

Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530
TEMPERATURE AND ALTITUDE AFFECT FAN SELECTION
INTRODUCTION
Fan performance changes with the density of the gas being
handled. Therefore, all fans are cataloged at a standard condition
defined as: 70°F. air, at sea level, with a gas density of .075
3
lb./ft. at a barometric pressure of 29.92" Hg. At any other
condition, the fan’s horsepower requirement and its ability to
develop pressure will vary. Therefore, when the density of the
3
gas stream is other than the standard .075 lb./ft. , correction
factors must be applied to the catalog ratings in order to select
the correct fan, motor, and drive.
In addition, the maximum safe speed of a wheel, shaft, or
bearing can change due to an alloy becoming too brittle or too
pliable at temperatures other than 70°F. Temperature derate
factors must be applied to the fan’s catalog maximum safe
speed to ensure against overspeed situations.
HOW TO CALCULATE ACTUAL FAN PERFORMANCE
AT OTHER THAN 70 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
As illustrated in Figure 1, a fan wheel is similar to a shovel. In
a given system, it will move the same volume of air regardless
of the air’s weight. If a fan moves 1000 CFM at 70°F., it will
also move 1000 CFM at 600°F.
Figure 1 - A fan wheel is like a shovel.
However, air at 600°F. weighs half as much as it does at 70°F.
Therefore, the fan requires just half the horsepower. (See
Figure 2.) Likewise, since the air weighs half as much, it will
create only half the static and velocity pressures. The reduction
in static pressure is proportional to the reduction in horsepower,
thus the overall fan efficiency will remain unchanged.
CFM x Total Pressure
Total Efficiency =
6356 x Brake Horsepower
4
Figure 2 - With hot gas, there is less weight to shovel.
Example 1. A fan handling standard density, 70°F. air, delivers
12,400 CFM against 6" SP (static pressure) requiring 14.6
BHP (brake horsepower). If the system and fan RPM are not
changed, but the inlet airstream temperature is increased to
600°F., how will the fan perform?
The fan will still deliver 12,400 CFM, but since the air at
600°F. weighs half as much as the air at 70°F., static pressure
and horsepower will be cut in half. The fan will generate only 3"
SP and require only 7.3 BHP.
A typical fan specification based on hot operating conditions is
illustrated in Example 2.
Example 2. Required: 11,000 CFM and 6" SP at 600°F. (This
means the actual, measurable static pressure of the fan at
600°F. will be 6 inches of water.)
The fan’s catalog performance tables are based on 70°F. air at
.075 density. The specified SP must be corrected by the ratio
of the standard density to operating density. Since densities are
inversely proportional to absolute temperature (degrees F. +
460):
6” ( 460 + 600
460 + 70 )
= 6” (
1060
530 )
= 12”
The fan must be selected from the rating tables for 11,000
CFM at 12" SP. The BHP obtained from the table should be
multiplied by the ratio of operating density to standard density
in order to obtain the BHP at 600°F. If the rating table showed
30.0 BHP, the operating BHP would be 30.0 (530/1060) = 15.0
BHP.
In most “hot” systems, the fan is required to handle cold air
until the system reaches temperature. A good example is in
oven exhaust systems.
If Example 2 were such a case, the fan would require 30.0 BHP
when operating at 70°F., and 15.0 BHP when the oven had
warmed to 600°F. Very often a damper is furnished with the fan
so that, during the warming-up period, the fan can be dampered
to reduce the horsepower. Without the damper, a 30 HP motor
would be needed.
Confusion can be avoided if the SP is specified at the temperature
it was calculated. In Example 2, the specifications should read Example 3. Required: 5800 CFM at 6" SP at 5000 ft. altitude.
either:
11,000 CFM and 6" SP at 600°F., or
11,000 CFM for operation at 600°F. and 12" SP at 70°F.
Table 1 gives correction factors used to convert from a non-
standard density to a standard density of 70°F. air. These factors
are merely the ratios of absolute temperatures. Multiply the
actual static pressure by the specific temperature/altitude factor
so standard catalog rating tables can be used. Divide the brake
horsepower from the catalog rating table by the
temperature/altitude factor to get BHP at conditions.
Table 1 - Corrections for Temperature
Air Air
Temperature Factor Temperature Factor
°F. °F.
HOW TO CALCULATE ACTUAL FAN PERFORMANCE
AT OTHER THAN SEA LEVEL
A fan operating at an altitude above sea level is similar to a fan
operating at air temperatures higher than 70°F.; it handles air
less dense than standard. Table 2 gives the ratio of standard air
density at sea level to densities of 70°F. air at other altitudes.
70°F. air at sea level weighs 1.20 times as much as 70°F. air at
5000 Ft. Therefore, at sea level, the SP is 1.2 x 6 = 7.20" SP.
The fan would need to be selected for 5800 CFM at 7.2" SP at
70°F. .075 density.
When both heat and altitude are combined, the density of the air
is modified by each, independently, so that the correction factors
can be multiplied together.
Example 4. Required: 5800 CFM at 6" SP at 5000 ft. altitude at
600°F. Air at 70°F. at sea level weighs 2.00 x 1.20 = 2.40 times
as much as 600°F. air at 5000 ft. altitude. At sea level and 70°F.,
SP = 2.40 x 6 = 14.4" SP. Select a fan for 5800 CFM at 14.4"
SP. Divide the brake horsepower in the rating table by 2.40 to
obtain horsepower at 600°F. and 5000 ft. If the fan is to start
cold, it will still be at 5000 ft. altitude. Therefore, to get the
“cold” horsepower requirement, divide by 1.20, the altitude
factor only.

-50 0.77 275 1.39 DENSITY CHANGES FROM OTHER THAN HEAT AND
-25 0.82 300 1.43 ALTITUDE
0 0.87 325 1.48 Fan densities may vary from standard for other reasons than heat
+20 0.91 350 1.53 and altitude. Moisture, gas, or mixtures of gases (other than air)
40 0.94 375 1.58 are a few possibilities. In these cases, it is necessary to obtain
60 0.98 400 1.62 the actual density of the airstream gas by some other reference
70 1.00 450 1.72 material. A similar factor, as shown in Table 1, is then created
80 1.02 500 1.81 using the standard density of air .075 lb. per cubic foot divided by
100 1.06 550 1.91 the new density.
120 1.09 600 2.00 3
.075 lb./ft.
140 1.13 650 2.09 Factor =
special gas density
160 1.17 700 2.19
180 1.21 750 2.28 ACFM -SCFM DEFINITION
200 1.25 800 2.38
The terms ACFM and SCFM are often used in design work and
225 1.29 900 2.56
cannot be used interchangeably.
250 1.34 1000 2.76
SCFM is Standard Cubic Feet per Minute corrected to standard
density conditions. To determine the SCFM of the volume used
Table 2 - Corrections for Altitude in Example 2, which was 11,000 CFM at 600°F., we would
multiply the CFM by the density ratios.
Altitude Altitude
Feet Above Factor Feet Above Factor .037
11000 x = 5500 SCFM
Sea Level Sea Level .075
0 1.00 5000 1.20 This indicates that if the weight of air at 600°F. were corrected to
500 1.02 5500 1.22 standard conditions its volume would be reduced to 5500 CFM
1000 1.04 6000 1.25 ACFM stands for Actual Cubic Feet per Minute. It is the volume
1500 1.06 6500 1.27 of gas flowing through a system and is not dependent upon
2000 1.08 7000 1.30 density.
2500 1.10 7500 1.32
3000 1.12 8000 1.35 The terms ACFM and SCFM are often used in system design
3500 1.14 8500 1.37 work where both quantities need to be known. It should be
4000 1.16 9000 1.40 remembered, however, that since a fan handles the same volume
4500 1.18 10000 1.45 of air at any density, ACFM should be used when specifying
and selecting a fan.

Page 2
FAN SAFE SPEED AND TEMPERATURE
Whenever a fan is used to move air at temperatures substantially
above or below 70°F., care must be taken to ensure that the safe
speeds of wheel and shaft are not exceeded, and that bearing
temperature and lubrication are satisfactory.
The maximum safe speed of a particular fan must be determined
by calculations or actual tests. Safe speed depends entirely upon
the wheel and shaft assembly’s ability to withstand the
centrifugal forces created by its own weight. Higher
temperatures can affect the wheel and shaft assembly’s ability to
withstand these forces and therefore must be considered.
Most metals become weaker at higher temperatures. This
weakness is measurable in terms of yield and creep strength. It
can be translated into formulas that accurately determine the safe
speed of a wheel and shaft assembly in relation to its tested
maximum speed at standard conditions. Manufacturers provide
safe speed reductions in their catalogs based on the alloy that
was used to manufacture the wheel and/or shaft.
Some metals withstand heat better than others. Certain grades of
stainless steel can be substituted to increase temperature limits.
On the other hand, fan wheels constructed of aluminum should
never be operated above 200°F.
For information regarding fiberglass reinforced plastic fan
equipment, consult the appropriate product bulletin.
Table 3 gives an indication of the speed derate factors for several
different alloys. These are listed for reference purposes only.
For a specific fan, consult the appropriate product bulletin.
Table 3 - RPM Derate Factors By Material
Arrangement 4 centrifugal fans, where the fan wheel is mounted
on the motor shaft, should not be used above 180°F., unless
special provisions are made (i.e., a shaft cooler or heat shield) to
keep heat radiated from the housing from increasing motor
bearing and winding temperatures.
When fan bearings are located outside of the airstream, as in
Arrangement 1, 8, and 9 centrifugal fans, higher airstream
temperatures are possible. Table 4 lists some typical maximum
recommended operating temperatures for fans using ball or
roller bearings.
A conventional fan using standard bearings and standard lubricant
can normally be operated to a maximum of approximately
300°F. With the addition of a shaft cooler (Figure 3), this
temperature limitation can be extended to 650°F. The shaft
cooler has the effect of absorbing and dissipating heat from the
shaft while circulating air over the inboard bearing.
Table 4 - Maximum Fan Inlet Temperatures
Arrangement 1 and 8 (Overhung Wheel)
Standard Construction 300°F.
With Shaft Cooler 650°F.
With Shaft Cooler and Heat Gap 800°F.
With Shaft Cooler, Heat Gap,
Stainless Wheel, and Alloy Shaft 1000°F.
Arrangement 3 (Wheel Suspended Between Bearings)
Standard Construction 200°F.
Arrangement 4 (Wheel on Motor Shaft)
Standard Construction 180°F.

Temperature Stainless Steel Enclosed Bearing Fans (Axial Fans)

Mild Steel Aluminum
°F. Arrangement 4 105°F.
304L 316L 347
Arrangement 9 120°F.
70 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
With Special V-Belts with 2.0 S.F. 200°F.
200 .97 .97 .88 .95 .95
Arrangement 9 Duct Fan
300 .95 -- .82 .92 .93
With Heat-Fan Construction 600°F.
400 .94 -- .78 .89 .90
Plenum Fans
500 .93 -- .75 .86 .90
600 .92 -- .73 .84 .90 Arrangement 3 105°F.
800 .80 -- -- .79 .86 Arrangement 4 105°F.
1000 -- -- -- .75 .83
The limiting temperature on any fan is the highest temperature
that any component of the fan assembly will reach during any
operating cycle. A fan in a process oven application may handle
air several hundred degrees above the highest temperature the
oven reaches, especially during start-up. On such applications, a
temperature indicator should be located in the fan inlet to
control the heat source and to keep the fan within its maximum
safe temperature. This is particularly true where burners are
located on the inlet side of the fan. In all cases, the fan should
remain in operation until the air is cooled to 180°F. or less to
prevent “heat soaking” of the fan shaft which could cause sagging.
Bearings must be kept cool; otherwise standard lubricants lose
their effectiveness and bearing failures are likely. For axial fans,
where the bearings are located in the airstream, care must be
taken to ensure proper lubrication. Special fan and bearing
Figure 3 – Shaft Color
designs, as well as high temperature lubricants, are available to
extend the operating range to higher temperatures.

Page 3
With the addition of a heat gap (Figure 4) the temperature
limitation can be extended to 800°F. since the fan pedestal is
isolated from the hot fan housing. For specific applications,
consult the appropriate product bulletin. Also, recognize that
these limitations apply only to bearings and that wheel and
shaft limitations must be treated independently.
All of the foregoing is based on the use of standard lubricants.
When high-temperature lubricants are required, the type of
lubricant and the frequency of relubrication are normally much
more critical.
When the fan shaft is heated to the point that it expands more
than the structure to which it is attached, one expansion bearing
and one fixed bearing should be furnished. The fixed bearing is
located on the drive end of the fan while the floating bearing is
located next to the fan. This arrangement, however, is not
critical and may vary by manufacturer.
When the fan is handling air below 70°F., there is the possibility
of other problems. Below -30 to -50°F., ordinary steel is too
brittle. Aluminum wheels or wheels of steel containing at least
5% nickel must be used, and shafts must be made of nickel-
Figure 4 – 4“Heat
Figure Gap”
– “Heat between
Gap” betweenfan and
bearing.
fan and bearing.
Figure 5 – A system with the same temperature throughout.
Page 4
bearing steel. In addition, lubricants become stiff, or even solid in
these low-temperature applications. Exact operating conditions
should be given to the fan manufacturer to relay to the bearing
supplier for proper selection.
CALCULATING “HOT” RESISTANCE FOR SYSTEMS
Figure 5 shows a system that operates at the same temperature
throughout. If the inlet temperature is known, the fan may be
selected from the fan capacity tables and the rated horsepower and
static pressure corrected by the temperature correction factor
from Table 1. However, what happens to the system that the fan
was operating against? If a fixed system, which originally was
calculated for standard air, was subjected to the same temperature
increase as the fan, then system static pressure will change and be
identical to the fan static pressure change. The result is that if a
fan and system operate together the flow will remain unchanged.
(See Figure 6.) Unfortunately, this example assumes that the
entire system is being subjected to the same temperature change,
which is not always the case.
Figure 6 – Fan-system curve relationship
with fan and system at the same temperature.
Figure 7 shows a system in which different temperatures are
involved. The fan will not handle the same volume of air when
operating hot as it does when cold. If the burner is on, the fan
will handle 1430 ACFM against an actual static pressure of 1.2
inches. This is arrived at by adding the filter, burner, and nozzle
resistance, neglecting for the sake of simplicity any external
resistance from additional ductwork. The fan would be selected
from the capacity tables on the basis of 1430 CFM at 1.72
inches static pressure (300°F. correction factor times 1.2
inches).
If the burner is turned off while the fan continues to operate at
the same RPM, it is necessary to determine the system
characteristic curve and plot its intersection with the fan to
determine how much air the fan would move and at what static
pressure. To accomplish this we must assume an arbitrary
capacity, such as 1000 CFM at 70°F. The filter louver resistance
would be the same, cold or hot, at .3 inches 70°F. The burner
resistance would remain unchanged with temperature since it must
Figure 7 - A system with different temperatures.
Page 5
be assumed that air expansion takes place after the high
velocity section of the burner. The nozzles will vary in
resistance directly as the density changes and inversely as the
square of the flow. The nozzle would then have a resistance cold
at 1000 CFM of:
2
.5” x ( 1000
1430 )
x 1.43 = .35”
Summing these resistances yields the cold resistance at 1000
CFM of 1 .05"SP. This new system point and corresponding
curve are then plotted against a fan curve at standard conditions
such that the resulting intersection will be the final operating
point of the cold system. Using an actual fan as an example,
the resulting flow would be 1220 CFM at 1.5 inches static
pressure. (See Figure 8.)
Figure 8 - Fan-system curve relationship with
fan at different temperatures.
FAN LOCATION IN HOT PROCESS SYSTEMS
Figure 9 shows how a fan may be located more economically in
one part of a system, as contrasted to another. Suppose 10,000
CFM is to be heated from 70°F. to 600°F. Obviously, the heater
will require the same 3-inch pressure differential whether the
fan is to push the air into, or pull the air out of, the heater.
A fan pushing air into the heater would be specified to handle
10,000 CFM at 70°F. against 3 inches of static pressure at
70°F. One possible selection is a fan with a 27-inch wheel
diameter, Class I design utilizing a 71 / 2 HP motor.
Figure 9 - The importance of fan location.
The alternative fan, pulling air from the heater, would be
specified to handle 20,000 ACFM at 600°F. against 3" SP at
600°F. It would be selected from the capacity tables for 20,000
CFM at 6" SP. One suitable choice is a fan with a 3 6 1 / 2 -inch
wheel diameter, Class II design utilizing a 15 HP motor. (Note:
26 HP, from the tables, at 70°F., divided by temperature
correction factor, is 13 HP at 600°F.) This example illustrates
why it is usually more economical to locate the fan at the
coolest part of the system. In this case, the “push” fan might
cost half as much as the “pull” fan.
Form 607 G AW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 5
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

FAN PERFORMANCE - THE SYSTEM EFFECT

INTRODUCTION
Fans are typically tested and rated in prescribed test configurations The four most common causes of system-induced performance
defined by the Air Movement and Control Association. This is deficiencies:
done to ensure standardized procedures and ratings so that
system designers can make realistic choices among various 1. Eccentric flow into the fan inlet.
manufacturers. Beyond the routine system resistance calculations, 2. Spinning flow into the fan inlet.
the location of some common components and their proximity to 3. Improper ductwork at the fan outlet.
the fan inlet or outlet can create additional immeasurable losses 4. Obstructions at the fan inlet or outlet.
commonly called System Efect. These losses, if not eliminated
or minimized, will necessitate fan speed and horsepower ECCENTRIC FLOW
increases to compensate for the performance deficiencies. This
Letter will outline some of the common causes for these Fans perform correctly when air flows straight into the inlet. Air
deficiencies and provide useful guidelines for more efficient and should be drawn into the fan inlet with an evenly distributed
predictable air-handling systems. velocity profile. As shown in Figure 1, this allows all portions of
the fan wheel to handle an equal air load.
SYSTEM DESIGN
If the air is not drawn into the fan inlet evenly, performance
The term system refers to the path through which air is pushed deficiencies will result from the combined effects of turbulence
and/or pulled. Since it can be any combination of ducts, coils, and uneven air distribution. This is illustrated in Figure 2, where
filters, etc., through which air flows, a system can range in an elbow is installed directly on the fan inlet.
complexity. The system can be as simple as exhausting air
through an opening in the wall of a building, or as involved as a
multi-zoned system with varying flows and densities. The
calculations for determining the performance requirements are
discussed in Engineering Letter 1. The effects of the system
design on the actual performance capability of a fan represent
separate and equally important considerations.

In the typical process of system design, the performance

requirements are calculated and then used to select the
appropriate fan. However, in many cases the effects of the
relationship between the system components and the fan are not
considered in the calculation or selection process. For example,
the resistance of a given size elbow at a given flow can be easily
determined using the equivalent length calculation method.
However, if that elbow is located at the fan inlet or outlet, further Figure 1 – Even Air Loading
immeasurable losses will be imposed in addition to the simple
loss through the elbow itself. Most importantly, these losses
cannot be measured or even detected with field instruments
because they are, in fact, a destruction of the fan performance
characteristics.

Standardized testing and rating methods for fans have been

established by the Air Movement and Control Association,
(AMCA). The test methods are described in AMCA Standard
210, titled Test Code for Air Moving Devices. Specifying fan
equipment tested and rated in strict accordance with AMCA
Standard 210 is the best way to ensure accurate fan performance.
However, the system effects that alter or limit the ultimate
performance remain the most frequent causes of field
performance problems. Figure 2 – Uneven Air Loading
When the system attempts to change the direction of flow, the
air hugs the outside of the inlet elbow entering the fan. This
causes uneven, turbulent airflow into the fan. Another common
cause of non-uniform flow into the fan inlet is a poorly designed
inlet box, such as the one shown in Figure 3. It is important to
remember that air has mass.
Pre-spinning flow can result from any number of common
situations. Two elbows in close proximity to one another can
force the air to make consecutive turns in perpendicular planes
to form a corkscrew effect. As shown in Figure 5, air converging
tangentially into the main duct or plenum can create an obvious
spinning effect.

Pre-spinning flow can also be induced by such common air

cleaning devices as a venturi scrubber or a cyclone as seen in
Figure 6. In these cases, it is often the very function of the air
cleaning device to create a spinning effect.

Figure 3 – Poorly Designed Inlet Box

SPINNING FLOW
Unintentionally spinning air into the fan inlet can have the same
effect on performance as the intentional pre-spin produced by a
vortex-type inlet damper.

The direction air is flowing when it enters the fan wheel is very
important. In order to produce its rated capacity, the fan works
on the air by changing its direction and accelerating its velocity. If Figure 5 – Spinning Effect
the air is spinning in the same direction as the wheel rotation, the
fan capacity will be diminished. If the air is spinning in the
opposite direction of the wheel rotation, the brake horsepower
and noise of the fan will increase. The static pressure of the fan
may also increase slightly, but far less than indicated by the
increased power consumption.
The evaluation and control of pre-spinning flow is more difficult
than eccentric flow because of the variety of system connections
or components that can contribute to pre-spin. Also, spinning
often occurs in combination with eccentric flow such as the case
with the inlet box shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 – Eccentric Flow with Pre-Spin Figure 6 - Fan/Cyclone System

Page 2
CORRECTING BAD INLET CONNECTIONS
The ideal fan inlet connection creates neither eccentric nor
spinning flow. Where an inlet duct is required, the best
connection is a long straight duct with straightening vanes.
However, it is usually necessary to adapt the system to the
available space. When space becomes the limiting factor, two
choices are available:

1. Install corrective devices in the duct.

2. Increase fan speed to compensate.

The first choice is preferable, but the second is often necessary. In

many cases, the corrective devices themselves will represent
some resistance to flow. A combination of both choices could be
necessary to correct extreme field performance problems.

If the fan and system are properly matched, their common point of
operation should fall within the recommended range on the fan Figure 8 – Turning Vanes
static-pressure curve. Figure 7 illustrates the recommended range
for backwardly-inclined fans. A deleterious system effect could
move the point of operation to the left on the pressure curve.
This would force the fan to operate at an unstable point. The same To overcome these losses, the fan speed must be increased to the
situation can occur with any of the basic fan types that exhibit speed shown in the fan’s rating table at the required volume and a
unstable flow characteristics as discussed in Engineering Letter pressure 21% greater than originally calculated:
3. When this happens there are three options: alter the system to
allow greater flow without increasing resistance significantly, (110% ÷ 100%)2 = 1.21
replace the fan with a smaller one, or replace the fan with one
that has a stable curve. Of course the fan’s speed should never be increased beyond the
cataloged maximum safe speed!

It is important to note that the increased resistance will not be

observed on the system. The pressure increase is only for the
purpose of selecting the fan to compensate for the losses
associated with the particular system effect.
The fan laws cannot be applied selectively, only simultaneously.
According to the fan laws, if the fan speed is increased 10% for a
given system, the flow through the system will increase 10%, the
Static Brake
Pressure Horsepower system resistance will increase 21%, and the fan BHP will
increase 33%. This represents an obvious waste of energy due to
an often avoidable system-related deficiency. In most cases, such
a change would require the purchase of a larger motor as well as a
new drive. If the fan is a direct-connected arrangement, limited to
one fixed motor speed, the solution becomes even more
expensive. These considerations and horsepower penalties apply to
all the major causes of system-induced performance
CFM deficiencies.
Figure 7 - Static Pressure Curve for
Backwardly-Inclined Fan If the available space dictates the need for a turn into the fan
inlet, a standardized inlet-box design, with predictable losses,
Simple or complex turning vanes, such as those shown in Figure should be used whenever possible.
8, can be used to minimize the effects of both eccentric and/or
spinning flow. The egg-crate straightener, such as the one shown DISCHARGE DUCTWORK
in Figure 6, can be used in the available space to stop pre-spin
and improve fan inlet conditions. The connection made to a fan outlet can affect fan performance.
An outlet duct ranging in length from 21/2 to 6 fan wheel
Most of the inlet connections illustrated, with or without diameters, depending on velocity, is necessary to allow the fan to
corrective devices, can produce losses in performance. These develop its full rated pressure. If the outlet duct is omitted
losses would be difficult, if not impossible, to predict. Even the inlet completely, a static pressure loss equal to one half the outlet
box shown in Figure 8, with all the turning vanes installed, could velocity pressure will result. The system resistance calculation
still easily represent losses of 10% to 15% of the required flow. should include this loss as additional required static pressure.

Page 3
 Figure 9 - Velocity Profile at Fan Outlet

Figure 10 - Poor Fan Outlet Connections

Air is not discharged from a fan with a uniform velocity profile.
The main reason for this is the fact that air has weight and is
thrown to the outside of the scroll. Figure 9 shows a typical
velocity profile.

In a duct with a uniform cross-section, the average velocity will

be the same at all points along the duct. However, where velocity
distribution changes (such as the duct adjacent to the fan outlet)
the velocities are not typically the same.

Since velocity pressure is proportional to velocity squared, the

average velocity pressure at the fan outlet will be higher than the
average downstream. Since total pressure will be virtually the
same, the static pressure cannot be fully developed until some
point 21/2 to 6 duct diameters downstream.

Although duct turns directly at the fan outlet should be avoided,

there are times when they cannot. In such cases, the turns should
follow the same direction as the wheel rotation. Turns made in
the opposite direction of wheel rotation (such as those shown in
Figure 10) can have a pressure drop beyond normal system
calculations. Usually the drop is between .5 to 1.5 fan outlet
velocity pressures.

INLET OR OUTLET OBSTRUCTIONS

System obstructions can be as obvious as the cone-shaped stack

cap which can have a pressure drop as high as one velocity
pressure, or as subtle as the installation of a large fan sheave Figure 11 - Plenum System
directly in front of the inlet on an Arrangement 3, double-width,
double-inlet fan.
If system effect situations cannot be avoided, their impact on
performance should be estimated and added to the calculated
One of the most common situations is to place a fan inside a
system resistance prior to sizing or selecting the fan. Ignoring
plenum or near some obstruction and fail to account for the
the system effect could lead to difficult field performance
effects on the airflow to the fan inlet. The installation shown in
problems later. It could be that the installed fan does not have
Figure 11 is typical of the sort of non-uniform flow that could
the necessary speed reserve, or the motor is not of sufficient
result in additional losses beyond the normal system calculation.
brake horsepower. The cost of correcting such a field
These losses will increase as the velocity increases or as the
performance problem could escalate rapidly.
distance between the obstruction and the fan inlet decreases.
System designers need to carefully consider the system effect
CONCLUSION values presented in AMCA Publication 201. By accurately
defining the true performance requirements of fans in installed
AMCA Publication 201 - Fans and Systems, presents an in-depth
systems, field performance problems can be reduced significantly.
discussion of system effect and provides methods for estimating
losses associated with many common situations. Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 6
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

INCREASING FAN PERFORMANCE

INTRODUCTION
Industrial processes and plant-ventilation systems often need Check wheel and inlet cone alignment. See Figure 3.
more air than originally designed. Increased production Components may be out of position due to routine cleaning or
requirements, process changes, and facility renovations are a painting or the wheel could have shifted during shipment. For
few of the major reasons. Additionally, the lack of adequate backward inclined fans, the relation of wheel to inlet cone is
maintenance over time can negatively impact system airflows. very critical. Even a quarter of an inch can have a major
This letter discusses several procedures that can increase airflow. impact. The fan’s installation and maintenance literature shows
CHECK THE FAN’S MECHANICAL CONDITION the proper positioning of the wheel to the inlet cone (“A”
dimension) or inlet plate.
Often airflow can be increased by adhering to proper fan
maintenance procedures as outlined in fan installation and
maintenance literature.
Properly aligned and tightened V-belt drives. See Figure 1.
Fan speed can decrease by as much as 10% to 20% when belts
are too loose, with a corresponding loss of airflow.

Figure 3 – Wheel to Cone Alignment

Figure 1 - Poor Drive Alignment and Belt Tension INSPECT THE SYSTEM
The design and maintenance of the system plays a large role in
achieving the overall desired performance. Visual inspections
often reveal some easily rectified problems that can
significantly impair performance.
Check for clogged filters or coils. If the system has not been
properly maintained, clogged filters or obstructed coils will
reduce airflow. The greater the obstruction, the greater the loss
in airflow.
Eliminate System leaks. Any leaks in the ductwork will
contribute to reduced performance, especially leaks around
plenum bulkheads that can lead to recirculation of air. Worn
flexible connectors are a common source of leaks and should
Figure 2 – Incorrect Wheel Rotation
be inspected regularly.
Clean airstream surfaces. A fan cannot perform as designed if
Verify that dampers are installed correctly and operating
the air flow surfaces are distorted by contaminants. Even in
properly. If the damper linkage is out of adjustment, the
large fans, a sixteenth of an inch of build up can reduce damper may not be opening completely, thereby reducing
performance.
performance. If inlet dampers are used, make sure they are
Check fan rotation. See Figure 2. Centrifugal fans will move installed so that the air is pre-spun in the same direction as
some air even when running backwards. While some types wheel rotation. See Figure 4. If the air distribution system
would use so much horsepower they would trip circuit breakers, employs balancing dampers, make sure they are set properly.
other designs could run for years without being detected.
 Figure 4 – Inlet Damper/Fan Wheel Rotation
Figure 5 – Fan Inlet Connections
For all dampers, make sure there is sufficient clearance for the
blades to open and close completely without hitting the
ductwork or other system components. Last, for systems with
either pneumatic or electric controls, make sure damper
actuators are operating properly.
Look for system effect. Sharp changes in the direction of air-
flow at either the fan inlet or outlet will disrupt the flow through
the fan and impair performance. If it is impossible to straighten
the ductwork entering and leaving the fan, the use of inlet boxes
and turning vanes can minimize performance losses as shown in
Figure 5. For a more detailed explanation, refer to Engineering
Letter 5, Fan Performance - The System Effect.
INCREASE THE FAN SPEED
One of the easiest solutions to low airflow problems is speeding
up the fan. While airflow is increased by speeding up the fan, so
too are static pressure, noise, and power requirements. Figure 6
presents this graphically. Therefore, while increasing the fan’s
speed is an easy procedure with low first cost, the additional
operating expense over time makes it the most costly solution. CONCLUSION
See Engineering Letter 2 - Fan Laws and System Curves, for When more air is required it is important to investigate the
additional information.
Figure 6 – The effects on brake horsepower, static pressure and
loudness when fan speed is increased.
When increasing fan speed, it is necessary to check the
maximum safe speed of the fan and make sure the motor is
capable of the horsepower required to run the fan at the new
speed. Never run a fan beyond its maximum safe speed.
ADD OR REPLACE FAN EQUIPMENT
On a first-cost basis, adding or replacing fan equipment is the
most costly alternative. However, on a life-cycle-cost basis,
considering operating and maintenance expense, it can be the
least expensive, as compared to increasing the speed of an
existing fan.
Sometimes a second fan may be added, either in series or
parallel with the original, although it may be more cost effective
to simply upgrade the system with a new fan capable of the
required airflow and pressure.
Adding another fan in series will increase the airflow because of
the additional pressure. The operating point of the new system
moves further out/up the system curve. Where duct size is
adequate to handle the desired amount of air but the existing fan
doesn’t provide sufficient pressure, a second fan in series may
be the best solution. However, make sure the ductwork can
handle the increase in pressure.
Adding another fan in parallel with the first will increase airflow
due to the combined capacities. Because capacities are being
combined instead of pressures, a greater increase in airflow will
result for a given system. However, system pressures will also
increase and caution is required to avoid the unstable operating
area of the combined fan system.
system on a step-by-step basis, considering the least expensive
possibilities first. For existing systems that seem to have lost
performance, fan and system maintenance is the place to start.
Often, simply improving the efficiency of existing components
will suffice. For systems that require greater airflow and/or
pressure, increased fan speed is generally the first alternative.
However, when large increases in performance are required,
there may be no alternative but to purchase a larger fan.
Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530
F I EL D T E S T I N G O F F AN S Y S T E M S
INTRODUCTION
A fan system may require field testing when the system is
thought to be malfunctioning, needs modification or requires
balancing of its volume and pressure characteristics.
When it has been determined that a field test is required, the test
can provide a complete check on fan performance. This includes
determination of air volume, fan static pressure and fan brake
horsepower.
This Engineering Letter details the steps involved in performing
a field air test. A field test sheet, which simplifies the recording
of test data and the calculation of test results, is provided. A list
of safety precautions to be observed while conducting the test is
also included.
INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
1. The best method of measuring both air velocity and static
pressure in the field is with a Pitot tube and manometer.
The absence of moving parts, combined with fundamental
simplicity, make this set of instruments accurate and nearly
foolproof. Both instruments may be used in nearly any
atmosphere and require no adjustments except for zeroing
the manometer prior to testing. Figure 1 shows a Pitot tube
cross-section. Figure 2 demonstrates how it is connected to
the manometer to indicate pressures by measuring the
difference in heights of water columns in the “U” tubes.
Most manometers, such as shown in Figure 3, read directly
in inches of water column. Some manometers may have
velocity graduations marked directly in feet per minute for
use where barometric pressure and temperature corrections
are normal (i.e., test conditions assumed to be 70°F. and
29.92 inches of mercury).
Figure 1 – Pilot Tube Cross-Section Figure 2 – Pilot Tube Connection
7
For greater convenience, a more compact Magnehelic
pressure gauge may be used with a Pitot tube as a substitute
for the manometer mentioned earlier. These gauges,
illustrated in Figure 4, are available in a variety of pressure
ranges.
2. A clip-on ammeter/voltmeter is used to obtain a reasonable
estimate of fan motor horsepower.
3. A calibrated hand tachometer is used to determine the fan
RPM.
4. An accurate temperature probe is used to measure
temperature at each test location where volume or static
pressure readings are taken.
Sometimes there are no accessible test duct locations suitable
for use with the Pitot tube. In this case, the air volume can be
determined at the system entrance or exit, or through a grille or
coil by using an anemometer or velometer. This method,
however, is not as accurate and readings should only be taken by
experienced service personnel familiar with this type of testing.
PERFORMING A PITOT TUBE/MANOMETER TEST:
1. Make a sketch of the system as a record and as a guide for
selecting locations for taking test readings. Often this will
call attention to poor system-design features. Include
dimensions, such as duct diameters or areas, duct length,
motor size, motor speed and sheave diameters on belt drive
fans.
Figure 3 – Pilot Tube/Manometer Test Kit
2. Determine the best possible location for obtaining the air 3.
volume readings via a Pitot tube traverse (set of readings).
The traverse location should not be directly after any turns,
transitions or junctions. The traverse should be after a
minimum of 2 1/ 2 duct diameters of straight duct. To obtain
the correct air volume, the Pitot tube and manometer or
4.
gauge should be connected to display velocity pressures, not
velocities (see Figure 5). The location of the test points
within each traverse is shown on the field test sheet
included with this letter.
5.
6.
7.
Figure 4 – Magnehelic Gauge
Figure 5 – Air Flow Pressure
Figure 6 – Static Pressure Readings
Page 2
Take static pressure readings several duct diameters from
the fan inlet and outlet to avoid turbulence (see Figure 6). If
the fan has either an open inlet or outlet, assume the static
pressure to be zero at the opening. Record the airstream
temperatures at each static pressure location.
Record the fan speed after measuring it with the tachometer.
If a tachometer is unavailable, make sure you record the
motor nameplate RPM and sheave diameters from which
the fan speed can be calculated.
Read the voltage and amperes supplied to the motor and
record the values for calculation of fan motor horsepower.
Measure the barometric pressure at the fan site with a
portable barometer or obtain the pressure from the nearest
weather station or airport. Be sure the barometric pressure
is correct for your altitude and that it has not been corrected
to sea level reference.
Determine whether the air being handled contains quantities
of moisture, particulates and/or gases other than clean air. If
so, obtain the concentrations and densities of the gases or
mixture for use in making density corrections.
The attached test sheet is used to calculate flow through a
fan. For additional information on conducting field tests of
fan systems, AMCA Publication 203, Field Performance
Measurements of Fan Systems, is recommended.
CALCULATING FAN PERFORMANCE This method requires power factor and motor efficiency data,
The following steps explain how to calculate density, CFM, SP, which may be difficult to obtain.
and BHP using the acquired test data. Another method is to draw an amps versus horsepower
curve, (see Figure 7). This is done by plotting a rough
1. Determine the density of the airflow through the fan during
horsepower versus amps curve for the motor as follows:
the test by using the dry-bulb temperature at the fan inlet
and the barometric pressure. Density in pounds per cubic a. Establish no-load amps by running the motor
foot is determined by: disconnected from the fan (point a).
Density
inlet = 0.075 ( 460530+ °F. ) ( Barometric Pressure
29.92 ) b. Draw a dotted line through one-half no-load amps, at
zero HP, and nameplate amps, at nameplate HP (points b).

2. Determine the density of the airflow at the CFM test c. At one-half nameplate HP, mark a point on this line
location (if different from inlet density) by: (point c).

Density d. Draw a smooth curve through the three points (a, c, b).
CFM = 0.075
( 460530+ °F. ) ( Barometric Pressure
29.92 ) e. Determine running HP by plotting running amps.

3. Calculate fan inlet air volume in CFM as measured with the Multiply fan horsepower by the “K” density correction factor
Pitot tube and manometer/gauge as follows: First, take the to determine HP at standard conditions.
square roots of the individual velocity pressures and compute 6. Locate volume, static pressure and horsepower on a
the average of the square roots. Then: performance curve drawn at the fan RPM. Curves can be
generated using manufacturer’s fan-selection software at
CFM = [ 1096 x test duct area (ft2) ] x specific densities, temperature and altitude.
inlet
The test plot values will probably not fall exactly on the
Avg. of Sum of √VP’s Density CFM
( √Density CFM test ) ( x Density Inlet ) curve. If the fan system has been designed and installed
properly, the difference should be small, reflecting test
accuracy. If the difference is great, the system should be
analyzed as described in the next section. Figure 8 shows a
The above calculation gives air volume in actual cubic feet
typical fan curve and field test points which fall on the curve.
per minute (ACFM) which is the conventional catalog
rating unit for fans. If standard cubic feet per minute is
desired, it may be calculated as follows:
Actual Inlet Density
SCFM = ACFM x ( Standard Density )
4. Determine the fan static pressure (SP) by the following
formula:
SP fan = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet

Where: VP CFM inlet Density

(1096 x inlet area in sq. ft.)
inlet x inlet Figure 7 – Amperes versus Horsepower
=

NOTE: Correct inlet and outlet static pressure to standard

values by the following formula before summing.
SP = SP Actual Density
standard actual ( Standard Density )
5. Fan motor horsepower may be determined in several ways.
The best is to read the volts and amperes supplied to the
motor and apply the formula:
For single phase motors:
Volts x Amps x Power Factor x Motor Eff.
Fan BHP =
746
For three phase motors:
Fan BHP = Volts x Amps x Power Factor x Motor Eff. x √3
746 Figure 8 – Typical Fan Curve and Field Test Points

Page 3
POOR PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS
If the test results indicate poor fan performance, a number of
simple steps can be taken that could improve performance.
Be sure that any dampers at the fan inlet or outlet are set to the
correct position and that no other system dampers such as fire
dampers, smoke dampers or balancing dampers have been
inadvertently closed.
A frequent cause of poor fan performance is the presence of poor
inlet connections. Sharp elbows, inlet boxes without turning
vanes and duct configurations causing the air to spin upon
entering the fan, are examples of undesirable inlet connections.
Fan performance is also impacted by poor outlet conditions.
Examine the outlet connection, keeping in mind that sharp
elbows, rapid expansions, reductions or the absence of an outlet
connection all together can reduce fan performance.
By connecting the Pitot tube and manometer/gauge to read
velocity pressure and inserting the Pitot tube through a hole at
the inlet connection (as illustrated in Figure 9), pre-spin can be
Figure 9 – Testing Fan Inlet for Spinning Airflow
determined. Once inserted, slowly twist the tube. The angle at
which air is entering the fan can be determined by observing the
angle of the tube generating the highest gauge reading. If the
angle deviates noticeably from being parallel to the fan shaft, the
air entering the fan inlet may be spinning and therefore reducing
fan performance.
Another reason for poor performance could be stratification of
the air entering the fan. By taking four temperature readings
ninety degrees apart in the inlet duct near the fan, the possibility
of stratification can be determined. A temperature difference of
10 degrees or more in the readings indicates stratification exists.
An illustration of stratification is shown in Figure 10.
Refer to Engineering Letters 5 and 6 for more detailed
explanations of system effect and improving fan performance.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The included list of safety precautions should be observed
whenever testing or servicing fan equipment.
Figure 10 – Condition Causing Stratification
Form 10 07
 FIELD TEST SHEET
Test * SP VP √VP
Fan Owner ______________________________________________________________ Points
Fan Location ____________________________________________________________ 1
2
Fan Nameplate Data ______________________________________________________ 3
Fan RPM ___________ Motor Nameplate Data _________________________________ 4
5
Motor Test Current _____________________ Voltage ___________________________ 6
Date __________________ Tested by _________________________________________ 7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Traverse Points for Round Duct Traverse Points for Rectangular Duct 21
22
23
Barometric Average SP Temperature Average Static Temperature 24
Pressure Inlet °F. Inlet Pressure Outlet °F. Outlet
Sum of √VP’s
Avg. of Sum
of √VP’s

Density 0.075 lb.

inlet =
ft.3 x ( 460530+ °F. ) x ( Barometric
29.92
Pressure
)= lbs./ft.3

Density 0.075 lb.

outlet =
ft.3 x ( 460530+ °F. ) x ( Barometric
29.92
Pressure
)= lbs./ft.3

Density 0.075 lb.

CFM test =
ft.3 x ( 460530+ °F. ) x ( Barometric
29.92
Pressure
)= lbs./ft.3

CFM Avg. of Sum of √VP’s DensityCFM test

inlet = 1096 x Duct Area x
( √DensityCFM test )( x Densityinlet ) = CFM

VP CFMinlet 2
inlet =
( 1096 x Inlet Area ) x 0.075 = “ W.G.

SP = SP 0.075 - SP 0.075 - VP
fan outlet x ( Densityoutlet ) inlet x ( Densityinlet ) inlet = “ W.G.

Single Phase BHP Amps x Volts x Power Factor x Motor Efficiency

fan = = BHP
746

Three Phase BHP fan = Amps x Volts x Power Factor x Motor Efficiency x √3
= BHP
746

* A minimum of 24 test points is recommended for round ducts less than 8 feet in diameter and rectangular ducts with
areas 24 square feet and less. For larger ducts, more test points are required.
 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
A WORD ABOUT SAFETY
Testing, adjusting, and maintaining fan equipment exposes
personnel to potential safety hazards. Only experienced
mechanics, who are aware of the safety hazards created by
moving or rotating parts, should be authorized to work on fan
equipment. The proper precautions must be followed to
prevent injury from moving parts.
Beginning in June 2012, the above WARNING signage has
been placed on all nyb fans, as specified by ISO and
recommended by the European Union. Air moving equipment
involves electrical wiring, moving parts, and air velocity or
pressure which can create safety hazards if the equipment is
not properly installed, operated and maintained. To minimize
this danger, follow these instructions as well as the additional
instructions and warnings on the equipment itself.
All installers, operators and maintenance personnel should
study AMCA Publication 410 - Recommended Safety
Practices for Air Moving Devices, which is included as part of
every shipment. Additional copies can be obtained by writing
to The New York Blower Company, 7660 Quincy Street,
Willowbrook, IL 60527-5530 or can be downloaded from our
web site at www.nyb.com.
ELECTRICAL DISCONNECTS
Every motor-driven fan should have an independent disconnect
switch to isolate the unit from the electrical supply. It should
be near the fan and must be capable of being locked by
maintenance personnel while servicing the unit in accordance
with OSHA procedures. Do not attempt any maintenance
on a fan unless the electrical supply has been completely
disconnected and locked.
MOVING PARTS
All moving parts must have guards to protect personnel.
Safety requirements vary, so the number and type of guards
needed to meet company, local and OSHA standards must be
determined and specified by the user. Never start a fan with-
out having all safety guards installed. Check regularly for
damaged or missing guards and do not operate any fan with
guards removed. Fans can also become dangerous because of
potential “windmilling”, even though all electrical power is
disconnected. Always block the rotating assembly before
working on any moving parts.
AIR PRESSURE AND SUCTION
In addition to the normal dangers of rotating machinery, fans
present another hazard from the suction created at the fan
inlet. This suction can draw materials into the fan where they
become high velocity projectiles at the outlet. It can also be
extremely dangerous to persons in close proximity to the inlet
as the forces involved can overcome the strength of most
individuals. Inlets and outlets that are not ducted should
be screened to prevent entry and discharge of solid objects.
ACCESS DOORS
Danger: Do Not Enter/Confined Spaces
The above DANGER decal is placed on all nyb cleanout
doors. These doors, as well as access doors to the duct
system, should never be opened while the fan is in
operation. Serious injury could result from the effects of air
pressure or suction.
Quick-opening doors must have the door handle bolts securely
tightened to prevent accidental or unauthorized opening.
Bolted doors must be tightened for the same reason.
MAXIMUM SAFE SPEED
Safe operating speed is a function of system temperature and
wheel design. Do not, under any circumstances, exceed the
maximum safe fan speed published in the nyb bulletin,
which is available from your nyb field sales representative.
 ENGINEERING LETTER 8
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

PROPER SELECTION OF PRESSURE BLOWERS

INTRODUCTION
In general terms, a pressure blower provides relatively high
pressure at low volume when compared to other types of
centrifugal fans. For purposes of this letter, fans with volumes
to 10,000 CFM with pressures to 80" WG are considered
pressure blowers. Typical applications require constant pressure
throughout the system’s operating range. A fan outlet damper or
system damper is usually used to control air volume.
Consequently, a requirement of pressure blowers is that they
provide stable performance from full-closed to full-open.
POINT OF OPERATION
Since typical pressure-blower applications require a constant
pressure, selections are normally near the flat peak of the static
pressure curve. See Figure 2. Because of the flat nature of the
pressure-blower curve, a typical question is, “what keeps the
fan’s performance from fluctuating between different points on
the fan curve?” The answer lies in the relationship between the
fan’s performance curve and the system curve.

Figure 3 – Typical Pressure Blower and System Curves

At a given RPM, the fan can only operate on its performance

Figure 1 – Dual-Tampered Pressure Blower Wheel
Most pressure blowers employ a radial-blade wheel design.
New York Blower’s research has resulted in a unique wheel
design that is not truly radial. The blades are slightly canted
backward and dual tapered from the hub to the blade tip. See
Figure 1. This design provides better efficiencies and, as a
result, significantly lower noise levels. The volume-pressure
characteristics remain the same as radial-blade wheels.
curve. The only way to alter this curve is to either increase or
decrease the fan’s speed. Conversely, the system can only
operate along one system curve. The only way to change this
system curve is to increase or decrease the resistance through
the system. Since the two curves can only intersect at one
point, the actual performance of the fan can occur only at the
intersection of the fan curve and the system curve. This is
depicted in Figure 3.

Figure 2 – Typical Pressure Blower Performance Curves

Note: Broken lines denote typical system curves.
Considering that pressure blowers are often selected near the
peak of their pressure curve, dampering usually results in an
operation left of the pressure peak. One benefit of radial-blade
wheel design is that it delivers stable performance left of peak.
Radial wheels bring other advantages to pressure blowers. The
radial design delivers greater pressures at a specific RPM than
both the radial-tip and backwardly-inclined designs. The
inherent strength of the radial wheel allows for the relatively
high wheel tip speeds required for the development of high
pressures. Remember, pressure is approximately proportional to
the square of the change in wheel tip speed. Therefore, a 2 PSI
pressure blower must be capable of speeds 1.414 times as fast as
a 1 PSI unit.
1.4142 = 2
SINGLE-STAGE VS. MULTI-STAGE
Single-stage pressure blowers are the most common and least
expensive of the two designs for the range of flows and pressures
noted in the introduction. A single-stage pressure blower consists
of a single wheel in a volute-shaped housing design, such as
shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 - Single-Stage Pressure Blower
Single-stage units are usually far more economical in applications
up to about 3 PSI. They are also less complex and easier to
maintain than multi-stage pressure blowers. Power consumption
is also less because the single-stage blowers are more efficient.
It is possible to place two, and sometimes more, single-stage
pressure blowers in series to develop pressure as high as 5 PSI
and still represent an economical alternative when compared to
the multi-stage units for the same performance. There is the
added reliability factor of being able to “limp along” with one
unit while the other unit is down for maintenance. When a
multi-stage unit is down, the entire system is down. Consult the
manufacturer for proper selection and application information
when designing pressure blowers for series operation.
Page 2
SELECTION PROCEDURES
Selecting pressure blowers or any other type of fan for
applications involving relatively high pressure requires some
special considerations. Pressure blowers are generally used with
the pressure entirely on the inlet or entirely on the outlet. Air is
compressed as it passes through the fan, lowering the volume
and raising the density. In negative pressure systems, air is
rarefied to become less dense. The extent to which the effects of
compression and rarefication must be considered depends
largely on the degree of accuracy employed in the actual system
design and calculation process.
During compression there is also a temperature rise associated
with the energy expended to overcome the system resistance
and fan inefficiency. The rule of thumb is to allow 1°F.
temperature rise for every 2" static pressure differential. For
example: a supply fan with 40" SP at the outlet will develop a
20°F. temperature rise at the fan outlet, as compared to the air
temperature at the fan inlet. To determine the proper air volume
for selection purposes, the effect on density of both compression
and temperature must be considered.
One notable exception to these rules for performance corrections
is the combustion-air-supply application. Burner manufacturers
use SCFM ratings to arrive at lbs./hr. of air. The air will be
compressed through the fan to a proportional lower volume, yet
higher density so that the total weight of air in lbs./hr. remains
constant and is sufficient for the combustion process.
PERFORMANCE CORRECTIONS
Fan performance is based on a standard density of .075 lbs./ft.3
Density corrections for positive or negative pressure are based
on changes in absolute pressure.
A. Standard absolute pressure is 408" WG at sea level.
B. Compressed density for + 40" SP at the fan outlet is:
( 408408”
+ 40”
) x .075 = .082 lbs./ft. 3
C. Rarefied density for - 40" SP at the fan inlet is:
- 40”
( 408408” ) x .075 = .0676 lbs./ft. 3
Density corrections for temperature changes are based on
absolute temperature in degrees Rankin (°R).
A. Standard absolute temperature is 530°R., 70°F.
(0°F. = 460°R.)
B. A 20° temperature rise over a fan inlet temperature of
70°F. gives the following density:
460° + 70°
( 460° + 70° + 20° ) x .075 = .072 lbs./ft.3
Also refer to the following sample selections
SAMPLE SELECTIONS C. Density ratio is:
442.6 460° + 70°
Example 1: No performance correction due to compression. x = 1.05
408 460° + 87°
D. Air density at the burner (B) will be:
075 x 1.05 = .079 lbs./ft.3
E. ACFM at (B) will be:
2300 ÷ 1.05 = 2190 ACFM
F. To get 2300 ACFM at (B), the volume of air entering
at (A) must be increased by the density ratio:
2300 x 1.05 = 2415 ACFM
What actually happens in the system? Select the pressure blower for 2415 CFM at 34.6" WG pressure at
A. 2300 ACFM at 70°F. at 408" atmospheric pressure .075 lbs./ft.3 density.
enters the pressure blower inlet (A).
Example 3: Performance correction due to negative pressure.
B. The pressure reading at (B) is 34.6" gage pressure or
408" + 34.6" = 442.6" absolute. The temperature has
increased to 87°F.
34.6
( 2
+ 70° )
C. Density ratio is:
442.6 460° + 70°
x = 1.05
408 460° + 87°
D. Air density at the burner (B) will be:
.075 x 1.05 = .0788 lbs./ft.3
E. ACFM at (B) will be:
2300 ÷ 1.05 = 2190 ACFM
F. The SCFM equivalent at (B) will be:
2190 x .0788 = 172.6 lbs./minute Given: draw-thru pneumatic conveying, as illustrated.
2300 x .075 = 172.5 lbs./minute Required: 4800 SCFM at - 34" WG.
Note: The changes in volume and density can be ignored in this What actually happens in the system?
case because the proper amount of air by weight will still be
available at the burner (B). Select the pressure blower for 2300 A. Air enters at 70°F. at 408" atmospheric pressure at the
CFM at 34.6" WG pressure at .075 lbs./ft.3 density. system inlet (A).
B. The resistance at the pressure blower inlet (D) is - 34"
Example 2: Performance correction required due to compression.
gage pressure or 408" 34" = 374" absolute.
C. Density ratio is:

( 374
408 )
= .92

D. Air density at (D) will be:

.075 x .92 = .069 lbs./ft.3
E. To get - 34" at (D) at .069 lbs./ft.3 density, the pressure
must be increased by the density ratio for proper fan
selection: -34" ÷ .92 = - 37" WG.
Given: injector conveying system, as illustrated.
F. Capacity = 4800 ÷ .92 = 5217
Required: 2300 CFM for the velocity required at (B).
G. Select the pressure blower for 5217 ACFM at 37" WG.
Resistance is 20 oz. or 34.6" WG.
What actually happens in the system? H. Operating horsepower would be:
.92 x rated BHP, corrected for the lower density.
A. Air enters at 70°F. at 408" atmospheric pressure at the
pressure blower inlet (A). Note: The actual air volume at the fan outlet will be less than
B. The pressure reading at (B) is 34.6" gage pressure or the volume at (A) by the density ratio, but the actual air volume at
408" + 34.6" = 442.6" absolute. The temperature has the fan outlet is not important in this system.
increased to 87°F.
34.6
( 2
+ 70°)
Page 3
NOISE ATTENUATION
A rising concern in many of today’s industrial applications is
OSHA’s criteria for noise levels. To meet these requirements,
many pressure blowers require sound attenuation. The
backward-canted and dual-tapered wheel design can result in an
8-10 db noise reduction over the traditional straight blade
design. In some cases, this may eliminate the need for a
silencer.
If attenuation is required, silencers are readily selected based on
their connection to either the inlet or outlet of the pressure
Figure 5 – Pressure Blower Silencer
blower. The most common connection is directly on the blower,
flange to flange. See Figure 5. Silencers are rated in dynamic
insertion loss (DIL) in decibels. These values are subtracted
from the pressure blower sound power level’s eight octave
bands.
The pressure drop through the silencer must be added to the
system requirements, but generally the values are less than 0.2"
and are insignificant.
Fo r m 6 0 7 G AW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 9
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

P N E U M AT I C C O N V E Y I N G
INTRODUCTION DUST COLLECTION AND FUME REMOVAL
A well designed pneumatic conveying system is often a more Dust collection, fume removal, and material conveying systems
practical and economical method of transporting materials from each have unique characteristics, but all three are similar in their
one point to another than alternative manual or mechanical dependence upon proper air velocities.
systems. This Engineering Letter outlines some of the
Dust collection and fume removal are generally thought of as
fundamental principals of pneumatic conveying systems and
“housekeeping” systems that usually incorporate a hood at the
explains various special considerations for fan selection.
system entry point. There are many types and styles of hoods in
TYPES OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING common use, and hood design is a subject in itself. Some state
and local codes offer hood design criteria, and there are several
Pneumatic conveying encompasses numerous different system
reference texts, such as Industrial Ventilation - A Manual Of
designs, technologies, and pressure ranges; however, there are
Recommended Practices, that can assist in the selection and
only three basic methods for moving material with air. These
design of hoods. In all cases the hood design should minimize
can be categorized into the following system types:
turbulence and offer the lowest possible entrance losses.
Dilute-phase conveying is the process of pushing or pulling
air-suspended materials from one location to another by Determining the minimum velocity for dust collection or fume
maintaining a sufficient airstream velocity to capture and removal is often a matter of practical trial-and-error judgment.
convey the suspended particles. State and local codes may dictate minimum velocities for certain
materials. Where no codes apply, the velocities shown in Figure
Dense-phase conveying relies on a pulse of air to force a slug 1 can be used as conservative estimates. Since these velocities
of material from one location to another. This form of conveying
are conservative, it is often possible to reduce them through
usually requires positive displacement blowers or compressors experimentation. Reducing the velocity to near the settling point
to generate the necessary pressure of 1.5 to 30 psig or more.
will generate the lowest overall operating cost but raises the risk
Air-film or air-float conveying is a means of moving product of system plugging, increased maintenance costs, and lost
along a conveyor on a cushion of air. production.
The use of fans for pneumatic conveying is generally limited to Dust Collecting and Fume Removal
dilute phase conveying and air film conveying. Duct Velocities
DILUTE-PHASE CONVEYING Velocity Velocity
Material Material
In this method of conveying, material is suspended in the in FPM in FPM
airstream. Suction or vacuum are not factors in this type of 1. Grinding Dust 5000
system and fan static pressures are no greater than 60" WG. If 2. Foundry Dust 4500 20. Jute Dust 3500
the system uses a fan on the exhaust end and the material is
3. Sand Blast Dust 4000 21. Grain Dust 3000
collected or separated from the airstream before it reaches the
4. Wood Flour 2000 22. Shoe Dust 4000
fan, the fan itself can be of a more efficient type such as
backwardly inclined. If the system is designed so that the 5. Sander Dust 2000 23. Rubber Dust 3500
combined material and air mixture passes through the fan, 6. Shavings, Dry 3000 24. Rubber Buffings 4500
selection is limited to the more rugged but less efficient fan 7. Shavings, Wet 4000 25. Bakelite Moulding
types intended for material laden airstreams. A number of 8. Sawdust, Dry 3000 Powder 3500
radial-blade wheel designs are available to handle various 9. Sawdust, Wet 4000 26. Bakelite Moulding
concentrations, sizes, and types of airborne particles. Radial-tip 10. Wood Blocks 4500 Dust 2500
wheel designs are tolerant of airborne contaminants, but radial-
11. Hog Waste 4500 27. Oven Hood 2000
tip fans are not generally thought of as bulk material handling
designs. In all cases, the fan manufacturer should be consulted 12. Buffing Lint, Dry 3000 28. Tail Pipe Exhaust 3000
to determine the most appropriate fan type available to handle 13. Buffing Lint, Wet 4000 29. Melting Pot and
the specific material quantity and type, but it must be understood 14. Metal Turnings 5000 Furnace 2000
that the fan manufacturer can neither control the variables in 15. Lead Dust 5000 30. Metallizing Booth 3500
pneumatic conveying systems nor provide any guarantee of the 16. Cotton 3000 31. Soldering Fumes 2000
service life of the fan itself. 17. Cotton Lint 2000 32. Paint Spray 2000
Applications requiring fans for dilute-phase pneumatic conveying 18. Wool 4000 33. Carbon Black 3500
fall into one of three basic categories: dust collection, fume 19. Jute Lint 3000 34. Paper 3500
removal, or material conveying. Figure 1
MATERIAL CONVEYING

Although the differences between dilute-phase material

conveying systems and dust collection or fume removal systems
might appear to be minimal, there are certain distinctions that
are critical to the successful operation of material-conveying
systems. These differences include the method of introducing
the material to the hood, the velocity requirements, the duct
configuration, and the fan type.

The introduction of material into a material conveying system

can be difficult. The most important criterion is to feed the
material into the airstream evenly. This can be accomplished by
means of gravity or by a mechanical device.

A hood or hopper can be used as a gravity feeder. Use of these

components is limited to dry, free-flowing materials. It is
important to remember that it is the velocity moving around and
past the material that induces it to flow. If the entry becomes
plugged with material, the required velocity cannot be
Figure 3 – Typical Rotary Valve Feeder
maintained, significantly impeding air and material flow.

A venturi feeder can be used to introduce material into the
airstream. Like the hood, it has no moving parts so there is
virtually no maintenance. However, the design of the venturi
must be tailored to each application and even the best ones can be
rather easily blocked if system conditions vary. Typical throat
velocities are 2 to 3 times the velocity in the main duct . . . see
Figure 2.
Since the purpose of a conveying system is to move quantities
of material suspended in air, the ratio of material to air (by
weight) is critical. The most common form of reference is to
state the ratio according to the combined weight in pounds per
hour. A conservative design approach is to keep the ratio of
matter-to-air below a 1:2 proportion. However, successful
systems have been designed using material loadings of 1:1 or
more when the system components are well-designed and
eliminate sharp turns, abrupt junctions, or other potential points
of binding, clogging, or drop-out and the material being
conveyed is well-defined and consistent.

Certain minimum conveying velocities must be maintained to

keep the material in suspension and flowing. To some extent
these velocities are dictated by, or at least related to, the mater-
ial-to-air ratio. For example, conveying sawdust at a rate of
1800 lbs./hr. through a 6" pipe with a material loading ratio of
1:2 will result in an air velocity of 4073 FPM.

1800 lbs./hr. material = 30 lbs./min.

Figure 2 – Typical Venturi Feeder
Rotary valves and screw-type (auger) feeders (see Figure 3) are
the most common mechanical devices used to introduce
material into the airstream. Both types offer a controllable flow
rate and are readily available in a number of standard designs to
handle pressures common to dilute phase conveying. However,
there are some precautions. Both are typically more expensive
than gravity-feed alternatives. Rotary valves can experience
internal air recirculation which causes a reduction in material
through-put. The screw-type feeder is a relatively high
maintenance device. In either case, the manufacturer of the
specific feeder should be consulted for selection, equipment
recommendations, and system limitations.
3
60 lbs./min. air ÷ .075 lbs./ft. std. density = 800 CFM.
6" pipe = .1964 ft.2 area inside.
2
800 CFM ÷ .1964 ft. = 4073 FPM.
Figure 4 provides conservative minimum conveying velocities
to be used for some common materials. The velocity shown for
sawdust is 4000 FPM. If the same 1800 lbs./hr. of sawdust had
been introduced to a system with a 1:1 design ratio and there
were no other changes to the system, the resulting velocity would
only be half and the material would probably settle and clog. To
compensate for the lower ratio, the pipe size could be reduced to
4", but this might introduce new problems in feeding the
material to the pipe or transitioning to the fan. In this example,
the 1:2 ratio would seem to be ideal.

Page 2
 Material Conveying FAN SELECTION
Duct Velocities
Just as designing around a velocity that is too low will impede
Velocity Velocity the material conveying capability of the system, unnecessarily
Material Material high velocities can also be detrimental. System resistance
in FPM in FPM
1. Wood Chips 4500 12. Cotton 4000 increases as the square of the increase in velocity. Therefore,
additional energy is required to overcome that resistance.
2. Rags 4500 13. Wool 4500
Also, the abrasive or erosive characteristics of the material
3. Ground Feed 5000 14. Jute 4500
being conveyed will increase with an increase in velocity,
4. Powdered Coal 4000 15. Hemp 4500 shortening the service life of all system components.
5. Sand 7500 16. Vegetable Pulp,
6. Wood Flour 4000 Dry 4500 Only the air volume is considered in determining the velocity.
7. Sawdust 4000 17. Paper 5000 The material volume is ignored to compensate for the periods
8. Hog Waste 4500 18. Flour 3500 of inconsistent material loading that occur during start-up and
9. Pulp Chips 4500 19. Salt 6000 shut-down. However, the material content of the overall
10. Wood Blocks 5000 20. Grain 5000 airstream mixture cannot be ignored when calculating system
11. Cement 6000 21. Coffee Beans 3500 resistance or when sizing the fan.
22. Sugar 6000
Fans are constant volume machines that discharge a fixed
Figure 4
volume of air at a fixed speed. If a fan is required to handle a
given volume of air and a given volume of material, it should
Sufficient velocities must be maintained throughout the
be sized to handle the combined volume. Using the previous
conveying system to avoid material settling. All airborne
example, 1800 lbs./hr. of sawdust at an average bulk density of
materials, except the finest of dusts or fumes, can settle in a 3 3
11 lbs./ft. results in 164 ft. /hr. or nearly 3 CFM. The fan
system or even in the fan itself. When settling occurs in the
should be selected to handle 803 CFM (800 + 3). In this
horizontal plane, it is known as salt ation. When settling occurs
example the 3 CFM is negligible. However, in situations
in the vertical plane, it is called choking.
where greater material volumes are being handled or when the
bulk material density is much lighter, the volume cannot be
Saltation is probably the most difficult to avoid because even ignored.
the smallest ridge or duct seam can begin the process.
Whenever possible, it is advantageous to employ the aid of
gravity to minimize potential build-up by designing the piping
The effects of the material on system resistance must be
or ductwork with a downward slope. This is particularly true
considered. Since most materials usually exhibit a lower
with fine granular materials.
coefficient of friction than air, a simple density correction
based on the combined weight and volume of the air/material
Choking in downward movement often occurs in the vertical mixture would result in an unnecessarily high correction. No
line as a direct result of saltation in the adjacent horizontal dependable methods of determining the flow resistance of
line. Upward movement is often easier to control because all air/material mixtures have been proven, so only reasonable
that is needed is sufficient momentum (velocity) to keep the estimates are available. Some researchers have theorized that
material in suspension. All falling materials simply drop back the bulk material content merely acts to reduce the effective
into the airstream. However, choking in the upward flow area of the pipe or duct and so ignore the density effect by
directly above the fan discharge poses additional problems. If calculating air resistance through the resulting smaller pipe
enough material is forced back into the fan where it diameter. The best method for determining the resistance of
recirculates, the fan will exhibit premature wear due to the air/material mixture is through pilot-plant testing or
excessive loading. experimentation. Figure 5 provides correction factors that can
be used as reasonable starting points for estimating resistance.
To minimize the potential for saltation or choking, it is
recommended that some provision be included in the system
for bleeding in excess air through adjustable vents or dampers.
See Figure 3. This excess air will effectively increase
MULTIPLY FRICTION
velocities in the system to assist material transportation. It is FOR CLEAN AIR
BY MULTIPLIER
important to remember that the fan selection must account for FRICTION
MULTIPLIER
the maximum potential excess air, and that handling more air
then the minimum system requirements will result in increased
power consumption.

CUBIC FEET OF AIR PER MINUTE PER POUND OF MATERIAL

Figure 5 – Resistance Factors

Page 3
Even though the air/material mixture does not follow the
traditional laws of fluid flow as they apply to friction or
resistance, it is suggested that the fan brake horsepower (BHP)
will increase according to the bulk density of the mixture. The
combined weight and total volume can be used to determine
the maximum airstream density for selecting a motor that will
handle the fan BHP at the bulk density.
Where,
1800 lbs./hr. material + 3600 lbs./hr. air =
5400 lbs./hr.
5400 ÷ 60 = 90 lbs./min.
90 ÷ 803 CFM = .112 lbs./ft.3 bulk density
To determine the approximate BHP for this example, multiply
the rated BHP at standard density of .075 lbs./ft.3 by 1.5.
(.112 ÷ .075) = 1.5
It is sometimes thought that a larger fan is naturally better than a
smaller one. This is far from correct since material is just as
liable to settle in a fan as in a duct. If the inlet and outlet
velocities of a fan are at least as high as the minimum conveying
velocity, no settling should occur in the fan. This is true for
both dust collection and conveying.
AIR-FILM CONVEYING
This method of pneumatic conveying uses a film or cushion of
air to move items such as cans, boxes, or plastic containers
through a plant. Used primarily in the packaging industry, air
film conveying usually requires fan static pressures of no more
than 8" WG. In most cases, the system utilizes several smaller
fans as opposed to one large fan. Because the air is clean,
various fan types can be used in these systems, including
backwardly inclined and radial-bladed designs. Selection is
based on pressure and flow, but configuration is equally
important.
Either positive pressure or vacuum can be used to move the
containers. In a pressurized system, air is directed through a
drilled or slotted surface, where the air is discharged at a slight
angle in the direction of flow. The greater the discharge angle,
the higher the velocity from one station to the next. Vacuum
elevators are used to raise or lower containers to different
levels in the system by holding them to a moving, perforated
belt. Vacuum transfer devises allow fallen or damaged product
to drop out of the system, thereby reducing downtime and
maintaining efficient high-speed processing. Both techniques
may be employed in different portions of complex conveying
systems.
The benefits of air film conveying over conventional mechanical
conveying include:
 Increased process speed.
 Lower maintenance costs (fewer moving parts).
 Reduced energy consumption.
 Reduced noise and safety hazards.
 Reduced downtime from jamming.
 Gentler handling of the product.
Many companies in the packaging industry use a combination of
air and mechanical conveying systems in their manufacturing
processes.
CONCLUSION
Pneumatic conveying systems have limitations, and alternate
manual or mechanical means cannot be ruled out. However,
pneumatic conveying systems usually require less plant space,
can be easily installed in the available or wasted space, can be
easily automated, can usually be easily altered for future
change, and usually carry a lower capital cost. Beyond these
economic advantages, pneumatic conveying systems can also
be useful in controlling or minimizing product loss, improving
dust control, and thus improving overall plant conditions.
Fo r m 6 0 7 G AW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 10
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

FANS AND BLOWERS FOR COMBUSTION PROCESS

INTRODUCTION
The burning of gas, oil, coal, or other combustible material Mechanical draft is accomplished in one of two ways: when
requires air. When the end result of the burning is to be an air is blown or forced into the combustion chamber it is known
efficient combustion process, in compliance with Federal and as forced draft . . . see Figure 2; when the air is drawn through
State Clean Air Act requirements, the volume of supply air the combustion chamber it is called induced draft . . see Figure
must be reliably controlled. Insufficient air volume will result in 3. When both forced and induced draft are used, the system is
wasted fuel and excessive particulate along with potentially termed a balanced-draft system.
explosive gases in the exhaust system. Too much air increases
the amount of heat carried up the stack by the excess draft.
Either extreme increases the cost and difficulty of controlling
exhaust emissions.

NATURAL AND MECHANICAL DRAFT

Air can be supplied to the combustion process by natural or
mechanical draft.

Natural draft simply refers to the use of a chimney or stack to

induce an upward flow of air. The stack effect pulls air into
the combustion chamber, as shown in Figure 1. The amount of
airflow depends on the stack’s height and diameter, the
prevailing wind velocity, and the resistance of the burner
mechanism or fuel bed itself. The demand for air-cleaning
apparatus on combustion systems, particularly oil and coal, Figure 2 – Forced Draft
has increased the overall system resistance to such an extent
that natural draft alone is seldom sufficient.

Figure 3 – Induced Draft

Generally, the fans or blowers used for induced-draft applications

Figure 1 – Natural Draft
Mechanical draft refers to the use of fans or blowers to create
airflow through the combustion area. When mechanical draft
is incorporated, the chimney or stack is used primarily to
direct the exhaust gases up and away where they will not be a
nuisance. Because wind velocity and direction are less
important, the combustion process can be much more carefully
controlled.
are larger and more expensive than those used for similar
forced-draft applications. The combustion process itself
creates gases and elevated temperatures that expand the
exhaust airstream, requiring fans with greater volumetric
capacity than would be required on the supply side of the
combustion process to supply clean, ambient air. Also, the hot
exhaust serves to lower the density of the airstream, so density
corrections must be applied to the fan static pressure (SP) to
overcome the actual system resistance. The fact that the
exhaust or flue gases are hot often requires induced-draft fans to
be of a construction suitable for higher temperatures.
The first induced-draft fans were applied to hand-fired, solid-fuel
boilers where the combustion chamber had to be at a negative
pressure to permit the operator to shovel in fuel.
When oil and gas became primary fuel sources, boiler designers
were able to seal the combustion chambers. As a result, forced-
draft fans became popular. The advantages were lower fan
power and fans handling clean air (no corrosion or abrasion) at
ambient conditions. These factors encouraged the use of airfoil
fans, further reducing power consumption. This led to the
almost universal use of pressurized firing in gas, oil, and
pulverized coal boilers by the mid 1950s.

However, by the late 1 960s the combustion process industry

had learned through experience that it was impossible to maintain
an airtight quality in large (approximately 150,000 lbs./hr. and
larger) industrial and power boilers. These units (some over 100
feet high) simply had too much thermal expansion. Fly ash and
noxious and corrosive fumes were creating tremendous
maintenance and personnel problems. This led to the development
of balanced-draft systems, in which both forced-draft and
induced-draft fans are used. (See Figure 4)
Figure 5 – Pressure Blower
Figure 6 shows a typical backwardly-inclined airfoil wheel
commonly used for forced-draft fans on balanced-draft boilers.
This type of fan is preferable because it typically is high
volume, medium pressure and is usually the most efficient fan
selection. Some airfoils, such as the nyb AcoustaFoil, are
capable of stable operation throughout a complete, dampered
range from wide-open to closed-off so the combustion rates can
be closely controlled with inlet or outlet dampers.

On boilers that use hot, dirty gases for combustion supply, the
gas recirculation fan most frequently selected is a radial-blade
type. This type of wheel is considered to be the most “rugged”
and will run at lower tip speeds. It is therefore less subject to
abrasion than radial-tip or backwardly-inclined wheels. (See
Figure 7)

Figure 4 - Balanced Draft - Forced and Induced

Forced-draft fans and blowers are common for cast iron firetube
and small water tube boilers. The fan or blower serves to
provide the air and the velocity necessary for the fuel-to-air
mixture to enter the actual combustion chamber. When used in
conjunction with induced draft, the forced-draft fan is often
called the primary air fan since it provides the primary
combustion supply air. The induced-draft fan provides the
airflow necessary to overcome system resistance and exhaust Figure 6 – Backwardly-Inclined Airfoil Wheel
the flue gases.

Some combustion systems draw hot, perhaps dirty air from

other processes. Forced-draft fans for such systems are called
gas recircula tion fans, and must be selected for the rigorous
conditions under which they will operate.
ALTERNATIVE FAN DESIGNS
Figure 5 shows a typical Pressure Blower for forced-draft
application. This type of unit is normally direct connected to a
3600 RPM motor and develops pressure sufficient to overcome
the total system resistance on small combustion systems. To
minimize motor bearing load and starting current, the wheel is
Figure 7 – General Industrial Wheel (Radial)
normally fabricated of high-strength aluminum. It is therefore
limited to handling clean, often filtered air. Pressure Blowers
are commonly used on small firetube boilers.

Page 2
Radial-blade fans were at one time commonly used for induced- explosive gases in the exhaust system. From this viewpoint it is
draft service. However, as pollution requirements have become better to include excess air volume. Some typical excess air
more stringent and control devices have been added to reduce percentages are shown in Figure 11 for reference only.
flue gas particulates (ahead of the induced-draft fan), radial-tip
blade or even backwardly-inclined fans have become popular The amount of air required for theoretically perfect combustion is
due to their higher efficiencies and higher volumetric based on the portion of the combustible substances carbon (C),
characteristics. (See Figures 8 and 9) The exception to this is hydrogen (H 2), oxygen (O2), and sulfur (S) contained in fuel.
where high efficiency scrubbers are used and the pressure These are the only combustibles found in common fuels.
requirements are increased to where the radial-bladed fans are
more suited. Air Required for Combustion
Combustible Lbs. of Air Per
Substance Lb. of Combustible
C Carbon 11.5
H2 Hydrogen 34.3
O2 Oxygen --
S Sulfur 4.3
Figure 10

The ratio of air required for perfect combustion to a pound of

each element in the fuel is shown in Figure 10. This ratio should
Figure 8 – Radial Tip Wheel
be multiplied times the percentage of the element in the fuel,
times the weight of the fuel to get the required weight of air, and
then excess air must be added and the result must be corrected
to the corresponding air volume per minute.

For example: Assume a fuel oil with 86.1% C, 13.8% H2 , 0.1% S,

and negligible free oxygen. The fuel oil weighs 6.8 lbs./gallon
and will be consumed at a rate of 5 gallons each hour.
.861 C x 11.5 x 6.8 = 67.3 lbs. air
.138H2 x 34.3 x 6.8 = 32.2 lbs. air
.001 S x 4.3 x 6.8 = .03 lbs. air
Total = 99.53 lbs. air

Figure 9 – Flat Blade Backwardly-Inclined Wheel 99.53 lbs. x 1.10 excess x 5 = 547.4 lbs./hr. air
547.4 ÷ 60 = 9.12 lbs./min. air
The combustion of coal and most fuel oils will release sulfur
fumes into the flue gas. If a wet scrubbing or cleaning apparatus In a combustion supply application handling standard density
3
is used, water vapor will combine with the sulfur to form air, this equates to (9.12 lbs./min. ÷ .075 lbs./ft. = 121.6 CFM).
sulfuric acid. This can place severe constraints on the fan types
Although there are a number of accepted methods for determining
available to handle this highly corrosive gas stream. For this
combustion air requirements . . . some rules of thumb, some
very reason, flue-gas-desulfurization (FGD) equipment is
exact calculations . . . they all rely on the actual portion of
designed into the pollution control systems of many combustion
combustion constituents found in the fuel in question. Figure 11
processes. Another alternative to reduce the potential for sulfuric
lists some typical examples, but a full, accurate list would be
acid in the exhaust system is to mix lime or crushed limestone in
impractical as there are hundreds of unique coal grades. In
a fluidized bed combustion process so the lime will neutralize the
practice, the combustion system designer should determine the
sulfur and stabilize the pH of the exhaust gases.
actual air volume requirements and the excess air margin based
on an analysis of the fuel in question.
FAN SELECTION
Ideally, the fan in any combustion process will supply just
In addition to the fundamental volume specifications, combustion
enough air to completely burn all the fuel, and no more. This
process fans, particularly larger fans, are often specified for two
will help keep heated, but unused, air from going up the stack.
conditions . . . actual and test block. The actual condition is the
Actually, this idea is approachable with gas burners but
calculated volume (including excess air) and pressure
impractical with wood- or coal-fired combustion. Thus, nearly
requirements. The test block condition is a theoretical duty that
all air volume requirements for combustion processes are
includes some safety factor beyond the actual volume and
calculated to include some margin of excess air.
pressure requirements. The fan selection for the application
As stated in the introduction, insufficient air volume will result should be capable of meeting both conditions with good efficiency,
in wasted fuel and excessive particulate along with potentially economy, and stability. Whenever possible, the actual condition
should represent the most efficient point of operation for the fan
selected for the application.

Page 3
 Typical Excess Typical P e r c e n t a g e o f C o m b u s t i b l e s (% Weight)
Fuel Air Range
(% Volume) Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulfur
Fuel Oil 5-20
No. 1 86.3 13.7 -- 0.3
No. 2 87.2 12.9 -- 0.5
No. 4 87.9 11.8 -- 1.1
No. 5 87.9 11.3 -- 1.8
No. 6 88.4 10.8 -- 2.1
Natural Gas 5-15 70.6 22.7 1.4 0.3
Wood, Pine 10-25 54.3 5.6 37.9 0.1
Coal (ref. only) 10-60 85.0 5.4 5.8 1.5
Coke 10-30 80.0 0.3 0.5 0.6
Figure 11 - Typical fuel analysis of excess air requirements and amount of combustibles.

Typically, direct-drive fans are preferred to belt-drive fans. 3. The entire fan assembly should be rugged to withstand
Direct-drive fan arrangements used are 4, 7, and 8. industrial service. Catalogs or drawings should contain
complete material specifications.
To reduce volume and pressure to meet the actual design or
reduced load conditions, inlet dampers or variable frequency 4. Whenever possible the entire fan, motor, and drive
drives are used. Variable speed offers the most efficient means assembly should be factory assembled, aligned, and
of performance reduction, although the initial cost and test run to ensure smooth operation. The fan
equipment maintenance is greater than that of dampers. These manufacturer should be capable of test running
must be evaluated on an individual job basis to determine complete assemblies.
whether the power savings will offset the greater initial price
differential and added maintenance costs. Induced-draft fans have further special requirements:
5. Where fan airstream temperature exceeds 300°F., the
Belt-drive fans, Arrangements 1, 3, 9, and 10, can be selected
fan should include a shaft cooler and the bearing base
for the most efficient operation at the actual operating conditions.
should be separated from the fan housing.
It is usually enough that belted units simply have sufficient speed
reserve to meet the speeds necessary to fulfill the test block 6. The fan should be selected to handle the maximum
condition by means of a change in drive sheaves. particulate loading. nyb offers radial, radial-tip, and
backwardly-inclined designs in a variety of alloys to
The criteria for selecting the fan motor is usually specified per
handle a wide range of contaminated airstreams.
job. Often, the motor is sized to handle the hot test block
conditions so the fan can be dampered for low load periods such
as start-up or shut-down. This reduces the dampering, or turn- 7. Fans handling particulate-laden airstreams should be
down, range required under actual conditions. furnished with shaft seals to protect the inboard
bearings. Ceramic-felt shaft seals usually provide the
FAN CONSTRUCTION best protection in these applications.
Fans used in combustion processes, whether forced or induced 8. Fans handling particulate-laden airstreams should be
draft, should be capable of meeting the following minimum furnished with a cleanout door and a drain to facilitate
requirements: periodic cleaning. Various quick-opening, bolted, and
raised, bolted cleanout doors and drain connections are
1. The fan pressure curves should be stable throughout the generally available.
entire operating range of the system (actual and test
block). Certain fans, such as most radials, the nyb 9. Blade liners, housing liners, and hard surfacing of
Pressure Blower, and the nyb AcoustaFoil, are stable blades and/or inlet cones may be desirable, depending
from wide-open to completely closed-off to offer the on the particulate loading.
broadest possible control range.
CONCLUSION
2. The fan and all its components should be designed to
The proper specification and selection of fans for combustion
meet even the test block condition without passing
processes require a careful communication between the system
through the first critical frequency of the rotating parts.
designer and the fan manufacturer. Given a clear understanding
A common specification calls for the fan shaft’s first
of the specification, the fan manufacturer can offer the
critical speed to be 125% of the maximum operating
appropriate fan type and accessories for the application.
speed.
Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 11
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR FAN DAMPERS

INTRODUCTION
Dampers are the most common volume control The horsepower and electrical power savings of this damper make it attractive
device used in fan systems. Low in cost, for systems required to operate at reduced flow rates for extended periods, such
dampers require little maintenance, easily adjust as in variable-air-volume systems. While Figure 2 illustrates an inlet damper’s
airflow during operation, and need little space. effects on a backwardly inclined fan, the same general results are achieved
For these reasons, they are often selected over using inlet dampers on any type of centrifugal fan.
more complex control systems such as variable
frequency drives.
To select the best damper for a particular
application, it is necessary to understand the
requirements of the application as well as the
capabilities of different damper systems.
Since dampers may be placed on either side of
the fan, they are classified as either inlet or
outlet. Both reduce airflow in predictable
amounts, but by different means.
Outlet dampers control the air after it has passed
through the fan by changing the resistance the
fan is working against. Figure 1 shows the
effects of various outlet damper settings on a
backwardly-inclined fan. It illustrates how the
damper controls CFM, static pressure, and its
impact on fan BHP.
As the outlet damper is closed, the point of
operation moves to the left of the selection point
along the fan’s static pressure curve. Adding
resistance with the outlet damper also moves the
fan horsepower to the left on its curve. With Figure 1 - Static pressure and brake horsepower curves for backwardly-inclined fan with outlet
radial-blade and forward curved-fans, the damper. As the damper closes, the point of operation - brake horsepower and static pressure - moves
dampered horsepower will be less than the wide to the left of the original fan selection point to the 90 -degrees (wide open) damper setting.
open horsepower as the fan moves to the left on
the BHP curves. With backwardly inclined fans,
the dampered horsepower may be less, the same,
or more than its wide open horsepower,
depending on the original point of operation. For
more information see Engineering Letter 3.
Inlet dampers affect the air before it enters the
fan. External, internal, or inlet box inlet dampers
cause the entering air to spin in the same
direction as the fan rotation. Because of this, the
fan wheel can not develop full output. This
results in lower volume and reduced BHP.
When a backwardly inclined fan has an inlet
damper, it reacts as shown in Figure 2 as the
damper vane angle is changed. For each new
damper vane position, new SP and BHP curves
are generated. The new point of operation is
defined by the system in which the fan is
installed. The end result is similar to the change
that occurs when slowing down an undampered
fan. Figure 2 - Effect of applying inlet dampers to the fan in Figure 1. Separate SP and BHP curves are
developed for each vane setting. Fan operating points at these settings are determined by system
resistance (points where system curve intersects SP and BHP fan curves).
TYPES OF OUTLET DAMPERS
The parallel blade arrangement shown in Figure 3 is the simplest,
most economical, and most popular type of outlet damper. The
cross-sectional area of a wide-open damper is not greatly
reduced until the blades have been moved to the 30 degree open
position. Consequently, the outlet damper control arm swings
through a relatively large arc to reduce fan capacity a small
amount. This makes the parallel-blade outlet damper particularly
useful when installed on a continuous process system where
sensitive control of air volume between wide open and 70% or
80% of wide-open is desired. The large control arm swing also
allows predetermined settings of airflow to be repeated
accurately. This damper, being the least expensive of the
various designs, also makes it the usual selection for systems
that require two position damper operation (either full-open or
full-closed). Another common application involves cold starts
on a “hot” system requiring a reduction in airflow to reduce
Figure 5 - Airflow Patterns through Dampers
BHP until the system reaches temperature.
Opposed-blade outlet dampers, as pictured in Figure 4, are used
when a straight line relationship between fan volume and control TYPES OF INLET DAMPERS
arm swing is desired. In this design, alternate blades turn in
Inlet dampers can provide a substantial horsepower savings for
opposite directions. Therefore, the change in volume, with respect
fans that are operated at reduced capacity for extended periods
to the damper position, is proportional to control arm swing.
of time. Concerns for energy conservation and reduced
The opposed-blade damper is usually selected when it is operating expense make this feature desirable and often
necessary to maintain an even distribution of air immediately mandatory when designing a system.
downstream from the damper. Figure 5 illustrates the
A good example of how inlet dampers are used to accomplish
downstream air pattern of an opposed-blade versus a parallel-
energy savings can be seen in a typical variable volume heating-
blade damper. Opposed-blade dampers cost more than parallel-
cooling ventilation system. In this application much less air is
blade models of the same size due to the increased complexity needed for winter heating than for summer cooling. In addition,
of the linkage required to provide the opposed-blade motion.
during summer operation, less air is needed for cooling during
the nighttime hours than during the peak daytime hours. Yet, the
fan system must be selected for the worst condition/highest air
flow. The inlet damper offers the greatest long term savings in
VAV applications due to reduced horsepower requirements at
reduced volumes.
External inlet dampers, as shown in Figure 6, are mounted
external of the fan structure. The configuration is circular with
the damper vanes connected to a central hub through pivot
bearings. The control linkage is also circular and exposed for
easy inspection and maintenance.
Generally, this is the most expensive damper configuration. It is
also capable of handling higher velocities and pressures than the
internal inlet damper.
Figure 3 - Parallel-Blade Outlet Damper

Figure 4 – Opposed - Blade Outlet Damper Figure 6 – External Inlet Damper

Page 2
 Figure 7 – Internal Inlet Damper Figure 8 – Inlet - Box Damper Mounted To Inlet Box

The internal inlet damper, pictured in Figure 7, is similar to the
external inlet damper with respect to controlling fan
performance. The most significant difference is that the internal
damper is a self-contained unit furnished as an integral part of
the fan inlet cone. This provides considerable space savings and
eases installation. The internal inlet-damper design, however,
may tend to create some resistance at wide-open, due to the
control vanes being in the high velocity region of the fan inlet.
Therefore, appropriate airflow reduction factors, as listed in a
separate engineering supplement, must be used when sizing a fan
with this type of damper. In addition, the damper control linkage
is in the airstream on the inside of the fan housing and must be
serviced through a cleanout door in the housing.
Inlet-box dampers (Figure 8) are parallel-blade rectangular
dampers mounted on an inlet box in such a way that the airflow
from the damper produces a vortex at the fan inlet. Inlet-box
dampers are generally preferable on fans equipped with inlet
boxes and have the same general control requirements as
standard inlet dampers. Because the bearings are not in the
airstream, inlet-box dampers are often used in airstreams that
contain some particulate. Predicting the exact flow reduction
with damper angle varies with damper types and products.
Normally this is not a requirement since flow should be
established using manual reference or feedback from automatic
control systems. For all inlet-vane dampers, vane angle versus
flow relationship will change when dampers are applied to
wheels that have been narrowed to establish specific capacities
at direct drive speeds.
Inlet dampers typically improve the stability of most products
because they control the flow through the fan inlet. At extreme
dampering, about 30° open, inlet dampers can no longer create a
vortex and become essentially a blocking damper. This causes the
fan to operate far to the left on its curve. When this happens, a fan
is subject to the same problems of instability as if the point of
rating was established by an outlet damper or other system
changes.
COMBINED INLET AND OUTLET DAMPERS
Occasionally it is desirable to save more power at reduced
capacity while maintaining very sensitive control. In this case,
the fan may be equipped with both inlet and parallel-blade outlet
dampers. With the outlet damper set at wide-open, the inlet
damper is set to give just slightly more air than needed. Exact
air delivery is obtained by adjusting the outlet damper. Because
the outlet damper vanes require a lot of movement to achieve a
slight change in air delivery, sensitive control is achieved.
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
Figure 9 shows the effects of damper settings on airflow and
brake horsepower for parallel and opposed-blade outlet
dampers, and inlet and inlet-box dampers. These plots represent
generalizations of damper effect on fan performance and can be
used to compare one type to another.

Figure 9
Effect of vane setting on airflow and power for various damper types. When a parallel-blade outlet damper is set for 80 percent of
wide-open capacity, the damper setting is 40 degrees, and the fan operates at 85 percent of wide-open horsepower. However, with an
inlet damper, operation at 80 percent of wide-open requires a 53 degree damper setting and 72 percent of wide-open horse-power.
Note: These curves are representative, not precise. See text.

Page 3
 External and
Parallel-Blade Opposed-Blade Inlet-Box
Internal
Outlet Damper Outlet Damper Damper
Inlet Dampers

1. Cost Least costly. 1.1 to 1.2 times as much Internal - 1.5 to 2.5 times
as parallel blade. as much as parallel-
blade.
External - 3 to 4 times as
much as parallel-blade.
1.3 to 1.4 times as much
as parallel-blade;
combined with inlet box
3 to 4 times as much as
parallel-blade.

2. Control Best for full-open or Best for systems where Same as opposed-blade Used on fan inlet box.
closed requirements or air volume is changed outlet damper. Can be used with some
for fine control between over a wide range and a particulate in airstream.
80% to 100% full-flow. straight line relationship
of volume to control arm
swing is desired.
3. Horsepower Depends upon characteristic BHP curve; Power consumption at Same as inlet damper
Backwardly inclined - same, more, or less than reduced air volumes is
wide-open, FC and Radial – less than wide- less than with outlet
open. dampers.

4. Air flow after fan Throws air to one side. Distributes air evenly. No effect. No effect.

Figure 10 - Comparison of Inlet and Outlet Dampers

SUMMARY

Each system has its own requirements with respect to the
control of air volume. System designers must be aware of not
only first cost considerations but, more importantly, of the long
term operating savings that can be achieved by a properly
engineered system. Each system also imposes limits on which
dampers can be used with respect to fumes, control sensitivity,
and temperature. No one damper design is best for all
applications. Figure 10 provides a comparison to help the
designer recognize some of the factors to be considered in
damper selection.

Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 12
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

AN INTRODUCTION TO FAN ACOUSTICS

INTRODUCTION
Fan Acoustics is an important consideration in the industrial
environment and with commercial ventilation systems. The
sound generated by some fans can be a potential hazard to
personnel in close proximity to the fan, and the sound can be
transmitted, via the ductwork connected to the fan, to all areas
serviced by the fan. Because of these concerns, fan
manufacturers publish sound ratings for their products to serve
as a guide for selecting fans to meet sound specifications, and to
assist acoustical consultants in predicting the total noise levels
in specific environments. This Letter provides basic information
to help understand fan sound ratings and how to apply them.
WHY FANS MAKE NOISE
Like any mechanical device, fans generate sound, which
emanates naturally from the turbulence of moving air, the
mechanics of moving parts of the fan, and from vibration.
AIR TURBULENCE
Air turbulence within the fan increases the sound coming from
the air movement. The noise resulting from air turbulence is a
major factor in the sound levels of a fan in a specific
application. Further, duct work can transmit this turbulent noise
to all areas serviced by the fan.
The next factor to consider is the fan design. Generally a fan
operating at peak mechanical efficiency will produce less noise,
because high efficiencies result from minimal air turbulence
within the fan.
There are four basic centrifugal fan wheel designs - forward
curved, backwardly inclined, radial, and radial tip - and a variety
of axial flow wheel designs (see Figure 2). Each wheel design
has unique sound characteristics due to the way they handle air,
and the efficiencies they can achieve.
Fan speed does not always determine which fan will be quieter.
For example, centrifugal fans have higher amplitudes at lower
frequencies, while axial fans exhibit higher amplitudes at the
higher frequencies.
The amplitude of the blade pass frequency on an axial fan is
higher and more pronounced than on backwardly-inclined fans,
and commonly will have amplitude peaks at multiples of this
frequency.

Factors contributing to air turbulence include the resistance to

flow, flow separation along fan surfaces, and shock related to
abrupt changes in the direction of airflow, pressure, or velocity.
The principal areas where such turbulence is encountered within
a fan are shown in Figure 1.

A lower noise level can be achieved by reducing air turbulence.

This can be done by considering several factors related to air
movement when selecting fans.

The first factor to consider is the fan’s blade pass frequency,

which is a pure tone produced when the blades of the fan wheel
(impeller) rotate past the housing cut-off sheet in centrifugal
fans, or the turning vanes, in axial fans. The blade pass
frequency is calculated by multiplying the number of blades
times the rotating speed in revolutions per minute. If this
frequency matches the natural frequency of the ductwork, it can
excite the ductwork, which can cause it to resonate, thereby
increasing the noise level.

Because of this possible increase in sound, and because certain

pure tones are irritating to people, the sound output of the blade
pass frequency should be investigated when sound reduction is Figure 1 - Typical Areas of Turbulence
desired.
 Figure 2 – Various Wheel Types

Of the four centrifugal designs, the backwardly-inclined fans

are the most efficient, and therefore, the quietest. Those with
airfoil-shaped blades offer the highest efficiencies, for clean
air environments, while those with single-thickness blades can
be used in applications where light dust or moisture is present,
although the efficiencies are somewhat lower.

Certain types of axial fans offer the next highest efficiencies.

An excellent example is the nyb Vaneaxial fan that uses airfoil
shaped blades in an in-line flow design. This fan is used to
handle high volumes of clean air at low pressures, which is a
typical ventilation application.

Radial fans are typically low efficiency, open designs for

special purpose applications, such as bulk material handling,
or exhausting/supplying lower volumes of air at higher
pressures. An exception to this is the nyb DH design (Figure
3), which has superior efficiencies for a radial wheel and
relatively low sound levels. A radial fan will be much louder
than a backwardly-inclined fan operating under the same
volume and pressure conditions.
Radial-tip fans, commonly used to handle larger volumes of
air that contains particles or material, exhibit sound
characteristics similar to the radial fans.
The sound spectra of radial and radial-tip fans contain
amplitude spikes at various frequencies, and a noticeable spike
at the blade pass frequency.
The forward-curved fan design operates at speeds that are
much slower than the other fan types, which results in lower
noise levels from mechanical operation and vibration.
However, because of its modest efficiencies, a forward-curved
fan may be noisier than a backwardly-inclined fan when
operating at comparable volume and pressure. The sound
spectrum of the forward-curved fan shows a slower rate of
reduction in amplitudes than the other centrifugal types, and
because of the large number of blades, the blade pass
frequency occurs much later in the spectrum and is not
predominant.
Figure 3 – DH Wheel
components are in the airstream. Motor sound will vary with
speed, enclosure, electrical characteristics, and even the manu-
facturer. Antifriction bearings can be used to reduce bearing
noise, and proper drive selection will reduce the likelihood of
belt hop, or slap. Of course, proper maintenance must be
employed to keep the moving parts running smoothly, and
quietly.
VIBRATION
Excessive vibration can significantly add to the overall noise
level of an installation. This will occur if the fan or any of its
components are not adequately balanced, if the fan is installed
on an insufficient foundation, or if the fan is not properly
isolated from other system components. For example, it is not
uncommon for the fan’s support structure or ductwork to have a
natural frequency at the fan’s operating speed or blade pass
frequency, either of which can cause the system to resonate at
that frequency, increasing the sound levels, and the possibility
of damaging the installation. These risks can be eliminated by
changing the speed of the fan, installing appropriate isolation,
and/or detuning of the fan or affected system components.

MECHANICAL NOISE NOISE MEASUREMENT

The moving components of the fan - the motor, bearings, and
drive - produce sound. This too can be transmitted through the Overall noise levels can be measured at any installation using a
system via the fan structure or shaft, or when these variety of portable sound level meters, or more sophisticated
equipment like a frequency analyzer (Figure 4).

Page 2
Sound Pressure (Lp), is an atmospheric pressure change that is
audible to the human ear, and is measured from a point in
space where the microphone or listening device is located. The
human ear can perceive a broad range of sound pressures,
from the threshold of hearing (2 x 10 - 7 microbar) to the
threshold of pain (1 microbar). The threshold of pain is five
million times louder than the threshold of hearing. The decibel
is used in acoustical work to indicate sound pressure levels
because it condenses this tremendous range of values to a
workable range of from 10 dB to 130 dB. A decibel (dB) is a
logarithmic ratio of some measured value to some reference
value. It is standard international practice to use the sound
pressure at the threshold of hearing as the reference value for
the sound pressure level scale.
Figure 5 shows the relationship between the sound pressure
measured in microbar, and the sound pressure levels measured
in decibels.
Often a single sound pressure value is used to represent the
total sound spectrum. This is expressed as dBA, indicating that
the sound pressure, in decibels, has been adjusted to reflect a
single number value for a sound pressure, weighted by the “A”
scale. The “A” scale weighting reduces the effect of lower
frequencies, with the intent to establish a value more
proportional to the human ear frequency response. dBA is
used by OSHA to set maximum allowable noise levels, pre-
scribing a maximum dBA limit for an 8 hour exposure. dBA
can be measured with a sound level meter, or calculated by
applying the weighted values to the eight octave bands
encompassing the range of hearing.
Better definition of sound pressure levels is gained by breaking
the sound spectrum into discreet ranges. The standard practice
is to divide the audio spectrum into eight octave bands
identified by the center frequency of each band. Figure 6
shows the octave bands of the audio spectrum as defined by
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard S
1.6, series 2.

Series 2
ANSI S1.6
From To Center Band
(Hz) (Hz) Frequency (Hz) Number
45 90 63 1
90 180 125 2
180 355 250 3
355 710 500 4
710 1400 1000 5
1400 2800 2000 6
2800 5600 4000 7
5600 11200 8000 8
Figure 6

Fan manufacturers generally test and rate fan noise according to

Figure 4 – Frequency Analyzer
Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) Publication
300 - Test Code for Sound Rating Air Moving Devices, and
Publication 301 - Methods for Calculating Fan Sound Ratings
from Laboratory Test Data. This testing procedure requires a
reverberant or semi-reverberant room with a calibrated
reference sound source to determine the room characteristics,
and is known as the substitution method.

Sound data is acquired in the octave bands shown in Figure 6.

The measured sound pressure of a test fan is mathematically

converted to a sound power level using predetermined
microphone locations.

MEASURING FAN NOISE

Figure 5 – Sound Pressure Measurements
dBA is a useful measurement for evaluating the overall noise
level at a particular location, but this measurement takes into
account all of the sound sources affecting that particular
location, which include the sounds from all equipment in the
area, natural sounds of the environment, and from other
environmental factors. Some of these factors are the current
physical properties of the air such as temperature, humidity,
and pressure, whether the location is outside or inside, the size
and material of the room. All of these affect the sound

Page 3
pressure experienced by the listener, and recorded by the Total sound power can be broken up to inlet sound power and
sound level meter. Because of this, it is impossible for the fan outlet sound power. For all functional purposes, the sound
manufacturer to guarantee sound pressure levels or dBA power that is radiated from the inlet and outlet of a fan is equal
values. to each other. Because a fan manufacturer can present its
sound information in the form of inlet, outlet, and total sound
For several years fan manufacturer,s and other makers of power, it is important to clarify the identity of the rating before
industrial equipment, have used Sound Power (Lw) values to any comparisons and calculations are made.
test and rate fans. Sound power has been chosen because it is
independent of the acoustical environment in which the fan is In general, a fan manufacturers’ sound ratings are at peak point
installed. It is the only value that is specific to the particular of efficiency as shown in Figure 8. As stated earlier, fan
fan. efficiency and air turbulence contribute to changes in noise
levels. Consequently, if a fan is operating at a point of
Sound power is the total energy emitted from a fan which is a operation outside its maximum efficiency range, the user will
function of the fan’s speed and point of operation, and is have to correct the manufacturers’ sound ratings as shown in
independent of the fan’s installation and surrounding the table on page 5.
environment. A sound power level is the acoustical power
expressed in dB radiating from a sound source. It is defined as:
10 log (Watts)
Sound Power (Lw) =
(10 -12)
Sound power levels can be converted into predictable sound
pressure levels once the acoustical environment surrounding
the fan is defined.
Sound pressure for a given fan changes with a change in air
volume, pressure, or efficiency. Because of this, fans must be
tested at several speeds and efficiency points. After a fan’s
sound power level has been determined at different speeds and
points of operation, it is important to remember that these
levels will always be the same unless the fan is physically
altered. If a fan line is geometrically proportional, the sound
power for other fan sizes can be accurately projected from the
base fan. AMCA Publication 301 defines methods for acquir-
ing such data.

FAN SOUND RATINGS

Figure 8
The sample table shown in Figure 7 shows a listing of total
sound power for a particular fan size and type at several speeds Figure 8 shows a fan's point of operation at the intersection of
in each octave band. Sound power ratings can also be the static pressure and volume range on the curve. Since air
presented graphically. volume can be defined by a velocity or velocity pressure
through the fan’s outlet area, the fan’s point of operation can
Fan Octave Bands be defined by stating the ratio of velocity pressure to static
RPM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 pressure, or VP/SP. By using a chart such as the one shown in
1100 73 72 68 62 59 58 51 45 Figure 9, the user can make the necessary sound corrections
for fan operations outside the maximum efficiency range.
1300 79 74 75 67 63 62 57 50
1500 85 77 78 71 67 66 62 54 Published fan sound power ratings and corrections only
1700 90 80 81 75 70 69 66 58 reflect noise created by air turbulence within the fan.
1900 93 83 83 78 73 71 69 61 Because of the infinite variables, mechanical noise and
2200 96 86 86 82 76 74 72 66 vibration noise are impossible to accurately predict, and
2600 99 90 86 88 80 77 75 70 are not included in the rating.
3000 101 93 88 90 83 79 78 74
Another rating method is described in AMCA Publication 302 -
3400 105 98 90 94 87 82 81 78
Application of Sone Ratings for Non-Ducted Air Moving
3800 107 102 94 96 90 85 83 81 Devices. A Sone is a ratio of loudness between two sounds.
4200 109 106 97 98 93 88 86 84 The Sone scale is linear, ranging from soft to loud. Unlike the
4600 111 109 99 99 97 91 88 86 decibel, two Sones are twice as loud as one Sone. This method
5000 113 112 102 100 101 93 90 88 will produce reasonably accurate estimates of sound pressure
in a free-field condition, and is used by manufacturers of roof
Figure 7
ventilators and other non-ducted commercial ventilation
products, but is not suitable for analytical purposes.

Page 4
 Fan Point of Octave Bands
VP/SP
Speed Fan Operation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 to .03 Peak SP 5 3 0 1 1 0 -3 -1
up to .03 to .10 Peak ME 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2500 .10 to .30 1/2 Peak SP 4 2 0 0 2 1 2 2
.30 and up Near Wide Open 2 2 2 1 3 3 2 3
0 to .03 Peak SP 3 4 5 4 0 0 0 -2
over .03 to .10 Peak ME 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2500 .10 to .30 1/2 Peak SP 4 2 0 3 3 3 2 1
.30 and up Near Wide Open 3 3 1 3 4 5 3 4
Figure 9 - Typical dB Corrections for Point of Operation
APPLYING SOUND POWER Line 4 - enter the appropriate correction for the type of fan
installation. If neither the inlet nor outlet are ducted,
When the sound power for a fan has been calculated at a fixed
speed and known point of operation, the sound pressure can be no correction is necessary. If either the inlet or outlet is
estimated. It should be remembered that sound pressure or dBA ducted away from the listening location deduct 3 dB.
predictions are only estimates based on certain known This 3 dB reduction accounts for the assumption that
conditions or assumptions regarding the location of the fan and the amplitude of inlet and outlet noise is approximately
the physical installation. equal and half the noise is ducted away. Figure 10
provides a graphic depiction of the effects of adding or
The Short Form for Sound Calculations shown on page 8 is one subtracting noises of similar or like amplitude.
way to calculate sound pressure. This is a step-by-step method
for estimating sound pressure levels or dBA for a specific
installation.
The short form only applies to outdoor installations or to indoor
installations where the listener is relatively close to the fan and
the room is relatively large. Such installations may be termed
“free field.” Even given these assumptions, reflecting surfaces,
inadequate support structures, high-loss ductwork, or flexible
duct connections could seriously alter the outcome.
Figure 10
For example, the fan corresponding to Figures 7 and 9 might be
required to operate at 1500 RPM: If the inlet and outlet are both ducted away from the
Octave Band 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 listening location, only the sound power radiated
through the fan housing will remain. The appropriate
Center Frequency 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
reduction will vary from one fan to another depending
1. Fan Total Sound upon the specific housing thickness and reinforcements
85 77 78 71 67 66 62 54
Power @1500 RPM and their attendant transmission loss. Refer to the
2. VP/SP Correction 5 3 0 1 1 0 -3 -1
manufacturers’ rating tables for the appropriate
reduction for a specific fan type.
3. Fan Sound Power
90 80 78 72 68 66 59 53 For this example, assume only the outlet noise is
(1) + (2)
ducted to the listening location.
4. Correction for Insta-
-3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 Line 5 - enter the algebraic sum of lines 3 and 4.
llation (inlet or outlet)
5. Corrected Sound Line 6 - End reflection is a phenomenon that takes place when a
87 77 75 69 65 63 56 50 sound wave reaches an abrupt expansion such as the
Power at Fan (3) + (4)
6. End Reflection end of an open duct. At this point some of the sound
14.5 9.0 4.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 waves are actually reflected back into the duct so that
Values
the resultant sound power level is reduced. The effects
7. Corrected Sound
Power (5) - (6)
72.5 68 70.5 67.5 65 63 56 50 are more pronounced in lower frequency ranges and in
smaller duct diameters as shown in Chart III, page 8.
8. Conversion for For applications where noise level emitted from the
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Sound Pressure, Q=2
inlet or outlet duct concerns the listening location, the
9. Sound Pressure duct diameter must be determined and the appropriate
52.5 48 50.5 47.5 45 43 36 30
at 15 feet values subtracted from the fan sound power.
Line 1 - enter the published sound power for each octave band
corresponding to the required speed. For this example, assume only outlet ducted noise is
available at the listening location and the duct is 15" in
Line 2 - enter the appropriate VP/SP correction. For this
diameter. (See Chart III on page 8.)
example, assume VP/SP = .025.
Line 3 - enter the algebraic sum of lines 1 and 2. Line 7 - enter the difference between lines 5 and 6.
Line 8 - enter the correction for directivity and distance.

Page 5
 As mentioned previously, the amplitude of a noise
level will vary depending upon the installations and
the distance between the source and the listening
location. The number of reflecting surfaces also
determines the sound wave radiation pattern. These
patterns are known as directivity factors (Q) and
indicate the type of radiation from the number of
reflecting surfaces.
AMCA Publication 303 - Application of Sound
Power Level Ratings describes Q = 1 as having
spherical radiation with no reflecting surfaces. An
example would be an axial fan located in a stack. Q =
2 is used for hemispherical radiation where one
reflecting surface is present such as a fan on the floor
in the middle of a room. For each additional
reflecting surface, the directivity factor is doubled.
For example, a fan mounted on the floor directly
adjacent to a wall would have a Q = 4 factor.
The appropriate directivity factor must be used in
conjunction with the distance from the noise source
to the listening location to obtain the reduction factor
(Lw - Lp) to convert sound power to an estimated
sound pressure. Using Chart I on page 8, the
listening distance from the source must be plotted on
the bottom horizontal graph and a vertical line should
be drawn at that point. A horizontal line drawn from
this vertical line at its intersection with the
appropriate directivity line will indicate the (Lw - Lp)
reduction.
These estimates apply to a listener’s position from
the noise source and do not consider outside
influences from other machinery or unpredictable
obstructions, but produce reasonably accurate
estimates of sound pressure in a free field condition or
outside installations.
For this example, assume a Q = 2 directivity factor at
a distance of 15 feet. (See Chart I on page 8.)
Line 9 - deduct line 8 from line 7 and enter the result.
The sound power levels represent the final estimate
based on all the stated conditions. The one remaining
step is to determine the proper dBA value.
The dBA value is the sound pressure level corrected to
the “A” weighting network. This is accomplished by
deducting the proper “A” weighting value from each
of the eight octave bands, then using the graph from
Figure 10 to combine the results to obtain a single
number dBA value that represents the fan and its
particular installation. Because decibels are
logarithmic values, simple addition cannot be used.
A simpler method of approximating dBA values can
be found on Chart II on page 8. Using the scale on
the left hand side of the graph, plot the sound pres-
sure levels from line 9 directly on to the graph for
each octave band. Then the maximum dBA can be
derived by finding the band number (center
frequency) that exceeds the highest octave band level
by the most decibels. In our example, band number 5
(1000Hz) exceeded the octave band level 40 dBA by
8 dB. This was greater than any other band number.
Therefore, the dBA level for this fan would be
approximately 48 dBA at 15 feet based on a Q-2
directivity.
Another method is to combine decibels such that a
logarithmic addition can be employed in lieu of the
tabular method shown in Chart II. Logarithmic
addition involves calculating the antilog of each
decibel to be added, summing the antilogs, finding
the logarithmic sum, and multiplying by 10. This
method and the formula are given in AMCA
Publication 303.
TROUBLESHOOTING
To avoid undesirable noise levels in the final installation, the
system designer needs to consider many factors. First, an
acceptable noise level criteria must be established, based on
the activity in the area, the nature of the noise, the relationship
of the listening location, noise-criterion curves, and the OSHA
permissible noise exposure regulations.
Properly selecting a fan type and operating it at peak
mechanical efficiency will assure the quietest possible
operation. It is not always possible to select a fan that does
not exhibit a predominant blade pass frequency, but an
awareness of this will help in selecting acoustical attenuation
when necessary.

Correction dBA
Sound Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Single
For Value
Octave Pressure From + From + From Number
“A” by Diff. Diff. Diff.
Band From III. Higher III. Higher III. dBA
Weighted Octave
Line 9 #10 Value #10 Value #10 Value
Network Band
1 52.5 -26.2 26.3
-5.6 1.1 33.0
2 48 -16.1 31.9
-13.3 .2 46.5
3 50.5 -8.6 41.9
-2.4 2.0 46.3
4 47.5 -3.2 44.3
-1.6 2.3 50.4
5 45 0 45
-.8 2.6 47.6
6 43 +1.2 44.2
-9.6 .4 48.1
7 36 +1.0 37
-5.9 1.0 38.0
8 30 +1.1 31.1

Page 6
Location of the fan with respect to the listener is very
important. The greater the distance, the lower the noise level.
The use of absorptive and reflective materials as well as
isolation usually control excessive noise.
If the final installation seems excessively noisy, an octave
band sound analyzer should be employed to measure the noise
level. Because it analyzes the spectrum by octaves, it is
helpful in isolating components within the spectrum that are
major contributors to the noise problem.
Often, the fan is not the major source of the noise; many times
it is nearby machinery or the surrounding environment that is
louder than the fan. After identifying the noise source, its
reduction can be approached from two directions:
1. Reduce the noise at the source.
2. Reduce the noise at the listening location.
The first approach is usually the most cost effective. To
reduce fan acoustical noise, a reduction in sound energy is
important. Lining ductwork with sound absorbing material or
adding duct silencers will reduce airborne noise within the
duct system. Flexible connectors between the fan inlet, outlet,
and connecting ductwork will aid in reducing both vibration
noise and mechanical noise that may be transmitted through
the entire system.
Fan noise produced by vibratory forces can be induced by a
number of components. Sometimes the source is easily
detected from experience and at other times measuring
instruments are required. The solution to vibratory noise will
depend on where it occurs. Reducing the amount of the
vibration, eliminating it by substitution, isolating it, or
changing the frequency are all possible solutions.
Page 7
For example, unbalance is a chief cause of vibratory noise.
Consequently, balancing the rotor will reduce the vibration
caused by imbalance. Replacing a noisy bearing or drive
component will eliminate the source. Installing rubber or
spring isolators will prevent transmission of the noise to the
mounting structure. Detuning natural frequencies of a structure
by changing the fan speed or the natural frequency may
eliminate this problem.
Using the second approach, the noise level at the listening
location can be reduced by increasing the distance of the sound
path. This can be accomplished by moving either the fan or the
listener or by rotating the fan so that the noise is directed away
from the listener. Changing the characteristics of the room by
adding sound absorbing material will help reduce noise
However, the effectiveness of sound absorbing material drops
off rapidly at frequencies below 250 Hz.; consequently, this
approach is somewhat limited. Enclosing the fan in a sound
absorbing room, for example, will aid in reducing noise
transmitted from the fan structure but will do nothing about
noise within the duct system. Erecting sound barriers or
employing some type of ear protection are also alternative
solutions.
These troubleshooting tips only cover a few possible
alternatives. Volumes of reference material are available on
the subject, and acoustic consultants are available to assist in the
areas of noise abatement and acoustical control. Fan
manufacturers can provide assistance in resolving noise issues
related to the specific fan but normally do not perform overall
acoustical engineering consulting.
 SHORT FORM FOR SOUND CALCULATIONS

This form is to be used for the approximate sound pressure level calculation of a fan, assuming that the listener’s position is in the
dominant free field. In most cases this can be considered no more than 5 feet in an enclosed room, or an outside installation free
from reflecting surfaces.
OCTAVE BANDS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CENTER FREQUENCIES 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
1. Fan Sound Power Rating at __________RPM
2. VP/SP Correction
3. Fan Sound Power (1) + (2)
4. Correction for Installation (Inlet, Outlet)
5. Corrected Sound Power at Fan (3) + (4)
6. End Reflection Value (Chart III)
7. Corrected Sound Power (5) - (6)
8. Conversion to Sound Pressure (Chart I)
9. Sound Pressure at ___________ ft. (7) - (8)
The estimated dBA value is _______ at _______ ft. (Chart II)

CHART I CHART II
DIRECTIVITY/DISTANCE REDUCTION SOUND PRESSURE TO DBA CONVERSION

[Given directivity and distance, Sound Power is converted to

Sound Pressure.]
Q-1 UNIFORM SPHERICAL RADIATION with no
reflecting surface. Example: Stack discharge.
Q-2 UNIFORM HEMISPHERICAL RADIATION with
one reflecting surface. Example: Floor mounted fan.
Q-4 UNIFORM RADIATION over 1/4 SPHERE with two
reflecting surfaces. Example: Fan mounted on floor
near interior wall.
CHART III
END REFLECTION VALUES (Decibels)
Octave Band 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hz 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
5 23.5 17.5 12.0 7.0 2.5 .5 -- --
Duct 10 17.5 12.0 7.0 3.0 1.0 -- -- --
15 14.5 9.0 4.5 1.5 -- -- -- --
Diameter
20 12.0 7.0 3.0 1.0 -- -- -- --
Inches 30 9.0 4.5 1.5 .5 -- -- -- --
40 6.5 2.5 1.0 -- -- -- -- --
Form 11 8 JLK
 ENGINEERING LETTER 13
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527 - 5530

FAN BALANCE AND VIBRATION

INTRODUCTION
Vibration always has been a good indicator of how well a piece
of equipment was designed, installed, and maintained. With
sophisticated, computerized, preventative maintenance
programs, vibration can now also be used as a precursor of
future maintenance requirements.
Fans are subject to vibration because they have a high ratio of
rotating mass to total mass and operate at relatively high
speeds. Unlike most mechanical equipment, there are two
major causes for vibration in fan equipment. These are
aerodynamic, having to do with airflow, and mechanical,
having to do with rotating components, fasteners, and structural
support. This Engineering Letter will discuss both causes of
vibration and provide guidelines for their reduction.
AERODYNAMIC VIBRATION
Aerodynamic vibration, also referred to as aerodynamic
pulsation, is one cause of fan-system vibration. It occurs when
a fan operates to the left of its peak static pressure point. The
vibration frequency, when checked with instruments, is at a
frequency other than the wheel rotation speed.
This area of operation is illustrated in Figure 1. In this region
the fan wheel does not move enough air to fill the blade passages.
Aerodynamic vibration is most easily identified by increasing
the volume of air flowing through the fan, thereby moving the
fan’s point of operation to the right. If the cause is aerodynamic,
the vibration will usually disappear or be reduced significantly.
Increasing the airflow is accomplished by opening dampers,
cleaning filters and coils, or as a test, removing a section of
duct near the fan. These actions will reduce system pressure
and, correspondingly, increase the airflow.
Because of their inherent wheel geometry, some fans are more
susceptible to pulsation when operating to the left of the peak
on their static pressure curve. Centrifugal fans utilizing forward-
curved or flat, backwardly-inclined blades are particularly
subject to this phenomenon. However, fans with backwardly-
inclined airfoil blades, such as the AcoustaFoil ™ wheel, are
designed to be stable left-of-peak. Figure 2 illustrates this area
of unstable operation in a typical fan performance table (cross-
hatch area). These points of operation indicate fan instability.
Operation left-of-peak may be due to an error in system
pressure calculations, less than optimal system installation, or
poor maintenance practice. The fan’s point of operation may
have also changed because the process/system has been
modified since installation. For example, a drying system may
have initially been designed to pull air through a 2" bed of
material. Subsequent system changes now require a 6" bed of
material with a significantly higher pressure drop. This will
cause the fan to operate at a different point on its curve which
may be left-of-peak.
Refer to Engineering Letter 7 to better understand how to take
system measurements to determine a fan’s point of operation.
If it is determined that the vibration is aerodynamic, there are
several steps that can be taken to restore the fan to an
acceptable operating point. If some type of blockage is causing
the problem, dampers can be opened, filters and coils cleaned,
and the process can be restored to a configuration more closely
resembling the initial design. More expensive alternatives
include increasing duct sizes, reducing duct lengths, and
eliminating abrupt turns.

1” SP 2” SP 3” SP 4” SP
CFM OV
RPM BHP RPM BHP RPM BHP RPM BHP
1240 800 1207 0.17 1516 .032 -- -- -- --
1550 1000 1355 0.23 1620 0.41 -- -- -- --
1860 1200 1517 0.32 1757 0.52 2178 0.97 -- --
2170 1400 1690 0.42 1904 0.65 2288 1.15 2633 1.70
2480 1600 1867 0.56 2065 0.81 2415 1.35 2732 1.94
3100 2000 2239 0.91 2405 1.22 2708 1.87 2983 2.55
3720 2400 2620 1.40 2765 1.78 3032 2.54 3276 3.32
4340 2800 3007 2.06 3138 2.51 3378 3.40 3600 4.29
4960 3200 3401 2.92 3518 3.44 3736 4..45 3939 5.47
5580 3600 3797 4.01 3902 4.58 4104 5.74 4286 6.85
6200 4000 4196 5.35 4292 5.99 4476 7.26 4647 8.52

Figure 1 – Typical Fan Static Pressure Curve Figure 2 – Typical Fan Performance Table
Cross-Hatch Indicates Areas of Instability

AcoustaFoil™ is a trademark of The New York Blower Company


Figure 3 – Induced Air Recirculation
If a redesign of the system is not practical but current air
volume is adequate and the fan in question is a centrifugal, it
may be possible to eliminate or reduce pulsation by adjusting
the fan wheel toward the inlet cone. As shown in Figure 3, by
adjusting the wheel so the edge of the cone is inside the wheel
front plate, additional air will recirculate in the fan. The fan
wheel will now receive a sufficient volume of air, allowing it
to perform without pulsating; however, the efficiency of the
fan will be reduced. In general, increasing the overlap by a
distance equal to 2% of the wheel diameter will eliminate
pulsation.
Aerodynamic vibration may also be caused by poor inlet
connections to the fan. Inlet boxes and inlet elbows should be
vaned to reduce losses. When air is forced to flow through a
sharp turn as it enters the fan, it tends to load just a portion of
the fan wheel. The result is always decreased performance but
many times pulsation as well.
The same phenomenon can also develop, though generally to a
lesser degree, at the discharge of the fan. Fans do not discharge
air at an even velocity across their entire outlet. They generally
operate best when the air is discharged into a long, straight
duct, the minimum being three duct diameters beyond the outlet
of the fan.
MECHANICAL VIBRATION
Mechanical vibration is the most common type of fan vibration.
It is caused by unbalanced wheels or other rotating fan
components. Its negative impact is increased with loose
fasteners and poor structural support. Two terms are important
in understanding mechanical vibration.
Balance primarily refers to the fan wheel or other rotating
components. The procedure of balancing involves adding or
removing weight in an attempt to move the center of gravity
toward the axis of rotation.
Vibration primarily refers to the complete fan. Fan vibration is
measured during a “run test” and is the vibration amplitude at
the fan bearings expressed in units of displacement or velocity.
The vibration level for new fan equipment is a result of the
design and construction by the fan manufacturer. For operating
fan equipment, the installation and subsequent maintenance
practices can have a major effect on fan vibration.
Page 2
There are a number of causes for wheel unbalance:
Construction - in new fan wheels unbalance exists because of
the nature of the fabrication and assembly process. Part and
assembly tolerances, material density variations, and warpage
during welding all contribute to non-concentric wheel
assembly. Balancing compensates for these factors.
Material build-up - even a thin layer of dirt can cause a
surprising amount of wheel unbalance. Using solvent, wire
brushes, scrapers, etc., wheels can typically be cleaned and
restored to a balanced condition.
Abrasion/corrosion - in material conveying applications or
applications handling corrosive fumes, abrasion or corrosion of
the wheel will cause unbalance. For safety reasons, this
condition is more serious than simple vibration and the fan
manufacturer’s representative should be contacted for repair
recommendations, up to and including wheel replacement.
Drive components - sheaves, belts, couplings, and motors can
have their own unbalance resulting in fan vibration. Check
components for alignment, examine the grooves of sheaves,
and check the surfaces of belts. Replace worn components.
Couplings can shift even a few thousandths of an inch in
shipment, causing misalignment and vibration.
Several drive components can be easily checked to determine if
they are the cause of vibration. Disconnect the drive or
coupling and run the motor with one sheave or half-coupling in
place. If this assembly runs rough, remove the sheave or half-
coupling and run the motor alone.
It is much more difficult to determine if the fan wheel or the
driven sheave/coupling is causing the vibration without
removing it and sending it to a balancing facility. Sheaves and
couplings should have been dynamically balanced originally.
Unless it is important to determine whether the wheel or drive
component is out of balance, it is probably best to balance the
wheel, shaft, and drive component as an assembly.
Fasteners -wheel and drive component setscrews, bearing
bolts, and the fan base mounting hardware are all subject to
loosening, especially when some vibration is present. Without
attention, loose components will add to the overall fan
vibration magnitude.
Structural support - too frequently, fans are mounted on
supports that have a natural vibration frequency near that of the
fan. At this frequency, the structure will tend to continue to
vibrate once it has been set in motion. Under such conditions it is
almost impossible to balance all of the rotating components
finely enough to prevent an objectionable amount of vibration.
Adding mass or stiffeners will move the structure’s natural
frequency out of the range of the operating fan.
Optimum mounting structures include thick concrete slabs,
steel bases supported by isolators, or heavy, all-welded steel
structures. Structures must have adequate sway bracing, with no
long, unsupported spans. They should be designed to be
heavier than if they were designed merely to support a static
load. All vertical supports should be directly underneath the fan
and the fan should not be located in the middle of beam spans.
Bent shaft - can cause significant vibration which usually
results in a vibration magnitude that is proportional to the
amount by which the shaft is bent. Using a simple dial indicator,
the shaft can be checked for trueness. It should not be out more
than one or two thousandths of an inch on a short shaft or two
or three thousandths on a longer shaft. If the shaft is bent, it can
straightened, replaced, or compensated for trueness by
balancing.
BALANCE CRITERIA
Major fan manufacturers balance fan wheels prior to assembly
on precision balancing machines (see Figure 4). The balancing
procedure involves detection of and compensation for ounce-
inches of unbalance.
For most HVAC, agricultural, and industrial applications, an
ISO balance quality grade of G6.3 is adequate. Using this
balance grade, the permissible residual unbalance is calculated
as follows:
6.01 x G x W
Uper = To perform a vibration run test, the fan is mounted on a rigid
N
Where:
Uper = permissible unbalance per balance quality
grade (oz.-in.)
W = wheel weight (lbs.)
N = wheel operating speed (RPM).
G = balance quality grade (6.3)
Figure 4 – Fan Wheel Balance
Page 3
For example, using a Size 264 Series 20 DH wheel:
Where:
W = 78 lbs.
N = 2280 RPM
G = 6.3
6.01 x 6.3 x 78
Uper =
2280
Uper = 1.3 oz. – in.
VIBRATION CRITERIA
After wheel installation, assembled fans are “trim balanced” as a
complete unit before shipment (see Figure 5). Manufacturers
have some limitations on what fans can be run tested based on
electrical requirements, test speeds, and customer furnished
components.
base. The base may be more or less rigid than that which the
customer will use. Because of this difference, vibration limits
determined from the factory vibration run test cannot be used as
a guarantee of the minimum level of vibration once the fan is
installed in the system. To account for this difference in
vibration sensitive applications, more and more fans are being
mounted on vibration absorption bases. These bases contain
springs or rubber-in-shear isolation and may or may not be
filled with concrete for additional mass. The purpose of these
bases is to allow the fan to vibrate without transmitting the
vibration to the building structure.
Figure 5 – Fan Vibration Run Test
 Figure 6 – Three Axis of Measurement
Fan assembly vibration is typically measured in the horizontal
direction with “filter in”. Filter in refers to the vibration being
measured only at the frequency of interest. This method
provides an accurate measure of wheel unbalance. Transducer
orientation may vary by product and/or test stand configuration
at the discretion of the manufacturer (see Figure 6).
Major fan manufacturers have seismic vibration standards as
part of their manufacturing/quality procedures. These limits
will vary depending upon the fan manufacturer’s test facilities,
balancing equipment, and fan type and size.
As a guideline for fans in HVAC, agriculture, and industrial
applications, a peak velocity of 0.15 inches/second at the
factory test speed is usually adequate.
For those more familiar with using displacement as a measure
of vibration, displacement units can be converted to velocity
units using the following equation:
šxFxD
V =
1000
Where:
V = velocity (in./sec.)
F = frequency in revolutions per second
(RPM/60)
D = displacement, peak-to-peak, (mils)
(1 mil = .001 inch)
Example:
Convert .6 mils displacement to velocity in in./sec. with the
fan running at 1200 RPM.
3.1416 x 1200 x .6
V =
60 x 1000
V = .0377 in./sec.
CONCLUSION
System designers and specifiers should observe the following
specifications to ensure minimum, acceptable levels of fan
vibration:
1. Wheels should be dynamically balanced prior to
installation in the fan assembly to ISO 1940/ANSI
S2.19 Quality grade G-6.3.
2. Fans should be given a run test and “trim balance”
after wheel installation at the fan manufacturer’s
plant to decrease vibration caused by other fan
components and the overall assembly process
whenever the fan configuration permits it.
3. Mounting structures must be rigid and sufficiently
heavy to properly support the fan. Structures must
have a natural frequency that is well out of the fan’s
operating range.
4. For vibration sensitive applications, special
consideration should be given to spring or rubber-in-
shear isolation, or inertia bases.
5. Utilizing computerized fan selection programs and
the manufacturer’s representative, fans should be
selected to avoid unstable operating points and
resulting aerodynamic pulsation.
6. Alterations to the overall system design should
include consideration of changes in the fan’s point of
operation and possible aerodynamic pulsation.
7. Proper maintenance practice, including periodic
wheel i n s p e c t i o n s and i n s p e c t i o n of drive
components and fasteners, will assure reduced
vibration levels.
Form 11 8 JLK
 ENGINEERING LETTER 14
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530
STAINLESS STEEL SPECIFICATIONS FOR FAN EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Specifiers and users of air-moving equipment are often faced
with the presence of corrosive, abrasive, or high temperature
conditions which may be detrimental to the service life of
standard mild steel fan equipment. Recognizing the limitless
variety of stainless steel alloys or polyester resin-based
materials of which fan components can be fabricated, and
considering the multitude of special purpose paints and coatings
currently marketed for such applications, the specification and
selection of the single best combination can be a difficult task.
The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to provide some
general guidelines to assist in the process. Refer to Engineering
Letters 16 and 18 for similar guidelines on corrosion-resistant
coatings and fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) fan
construction.
STAINLESS STEEL ALTERNATIVES
Often, low first cost plays an important role in the selection of a
particular type of corrosion-resistant construction; specialty
coatings usually offer the lowest initial cost, followed by
stainless steel alloy construction, and finally FRP construction.
However, this method of selection does not take into account life
cycle costing that could result in the least expense over the
service life of the product.
Stainless steel and FRP are generally superior to specialty paints
or coatings when it comes to corrosion resistance. FRP will
usually exhibit the best corrosion-resistant characteristics and will
handle certain corrosive agents or reagents that stainless steel
will not, and in some sizes is as economical as stainless alloys.
However, stainless steel alloys are capable of higher
temperatures and will stand up much better to the impact of
non-abrasive materials. Also, fabrication methods tend to limit
the availability of FRP fan equipment and certain performance
requirements may force the consideration of stainless steel alloy
construction as an alternate to the superior corrosion-resistant
qualities of FRP.
Neither FRP fan construction nor special duty paints or coatings
applied to mild steel construction will provide any measure of
prolonged service life in an abrasive application when compared
to mild steel. Even stainless steel alloys with their seemingly
“tough” close textured surface finish provide negligible
improvement over mild steel in abrasive applications. There
are, however, special alloy steels classified in the “abrasion
resistant” or “AR” grouping. Such AR steels are usually
made to a minimum 321 brinell hardness specification where,
for example, 304 stainless steel is rated at only 124 to 147
brinell hardness while 316 stainless steel is only slightly
harder.
TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS
Typically, mild steel’s strength decreases rapidly at elevated
temperatures, affecting the maximum safe operating speed of
the fan wheel and consequently reducing the effective
performance range of the fan. Beyond 800°F., mild steel and
even 304 stainless steel are not well suited for rotating parts.
At temperatures up to 1000°F., 316 stainless steel should be
considered first because of its cost and availability. Only
where 316 stainless steel does not allow adequate speeds at
the required temperature should 347 stainless steel wheel
construction be specified. Refer to each fan line’s bulletin
for speed derate factors.
In all cases, the suitability of a particular fan to operate at
the required temperature is solely dependent upon the
individual fan design and construction. Maximum safe
operating temperatures for fan equipment range to 1000°F.
but are also dependent upon the proximity of motors or
bearings to hot airstream surfaces. Only where the product
literature expressly acknowledges the suitability of the basic
fan construction for operation at the required temperature
can stainless steel construction be used to obtain the required
safe speeds.
STAINLESS STEEL TYPES
Assuming that stainless steel is needed for a specific
application, the next step is to determine the best stainless
alloy to use.
There currently exist more than 100 registered grades of
stainless steel. Certainly, not all of these various alloys can be
made available for all of the different sizes and types of fan
equipment. To facilitate selection, specification, and
production, the availability of stainless steel alloys for fan
equipment must be selectively limited.
Basically, stainless steel can be divided into three categories;
Martensitics - 12% chromium and iron with carbon in balanced
proportion. Ferritics - with higher chromium content and
carbon content held low. Austenitics - with nickel added. . .
often referred to as 18-8 stainless which is approximately 18%
chromium content and 8% nickel content.
Martensitics have the least tendency to work harden. The
application of this alloy grouping is usually limited to that of
precision parts such as surgical instruments, shear blades, and dies.
Ferritics exhibit the greatest degree of corrosion resistance in
this grouping but work harden quite readily and are usually
limited to decorative applications such as interior architectural
trim, kitchen trim or utensils, and fasteners.
Austenitics provide the best combination of corrosion
resistance and ductility. The suitability of these alloys for
welding and fabrication methods common to the fan industry
reflect the standardization by fan manufacturers.
The Summary of Austenitic Stainless Steel Types on page 3
presents alloy composition, strength characteristics, and
typical applications for the various stainless steel alloys in the
Austenitic category.
Of the Austenitic alloys shown, some further limitations are
placed on the fan manufacturer due to material availability,
inventory needs and costs, and specific production methods.
Refer to Engineering Letters 16 and 18 for condensed guides to
the corrosion-resistant characteristics of stainless steel alloys.
Note that these are condensed references and do not present
the full extent of the corrosion-resistant characteristics of any
grade. Since the information is based on chemically pure
reagents, customer in-plant testing of a particular stainless
alloy in the actual environment is recommended to determine
suitability.
MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS
The typical fan manufacturer rarely has the opportunity to
purchase an adequate quantity of duplicate parts in the same
stainless alloy construction that would warrant direct purchases
from the mill. Instead, “per job” purchases limit the fan
manufacturer to those alloys which are most readily available
from steel distributors.
Because of the dissimilar physical and mechanical properties of
the stainless alloys, equipment fabrication methods often vary
from the standards established for mild steel construction. For
example, production equipment capable of handling 1/4"
carbon steel may only be capable of handling 3/16" thick
stainless. Likewise, the basic fan construction may involve
heavy gauge components cut to size on standard flame burning
equipment, but when stainless steel is required plasma-arc
cutting equipment becomes necessary. Typically, fan
Page 2
construction involves spun-inlet venturi sections or spun wheel
components. It may be more economical to furnish all such
spinnings of one grade of stainless steel, allowing an
interchangeable inventory. Similarly, castings may be
furnished of one grade of stainless instead of maintaining 3 or
4 various grades and incurring added inventory expense.
Of the Austenitic alloys shown in the summary on page 4, 304,
304L, 316, 316L, and 347 stainless steels provide an adequate
variety of corrosion resistance and strength characteristics and
are readily available from steel distributor stock. These specific
stainless steel alloys can be consolidated into versatile 304, 316,
and 347 stainless steel construction groupings.
Recognizing the availability of these various stainless steel
construction classifications, a determination can be made
regarding the suitability of a particular group for a given
application based on the following:
304 stainless steel - good corrosion resistance at a
minimum price. Under this alloy grade, machined parts
such as shafting could be furnished from 304 stainless
steel. However, in order to optimize production, nyb only
offers 316 stainless steel shafting. Welded parts such as
housings or wheels must be fabricated from 304L stainless
steel. Beyond 800°F., the strength characteristics of 304
stainless steel are not sufficient to warrant
recommendation.
316 stainless steel - better corrosion resistance than 304
and good strength characteristics at elevated temperatures.
Though higher in price, this alloy grade is the most
versatile. Welded components must be fabricated from
316L stainless steel which is a low carbon grade stabilized
for welding.
347 stainless steel - corrosion-resistant characteristics
similar to 304 stainless steel but with the highest strength
characteristics at elevated temperatures. Since it is the
highest in initial cost and most difficult to obtain, 347
stainless steel should only be used where rotating speeds and
elevated temperatures demand its use for wheel
construction.
The corrosion-resistance guide on page 3 provides a reference to
the corrosion-resistance characteristics of 304 and 316
stainless steel alloys. For the purposes of this guide, the
corrosion-resistance of 347 stainless steel is considered similar to
304 stainless steel and should only be used if high temperature
is a factor. Note that this is a condensed reference and does not
represent the full extent of the corrosion-resistance
characteristics of any grade. Because this information is based
on chemically pure reagents, customer in-plant testing of a
particular stainless alloy in the actual operating environment is
recommended to determine suitability.
 CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE

Stainless Steel Alloy Corrosive Stainless Steel Alloy

Corrosive
Agent Agent
304* 316** 304* 316**
Acetic Acid S E Lactic Acid S E
Acetic Anhydride S E Magnesium Carbonate E E
Acetone E E Mercuric Chloride N N
Acetylene E E Methyl Alcohol E E
Aluminum Acetate E E Methyl Ethyl Ketone E E
Aluminum Chloride (dry) N S Mineral Oil E E
Ammonia (dry) E E Moisture E E
Ammonia (wet) E E Naptha E E
Ammonium Sulfite S E Nitric Acid E E
Aniline E E Ozone S S
Barium Chloride E E Perchloric Acid N N
Benzene E E Phenol E E
Boric Acid E E Phosphoric Acid S E
Bromine Water N N Polyvinyl Acetate E E
Butane E E Potassium Chloride S E
Calcium Chloride S S Potassium Cyanide E E
Carbon Tetrachloride (dry) S E Potassium Dichromate E E
Chlorine Gas (dry) S S Potassium Hydroxide E E
Chlorobenzene S S Pyridine S S
Citric Acid E E Salt Spray S S
Copper Sulfate E E Silver Nitrate E E
Cyclohexaone S S Sodium Bicarbonate E E
Ethyl Acetate S E Sodium Chloride S E
Ethyl Alcohol E E Sodium Cyanide E E
Ethylene Dichloride E E Sodium Dichromate S S
Ethylene Oxide S S Sodium Hydroxide E E
Ferric Chloride N N Sodium Hypochlorite N N
Ferric Nitrate E E Sodium Sulfate E E
Fluorine Gas (dry) E E Steam Vapor E E
Formaldehyde E E Sulfamic Acid T S
Formic Acid S E Sulfur Dioxide (dry) S E
Gasoline E E Sulfur Dioxide (wet) N S
Glycerine E E Sulfuric Acid N S
Hydrochloric Acid N N Tannic Acid S E
Hyfrofluoric Acid N N Toluene E E
Hydrogen Peroxide E E Trichloroethylene S S
Hydrogen Sulfide (dry) S E Xylene E E
Hydrogen Sulfide (wet) N S Zinc Chloride N S
Iodine N N Zinc Sulfate E E

E = Excellent S = Satisfactory N = Not Recommended T = Test data not available

* 347 stainless steel is considered to have the same corrosion-resistance characteristics as 304 stainless steel.
** Alloy 2205 has similar corrosion-resistance characteristics as 316 stainless steel.
SPARK RESISTANCE
A common misapplication of stainless steel is in areas requiring may be furnished to allow for some types of SRC construction.
non-sparking materials. Since stainless steels are basically However, in other cases, all that is available are steps short of
alloys of chromium and iron, or of chromium, iron, and nickel, SRC construction which can be added to the fan to minimize
they are considered ferrous and sparking. As a result, the the potential for generating sparks. The specific modifications
availability of SRC with stainless steel construction is very vary depending upon the product, so consult nyb for availability.
limited. In some cases, a Monel shaft and/or Monel buffers

Page 3
SPECIAL ALLOYS
Under the general description of stainless steel, there are many
other special alloys; some more corrosion resistant, and some
more abrasion resistant. These specialized alloys require careful
considerations of costs, availability, design suitability, and
fabrication methods. Therefore, their selection and specification
should be left to specific applications.
SUMMARY
Any equipment is only as good as its weakest component. If the
corrosive gas stream requires that 316 stainless steel be
SUMMARY OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL TYPES
Type 301. A 17% Cr., 7% Ni. grade used primarily in
structural applications and where high strength plus high
ductility is required. Corrosion resistance is slightly less than
Type 302.
Type 302. The basic 18% Cr. 8% Ni. possesses excellent
corrosion resistance to many organic and inorganic acids and
their salts at ordinary temperatures. Also has good resistance
to oxidation at elevated temperatures. Can be readily
fabricated by all methods usually employed with carbon
steels. Cr-Ni grades are nonmagnetic in the fully annealed
condition and cannot be hardened by conventional heat
treatment. Type 302 is subject to carbide precipitation due to
welding.
Type 303. The basic 18-8 composition with the addition of
one or more other elements, usually phosphorus, sulfur
and/or selenium to improve machinability. Also used when
minimum galling and seizing is desired. Corrosion resistance
under certain conditions may be somewhat lower than Type
302. Special precautions are necessary in welding Type 303.
Type 304. Similar to Type 302 in chemical analysis except
carbon is .8% max. The lower carbon decreases susceptibility
to carbide precipitation in the 800°F. to 1550°F. temperature
range, making it useful over a wider range of corrosive
conditions than Type 302.
Type 304L. An extra low carbon analysis similar to Type
304 except carbon is .3% max. Carbide precipitation does
not occur if material is not held over two hours in the 800°F.
to 1550°F. temperature range. Thus corrosion resistance is
not affected by normal welding and stress relieving
applications.
Type 305. A modified Type 304 grade of lower chromium,
higher nickel content to reduce tendency to work harden
when severely cold worked. Particularly well suited for
difficult forming, perforating, etc., where rapid work
hardening makes fabrication difficult.
Type 308. A 20% Cr. 10% Ni. grade providing somewhat
better corrosion resistance than the 18-8 grades. Because of
its higher alloy content, it is less susceptible to carbide
precipitation than Type 304.
specified, 304 or 347 stainless steel should not be substituted
because of limited corrosion resistance. If 304 stainless steel
is all that is necessary to combat the corrosion and 316
stainless steel wheel construction is adequate to obtain the
safe speed at the required temperature, there is no reason to
substitute the more expensive 347 stainless steel alloy. The
347 stainless steel alloy grade should never be specified
based solely upon its corrosion-resistant characteristics; its
only advantage over 316 is higher rotating speeds at elevated
temperatures.
Type 309. A 24% Cr. 12% Ni. steel combining excellent
resistance to oxidation with high tensile and creep strength at
elevated temperatures. It resists oxidation at temperatures up
to 2000°F. under normal conditions.
Type 310. A 25% Cr. 20% Ni. analysis having slightly higher
oxidation resistance and creep values than Type 309. Lower
Coefficient of Expansion gives less tendency to warp and
throw scale in fluctuating temperatures.
Type 314. Essentially Type 310 with the addition of
approximately 2.50% silicon to increase resistance to
oxidation and to retard carburization.
Type 316. A modified 18-8 grade containing approximately
2.50% molybdenum. It is more resistant to corrosive action of
most chemicals, especially sulfuric acid and fatty acids. Type
316 is less susceptible to pitting and pin hole corrosion by
acetic acid vapors, chloride solutions, etc. The tensile and
creep strength at elevated temperatures are also superior to
the other Cr-Ni types. Type 316 is subject to carbide
precipitation due to welding.
Type 316L. Similar to Type 316 in analysis except carbon is
.3% max. It is immune to harmful intergranual corrosion
providing it is not held in the 800°F. - 1550°F. temperature
range for over two hours.
Type 317. A modified 18-8 stainless containing approximately
3.50% molybdenum. Resistance to corrosion is somewhat
better and susceptibility to carbide precipitation is slightly
less than Type 316.
Type 321. A modified 18-8 analysis with titanium (five times
carbon content minimum) added to make it immune to
harmful carbide precipitation. The corrosion resistance of
Type 321 is the same as Types 347 and 304.
Type 347. A modified 18-8 formulation with columbium
(two times carbon content minimum) added to make it
immune to harmful intergranular corrosion. The corrosion
resistance of Type 347 is the same as Type 304.
For m JLK 318
 ENGINEERING LETTER 15
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

PRACTICAL LIMITS OF SPARK-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Fan applications with airstreams of explosive or flammable
particles or gases require spark-resistant system components for
the safe handling of such airstreams. This includes components
such as ductwork, dampers, filter devices, heating or cooling
coils, and fans. This Engineering Letter presents practical
considerations and methods of providing fans with varying
types of Spark-Resistant Construction (SRC).
THE AMCA STANDARD
The Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA)
established a standard set of Classifications for Spark-Resistant
Construction. For reference, that Standard is shown here in its
entirety.

ANSI/AMCA STANDARD 99-16

Classification for Spark-Resistant Construction

Fan and damper applications may involve the handling of potentially explosive or flammable particles, fumes, or vapors. Such
applications require careful consideration of all system components to ensure the safe handling of such gas streams. This AMCA
Standard deals only with the fan and/or unit installed in that system. The Standard contains guidelines which are to be used by
both the manufacturer and user as a means of establishing general methods of construction. The exact method of construction and
choice of alloys is the responsibility of the manufacturer; however, the customer must accept both the type and design with full
recognition of the potential hazard and the degree of protection required.
Type Construction Note:
All parts of the fan or damper in contact with the air or gas being handled and subject to 1. No bearings, drive components, motors or other
impact by particles in the airstream shall be made of nonferrous material. Ferrous electrical devices shall be placed in the air or gas
shafts/axles and hardware exposed to the airstream shall be covered by nonferrous stream unless they are constructed or enclosed in
materials. such a manner that failure of that component cannot
Fans only: Steps must also be taken to assure that the impeller, bearings and shaft are ignite the surrounding gas stream.
A adequately attached and/or restrained to prevent a lateral or axial shift in these
2. The user shall electrically ground all fan and/or
components.
damper parts.
Dampers only: Construction shall ensure that linkages, bearings and blades are adequately
attached or restrained to prevent independent action. Ferrous containing bearings are 3. For this standard, nonferrous material shall be any
acceptable if the bearings are located out of the airstream and shielded from particle material with less than 5% iron or any other material
impact. with demonstrated ability to be spark resistant.
Fans only: The fan shall have a nonferrous impeller and nonferrous ring about the opening
through which the shaft passes. Ferrous hubs, shafts and hardware are allowed, provided 4. The use of aluminum or aluminum alloys in the
construction is such that a shift of impeller or shaft will not permit two ferrous parts of the presence of steel that has been allowed to rust
requires special consideration. Research by the U.S.
fan to rub or strike. Steps must also be taken to assure that the impeller, bearings and
Bureau of Mines and others has shown that
B shaft are adequately attached and/or restrained to prevent a lateral or axial shift in these aluminum impellers rubbing on rusty steel may cause
components. high intensity sparking.
Dampers only: Construction shall ensure that linkages, bearings and blades are adequately
attached or restrained to prevent independent action. Damper blades shall be nonferrous. 5. All structural components within the airstream,
including non-metallic materials, must be suitable for
Fans Only: The fan shall be so constructed that a shift of the impeller or shaft will not conducting static charge safely to ground, thus
permit two ferrous parts of the fan to rub or strike. preventing buildup of electrical potential. Dampers
C with non-metallic bearings must include means by
Dampers only: Construction shall ensure that linkages, bearings and blades are adequately
manufacturer of transferring electrical charge from
attached or restrained to prevent independent action. Damper blades shall be nonferrous.
the blades to suitable ground.

The use of the above Standard in no way implies a guarantee of safety for any level of spark resistance. “Spark-resistant
construction also does not protect against ignition of explosive gases caused by catastrophic failure or from any airstream material
that may be present in a system.”

This Standard applies to: Centrifugal Fans; Mixed Flow Fans, Axial and Propeller Fans; Power Roof Ventilators and Dampers.
This Standard applies to ferrous and nonferrous metals. The potential questions which may be associated with fans
constructed of FRP, PVC, or any other plastic compound were not addressed.
THE LIMITATIONS OF SRC
The AMCA standard provides the system designer with a
uniform way to specify the system requirements and provides
fan manufacturers with general guidelines. The fan manufacturer
must still develop unique designs to deal with the physical and
practical limitations of fan equipment when developing
construction methods to comply with AMCA.
A major limitation is the practical availability of truly
“nonferrous” alloys that really can be used in fan construction.
There are certain alloys or noble metals than are truly
nonferrous, alloys that contain no iron, but for the most part they
are extremely expensive and/or difficult to obtain in forms and
strengths necessary for fan construction.
For most purposes, the fan manufacturer uses more readily
available alloys that are considered nominally nonferrous and
which have strength and work properties suited to fan
construction. The New York Blower Company’s list of usable
alloys is shown in Figure 1.
Alloy % FE (iron)
Aluminum 5052* 0.45
Aluminum 6061* 0.70
Brass CDA 360 0.00
Bronze CDA 958 4.75
Copper CDA 110 or 122 0.00
Monel 400 Shafting 2.50
Note: Alternate alloys may be substituted; not to exceed 5%
iron content. Hardware, such as setscrews or keys, may have
an iron content greater than 5% provided they are recessed
and relatively inaccessible.
* Iron content in most aluminum alloys is actually a random
contamination and not a predicted element of the alloy.
Figure 1 - Spark-Resistant Alloys used by nyb
Aluminum is the most frequently used alloy due to its low cost.
However, as pointed out in the AMCA Standard, when
aluminum is in close proximity to steel, careful maintenance
programs are necessary to prevent rust, because aluminum
rubbing against rusty steel can cause high-intensity sparking.
In applications where such maintenance is not possible, an SRC
method that places steel in the airstream is not recommended.
Regardless of which classification is chosen, airborne foreign or
“tramp” particles could either strike each other, or strike one of
the components of the fan, causing a spark. Protection against
such occurrence cannot be built into the fan itself.
SRC does not eliminate the potential for spark generation. Fans
with any type of SRC are only intended to minimize the
potential that any two or more fan components might generate
sparks within the airstream by rubbing or striking during
operation. No type of SRC can be guaranteed to eliminate the
possibility of generating a spark, nor would any SRC type
preclude sparks resulting from any foreign influence such as
airborne materials striking each other.
The AMCA Standard requires construction that will not permit a
wheel and/or shaft to shift due to some malfunction during
operation. If two components are allowed to shift and rub
against each other for any length of time, either sparks or
frictional heat could become a hazard in an explosive or
flammable gas stream. Normally, standard procedures of
Page 2
fastening the wheel to the shaft and locking the shaft in the
bearings are sufficient. However, the degree of hazard in these
situations dictates that extraordinary precautions to more
securely prevent such shifting are in order, so further methods of
attachment or restraint are required.
The following types of SRC are furnished by The New York
Blower Company. These types meet the AMCA Standard, but
go a step further by explaining the specific construction methods
used to achieve SRC.
NEW YORK BLOWER SRC STANDARDS
AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC - (ANSI/AMCA Standard 99-16,
Type A) to include all airstream parts constructed of a spark-
resistant† alloy. Bearing stop blocks and/or an aluminum shaft
sleeve shall be provided to prevent contact of the shaft with the
housing at the shaft opening. Shaft set collars shall be provided
to prevent axial movement of the shaft through the bearings.
The fan wheel shall be secured to the shaft in such a manner that
it cannot shift axially on the shaft.
WHEEL-TYPE SRC - (AMCA Standard 99-16, Type B) to
include the wheel constructed of a spark-resistant† alloy, and a
buffer around the housing shaft opening. Bearing stop blocks
and/or an aluminum shaft sleeve (in lieu of buffer) shall be
provided to prevent contact of the shaft with the housing at the
shaft opening. Shaft set collars shall be provided to prevent axial
movement of the shaft through the bearings. The fan wheel shall
be secured to the shaft in such a manner that it cannot shift
axially on the shaft.
BUFFER-TYPE SRC - (AMCA Standard 99-16, Type C) to
include buffers constructed of a spark-resistant† alloy attached
to the housing interior adjacent to the wheel front and back. Fan
designs which incorporate a conical inlet venturi within the
confines of the housing shall utilize a spun-aluminum venturi in
lieu of a separate buffer on the inlet side. A buffer will also be
located at the housing shaft opening.
† The term “spark-resistant alloy” may include, but is not
limited to, those alloys shown in Figure 1.
WHAT THE NYB SRC TYPES OFFER AND HOW THEY
ARE ACCOMPLISHED
One or more of these SRC types are offered on most New York
Blower fans as indicated in the specific literature describing
those fans.
Of these types, a fan furnished with AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC
should provide the greatest degree of spark resistance. In the
event that two or more fan components in the airstream rub or
strike together, a properly maintained fan should be able to
continue in operation for some reasonable period of time,
without producing a spark. However, the severity of a hazard
that calls for AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC dictates that the fan
should be closely monitored and shut down immediately upon
such an occurrence. If allowed to operate, the rubbing or striking
of these fan components will generate frictional heat, quickly
deteriorate, and eventually catastrophically fail. Good safety
practice cannot be ignored!
A fan furnished with WHEEL-TYPE SRC differs from
AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC in that only the wheel itself is
constructed of a spark-resistant alloy. A spark-resistant buffer is
added around the housing opening through which the shaft
passes as shown in Figure 2. The remainder of the fan
components are furnished in their standard material, usually
mild steel.

Figure 2 – Spark Resistant Buffer
Fans furnished with WHEEL-TYPE SRC should not
continue in operation for any length of time with the wheel
rubbing any component or with the shaft striking the
buffer. Practically speaking, it is not possible to predict a
“safe” length of time, because there may be other ferrous
components within the fan airstream which could be torn or
jarred loose by the rubbing or striking of the wheel or shaft,
and such loose ferrous objects could create a spark. Also, the
buffer cannot support the weight or withstand the forces of the
rotating shaft for any prolonged period of time.
The AIRSTREAM-TYPE and WHEEL-TYPE SRC specifications
go further to minimize the potential for sparking by taking
extraordinary precautions to minimize the potential for abnormal
movement or shift of the fan’s airstream components. While
the standard bearing mounting bolts will resist vertical or axial
movement, the addition of bearing stop blocks will resist horizontal
movement and effectively secure the bearings in place. The
addition of shaft set collars as shown in Figure 3 will further
resist shaft movement through the bearings. These combined
features virtually eliminate the possibility of any movement in
the shaft and bearing assembly.
There are many ways to secure the fan wheel to the shaft, but
standard setscrews and keys are not enough for the more
severe applications. Figure 4 details one alternative which
includes a bolted aluminum wheel retaining plate on the end
of the shaft. Other methods might include countersinking the
shaft to accept a setscrew, sweat-fitting, or tapered bores to
prevent the wheel from slipping on the shaft axially. The
precise method will vary by fan size and type.
The BUFFER-TYPE SRC specifications utilize standard,
usually mild steel, airstream component parts and employ
spark-resistant plates or buffers to stop the wheel or shaft from
coming into direct contact with other airstream components. A
fan design which requires an inlet cone is usually furnished
with an aluminum cone to act as the buffer on one side, as
shown in Figure 5. Other designs might utilize a spark-
resistant band or plate.
Page 3
Figure 3 – Bearing Stop Blocks/Shaft Set Collars
Figure 4 - Wheel Retaining Plate
Figure 5 - Aluminum Inlet
Cone (1), Steel Wheel (2)
The BUFFER-TYPE SRC is intended to provide a low cost
alternative for non-critical applications. The user or specifier
must exercise caution in selecting this type so that the safety
of the installation is not compromised for the sake of initial
cost.
Generally, aluminum wheel construction is utilized for
AIRSTREAM-TYPE AND WHEEL-TYPE SRC. Because the
material strength characteristics of aluminum decrease sharply
at elevated temperatures, it is not recommended for handling
anything other than nonabrasive airstreams at less than 200°F.
In cases beyond these limits, BUFFER-TYPE SRC may be the
only readily available alternative.
As with the WHEEL-TYPE SRC, fans furnished with
BUFFER-TYPE SRC should not continue to operate for
any length of time with the wheel or shaft rubbing the
buffers. High speed fans will tend to wear away buffers more
rapidly than slower speed fans, and thus BUFFER-TYPE
SRC should be used with caution on high speed fans. The
greater wheel tip speeds and shaft surface speeds,
combined with their corresponding weights and forces,
reduce the amount of time available to react.
When a high speed fan application requires spark resistance
but AIRSTREAM- and WHEEL-TYPE SRC are not practical,
The New York Blower Company will work with the system
designer to provide special spark-resistant features on a case
by case basis.
Periodic inspection of the fan, and particularly the airstream, is
recommended. The build-up of foreign material or rust, the
potential deterioration due to abrasion or corrosion, or the
accidental shifting of any fan part could lead to further hazards
of potential ignition or explosion.
The centrifugal fan arrangements most compatible with the
intended use of SRC are those in which the wheel is overhung
on the shaft and the bearings are outside the airstream. Such
arrangements include Arrangements 1, 8, 9, and 10 as
described in ANSI/AMCA Standard 99-16 (pages 52-54).
One item mentioned in the AMCA Standard for SRC is that
the user must electrically ground all fan parts. This is necessary
so that any electrical charge or static electricity that might
build up in operation can be safely conducted away. Though
there is probably sufficient electrical conductivity through
most bearings to transmit any static charge to the bearing
pedestal, brush type contacts on the pedestal may be a good
added precaution. The pedestal can then be suitably grounded to
the support structure. Steps should be taken by the user to
ensure electrical conductivity to the connecting ductwork.
AXIAL FANS AND SRC
Propeller Fans, Duct Fans, Vaneaxial Fans, and Tubular
Centrifugal Fans have the common difficulty of placing the
bearings, and sometimes the drive components, either directly in
the airstream or in an inner tube construction that is located
within the airstream as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 – Vaneaxial Fan
The New York Blower Company offers WHEEL- and
BUFFER- TYPE SRC on its Duct, Tubeaxial, Vaneaxial, and
Tubular AcoustaFoil fan lines.
BUFFER-TYPE SRC on these fans requires bearings and drive
components to be isolated from the airstream. To accomplish
this, the fans are furnished with shaft seals and all airstream
junctions are continuously welded and/or gasketed with
suitable material. To prevent a shift of the impeller and/or
shaft, a ceramic-felt shaft seal with retaining plates constructed
of copper is used. For Tubeaxial and Vaneaxial fans, an
aluminum wheel is also required. On the Duct Fan, a partial
aluminum wheel is used.
WHEEL-TYPE SRC utilizes all of the modifications of
BUFFER-TYPE SRC. The addition of a wheel retainer, set
collars, and bearing stop blocks help prevent a lateral or axial
shift of the wheel, bearings, and shaft.
FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC AND SRC
Centrifugal fans made of FRP material present an excellent
degree of spark resistance as FRP materials are nonsparking.
However, FRP is also a nonconductor so the possibility of
building and retaining a static charge is greater and must be
accounted for. Adding graphite to the final resin finish will
provide the necessary conductivity to alleviate this situation.
The special construction features of FRP fans may also call for
other considerations in dealing with hazardous fumes. See
Engineering Letter 20.
WHERE TO AVOID ATTEMPTING SRC
The basic requirement that bearings should not be placed in
hazardous airstreams eliminates several centrifugal fan
arrangements from consideration. Single-width or double-
width fans in either Arrangement 3 or Arrangement 7, where
the fan bearings are located in the inlet, should not be furnished
for such service. See Figure 7.
Figure 7 - Arrangement 3 Double-Width Fan
CONCLUSION
Moving explosive or flammable gas streams through fans
requires the utmost care in system design and equipment
selection. The system designer must weigh the total system
from all angles to minimize risk, particularly when the system
components and/or fans are in environments that are located in
areas where people are likely to be working or passing.
The explosiveness of the gas mixture, the people factor, and
the potential for foreign or “tramp” elements to enter the
system, are all necessary concerns in determining to what
degree special-material construction should be used. Vibration
detectors to warn of impending malfunction of bearings or
rotating assemblies are a good preventive measure to forestall
the actual rubbing or impact of two parts in any mechanical
equipment, and should certainly be considered in “severe risk”
situations. The extraordinary measures to pre-vent wheel and
shaft movement offered in nyb’s AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC
and WHEEL-TYPE SRC are features to help minimize the
potential of allowing two parts to strike.
The three classifications of spark-resistant construction in
AMCA’s Standard and the specific construction methods
offered by New York Blower provide only degrees of resistance
to sparking. They have been used, and are continuing in use, as
deterrents to possible sparking and ignition in hazardous
systems. Care must be taken to recognize that there are no
absolute guarantees.
Therefore, in particularly hazardous applications, the location of
the fan and perhaps the entire system should be a major
consideration. In some cases, protective enclosures around the
fan or other mechanical parts in the system may be another
protective step to lessen the danger in the event that a spark
might occur in spite of the precautions taken. The system
designer is in the best position to weigh the alternatives and
specify the required fan equipment.
Form J LK 31 8
 ENGINEERING LETTER 16
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530
CORROSION-RESISTANT COATINGS FOR FAN EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
This Engineering Letter provides basic information regarding
the different types of corrosion-resistant coatings readily
available for fan equipment. The coatings are described here
according to generic classifications having similar characteristics
such as curing methods, adhesion qualities, chemical resistance,
and temperature limitations. Coating manufacturers offer a
variety of brand name coatings which can be categorized by
these generic classifications.
The service life of air-moving equipment constructed of carbon
steel may be significantly reduced when corrosives are allowed
to attack the surface of the metal through chemical or electro-
chemical action. One method of inhibiting this corrosive action is
by applying a protective coating to the area in contact with the
corrosives. Protective coatings act as a barrier between the
corrosive and the parent material. A wide range of protective
coating systems is available to provide protection from a variety
of corrosives including acids, alkalis, solvents, salts, and oils.
Although other materials of construction, such as special alloys
(see Engineering Letter 14) and fiberglass-reinforced plastic -
FRP (see separate Engineering Letters) are available, protective
coatings can offer a low-initial-cost solution to the corrosion
problem.
The selection of a protective coating is critical in determining
the service life of the equipment. The selection process must
consider the actual chemical composition of the gas stream. To
evaluate the corrosive nature of the gas stream completely, the
concentrations and temperatures of the chemicals present must
also be considered.
COATING INGREDIENTS
Although protective coatings are differentiated by their specific
chemical composition, the most common consist of three basic
ingredients; a binder, a flow control agent, and a pigment or
filler. When these ingredients are combined, they can range in
consistency from thin liquids to semi-solid pastes in a variety of
colors.
The binder is the film-forming ingredient in the coating. It
consists of either a drying oil or a polymeric substance.
Drying oils form a hard film by reacting with oxygen in the air.
Coatings with this type of binder are usually cured by air drying
but in some cases may be baked in order to cure more rapidly.
Coatings that utilize a polymeric substance as the binder require
a “thermoset” cure. Thermosetting can be accomplished by
baking the applied coating in some cases or by adding a catalyst
in other cases. The type of thermoset is dependent upon the
characteristics of the polymeric substance itself.
A flow control agent, or solvent, is combined with the binder to
form the liquid portion of the coating. The solvent prevents the
binder from solidifying prematurely and ensures uniform
dispersion over the surface. This combination of binder and
solvent is called the vehicle portion of the coating.
The pigment is any substance, usually a powder, which gives
color to the mixture. Most pigments are insoluble in solvents
and are not affected by the vehicle portion of the coating.
The generic coating classifications are differentiated by their
chemical composition. While the chemical composition alone is
not sufficient in determining which protective coating is selected
for a specific application, it can be useful in determining the
generic group of a particular brand name coating.
COATING TYPES
The following descriptions of generic coatings present curing
methods, adhesion qualities, chemical resistance, and
temperature limitations. This information can be used as a guide
to specifying and selecting corrosion-resistant coatings for fan
equipment. For chemical resistance to specific applications refer to
the Corrosion-Resistance Table beginning on page 3.
Phenolic - resin systems include any of the several types of
thermosetting resins obtained by the condensation of phenol or
substituted phenols with aldehydes, such as formaldehyde,
acetaldehyde, or furfural. Phenolic resins can be cured by
baking, air-drying, or catalyzation. These curing processes
remove the solvents and oxidize the oils contained in the resin to
produce coatings with an extremely hard finish. Phenolic
coatings possess excellent resistance to moisture, solvents, and a
wide variety of concentrated acids at temperatures to 150°F. air-
dried or 400°F. baked.
Epoxy - coatings are derived from a thermosetting resin based
on the reactivity of the epoxide group. The most common form
of this resin stems from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and
bisphenol A. Another type is formed from the oxidation of
polyolefins with peracetic acid. Epoxy resins can be cured by
baking or catalyzing. When cured, these coatings have a supple
finish and superior adhesion qualities. Epoxy coatings are
characterized by their excellent resistance to a variety of
corrosive chemicals, including acids, alkalis, and salts with
temperature limitations between 200°F. and 300°F. Epoxy
coatings are not resistant to ultraviolet radiation and will “chalk”
when exposed to the sun.
Epoxy-Phenolic - coatings are modified phenolic coatings
created by blending phenolic resins with resins from the epoxide
group. Epoxy-phenolics can be cured by baking or by the
utilization of a catalyst. Catalyzed epoxy-phenolic coatings
require a longer curing time and have lower chemical resistance
than the baked epoxy-phenolic coatings. They can be applied in
greater thickness to attain virtually the same performance
characteristics as the baked epoxy-phenolic coatings. These
coatings are used mainly for alkali-resistance in moderate
temperatures up to 400°F.
Inorganic Zinc - coatings are formulated by adding zinc dust
to inorganic binders. These binders give the zinc coatings
their corrosion-resistant qualities, while the zinc adds cathodic
protection (alters the rate of electron flow which can produce
corrosion) to metals below it in the galvanic series. (However,
the zinc-rich coatings are not recommended for use over
aluminum substrates.) These coatings, which are cured by air-
drying, are not subject to ultraviolet degradation and may be
used without a top coat for severe weathering conditions. The
inorganic zinc coatings have good solvent-resistant properties,
but may require an appropriate protective top coat for acid or
alkali-resistant applications. Inorganic zinc coatings are
suitable for temperatures to 750°F.
Vinyl - coatings use resins from the vinyl-resin family as the
major portion of the binder. These resins are formed by a
reaction between acetylene and an acid. They consist largely
of vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, and vinyl copolymer. Vinyl
coatings can be cured by baking or air-drying, and have excellent
adhesion qualities to steel. As the vinyl dries, the film remains
non-brittle and will easily follow the expansion and contraction
of the underlying surface. Vinyl coatings are unique in that
they possess superior corrosion-resistant performance over a
broad range of corrosive combinations. The vinyl coatings
will give satisfactory results for most corrosive fume applications
below 200°F., but are not recommended for solvent-laden
environments.
Coal Tar Epoxy - coatings are formed by combining coal tar, a
black liquid obtained from the distillation of coal during the
conversion of coke, and a resin from the epoxide group.
These coatings, which are cured by air-drying or catalyzing,
adhere well to metal surfaces. The blend of coal tar and the
epoxy resin forms a coating which has good water-resistance
characteristics and is resistant to acids and alkali fumes at
temperatures to 250°F.
Alkyds - are actually a type of polyester resin modified by the
addition of fatty acids or drying oils. These resins are a
product of the thermosetting reaction between polyhydric
alcohol and a poly-basic acid. Alkyd resins are cured by
catalyzation or air-drying. They have the ability to harden at
room temperatures in a very short time. These coatings are
not generally selected or specified for corrosion-resistant
applications, but are normally required for color-matching
purposes.
Silicone - coatings are polymeric silicones formed by heating
silicon in methyl chloride to yield methylchlorosilanes which
are separated and purified by distillation. The desired
compound is then mixed with water. Silicone coatings can be
cured by baking or air-drying. Formulated for medium to high
temperature service where temperatures seldom fall below
200°F. to 300°F., these coatings normally exhibit good to
excellent fume resistance to acids, alkalis, solvents, salts, and
water, but are not recommended for areas subjected to acid or
alkali splash or spillage. Silicone coatings possess good
Page 2
weathering characteristics, but an inorganic zinc primer will
greatly extend the coating’s service life when applied to steel,
especially if service temperatures fall below 300°F. and
moisture is present. The maximum temperature limitation for
these coatings varies according to each specific manufacturer’s
recommendation.
Polyurethane - coatings are derived from prepolymers
containing isocyanate groups and hydroxyl containing
materials such as polyols and drying oils. Polyurethane
coatings, which are cured by air-drying or catalyzing, are
frequently applied over zinc and epoxy primers. These
coatings produce an extremely hard, yet flexible, high gloss
finish that is resistant to weathering, ultraviolet degradation,
acids, and alkalis at temperatures to 200°F.
Polyester - resins are thermosetting synthetic resins formed by
the polycondensation of dicarboxilic acids and dihydroxy
alcohols. Polyester resins are characterized by their ability to
cure at room temperatures in a very short time after being
catalyzed. They also have excellent adhesion qualities. The
polyester coatings are resistant to mild traces of acids, alkalis,
and solvents. The maximum temperature limitation for these
coatings varies according to each specific manufacturer’s
recommendation.
Vinyl Ester - resins are combined with a special curing system
and inert flake pigment. Vinyl ester coatings, which are cured
by air-drying or catalyzing, provide excellent chemical resistance
to organic and inorganic acids, oxidizing agents, salts, and a
wide range of solvents. Vinyl ester coatings are applied at 35
to 40 mils DFT.
Although these coatings cover a broad range of generic types,
they by no means cover them all. Types mentioned here are the
most commonly specified and selected generic types offered
for use on fan equipment.
Selecting the proper coating system for the application is not
enough to ensure its success. Proper surface preparation is
essential to the effectiveness of any coating system.
COATING SURFACE PREPARATION
Surface preparation not only ensures that the coating will
adhere adequately but also removes contaminants which could
be detrimental to the service life of the equipment. The Steel
Structures Painting Council further defines various types of
surface preparation as shown in Engineering Letter 17. Coating
manufacturers then suggest the recommended degree of surface
preparation for each of their brand name coatings.
Based on the surface preparation necessary for each coating
specification, nyb will either apply the coatings in its facilities
or have them sent to an outside applicator. Most coatings
applied by nyb receive a combination of phosphate wash and
hand tool cleaning. This procedure removes all oil, dirt, grease,
loose rust, and mill scale that hinders the effectiveness of the
coating. This method of surface preparation is equivalent to a
combination of Solvent Cleaning (SSPC-SP1) and Hand Tool
Cleaning (SSPC-SP2). The application of a coating which
requires any degree of sandblasting is handled by an outside
applicator. Sandblasting is further defined in Engineering
Letter 17.
Airstream, exterior, and all surfaces are common area
requirements for coatings. Airstream surfaces coated -
includes interior of housing, entire wheel, that portion of the
shaft in contact with the airstream, airstream areas of collar,
inlet ring and/or inlet plate, and all surfaces of the inlet cone.
Exterior surfaces coated - includes all outside surfaces,
except bearings, motor, and the shaft. All surfaces coated -
includes all surfaces inside and outside, except bearings,
motor, and that portion of the shaft not in contact with the
airstream
APPLICATION AND SELECTION GUIDE
The table below provides a condensed guide to the corrosion-
resistant properties of generic coatings commonly available on
fan equipment. Each coating should be chosen according to
the specific corrosive chemical or chemicals involved in the
application. The customer is responsible for selecting the
coating which will provide proper protection. nyb can only
warrant that the coating will be applied according to the coating
manufacturer’s instructions.
Fume-and aerosol-contaminated air has been used as the basis
for this guide. The fumes or aerosols of a substance are
effectively diluted by air, reducing the chemical concentration to
a level significantly lower than the liquid solution. Because this
guide is based on dilute concentrations of fumes and aerosols,
relatively few chemicals are listed as unsatisfactory for use with
these protective coating systems.
Protective coatings play an important role in corrosion-resistant
construction. They often have the lowest first cost. Special
alloy and fiberglass-reinforced plastic construction are also
available for corrosive applications. Special alloy and FRP
construction are able to handle a wider range of corrosives, are
far superior when it comes to corrosion resistance, and many
times result in the lowest life cycle cost.

CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO GENERIC COATINGS AND ASSORTED METALS

COATINGS METALS

Epoxy-Phenolic
Baked Phenolic

Coal Tar Epoxy

Stainless Steel

Stainless Steel
Inorganic Zinc

Air-dried Vinyl
Baked Epoxy-

Polyurethane

Carbon Steel
Vinyl Ester

Aluminum
Catalyzed

Catalyzed

Polyester
Phenolic

Phenolic
Air-dried

Air-dried
Silicone
Corrosive
Epoxy

Alkyd

316**
304*
Agent

Acetic Acid E N N T N N E N N S N E E N S S E
Acetic Anhydride E N N T N N E S N S N N S N E S E
Acetone E N S S S E N N N S E N N E E E E
Acetylene E E S S E E S T N S S T E S E E E
Aluminum Acetate E E N S N S S T N S S S E T S E E
Aluminum Chloride (dry) E S S E S N S S S S S E E N S N S
Ammonia (dry) E S N E S N N S N S S S E S E E E
Ammonia (wet) E N N E S N N N N N S N E S E E E
Ammonium Sulfite E S S S S N N S N S S S E N N S E
Aniline E S N T N E S N N S S S S N N E E
Barium Chloride E S S E E S E S N S S S E N N E E
Benzene E N S E S E N N N S S S N N S E E
Boric Acid E E S E E N E S N S S S E N S E E
Bromine Water N N S N N N N S N N S S S N N N N
Butane E S N E S S S T S S S T E E S E E
Calcium Chloride E E E E E N E S N S E E E N S S S
Carbon Tetrachloride (dry) E E N E S S N S N S S S S S N S E
Chlorine Gas (dry) S S S T S N N S N S S N E S N S S
Chlorobenzene S N N E S S S N N S S S S S S S S
Citric Acid E E N S E N E S N S S S E N S E E
Copper Sulfate E S S E E S E S N S S S E N N E E
Cyclohexanone E N N S N S S N N S S S S N S S S
Ethyl Acetate E N S S S S S S N S S N E S S E E
Ethyl Alcohol E S S E S E S S N S S S S S S E E
Ethylene Dichloride E N N S S S N N N S N S N S S E E
Ethylene Oxide S N N T N E S N N S N N N S S S S
Ferric Chloride S S E E E S E S N E S S E N N N N
Ferric Nitrate S S N T S N S T N S S T E N N E E
Fluorine Gas (dry) N N N T N N S T N S N T E N E E E
Formaldehyde E E S E S E E N N S S N S S S E E
E = Excellent S = Satisfactory N = Not Recommended T = Test data not available
* 347 stainless steel has the same corrosion-resistance characteristics as 304 stainless steel.
**Alloy 2205 has similar corrosion-resistance characteristics as 316 stainless steel.

The suitability of the coatings found in this table has been based on fume concentration effectively diluted by air at 70°F. High
chemical concentration and/or elevated temperatures and/or moisture may significantly reduce a coating’s suitability.

Page 3
 CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO GENERIC COATINGS AND ASSORTED METALS

COATINGS METALS

Epoxy-Phenolic
Baked Phenolic

Coal Tar Epoxy

Stainless Steel

Stainless Steel
Inorganic Zinc

Air-dried Vinyl
Baked Epoxy-

Polyurethane

Carbon Steel
Vinyl Ester

Aluminum
Catalyzed

Catalyzed

Polyester
Corrosive

Phenolic

Phenolic
Air-dried

Air-dried
Silicone

316**
Epoxy

Alkyd

304*
Agent

Formic Acid S N N N N N N N N S S N E N N S E
Gasoline E S S E E E S N S S E S E E E E E
Glycerine E E E E S S S S N S S S E S E E E
Hydrochloric Acid E S N S S N S N N S S N E N N N N
Hydrofluoric Acid N N N N N N S N N N N N S N N N N
Hydrogen Peroxide N N S N N N S N N S S S E N E E E
Hydrogen Sulfide (dry) E S S E S N E S N S S S E S S S E
Hydrogen Sulfide (wet) S N N S N N N S N N N N E N S N S
Iodine E T N T N N N N N S T S E N E N N
Lactic Acid E S S S E N E S N S S S E N S S E
Magnesium Carbonate E E E E E S E S S S S S E N S E E
Mercuric Chloride E E E E E S T S N S E S E N N N N
Methyl Alcohol E S N E S E E N N S E S S S S E E
Methyl Ethyl Ketone E N S S N E N N N S E N N S S E E
Mineral Oil E E E E E E E E S S E S E S S E E
Moisture E E E E E E E E E S E E E S S E E
Naptha E E S E S E N S S S S S S S E E E
Nitric Acid E N N N N N S N N S N S S N N E E
Ozone N N N N N S S N N S N T S N S S S
Perchloric Acid S N N S N N E N N S N S S N N N N
Phenol E N S S N S S N N S S S S S E E E
Phosphoric Acid E S N S S N E N N S E S E N N S E
Polyvinyl Acetate E N E T N N N T N S T N E N T E E
Potassium Chloride E S N E E S S S N S S S E S N S E
Potassium Cyanide E S N E S N S S N S T S E S N E E
Potassium Dichromate S S N E S S S S N S S S E S E E E
Potassium Hydroxide N N S N S S E S N S S S E S N E E
Pyridine E T N E N S T N N S N N N S S S S
Salt Spray E S E E S E E E S E E S E N S S S
Silver Nitrate E S N T N N E T N S S T E N N E E
Sodium Bicarbonate E E S E E N E E S S S S E N S E E
Sodium Chloride E S E E E S E E S E S S E N N S E
Sodium Cyanide N S S S S N S S N S S S E S N E E
Sodium Dichromate N S S S N S S E N S S S S S S S S
Sodium Hydroxide N N S S N S E S N N E S E S N E E
Sodium Hypochlorite N N N N N N N S N N S N E N N N N
Sodium Sulfate E S S E E N E S N S S S E S E E E
Steam Vapor E N S E N N S S S E N S E S S E E
Sulfamic Acid E S S T S N S S N S S S S N N T S
Sulfur Dioxide (dry) E S S S S N N S N S T S E E S S E
Sulfur Dioxide (wet) E S S S N N N S N N T N S N N N S
Sulfuric Acid E S N S S N S N N S E N E N N N S
Tannic Acid E E S T E N E E N S S T E N N S E
Toluene E N E E N E N S N S E S S E E E E
Trichloroethylene E N N E N S N N N S N N N S S S S
Xylene E N E E S E N S N S E S E S E E E
Zinc Chloride E S S E E N E S S E S S E N N N S
Zinc Sulfate E S S E E N E S S S S S E N S E E
E = Excellent S = Satisfactory N = Not Recommended T = Test data not available
* 347 stainless steel has the same corrosion-resistance characteristics as 304 stainless steel.

** Alloy 2205 has similar corrosion-resistance characteristics as 316 stainless steel.

The suitability of the coatings found in this table has been based on fume concentration effectively diluted by air at 70°F. High
chemical concentration and/or elevated temperatures and/or moisture may significantly reduce a coating’s suitability.
Form JLK 318
 ENGINEERING LETTER 17
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

COATING SURFACE PREPARATION SPECIFICATIONS

INTRODUCTION
This Engineering Letter is intended to be an aid for selecting the
proper surface preparation specifications for a given
application. It also provides a better understanding of the Steel
Structures Painting Council (SSPC) surface preparation
specifications, which are the most commonly used. In addition,
surface preparation standards published by the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) are cross-
referenced where applicable.
 To remove surface contaminants and imperfections,
such as oil, grease, dust, rust, weld spatter, etc., that
will affect the performance of a coating.
 To provide an anchor pattern or surface profile which
improves the mechanical bonding of a coating to the
prepared surface by increasing the surface area.

The life of a coating depends as much on surface preparation as Note that all coating systems will fail eventually. However,
on the subsequent coating system. Surface preparation, most premature coating failure can be attributed to inadequate
therefore, requires thorough consideration. The primary surface preparation or lack of coating adhesion.
functions of surface preparation are:

SUMMARY OF COMMON SURFACE PREPARATION SPECIFICATIONS

SSPC
DESCRIPTION
STANDARD

Removal of oil, grease, dirt, soil, salts, and contaminants by cleaning

SP1 - SOLVENT CLEANING
with solvent, vapor, alkali, emulsion, or steam.

Removal of loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint by hand chipping,
SP2 - HAND TOOL CLEANING
scraping, sanding, and wire brushing.

Removal of loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint by power tool
SP3 - POWER TOOL CLEANING
chipping, descaling, sanding, wire brushing, and grinding.

Removal of all visible rust, mill scale, paint, and foreign matter by blast
SP5 - WHITE-METAL BLAST CLEANING cleaning. (For very corrosive atmospheres where the high cost of cleaning
is warranted).

Blast cleaning until at least two-thirds of the surface area is free of all
SP6 - COMMERCIAL BLAST CLEANING visible residues. (For conditions where thoroughly cleaned surface is
required).

Blast cleaning of all except tightly adhering residues of mill scale, rust,
SP7 - BRUSH-OFF BLAST CLEANING and coatings, exposing numerous evenly distributed flecks of underlying
metal.

Blast cleaning until at least 95% of the surface area is free of all visible
SP10 - NEAR-WHITE BLAST CLEANING residues. (For high humidity, chemical atmosphere, marine, or other
corrosive environments).

An industrial blast cleaned surface, when viewed without magnification,

shall be free of all visible oil, grease, dust, and dirt. Traces of tightly
SP14 – INDUSTRIAL BLAST CLEANING
adherent mill scale, rust, and coating residues are permitted to remain on
10% of each unit area of the surface if they are evenly distributed.
SSPC-SP1, “SOLVENT CLEANING”
This specification includes simple solvent wiping, immersion in
solvent, solvent spray, vapor degreasing, steam cleaning,
emulsion cleaning, chemical paint stripping, and alkaline
cleaners. Solvent Cleaning is used primarily to remove oil,
grease, dirt, soil, drawing compounds, and other similar
organic compounds.
SSPC-SP2, “HAND TOOL CLEANING”
Hand Tool Cleaning is an acceptable method of surface
preparation for normal atmospheric exposures, for interiors,
and for maintenance painting when using paints with good
wetting ability. This specification includes hand chipping,
scraping, sanding, and wire brushing. Hand Tool Cleaning is
used primarily to remove loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose
paint after all oil, grease, and salts are removed as specified in
SSPC-SP1, “Solvent Cleaning.”*
SSPC-SP3, “POWER TOOL CLEANING”
Power Tool Cleaning provides a better foundation for the
priming paint than Hand Tool Cleaning. This specification
includes power tool chipping, descaling, sanding, wire brushing,
and grinding. Power Tool Cleaning is used primarily to
remove loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint after all
oil, grease, and salts are removed as specified in SSPC-SP1 -
Solvent Cleaning.
SSPC-SP5, “WHITE-METAL BLAST CLEANING”
This blast cleaning method is generally used for exposures in
very corrosive atmospheres and for immersion service where
the highest degree of cleaning is required and a high surface
preparation cost is warranted. Blast cleaning by wheel or
nozzle (dry or wet) using sand, grit, or shot to white metal will
result in high performance of the paint systems due to the
complete removal of all rust, mill scale, and foreign matter or
contaminants from the surface. In ordinary atmospheres and
general use, White-Metal Blast Cleaning is seldom warranted.
Meets requirements of NACE Standard #1.
* nyb’s standard surface preparation is a high-pressure chemical wash followed by SSPC-SP2 - Hand Tool Cleaning or SSPC-
SP3 - Power Tool Cleaning as required.
SSPC-SP6, “COMMERCIAL BLAST CLEANING”
The most common type of blast cleaning should be employed
for all general purposes where a high, but not perfect, degree of
blast cleaning is required. It will remove all rust, mill scale, and
other detrimental matter from at least two-thirds of the surface
area. The advantage of Commercial Blast Cleaning lies in the
lower cost for satisfactory surface preparation for the majority
of cases where blast cleaning is believed to be necessary. If the
cleaning done according to this specification is likely to result in
a surface unsatisfactory for severe service, then Near-White
Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP10) or White-Metal Blast Cleaning
(SSPC-SP5) should be specified. Meets requirements of
NACE Standard #3.
SSPC-SP7, “BRUSH-OFF BLAST CLEANING”
This method of blast cleaning should be used when the
environment is mild enough to permit tight mill scale, paint,
and minor amounts of tight rust and other foreign matter to
remain on the surface. The surface resulting from this method of
surface preparation should be free of all loose mill scale and
loose rust with the small amount of remaining rust serving as an
integral part of the surface. Brush-off Blast Cleaning is not
intended for very severe surroundings. It is generally intended
to supplant Power Tool Cleaning where facilities are available
for blast cleaning. Meets requirements of NACE Standard #4.
SSPC-SP10, “NEAR-WHITE BLAST CLEANING”
This type of blast cleaning is generally employed for all
general-purpose applications where a high degree of blast
cleaning is required to remove all rust, mill scale, and other
detrimental matter from at least 95% of the surface area.
Exposures include high humidity, chemical atmosphere,
marine, or other corrosive environments. Blast cleaning to
near-white metal was developed to fill the need for a grade of
blast cleaning beyond that of Commercial (SSPC-SP6) but less
than White Metal (SSPC-SP5). The advantage of Near - White
Blast Cleaning lies in the lower cost for surface preparation
that is satisfactory for all but the most severe service
conditions. Meets requirements of NACE Standard #2.
SSPC-SP14, “INDUSTRIAL BLAST CLEANING”
This type of industrial blast cleaning is used when the
objective is to remove most of the coating, mill scale, and rust,
but when the extra effort required to remove every trace of
these is determined to be unwarranted.
The industrial blast allows defined mill scale, coating, and rust
to remain on less than 10% of the surface and allows defined
stains to remain on all surfaces. Meets requirements of NACE
Standard #8.
Form 213 MJN
 ENGINEERING LETTER
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530
CORROSION RESISTANCE OF FRP FANS
INTRODUCTION
Process applications involve a wide variety of corrosive gas streams.
Selecting the best materials of construction for air handling
equipment can be difficult. This Engineering Letter provides
information about the corrosion resistance of the resins used to
manufacture standard nyb FRP fans.
GAS STREAM TYPES
Fumes are the dry vapors evolved from acids, solvents, etc. An
example is the dry acid vapor scavenged from a process using acid.
As a generalization, fumes are not as corrosive as aerosols.
Aerosols are suspensions of liquids or solids in a gas stream. For the
purpose of this discussion, aerosols are considered as being wet.
Water as fog is an example of an aerosol. Another example is the
mist of acid present in air scavenged from a process where acid is
being used as a spray wash. As a generalization for the purpose of
estimating corrosiveness, aerosols in fan-driven systems can be
considered as being dilute concentrations of the chemicals
composing the aerosols.
An example of the distinction between fumes and aerosols is a
system where sulfuric acid fumes are collected by hoods and
scrubbed. The dry fumes entering the scrubber could be quite
concentrated but have a relatively mild corrosive effect on the hood
and duct material. On the other hand, the wet gas down stream from
the scrubber could be quite dilute but more corrosive because of the
scrubber’s converting the fumes to an aerosol.
CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE
The corrosion-resistance guide presented in this Engineering Letter
is adapted from the literature published by the manufacturers of the
resins used in the standard construction of nyb FRP fans. The guide
provides data for aerosols being handled in fan-system gas streams.
Data for chemicals that are potentially damaging as aerosols are
marked “fumes only”.
Where the user is unsure of the nature of the chemicals involved, or
of the corrosive effect of the combination of chemicals involved, it
is advisable to insert resin test coupons, as well as coupons of
possible alternate materials of construction, into the gas stream for
observation.
Derakane® is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc.
Nexus ® is a registered trademark of Precision Fabrics Group, Inc.
18
TYPES OF RESIN USED BY nyb
All vinyl esters are corrosion resistant to some degree. The resin
used by nyb is at the highly resistant end of the scale of corrosion
resistance. (The opposite end from general-purpose resins,
sometimes called “boat resins”.)
Standard FRP construction consists of Derakane® 510A40, a
top-quality chemical-duty vinyl ester made by Ashland, Inc. (See
separate Engineering Letter for a full description of nyb resins.)
SURFACE VEIL
Standard nyb construction does not include the use of surface
veil. Years of service prove this construction to be cost-effective
and functionally successful.
However, the general approach to the design of most FRP
chemical-process equipment, such as storage tanks, is to use
surface veil. Therefore, the ASTM standard specification for FRP
Fans and Blowers, D4167, calls for a layer of surface veil on the
inner surface of the fan housing. If required, nyb will construct a
fan with synthetic veil on the housing airstream surfaces to meet
ASTM D4167.
Synthetic veil such as Nexus®, a polyester veil made by Precision
Fabrics Group, Inc. and used exclusively by nyb, is advantageous
in helping to build a relatively thick surface layer (approximately
10 mils) that protects the glass structure from attack by chemicals
that are particularly aggressive toward glass. Where the use of
synthetic veil is advisable, the corrosion-resistance guide is so
noted. For more information on surface veil and its uses, refer to
Engineering Letter 21.
CUSTOMER RESPONSIBILITY
nyb will provide quality FRP construction using either of the
above resin types as specified by the customer. This Engineering
Letter and any discussions between nyb representatives and the
customer should not be construed as a warranty of material
suitability for a particular application. The system designer should
have sufficient knowledge of, or experience with, the application
to select the appropriate resin or alternate material.
 CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO FUME AND AEROSOL CONTAMINATED AIR
FOR nyb FRP CONSTRUCTION AND ASSORTED METALS

FRP Metals FRP Metals

304 Stainless Steel

316 Stainless Steel

304 Stainless Steel

316 Stainless Steel

Hastelloy C-276

Hastelloy C-276
Standard FRP

Standard FRP
Carbon Steel

Carbon Steel
Construction

Construction
Aluminum

Aluminum
Corrosive Corrosive

Monel

Monel
Agent Agent

Acetaldehyde R*n N R* R R R* R Calcium Hydroxide RV N N R* R R R

Acetic Acid R N R* R* R R* R Calcium Hypochlorite X N N N R* N R
Acetic Acid, Glacial N N R* R* R R R Calcium Sulfate† R N R* R* R* R* R*
Acetic: HCl: H2O R N N N N R* R* Carbon Dioxide R R* R R R R* R
Acetic Acid: HCl R N N N N R* R* Carbon Disulfide Vapor R* R* R R* R* R* R*
Acetic: H2O2 R N N N N R* R* Carbon Tetrachloride R R* N R* R R R
Acetic Anhydride N N R R* R R* R Cascade Solution R R* R* R R T R*
Acetone R R R R R R R Chlorine Dioxide R N R* N N T R
Acetyl Chloride R N N R R R* R Chlorine Gas, Dry RV R* N R* R* R R
Acetylene T R* R R R R* R* Chlorine Gas, Wet RV N N N N N R
Acrylic Acid R N T R R T N Chloroacetic Acid R* N N R* R R* R
Acrylonitrile R³ R* R* R R R* R* Chlorobenzene N R* R* R* R* R* R
®
Aerosol , Wetting Agent R T T T T T T Chlorofluorocarbon R T T T T T T
Almond Oil R R* R R R R* R* Chloroform R* N R* R R R R
Aluminum Acetate† R T R* R R R R Chlorosulfonic Acid N R* R* N N R* R
Aluminum Chloride (dry)† R N R* N R* R* R Chlorotoluene R* N N N R* R* N
Aluminum Fluoride† RVn N R* N N R* R* Chrome-Plating Bath R N N R* R* N R
Aluminum Sulfate† R N N R R R* R Chromic Acid R N R* R* R R* R
Ammonia R R* R R R R* R* Chromic Acid + Sulfuric R N N N R* R* R
Ammonium Carbonate† R R* R R R R R Citric Acid R N R* R R R* R
Ammonium Chloride† R N N R R R* T Cooling Towers R T T T T T T
Ammonium Hydroxide RV N R* R R N T Copper Chloride R N N N N N R*
Ammonium Nitrate† R N N R R R* T Copper Cyanide R N N R R N R
Ammonium Persulfate R N R* R R N T Copper Nitrate R N N R R N R
Ammonium Sulfate† R N R* R* R* R* R* Copper Oxychloride R N N N N N R*
Ammonium Sulfite R N N R* R R* R Copper Sulfate† R N N R R N R
Amyl Acetate R N R R R R R Cyclohexane R R* R* R* R* R R*
Amyl Alcohol Rn R* R* R R R R DDT, Insecticide Solution R T T T T T T
Aniline N N N R R R* R* Dichlorobenzene N R* R* R* R* R* R
Aniline Sulfate R N N T T T T Dichloroethylene N N R* R* R* R* R*
Anthracene Oil R T T T T T T Dichlorophenoxyacetic Rn T T T T T T
Antimony Pentachloride R N N N N T T Dichloropropane N T T T T T T
Antimony Trichloride† R N N N N T T Dichlorotoluene Rn N N N T T N
Aqua Regia (HNO3 - HCl) R N N N N T N Diesel Fuel R R R R R R* R*
Arsenious Acid R N N R R T R* Diethyl Ether N R* R* R* R* R* R*
Barium Carbonate† R R* N R R T R* Diethyl Glycol R R* R* R R R* R*
Barium Chloride† R N N R R RT R* Diethyl Ketone N T T T T T T
Barium Hydroxide† Rn N N R* R* R* R* Diethyl Maleate: Water R T T T T T T
Beer R N R R R* R R Diethylbenzene R N T N T T T
Benzaldehyde R* N R* R* T R Diisobutyl Ketone N T T T T T T
Benzene N N R* R R R* R* Diisobutylene R T T T T T T
Benzene, Sulfonic Acid R N N R* R* T R* Dimethyl Sulfide N T T T T T T
Benzoic Acid R N R* R R R R* Dimethyl Sulfoxide R* T T T T T T
Benzoyl Chloride R N T R R T T Dimethylformamide R* N R R* R* R* T
Benzyl Alcohol N R* R* R R R R* Dimethylamine R* T R R R T T
Benzyl Chloride R* N N N R* R* N Dipropylene Glycol R T T T T T T
Boric Acid R N R* R R R* R Divinyl Benzene R T T T T T T
Bromine, Dry Gas R N N N N T R Dodecene R T T T T T T
Bromine, Moist Gas R N N N N N R Dodecylbenzenesulfonic R T T T T T T
Butane T R R* R R R R* Acid: H2SO4: H2O: oil
Butyl Acetate R* N T R R T T Esters, Fatty Acid R N R R* R* R* R
Butyl Alcohol Rn R* R* R R T R* Ethanol Chloride R T T T T T T
Butyl Hypochlorite X T T T T T T Ether R* R* R* R R R* R*
Butylene Glycol R T T T T T T Ethyl Acetate R R* R* R R R* R*
Butylene Oxide N T T T T T T Ethyl Alcohol R R* R* R R R* R
Butyric Acid R T R* R R R* R Ethyl Acrylate N N R* R* R* R* R
Calcium Chlorate† R T T R R R* R Ethyl Benzene Rn N R* N R* R* R
Calcium Chloride† R N R* R* R* R R Ethyl Chloride R* R* R* R R R* R*
† These compounds are normally solids; considered here as being water solutions. R - Recommended n - 120°F. maximum
R* - Recommended for fumes only. Care must be taken to prevent formation of condensate on wheel or in housing N - Not recommended
T - Test data not available V - Surface Veil required D - Double layer of surface veil required X - Consult New York Blower
Aerosol ® is a registered trademark of American Cyanamid Co.

Page 2
 CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO FUME AND AEROSOL CONTAMINATED AIR
FOR nyb FRP CONSTRUCTION AND ASSORTED METALS
FRP Metals FRP Metals

304 Stainless Steel

316 Stainless Steel

304 Stainless Steel

316 Stainless Steel

Hastelloy C-276

Hastelloy C-276
Standard FRP

Standard FRP
Carbon Steel

Carbon Steel
Construction

Construction
Aluminum

Aluminum
Corrosive Corrosive

Monel

Monel
Agent Agent

Ethyl Ether R* R* R* R* R* R* R* Linseed Oil R R* R* R R R* R*

Ethylene Chlorohydrin R R* R* R* R* R* R* Lithium Carbonate RV T T T T T T
Ethylenediamine Tetra Rn T T T T T T Lithium Chloride† R R* N R R R R
Acetic Acid Lithium Hydroxide RV N N R* R* R* R*
Ethylene Dibromide R* N R* R* R* R* R* Lithium Hypochlorite X T T T T T T
Ethylene Dichloride N R* R* R R R R* Magnesium Carbonate† R N R* R R R* R*
Ethylene Glycol R R* R R* R* R* R Magnesium Chloride† R N N N R* R* R
Ethylene Oxide N R* R* R* R* R* R Magnesium Sulfate† R R* R* R* R* R R*
Fatty Acids R N R R* R* R* R Malathion R T T T T T T
Ferric Chloride† R N N N N N R* Maleic Acid R N R* R* R* R* R*
Ferric Nitrate† R N N R R N R* Mercapto Acetic Acid N T T T T T T
Ferric Sulfate† R N N R* R R* R Mercuric Chloride† R N N N N N R*
Ferrous Chloride† R N N N N N R* Mercurous Chloride† R N N N N N R*
Ferrous Sulfate† R N R* R* R* R* R* Mercury R R* N R R R* R
Flue Gas, (wet) R N R* T R* T R Methacrylic Acid R T T R R T N
Fluoboric Acid RV R* N R* R R* R Methyl Alcohol R* R* R* R R R* R
Fluorine Gas RDn N R R R R R* Methyl Bromide R* R* N R* R* T T
Fluosilicic Acid† RV N N N R* R R* Methyl Chloride R N N R R R* R*
Fluosulfonic Acid† R T T T T T T Methyl Ethyl Ketone N R* R* R R R* R
Formaldehyde R R* R* R R R R* Methylene Chloride N R* R* R* R* R* R
Formic Acid R N N R* R R* R Mineral Oil R R* R* R R R R*
Fuel Oil R R* R* R R R* R Monochloroacetic Acid R* N N R R T R
Fungicides R T T T T T T Monochlorobenzene N R* R* R* R* R* R*
Fungus, (95% Relative R T T T T T T Monoethanolamine N R* R* R R R* R*
Humidity) Naphtha R R* R R R R* R*
Furfural R*n R* R R* R* R* R* Naphthalene R R* R R R R* R*
Gasoline R R R R R R R Nickel Chloride† R N N R* R R* R
Gasoline, Aviation R R R R R R R Nickel Nitrate† R N N R R R* R*
Glycerine R R* R R R R R Nickel Sulfate† R N N R* R* R* R*
Glycolic Acid R N R* R* R* R* R* Nitric, Red Fuming R* N R R R N R*
Heptane R R* R R R R* R Nitric Acid R N N R R N R
Hexane R R* R R R R* R Nitrobenzene N R* R* R* R* R* R*
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene R T T T T T T Nitrogen R R R R R R R
Hexachloroethane N T T T T T T p-Nitrotoluene Sulfonic R T T T T T T
Hexamethylenetetramine R T T T T T T Nitrous Acid R N N R* R N T
Hydrazine N T T R R T T Nut Oil, Ground R R* R R R R* R*
Hydrochloric Acid Fumes RD N N N N R* R Oakite Stripper SA® R T T T T T T
Hydrochloric Acid + Free Cl2 RD N N N N R* R Oleic Acid R R* R R R R R
Hydrocyanic Acid R N R R* R R R Oleoparathion R T T T T T T
Hydrofluoric Acid RDn N N N N R R* Oleum N R* R* R* R* N R
Hydrogen R R R R R R R Olive Oil R R R R R R* R
Hydrogen Bromide R N N N N N R* Oxalic Acid† R N R* R R R* R*
Hydrogen Chloride R N N N N R* R Oxidizing Gases R T T T T T T
Hydrogen Fluoride RVn N N N N R R* Ozone R* N R* R* R* R* T
Hydrogen Peroxide R N R R R R* R Palmitic Acid R N R* R* R R* R*
Hydrogen Sulfide R R* R* R* R R* R Parathion, Wet R T T T T T T
Hydroxyacetic Acid R N R* R* R* R* R* Perchloroethylene R R* R* R R R R*
Hypochlorous Acid R N N N N N R* Perchloric Acid R* N N N N N R*
Insecticides R T T T T T T Petroleum Ether R R* R R R R R
Iodine R N R N N R* R Phenol N R* R R R R R*
Iron Perchloride† R T T T T T T Phenol, Sulfonic Acid N T T R R T T
Isobutyl Alcohol R T T T T T T Phosphate Salts† R N R* R R R* R
Isopropyl Alcohol Rn R* R* R R R* R Phosphoric Acid R N N R* R R* R
Isopropyl Amine R T T T T T T Phosphorous Acid R R* R* R R R R
Kerosene R R* R R R R* R* Phosphorous Oxychloride T N R* N N R* R*
Lactic Acid R N R* R* R N R* Phosphorous Trichloride N R* N R R T R*
Lead Acetate† R N N R* R* R* R* Phthalic Acid R N R* R* R R* R*
Leather Dyeing & Finishing R T R R R T R* Phthalic Anhydride R R* R R R R R
† These compounds are normally solids; considered here as being water solutions. R - Recommended n - 120°F. maximum
R* - Recommended for fumes only. Care must be taken to prevent formation of condensate on wheel or in housing N - Not recommended
T - Test data not available V - Surface Veil required D - Double layer of surface veil required X - Consult New York Blower
Aerosol ® is a registered trademark of American Cyanamid Co.

Page 3
 CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO FUME AND AEROSOL CONTAMINATED AIR
FOR nyb FRP CONSTRUCTION AND ASSORTED METALS

FRP Metals FRP Metals

304 Stainless Steel

316 Stainless Steel

304 Stainless Steel

316 Stainless Steel

Hastelloy C-276

Hastelloy C-276
Standard FRP

Standard FRP
Carbon Steel

Carbon Steel
Construction

Construction
Aluminum

Aluminum
Corrosive Corrosive

Monel

Monel
Agent Agent

Picric Acid in Alcohol R* N N R* R* N R* Sulfamic Acid R* N N T R* T T

Polychlorocyclohexane R T T T T T T Sulfated Detergents R N N T T T T
Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsions R N T R R T T Sulfate Liquors R N N R* R* R* R*
Polyvinyl Alcohol R N T T T T T Sulfite Liquors R N N R* R* N R
Polyvinylidene Chloride R T T T T T T Sulfur, Wettable, Fungicide R N R R R R R
Potassium Bicarbonate† RV R* N R* R* R* R* Sulfur Dichloride R N N N R* N R*
Potassium Carbonate† RV R* N R* R* R* R* Sulfur Dioxide R R* R* R* R* R* R*
Potassium Chloride† R R* N R* R R R Sulfur Trioxide R R* R* R* R* R* R*
Potassium Cyanide R*n R* N R R R* R* Sulfuric Acid R N N N R* R* R*
Potassium Dichromate† R R* R R R R* R* Sulfuric Acid: Phosphoric R N N N R* R* R*
Potassium Ferrocyanide† R R* R* R* R* R* R* Acid
Potassium Hydroxide RDn R* N R R R R Sulfuric: Nitric Acids R N N N R* N R*
Potassium Nitrate† R N R* R* R* R* R* Sulfurous Acid R* N R* N R* N R*
Potassium Permanganate† R R* R R R N R Sulfuryl Chloride R T R* T T R* R
Potassium Persulfate† R T T T R* T R Sweet Oil R R R R R R* R
Potassium Sulfate† R R* R* R R R R Tannic Acid R N N R* R R* R*
Propionic Acid R T T T R* N R Tar Camphor R R* R R R R* R*
Propionyl Chloride T T T T T T T Tartaric Acid R N R* R R R* R*
Propylene Glycol R R* R* R* R* R* R* Tetrachloroethane R* R* N R* R T R
Pulp and Paper Mill RV T T T T T T Tetrachloropyridine Rn T T T T T T
Blow Down Gases Tetrapotassium R T T T T T T
Pyridine N R* R* R* R* R* R* Pyrophosphate†
Rayon Spin Bath R N T N R* T R* Thionyl Chloride N N N N N R* T
Selenious Acid R N N T T N T Tin, Molten, Fumes R N N N N T R
Sewage Treatment R N R* R* R* T R* Toluene R R R R R R R
Silver Nitrate† R N N R R N R* Toluene Sulfonic Acid R T T T T T T
Sodium Acetate† R N R R* R* R* R Tolyl Chloride RV T T T T T T
Sodium Benzoate† R T R T T R* R* Trichloroacetaldehyde R T T T T T T
Sodium Bicarbonate† RV N R* R R R R Trichloroacetic Acid R N N N N R* R*
Sodium Bisulfate† R N N R* R* R* R* Trichloroethane Rn T N R* R* T R
Sodium Bisulfite† R N N R* R* R* R* Trichloroethylene R* R* R* R* R* R R
Sodium Borate† R N R* R* R* R* R Trichloromonofluoromethane RVn T T T T T T
Sodium Bromide† R N N R* R* R* R* Trichlorophenol T T T T T T T
Sodium Carbonate† RV R* N R R R* R Triethanolamine R R* R* R* R* R* R*
Sodium Chloride† R N N R* R R R Trimethylene Chlorobromide N T T T T T T
Sodium Chloride R N N N N N R Trisodium Phosphate† R R* N R* R* R* R
(pH 10.5 Cl2 Sat.) Turpentine R R* R* R R R R*
Sodium Chlorite† R N T R* R T R* Urea R R* R* R* R* R* R*
Sodium Cyanide R R* N R R N R* Urotropine R T T T T T T
Sodium Dichromate R R* R* R* R* T R Vinegar R N R* R R R* R
Sodium Ferricyanide† R T R R* R* R* R Vinyl Chloride N T R* R* R* T R*
Sodium Hydroxide† RV R* N R R R R* Vinyl Toluene Rn T T T T T T
Sodium Hypochlorite† X N N N N N R* Waste, Organic, H2O, RVn N N N N N R
Sodium Nitrate† R R* R R R R* R* HCl, Cl2 Vapors
Sodium Sulfate† R R* R R R R R Water, Deionized R N R* N R* T R*
Sodium Sulfide† R R* N R* R R* R* Water, Demineralized R N R* R R T R*
Sodium Sulfite† R R* R* R R R* R* Water, Distilled R N N R* R* N R
Sodium Xylenesulfonate R T T T T T T Water, Sea R N R* R* R* R* R
Stannic Chloride† R N N N N N R* Water, Steam Condensate R R* R* R R R* R
Stannous Fluoride: RVn N N N N T T Xylene R* R* R R R R* R
Hydrofluoric Acid Zinc Chloride† R N N N R* R* R*
Stearic Acid R N R* R* R R* R Zinc Hydrosulfite† R N N R R T T
Styrene R* R* R R R T N
† These compounds are normally solids; considered here as being water solutions. R - Recommended n - 120°F. maximum
R* - Recommended for fumes only. Care must be taken to prevent formation of condensate on wheel or in housing N - Not recommended
T - Test data not available V - Surface Veil required D - Double layer of surface veil required X - Consult New York Blower
Aerosol ® is a registered trademark of American Cyanamid Co.

Form 318 JLK

 ENGINEERING LETTER 19
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF nyb FRP FANS

INTRODUCTION
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) made from chemical-grade
vinyl ester resin resists corrosion as well as, or in some cases
better than, high-priced materials such as titanium or high-
nickel alloys. In general, FRP (also known as RTP, or
reinforced-thermoset plastic) is widely used in handling the
fumes of acids and of many inorganic and organic chemicals
where service temperatures do not exceed 250°F.
Coated fans, regardless of the inherent corrosion resistance of
the coating, have the potential of coating failure and resultant
rapid deterioration of the base metal. Failures occur when
coatings are physically damaged, and when corrosive attack
permeates the coating to attack the metal. Refer to Engineering
Letter 16 for additional information on corrosion-resistant
coatings for fan equipment.

COMMON USES FOR FRP FANS
Potential applications for FRP fans include any process in
which corrosive fumes must be captured, moved, cleaned, or
vented. FRP fans are most often used in fume-scrubber systems
where the scrubber itself may be constructed of FRP or an
exotic alloy, but where FRP is the preferred fan material.
Galvanizing and etching processes often have FRP exhaust
hoods and ducts, and many of the fans used to convey fumes
in such systems are also built of FRP. Wastewater-treatment
plants and laboratory exhaust systems are other applications
for which FRP fans are being used with increasing frequency.
When FRP is the selected material for an air-handling system, it
is logical that the fan also be made of FRP. For example, the
acids used in the pickling of stainless steel are necessarily those
that attack stainless steel. In such a system, the acid-holding
tanks, fume-control hoods, ducts, scubbers, and fans are often
made of FRP because FRP resists acid corrosion and costs less
than metal alloys having comparable resistance.
In summary, FRP fans may be an economical alternative to
stainless steel or other metal-alloy fans when corrosion is a
concern and temperature is below 250°F. In addition to the
economic advantage, FRP fans often provide better performance
than special alloys in handling airstreams that are particularly
corrosive to metals.
Stainless steel is susceptible to attack by chlorides and
resultant physical failure by stress cracking. Residential hot-
water heaters are never made of stainless steel because the
combination of small amounts of chlorine in the water, modest
temperatures, and the stresses caused by changes in water
pressure results in rapid failure of the stainless steel.
As noted earlier, stainless steel is also much more susceptible to
corrosive attack by most acids than is FRP. Refer to
Engineering Letter 14 for additional information on the use of
stainless steel in fan construction.
Costs for fans made of 3 16L stainless vary from about three-
fourths that of FRP fans for small Class I fans to almost twice
the price of FRP fans for large Class III fans.
Fans made of Monel®, titanium, and the high-nickel alloys
may be more or less corrosion resistant than FRP depending
on the chemistry and temperature involved. Figure 1 shows the
effect of simultaneously submerging a coupon of a high-nickel
alloy (Hastelloy® C-276), 316 stainless steel and FRP
(Derakane® 510A40) in a bath of nitric and hydrochloric acid
(aqua regia). While the 316 stainless was destroyed and the
276 alloy severely corroded, the FRP was untouched. The cost
of fans made of such alloys is usually several times the cost of
fans made of FRP.

COMPARISON OF FRP FANS TO FANS OF OTHER

MATERIALS
A comparison of the corrosion resistance and economics of
fans made of various materials leads to these generalizations:
Coated steel fans vary greatly in the degree of corrosion
protection provided and cost. Coatings run the scale from
little-different-than-ordinary machinery enamel to baked-on
phenolics applied to sandblasted metal. Costs for coated fans
run from about one-third that of FRP fans for the least-resistant
coated-steel fans to about half the cost for the baked phenolic-
coated fans.
Figure 1 - High-nickel, stainless, and FRP coupon in bath of
Monel ® is a registered trademark of Inco Alloys International, Inc.
Hastelloy ® is a registered trademark of Haynes International, Inc.
nitric and hydrochloric acid.
Derakane ® is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc
Fans made of rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) have good all-
around corrosion resistance and generally cost less than fans
made of FRP. However, PVC has two significant physical
weaknesses that severely limit its use in fans: PVC becomes
quite brittle at temperatures below freezing, and PVC loses its
strength so rapidly with increasing temperatures that even
ordinary summer rooftop operating conditions are marginal.
Wheels sag and go out of balance and strike housings. PVC is a
thermoplastic material that ™ remembers ~ its original shape at
about 150°F., and needs to reach only about 300°F. for it to
have the zero strength needed for vacuum forming.
Numerous users have disavowed the use of PVC fans because
of their experiences with failures resulting from PVC's low-
temperature brittleness and high-temperature weakness.
The use of PVC equipment involves some safety considerations
as well. PVC does not burn, but because it is a low-temperature
thermoplastic it collapses early in a fire and will drip molten
PVC. Thus, rather than containing a potential fire within the
duct system, as fire-retardant FRP will do, PVC tends to
expand the fire into other areas, even though it is not inherently
combustible. In addition, PVC releases highly toxic
hydrochloric acid fumes when exposed to flame even though it
is a self-extinguishing material.
PVC, like FRP, is an insulating material and inherently spark-
resistant. However, unlike FRP, it cannot be made electrically
conductive to control static electricity.
UNDERSTANDING FRP
The term FRP describes a broad spectrum of fiber-reinforced
plastic materials. For example, cabinets for office machines
might be made of non-corrosion-resistant plastics reinforced
with mica and loosely called FRP. However, the FRP used in
making process vessels and equipment such as fans is
composed of about 30% by weight of glass or other fibers that
have been given a coating (sizing) to enhance their bonding
with the resin, and about 70% by weight of corrosion-resistant
polyester or vinyl ester resin.
The fibers provide physical strength, and the resin provides the
corrosion resistance and rigidity that make FRP a workable
solid. Sometimes, non-glass-fiber materials are used in FRP to
impart special properties. For example, graphite fibers add
tensile strength, and aramid fibers (Kevlar add toughness. ®)
But FRP for process equipment usually has glass fibers
because they are more economical and easier to work with;
graphite fibers, for example, are more difficult to handle and
do not bond as well as glass.
Glass fibers are available in a variety of forms, including
continuous -strand roving, woven roving, continuous -strand
mat, chopped-strand mat, chopped fibers, and milled fibers.
nyb uses all of the above except woven roving and continuous-
strand mat in the construction of its FRP products.
Continuous-strand roving is used in the chopper guns for
spray-molding of non-moving parts such as housings, inlet
cones, inlet boxes, damper frames, and outlet transitions.
Kevlar ® is a registered trademark of E.I. DuPont De Nemours & Company
Page 2
Chopped-strand mat, consisting of Type E glass of 1 1/2 ounces
per square foot in weight, is used in hand lay-up of housings
and Fume Exhauster wheel blades among other products.
Castings such as FPB and RFE wheels and seal housings are
made with chopped fibers. Milled fibers are primarily used to
make putty for filling cracks, turning sharp angles into smooth
radii, and encapsulating wheel hubs.
The corrosion resistance of FRP depends on the resin. Resins
used in FRP for process equipment are formulated for maximum
corrosion resistance, and are consequently two or three times
as costly as those used in everyday products such as boat hulls
or auto body parts.
FRP fan manufacturers normally use two types of resin in the
construction of their products. Polyester is the resin of choice
for non-moving components such as housings and inlet cones
because it provides excellent corrosion resistance for most
FRP applications at a relatively low cost. Unfortunately, this
type of resin cannot withstand the dynamic stresses inherent in
rotating parts such as wheels. Therefore, FRP wheel construction
dictates the use of vinyl ester resins which are much stronger
and more flexible than polyester resins.
The strength and elasticity of vinyl ester resins enable FRP
wheels to achieve maximum safe speeds comparable to similar-
sized steel wheels at 70°F. As with steel and other alloys, the
strength and flexibility of vinyl ester is compromised at elevated
temperatures, resulting in safe speed derate factors above
150°F. Refer to specific product bulletins for maximum safe
speeds and applicable derate factors.
FIRE RETARDANCE OF FRP RESINS
Since many FRP applications involve a mixture of combustible
chemicals and air, nyb FRP fans are made of fire-retardant
resins. Fire retardance is measured by the ASTM E-84 test
method, which determines ™flame spread ratings~ by comparing
the rate at which flame spreads when material is fired in a
long, narrow furnace with flowing air. (The test is also called
the ™tunnel test~ and is recognized by Underwriters'
Laboratory and the National Fire Protection Association.)
Completely incombustible materials, such as cement board, are
rated zero flame spread. Red oak is used as the comparative
value of a combustible material and is rated at 100. A flame-
spread rating of 25 or lower is considered non-combustible.
(Resin systems rated at 25 or less are often referred to as Class
I.)
A flame-spread rating of 50 means that the material will
gradually, but steadily, extinguish itself. (Resin systems rated at
26 to 50 are often referred to as Class II. Class III and IV
denote less fire-resistant ratings.)
Resins for chemical duty can be made fire retardant by formulating
the resins to include adequate molecularly bound halogens,
such as chlorine or bromine, or by the use of smaller amounts of
halogens but with the addition of antimony trioxide. The first
method is more costly but provides a clear resin that improves
quality control of the product being manufactured since the
workers and the inspectors can see into the finished
product. Antimony trioxide is a white pigment which produces
an opaque product that reduces the ability to visually check
product quality. Further, antimony additives can reduce the
corrosion resistance and strength of the resin. nyb uses a resin
that is fire retardant without the use of antimony trioxide.
STANDARD nyb RESIN
All nyb FRP components are made with Derakane 510A40, a
brominated epoxy vinyl ester resin manufactured by Ashland
Chemical Company. This resin offers the flexibility, low
shrinkage, and excellent secondary bonding necessary to
withstand the vibrational stress and fatigue of dynamic loading
inherent in rotating wheels. Derakane 510A40 has an ASTM
E-84 tunnel test rating of 25, offering Class I fire retardance
without the use of additives which could compromise its superior
toughness and corrosion resistance. This satisfies the most
stringent concern for the containment of ventilation-system
fires.
The clarity of Derakane 510A40 enables the fabricator and
inspectors to locate and eliminate air inclusions in the laminate,
thus maintaining high standards of quality control of a critical
fan component.
Since additives tend to adversely affect a resin's chemical
resistance, nyb FRP products do not contain ultraviolet (UV)
inhibitors. These additives have a tendency to inhibit resin
cure and lose their effectiveness after long exposure to ultraviolet
radiation. In order to prevent UV degradation, nyb applies a
coating to the exterior surfaces of all FRP components. Years of
successful outdoor service prove that this method of protection
is superior to adding UV inhibitors to the resin.
Corrosion resistance is the main concern when selecting a
resin. nyb's standard resin has excellent corrosion resistance to
a broad spectrum of corrosive environments.. The data on
corrosion resistance to various chemicals, presented in
Engineering Letter 18, were derived from tests of these resins.
CONSTRUCTION OF FRP FANS
The fabrication of FRP is similar to the casting of metal. A
pattern is used to make a mold for the FRP part. In a fan, the
airstream surfaces of the housing should be smooth to minimize
resistance and prevent build-up of airborne contaminants.
Thus, male molds are required rather than female ones. The
smooth outside surface of the mold shapes the inside surface of
the housing.
Parts made with male molds must be removable, so FRP fan
housings are usually made in two halves with matching
flanges. In larger fans, these two halves are bonded together
by means of FRP filler between the flanges, as shown in
Figure 2. A lamination laid over the joint on the inside of the
housing provides a smooth surface. The joined flanges form a
ridge that adds rigidity to the housing. The inlet subassembly is
bolted into place to allow access for installation of the wheel.
Smaller FRP fan housings are also molded in halves, but they
are typically bolted together as shown in Figure 3. Removing
the inlet side of the housing allows installation or removal of the
fan wheel.
Fan wheel construction is also different for large and small
FRP fans. Small wheels, such as nyb's Fiberglass Pressure
Blower, are made by casting or press-forming in fully
enclosed molds; Figure 4 shows an example. Larger wheels,
such as nyb's Fume Exhauster, are made by assembling and
bonding molded parts (wheel blades, frontplates, and back-
plates) with layers of laminate construction so as to make
strong, smooth joints. See Figure 4. All FRP wheels are oven-
cured for several hours to improve physical strength and
corrosion resistance of the FRP laminate.

Figure 2 - Fiberglass Fume Exhauster
Figure 4
Fiberglass Pressure Blower wheel, upper left-
Figure 3 - Fiberglass Pressure Blower
Fiberglass Fume Exhauster wheel,
lower right

Page 3
Metal parts that are incorporated in the FRP parts, shafts,
wheel hubs, and studs, are encapsulated in FRP so no metal is
exposed to the gas stream. Shafts are encapsulated in an FRP
sleeve that extends through a close-fitting opening in the side
of the housing. (Shaft seals that can be lubricated are available
as an option.) Bolts used to fasten smaller fan housing halves
together are of 316 stainless steel.

Neoprene foam gasketing is used between bolted housing sub-

assemblies and under access doors, inspection ports, and shaft
seal assemblies.

FRP fan wheels are permanently bonded to the fan shafts, the
shafts encapsulated in FRP, and the assembly balanced as a
unit. After the fan is assembled it is test run as a final check
to guarantee smooth operation.

Exterior surfaces of completed nyb FRP fans are coated with

gray epoxy enamel.

APPLICABLE STANDARDS FOR FRP FANS

The purchaser of FRP fans should consider the importance of
two published standards: one, ASTM D4167, covers the
construction of FRP fans; the other, AMCA Standard 210,
describes how fans are to be tested for air performance. The
AMCA Certified Ratings Program is the method by which
manufacturers certify their products' aerodynamic performance.
The ASTM standard is concerned with the structural reliability
of the fan. If the fan in a fume-control system fails, the entire
process may come to a halt. The importance of reliability has
led to development of a standard for FRP fansAmerican
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D4167, Standard
Specification for Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Fans and Blowers.
This standard defines minimum specifications for construction
of major fan elements. Here are six of the details:
1. Fan housing construction must conform to the ASTM
C582 specification which applies to all FRP process
equipment. (nyb standard construction with optional veil
complies with ASTM C582.) The same resin must be
used throughout the housing unless the manufacturer and
user agree to use different resins in different layers of the
laminate. (nyb does not back up the corrosion barrier
with less costly resin. nyb uses premium quality resin
throughout.) The structural rigidity of the housing (or a
prototype) is tested by running the fan with the inlet closed
and the outlet open. Inward flexing may be no greater than
0.5% of the fan-wheel diameter.
2. Fasteners, hubs, and shafts exposed to corrosives must be
either corrosion resistant or encapsulated in a material that
is.
3. The ASTM standard prohibits the use of additives in fan
wheel resins that obscure visual inspection of wheel
parts, including the use of antimony trioxide. nyb standard
construction provides fire retardance without the use of
additives.
Figure 5 - A graphite-impregnated FRP
fan for spark resistance.
5. Spark resistance. FRP is spark-resistant in the sense that
contact of FRP parts does not generally produce sparks.
However, FRP fans handling dry air can develop
electrostatic charges on wheel and housing surfaces because
FRP is a non-conductor. Still, an FRP fan can be made
spark-resistant by incorporating graphite flakes in the
wheel and housing airstream surfaces to make them
conductive, and grounding the surface layers of the
housing as shown in Figure 5. ASTM D4167 defines
acceptable resistivity as no greater than 100 megohms
between all points on the airstream surfaces and ground.
6. Dynamic balance is achieved either by balancing the
wheel-shaft assembly as a separate unit or by balancing
the wheel once it is installed in the fan (nyb does both).
Unbalance is corrected by adding FRP weights.
The Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) Certified
Ratings Program is concerned with accurate performance ratings.
The manufacturer submits published performance ratings to
AMCA and fans for test in the AMCA Laboratory. Deviations
are determined by plotting actual performance against the fan's
cataloged performance .
Manufacturers displaying the AMCA Certified Ratings Seal
on their products, and in their literature, have agreed to a
system of check testing in the AMCA Laboratory. If a product
fails to perform within the tolerances specified by the program,
the manufacturer must either republish the literature with correct
ratings or republish without the seal.

4. Safe wheel operating speed is determined either by past

experience or by destructive testing i.e., running the fan
wheel at increasing speeds until it fails, and applying a
safety factor to the failure speed. Fo r m 507 DJ K
 ENGINEERING LETTER 20
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

ACCESSORIES AND CONSTRUCTION MODIFICATIONS

FOR FRP FANS
INTRODUCTION
The applicability of corrosion-resistant FRP fans to a wider
range of applications is enhanced through the use of accessories
and construction modifications. The purpose of this Engineering
Letter is to provide supplemental information concerning
accessories and modifications that are unique to FRP fans.
ACCESSORIES
SHAFT SEALS are used where the standard close-clearance
shaft opening is not deemed to be adequate. (Standard
construction on nyb FRP fans have shaft openings fitted with
Teflon® membranes that have shaft holes 1/32" larger than the
FRP shaft sleeves.)
Seals are recommended wherever corrosive or toxic gases are
being handled, or when outside air is to be kept from entering
the fan and contaminating a process. It is difficult to predict
the conditions that increase leakage into or out of the fan
around the shaft opening. However, as a general rule, higher
positive or negative pressure differentials will result in greater
leakage.
OUTLET DAMPERS are designed to bolt directly to the
outlet flange on FRP fans. RFE and FPB dampers are round,
with one blade. FE and GFE dampers are rectangular, with
parallel blades, and are available for MP fans only. See Figure 2.

nyb’s standard shaft seal for FRP fans utilizes a pair of Viton® Casings and blades are constructed of Derakane ® 51 0A40. All
lip seal elements pressed into an FRP casing. As an option, damper parts are constructed of FRP except the 316 stainless steel
Teflon shaft seal elements can be provided for more corrosive control quadrant and hardware, and the corrosion-resistant,
applications. The seal assembly is secured to the fan housing injection-molded bearings.
with 316 stainless steel studs. The heads of the studs are Damper casing halves are bolted together to allow for easy
encapsulated in FRP to eliminate exposure to airstream replacement of damper vanes and bearings. All components
corrosives. See Figure 1. can be disassembled except vanes from rods.
Because the seals must ride on a smooth, heat-conductive
surface, the standard construction of the shaft encapsulated in
FRP is not suitable. Therefore, the seal assembly includes the
substitution of a 316 stainless steel sleeve for the standard FRP
sleeve. As an option, Hastelloy® C-276 sleeves are available
for those cases where the corrosive environment makes
stainless steel unacceptable.

The seal assembly is lubricated with “Never-Seez®,” a graphite

compound.

Figure 2 - Three types of FRP outlet dampers as

manufactured by nyb.
Figure 1 - Photo of FRP shaft seal mounted and diagram
illustrating lubricated lip seal elements. Never-Seez® is a registered trademark of Bostik.
Derakane® is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc.
Teflon® and Viton® are registered trademarks of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company.
Hastelloy ® is a registered trademark of Haynes International, Inc.
INLET BOXES are used to accomplish a 90° turn at the fan
inlet when space is limited. Fan applications typically involve
less than ideal connections between the fan and the process.
When the connections cause other than straight, uniform flow
into the fan inlet, the fan suffers performance losses beyond
those determined by ordinary duct-resistance calculations or
pressure drop measurements. (See Engineering Letter 5 for a
description of the effects of inlet connections.) Therefore, it is
advantageous to use nyb test-rated inlet boxes to reduce flow
losses, and to make those losses predictable for inclusion in
system design calculations. See Figure 3.
High, unpredictable effect on fan selection and
system performance.
Minimum, calculable effect on fan selection and
system performance.
Figure 3 - Inlet Connections
Figure 4 - FRP Fume Exhauster with Inlet Box
Page 2
Inlet Boxes are available for Fume Exhausters and General-
Purpose Fume Exhausters. See Figure 4.
Construction of FRP inlet boxes is similar to that of FRP Fume
Exhausters. Standard construction is with Derakane 510A40
vinyl ester resin. Inlet boxes are made in two sections bolted
together with 316 stainless steel hardware.
THREADED FRP DRAIN with PVC plug, 1" npt, is bonded
to the lowest point in the housing scroll.
COMPANION FLANGES are available with FPB and RFE
fans for those applications where a flexible or slip connection to
the fan inlet and/or outlet is required. Companion flanges are
commonly used on fans furnished with vibration isolation.
INSPECTION PORTS are used for periodic maintenance
checks on the wheel and the housing interior. They are
available on all FRP fans, and are located on the drive side
half of the housing (GFE and FE fans) or the inlet side half of
the housing (FPB and RFE fans), at either the 2 o' clock or the
10 o’clock position, opposite the fan discharge.
RAISED BOLTED CLEANOUT DOORS are available on GFE
and FE fans. They are located above the fan centerline at either the 2
o’clock or the 10 o’clock position, opposite the fan discharge.
OUTLET TRANSITIONS provide for a rectangular-to-round
transition on the outlets of various GFE and FE fan sizes. They
are available on GFE and FE Sizes 18 through 36 and 48 (MP
fans only). The I.D. of the round outlet is equal to that of the
fan inlet, and also to the transition length.
MODIFICATIONS
ALL-VINYL ESTER AIRSTREAM provides increased
resistance to certain corrosives. Engineering Letter 18 provides
data for the corrosion resistance of the standard construction
and of the all-vinyl ester construction.
Standard construction uses vinyl ester resin for wheels. All
other FRP parts are made of polyester resin. When an all-vinyl
ester airstream is specified, parts normally made of polyester
are made of vinyl ester. See Engineering Letter 19 for more
details.
SURFACE VEIL is used to reinforce the surface layer of
resin for added resistance to specific corrosives or to meet the
specification of ASTM D4167. Veil may be applied to just the
wheel, or to just the housing, or to the entire airstream. nyb
uses a synthetic surface veil that is described in detail in
Engineering Letter 21.
GRAPHITE IMPREGNATION of the final resin coat on
airstream surfaces provides for static grounding. This
important modification allows the fan to handle gas fumes that
are not only corrosive but also potentially explosive.
FRP is inherently non-sparking and the electrical resistance of
FRP may be considered infinitely high since it is essentially a
non-conductive or non-metallic material. Because FRP is non-
metallic, the physical contact of two FRP parts or a metallic
part with an FRP part will not produce a spark. However, FRP
does have the tendency to hold a charge of static electricity.
This charge can be generated by a dry gas or airstream passing
over FRP. The fan can ultimately become a capacitor capable of
discharging high-voltage, low-amperage sparks.
The static electricity or charge which builds up on the
airstream surface of the FRP part must be eliminated in
applications where the fumes are potentially explosive. This can
be accomplished by making the surface electrically
conductive, providing an electrical path to dissipate the relatively
low-current static charge.
STATIC GROUNDING - FRP fans can be effectively grounded
for the removal and control of static electricity by incorporating
graphite in the airstream layer of resin. See Figure 5.
Figure 5 – FRP Radial Fume Exhauster with graphite
impregnation and copper grounding straps.
The proper application of the graphite-resin coat is critical if
static grounding is to be achieved. Airstream and related
surfaces are coated with a mixture of graphite flakes and resin to
form a smooth, continuous graphite surface. FPB, RFE, and
non-rotatable GFE and FE fans are furnished with contacts
which are imbedded in the graphite layer to accommodate
grounding straps made of twisted, bare copper wire. The straps
are attached to the fan base on FPB and RFE fans and to inlet
side angles on the large Fume Exhausters. Rotatable GFE and
FE fans do not require grounding straps. These fans are
completely grounded to the pedestal through the mounting
studs on the housing. This design effectively grounds the
airstream to the steel base of the fan. However, it is essential
that the customer ground the fan base at the
installation.
Page 3
GROUNDING FEATURES - Surface resistivity of not more
than 1 megohm from any point on the airstream to ground is
generally considered adequate. nyb’s process of static
grounding by graphite impregnation provides surface resistivity
well below the 1-megohm figure.
Tests of nyb FRP fans equipped for static grounding indicate
that there is sufficient conductivity through the bearings to
eliminate the need for supplemental brush-type contacts to
ground the wheel and shaft assembly for most applications.
However, the burden of determining whether this is the case
for a particular installation and lubrication system rests with
the customer.
Static grounding by graphite impregnation does not interfere
with the corrosion-resistant properties of the fan. Graphite is
extremely corrosion resistant. However, the addition of the
graphite makes the surface softer than normal and prevents the
normal checking of the surface for Barcol-hardness readings.
FRP fans are often the best alternative for those applications
which require the handling of explosive, as well as corrosive
gas fumes. However, care must be taken to realize that there
can be no guarantees against possible sparking or ignition in
such airstreams. All aspects of the application, the system
components, and even the potential for sparks resulting from
“tramp” or “foreign” elements in the airstream must be
considered to ensure the safety of the installation.
FLANGE-DRILLING PATTERNS for round inlet and
round outlet flanges are in accordance with the National
Bureau of Standards Voluntary Product Standard PS 15-69.
This drilling pattern was developed by members of the FRP
industry for FRP ductwork and specifies bolt hole diameters
appropriate for bolting FRP ducts to FRP fans.
nyb FRP fans that have both round inlets and round outlets are
also available with flanges drilled to ANSI 150. Because ANSI
150 is intended for bolting together heavy metal pipe, it uses
bolts that are unnecessarily large for FRP. Although nyb
charges the same for drilling to PS 15-69 or ANSI 150, the
cost to the user can be substantially different. Flanges are
usually fastened together with corrosion-resistant alloy bolts,
nuts, and washers. The cost difference between the sizes
required for PS 15-69 and ANSI 150 can be significant. For
example, a 12" inside-diameter PS 15-69 flange would have
7/16" diameter holes for twelve 3/8" bolts. An ANSI 150
flange would have 1" diameter holes for 7/8" bolts. The
difference in cost can be $50 or more per flange for 316
stainless steel hardware and much more for higher-alloy
hardware.
Since PS 15-69 and ANSI 150 drilling patterns only pertain to
round flanges, they do not apply to FE and GFE outlet flanges.
Therefore, nyb has developed a standard for drilling rectangular
outlet flanges which provides holes drilled on 4" centers,
straddling the flange centerlines.
Fo r m 318 J L K
 ENGINEERING LETTER 21
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530
SURFACE VEIL FOR FRP FANS
INTRODUCTION
This Engineering Letter has several functions: to describe nyb
surface veil characteristics, define the purposes of surface veil,
explain the relationship between surface veil and ASTM
D4167, detail the specific corrosive agents that require a
double layer of veil, and describe the special construction
requirements involving hypochlorite applications.
SURFACE VEIL CHARACTERISTICS
The synthetic surface veil used exclusively by nyb is Nexus®. It
®
is a non-woven formed fabric produced from Dacron 106
homopolymer. This binder-free polyester fiber has an apertured
(perforated) design that provides the necessary flexibility for
the fabrication of fans. Each layer of surface veil contains about
90% resin and 10% veil material and is applied at a minimum of
10 mils.
Nexus Synthetic Surface Veil
PURPOSES OF SURFACE VEIL
One purpose of surface veil, also referred to as surfacing mat
or tissue, is to prevent protrusion of the chopped-strand mat
glass fibers to the surface which could allow chemical wicking
to occur.
A second, but equally important, purpose is to provide
reinforcement to the surface layer of resin to prevent cracking
and crazing.
Finally, the addition of surface veil allows nyb fans to meet
the requirements of ASTM Standard D4167.
Dacron® is a registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company, Inc.
Nexus ® is a registered trademark of Precision Fabrics Group, Inc.
Lupersol ® is a registered trademark of Elf Atochem North America, Inc.
ASTM STANDARD D4167
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D41
67, Standard Specification for Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Fans
and Blowers defines the basic guidelines for the construction
of FRP fans handling corrosive fumes. One of the
specifications within D4167 is that the laminate construction be
in accordance with another ASTM standard, C582. That
standard specifies that the working surface (the surface to be in
contact with corrosives) of the laminate consist of one layer of
surface veil backed by two layers of chopped-strand mat or
equivalent from a chopper gun, followed by the structural
layers. Therefore, in order to comply with ASTM D4167, all
FRP fans must be furnished with at least one layer of surface
veil on all housing surfaces.
CORROSIVES REQUIRING A DOUBLE LAYER OF
SURFACE VEIL
There are some chemical agents that are aggressive toward
glass. For these specific corrosives, nyb’s resin suppliers
recommend the addition of a layer of surface veil for increased
corrosion resistance. Additionally, in those applications where
the corrosive agent is extremely aggressive, a second layer of
veil is required. The corrosion-resistance guide found in
Engineering Letter 18, Corrosion Resistance of FRP Fans,
indicates where one or two layers of veil are required. The
corrosives listed as requiring a double layer of surface veil
include fluorine gas, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid,
hydrogen fluoride, potassium hydroxide, and various
hypochlorite compounds.
ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HYPOCHLORITE
APPLICATIONS
Applications involving butyl hypochlorite, calcium
hypochlorite, lithium hypochlorite, or sodium hypochlorite
require special FRP construction considerations. In addition to
the aforementioned double layer of surface veil, resin suppliers
recommend a substitution for nyb’s standard catalyst and
promoter.
nyb’s standard polyester and vinyl ester resins both use cobalt
napthanate (CoNap) as a promoter and Lupersol ®, a methyl
ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), as a catalyst. Gas streams
containing hypochlorites attack CoNap whenever MEKP is
used as a catalyst. Therefore, a benzoyl peroxide (BPO)
catalyst is recommended for these applications because it
does not use CoNap as its promoter. The BPO catalyst requires
dimethyl aniline (DMA), which is unaffected by hypochlorites,
as its accelerator in lieu of the CoNap.
Special BPO/DMA construction is limited in that it cannot be
used for FRP wheel construction. It can only be used to apply
surface veil to the wheel. All other FRP components can be
constructed using this special catalyst/accelerator system.
In addition, note that due to reactivity between BPO catalysts
and graphite, which reduces the graphite’s conductivity, static
grounding by graphite impregnation is not an available option
when used in conjunction with a BPO catalyzed resin.
CUSTOMER RESPONSIBILITY
This Engineering Letter and any discussions between nyb
representatives and the customer should not be construed as a
warranty of material suitability for a particular application. The
system designer should have sufficient knowledge of, or
experience with, the application to select the appropriate resin or
alternate material.
Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 22
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quinc y Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

INTEGRAL MOTORS FOR CENTRIFUGAL FANS

INTRODUCTION

The most common power source for fans is the electric motor.
A motor’s service life is largely dependent upon proper
selection and installation. Since the motor and its control
circuitry represent a substantial portion of the cost of many fan
systems, they deserve careful consideration. This Letter
introduces some of the more important matters for consideration.
SELECTION CRITERIA
The selection of the proper motor is based on numerous criteria.
Included are horsepower, service factor, enclosure, ambient
temperature, phase and voltage, speed, and efficiency.
The major difference in the BHP curve for backwardly-
inclined fans is its “non-overloading” characteristic. Figure 2
illustrates a BHP curve that reaches a peak and then drops off
as the volume continues to increase. This makes it possible to
select a motor for the maximum BHP at a given speed without
fear of overload despite any variance in the volume/pressure
relationship of the installed system. Since BHP varies with
changes in fan speed, the non-overloading characteristic only
applies to a given fixed speed.

Horsepower. If all air-handling systems had exactly the same

volume/pressure relationship the designer anticipated, all
motors could be selected merely to cover the fan brake horse-
power (BHP) calculated. However, system design usually
involves some estimating, and systems are not always installed
exactly as intended by their designers.

With all centrifugal fans, the fan speed must be increased to

handle the desired volume when the system resistance is higher
than anticipated, creating a substantially higher fan BHP
requirement. For radial and forward-curved wheels, if the system
resistance is lower than anticipated, fan BHP will increase
with the greater volume of air being handled. Refer to Figure 1.

The fan capacity table (Figure 3) shows the fan BHP for a given
volume/pressure relationship. However, it is not uncommon to
size the motor for a static pressure 5% to 10% higher than
design to allow for variances in the installed system. The
system designer should also be prepared to reduce fan speed if
resistance is lower than anticipated.

Motors should be selected so that the fan BHP rating for the
required volume and pressure is less than the rated motor
horsepower. The rated motor horsepower is the mechanical
power available at the motor shaft at full-load speed without
exceeding the motor’s maximum temperature rise.
 TOTALLY ENCLOSED FAN-COOLED MOTORS - These
4” SP 41/ 2” SP 5” SP 5 1 / 2” SP are totally enclosed motors equipped with a cooling fan, or
CFM OV
RPM BHP RPM BHP RPM BHP RPM BHP fans, integral with the motor assembly but external to the
10856 2100 1140 9.29 1194 10.4 1248 11.6 1300 12.8 enclosed parts. These motors should be installed so that the
11373 2200 1154 9.79 1205 10.9 1257 12.1 1308 13.3 intake of the cooling fan is not blocked or impeded. The
11890 2300 1167 10.2 1218 11.4 1269 12.7 1318 13.9 standard insulation is Class F with a 1.15 service factor rating.
12607 2400 1183 10.8 1232 12.0 1282 13.3 1330 14.6
12924 2500 1200 11.4 1248 12.6 1296 13.9 1342 15.2 TOTALLY ENCLOSED AIR-OVER MOTORS - These
special-purpose totally enclosed motors are intended for use in
13441 2600 1217 12.0 1263 13.3 1310 14.5 1355 15.9
fan applications where the fan provides sufficient cooling
Figure 3 - At 12,924 CFM and 5" SP,
airflow over the surface of the motor. However, they are not
the BHP required is 13.9. With an additional 10% system
resistance margin (51 / 2 " SP), the BHP required is 15.2. self-cooling, so they should only be used when airflow is
present at or above the velocities necessary for continuous
operation within the rated motor temperature rise.
Service Factor. Integral open-dripproof and totally enclosed
motors usually have a service factor of 1.15, while explosion- TEFC SEVERE DUTY MOTORS - These special purpose
proof motors usually have a 1.0 service factor. When the TEFC motors are intended for use in contaminated environments
motor nameplate voltage and frequency are maintained, the such as in the paper, metal, or chemical industries. Special features
motor can be run up to the capacity obtained by multiplying include cast-iron frame, end brackets, conduit box and fan
the rated horsepower by the safety factor shown on the motor cover, plated hardware, and stainless steel nameplates. They
nameplate. are also rated with 1.15 service factors and Class F insulation.
Some trade names include “Mill and Chemical,” “Dirty Duty,”
For example, a fan in a given system might require 5.0 BHP “Extra Tough,” and “Chemical Duty.”
according to original estimates, but minor system changes
could increase the demand to 5.25 BHP. In this case, a 5 HP TOTALLY ENCLOSED NON-VENTILATED MOTORS -
open motor rated with a 1.15 service factor could still be used These are basically totally enclosed motors with larger frames to
(5 HP x 1.15 = 5.75 HP) without detrimental overheating. dissipate heat, but no cooling fan. Typically offered in the
smaller fractional horsepowers, these motors should only be
Enclosure. The selection of a motor enclosure depends upon used in open, well-ventilated areas.
ambient conditions. Electric motors are air-cooled machines
and their service life depends greatly upon protecting the EXPLOSION-PROOF MOTORS - These special-purpose
motor from contaminated surroundings. Basically, all motor totally enclosed motors are designed to withstand internal
enclosures can be divided into two categories: open and explosions of gases or vapors, and to prevent the ignition of
totally enclosed. gases or vapors surrounding the motor. Refer to Engineering
Letter 23, Electric Motor Codes and Standards, for details.
OPEN MOTORS - This type is recommended for relatively
clean environments since the ventilating openings permit Insulation. Various motor insulation systems are available.
passage of external cooling air over and around the motor The rated temperature for a given insulation classification is
windings. Open motors are usually less expensive than other the maximum temperature for sustained operation. Three
enclosures. common insulation classes are shown in Figure 4.

DRIPPROOF MOTORS - These are open motors with INSULATION

ventilating openings so constructed and positioned that
operation is not hampered when drops of liquid or solid
particles strike the enclosure at any angle from 0° to 15°
downward from the vertical axis. The standard insulation is
Class B with a 1.15 service factor rating.
WPI AND WPII MOTORS - These are essentially open
motors with vacuum-pressure impregnation (VPI) winding
treatment for moisture resistance and weather protection. WPI
motors are equipped with space heaters. WPII motors have
ventilating openings arranged so that high-velocity air and/or
airborne contaminants blown into the motor during storms or
high winds can be discharged without entering the internal
electrical parts of the motor. Generally, the weather protected
motors are only available in frame sizes larger than NEMA
standard and they are less expensive than totally enclosed
motors in those cases.
TOTALLY ENCLOSED - This type is recommended for any
installation where dirt or contaminants can collect in or around
the motor. They are constructed in a manner that prevents the
free exchange of air between the inside and outside of the
motor case, but they are not airtight.
NEMA Ambient Hot-Spot
Class Temperature* Temperature
B 40°C. 130°C (266°F.)
F 41° - 65°C. 155°C. (311°F.)
H 66° - 90°C. 180°C. (356°F.)
*Note that these ratings apply to 1.0 service factor only.
Figure 4
Not all parts of the motor windings operate at the same
temperature. The temperature at the center of the coil is the
hottest, and is commonly referred to as “hot-spot temperature.”
This hot-spot temperature is used to establish the rating of an
insulation class. The actual temperature is the sum of all the
heat-producing factors including the ambient temperature,
motor induced temperature rise, and the hot-spot allowance.
Ambient temperatures. Whenever possible it is best to select
a motor with the appropriate insulation for the specific ambient
conditions. For example, a TEFC motor with Class F insulation
is suitable for ambient temperatures of 40°C. (104°F.) with
1.15 service factor or 65°C. (149°F.) with 1.0 service factor. If
this same motor is used in an ambient of 75°C. (167°F.)

Page 2
continuously, the life of the motor will be greatly reduced. However, belt-drive fan applications are usually limited to
Phase and voltage. Although these are limited to the power 1800 RPM motors when the horsepower requirements are 25
supply available at the installation site, the general rule of and up. Generally, TS (short shaft) frames are used on larger
thumb is to use polyphase (three phase) motors of the highest 3600 RPM motors, and these are not well-suited to belt-drive
available voltage in order to achieve the most economical arrangements. Although T frame motors are available for larger
equipment and installation costs. Single phase motors typically horsepower 3600 RPM motors, they are not standard, so long
cost more than polyphase because of the need for capacitors, procurement lead times and cost can be prohibitive.
centrifugal switches, etc. Higher voltage ratings can reduce The majority of electric motors used in fan applications are
installation costs by reducing the required electrical line size. single speed. However, multispeed motors are available in
either single phase or three phase.
In most U.S. and Canadian industrial sites, the power supply
typically found for the average polyphase motor is 230 or 460 The motor synchronous speed is expressed as:
volts (U.S.) and 575 volts (Canada) at 60 Hertz (cycles per 120 x F
Synchronous RPM =
second) generation. In many large cities where 120/208 volt P
networks are employed, commercial and small industrial loads where: F = supply frequency in Hertz
require motors rated for 200 volts. P = number of poles in motor winding
Motors for 2300 volts can be furnished in motor frames 445T The actual full load RPM (nominal speed) will be somewhat
and larger. Because of the cost of starting equipment for this below the synchronous speed. The percentage in speed is
higher voltage, 2300 volt motors are not generally available known as the percent slip. Thus, an 1800 RPM (4 pole) motor
below 200 HP. with a 2.8% slip will have a full load nominal speed of 1750
Single phase motors are available for service on 115/230 volts RPM (1800 - 50 = 1750).
for 3 HP and smaller. Motors up to 10 HP are available for The exact slip percentage will vary from one motor size and
230 volt service in single phase. type to another. Slip is also somewhat dependent upon load. A
partially loaded motor will run slightly faster than a fully
The standard motor frequencies are 60 and 50 cycles per second,
loaded motor. Since calculating the precise nominal speed for
or “Hertz.” The prevailing frequency in the United States and
each application would be impractical, the Air Movement and
Canada is 60 Hertz. Most of Europe, the Middle East, and the
Control Association (AMCA) has established nominal speeds to
Pacific Rim have 50 Hertz service. Many motors specified for
be used uniformly to determine fan performance. See Figure 5.
50 Hertz will require 380 volts, 440 volts, or 220/380 volts . . .
all of which are considered standard by motor manufacturers.
NOMINAL SPEEDS FOR 60 HERTZ MOTORS
Although motors built for 50 Hertz are becoming more readily Number Synchronous Nominal
available in this country, consideration should be given to the of Poles Speed (RPM) Speed (RPM)
accepted practice of derating 60 Hertz motor speed and horse- 2-pole: 3600
power. Ratings can be derated by a factor of .833 (50/60) to
thru 1 HP 3450
determine the operating characteristics in 50 Hertz service.
11 / 2thru 25 HP 3500
For example: 30 HP and up 3550
60 Hertz - 10 HP, 1800 RPM, 3/60/230/460 4-pole: 1800
50 Hertz* - 8.3 HP, 1500 RPM, 3/50/190-380 thru 3 / 4 HP 1725
1 thru 20 HP 1750
* Note: This does not apply to single phase or explosion-proof
25 HP and up 1770
motors. RPM and Voltage rounded to standard nomenclature.
6-pole: 1200
NEMA standards state that motors must be capable of delivering
thru 3 HP 1150
their rated horsepower at a variance of nameplate voltage of ±
5 HPand up 1175
10% voltage, although not necessarily at the standard rated
temperature rise. One exception is a motor nameplated as 8-pole: 900
208-230/460 volts. The ± 10% voltage only applies to 230 or thru 1 / 8 HP 850
460, and thus requires very good voltage regulation for operation 1 / 2 HP and up 875
in a 208 volt network. Another exception is 60 Hertz motors Note: 50 Hz motor speeds can be determined by
derated for 50 Hertz operation. multiplying the above ratings by .833 (50/60).
A 208 volt network requires a 200 or 200/208 volt motor. Figure 5
Note that the 200/208 does not mean dual voltage, (as with a
Motor Efficiency. The continued increase in energy costs and
standard 23 0/460 rating), but is simply a 200 volt motor rated
emergence of energy savings programs have heightened
and recommended for 208 volt service.
concern for electrical usage and motor efficiency. Good
The NEMA standard 230/460 volt rating is not generally system design necessitates the selection of the most efficient
recommended for 208 volt service unless authorized by the motor for a given application.
motor manufacturer. Motors for use in a 208 volt network Motor manufacturers are able to improve motor efficiency by
should be ordered with a 200 volt rating, with windings and altering any number of design factors. The use of thinner steel
nameplate so designed and stamped. laminations in the stator and rotor core, using better grades of
Speed. The general rule of thumb is to select the highest steel, more copper in the stator, and more efficient, smaller
practical motor speed to reduce the size, weight, and cost of the cooling fans are just a few examples.
motor.

Page 3
In an effort to distinguish one manufacturer’s motor from
another, motor manufacturers use a number of names, such as
standard, high, premium, etc., to qualify published efficiency
values. The generally accepted basis for comparison of
efficiency values is the “guaranteed minimum efficiency”
based on NEMA recommendations. Motor efficiency can be
calculated by the following formula:
746 x HP output
Motor Efficiency =
Watts Input
When comparing motor efficiencies, the power factor must
also be considered. At a given efficiency, a higher power
factor results in a lower current demand. The power factor is
the ratio of real current (current required to run the motor) to
the total current (real current plus the reactive current that creates
the magnetic field). The power factor for a given motor
should be obtained from the specific motor manufacturer, but it
can be calculated by the following formula:
Power Factor = Watts Input
Volts x Amps x 1.73*
* For 3-phase motors only.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to the previous selection criteria, there are several
other special considerations that affect proper motor selection.
These include high or low voltage, starting times, minimum
sheave diameters, heavy cycling, and excessive loading.
High or low voltage. Motor service life can be shortened
considerably if the motor is operated outside the ± 10%
voltage variance range.
With low voltage, motor torque decreases. The motor is therefore
forced to slow down to develop the required torque. This
causes increased current draw which creates additional heat in
the motor winding. In addition, at the slower speed ventilation
is reduced and heat will not be dissipated as rapidly.
High voltage will cause an increase in magnetizing current in
the motor. This causes additional heating in the motor windings.
Particularly with older motors, increased voltage can break
down the motor insulation by breaching its insulating capability.
Starting times. Whenever an electric motor is used to drive a
centrifugal fan, both the fan’s maximum power demand and
the motor starting torque characteristics must be considered.
Where larger centrifugal fans are to be driven by relatively
small motors, it is possible that the motor will not be capable of
overcoming the fan’s inertia to bring it up to the required
speed in a reasonable time. Excessive starting time, generally
greater than 10 to 15 seconds, will raise the temperature of the
motor windings to a point where circuit breakers can trip out,
or the motor itself can be damaged. The user must be aware
of this problem when selecting the fan and motor combination.
The two main factors to be considered are the fan wheel inertia
(WR or WK and the starting torque characteristics of the
2 2)
motor. Exact curves of the motor starting torque, as a percentage
of full load torque at a given speed, are available from the
motor manufacturer.
Many fan applications require a fan speed other than a nominal
motor speed, so a belt-drive configuration is used. In these
cases, the WR must be corrected to include the effects of the
2
fan shaft and fan sheave.
Page 4
It is best to consult the fan manufacturer for confirmation of
questionable fan/motor combinations, i.e. large fans with small
motors. If the combination has an unacceptable starting time,
the solution could be to use a larger motor, damper the fan for
reduced load starting, or in some cases consider clutching
systems so the fan can be brought up to speed without tripping
electrical breakers or damaging the motor.
Minimum Sheave Diameters. Special consideration should be
given to the diameter of drive sheaves used on motors. As belt
tension must increase to avoid slippage with small diameter
sheaves, the radial load imposed on the motor bearing
becomes significant. The motor manufacturer can provide
specific recommendations for minimum sheave diameters.
Some general recommendations are shown in Engineering
Letter 23 - Electric Motor Codes and Standards.
Heavy Cycling. When a motor is started and stopped frequently,
heat build-up from the heavy starting current cannot be
adequately dissipated. Heat will build up on successive starts
and the temperature will rise even after the motor is stopped
because air movement is not present for heat dissipation. This
type of operation poses unusual problems in the selection of
proper protective devices. Thermal protectors located in the
motor starter will cool more rapidly than the motor windings, so
protection is compromised. Internal temperature sensors,
known as thermal overload detectors, can be embedded in the
motor windings to provide the best form of protection for
motors subjected to heavy cycling.
Generally, standard integral motors are designed for continuous
operation. Cyclic service of any fan/motor combination
demands special consideration. Such situations should be
explained and carefully reviewed with the fan and motor
manufacturers.
Excessive Loading. When too much is demanded of a motor, it
will attempt to compensate by drawing more current. Heat
build-up is proportional to the square of the increase in current.
Proper overload protection will guard against excessive heat
build-up; however, it is unwise to use overcurrent protectors
with automatic resets because the motor can cycle until
enough heat builds up to damage the windings.
The potential problems of excessive loading are often dealt
with by using backwardly inclined fan designs. As explained
previously, it is possible to select a motor for a backwardly
inclined fan that will not overload at a fixed speed, regardless of
any changes in system resistance.
CONCLUSION
The New York Blower Company frequently supplies the entire
fan, drive, and motor package. However, because motor selec-
tion is dependent upon the actual location, environment, and
intended service, and since only the system designer or end
user can be fully aware of these variables, nyb cannot be
expected to select or recommend motor specifications.
The information contained in this Letter provides the system
designer or user with fundamental information to aid in the
selection and application of motors. Further information can
be obtained by contacting motor manufacturers directly.
Fo r m 5 0 7 D J K
 ENGINEERING LETTER 23
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527 -5530
ELECTRIC MOTOR CODES AND STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
Electric motors are often required to meet various industry
standards and national codes in addition to specific application
requirements. The more common of these standards and codes
are explained in this Engineering Letter. Also included are some
general motor dimensions and weights for reference purposes.
In the early days of electric motors, motors were built to the
specifications and standards of individual manufacturers. Each
brand usually had its own unique nomenclature, dimensions,
ratings, etc., thus interchangeability was seldom possible.
Currently, a number of independent groups and several special
interest organizations provide uniform specifications to which
motor manufacturers can comply on a selective or voluntary
basis. Some of the more common of these are listed below.
MOTOR STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
AIM - Automotive Industrial Motors include specific brands
manufactured on a selective basis to meet the specifications
established by the automotive industry. Examples include
GMC - 7EQ, Ford EM-1, and Chrysler NPEM-100.
ANSI - American National Standards Institute represents
manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. A wide variety of
subjects are covered, such as dimensions, material specifications,
test methods, and performance. Standards frequently reference
those adopted by NEMA and IEEE.
CSA - Canadian Standards Association provides material
standardization services for Canada. It develops or adopts
standards for safety, quality, and performance.
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission defines
metric equivalancies to some NEMA standards, such as
enclosures, frame sizes, conduit box locations, and mounting
arrangements.
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers covers
such fundamentals as basic standards for temperature rise,
classification of insulating materials, and the appropriate test
codes and rating methods.
ISO - International Standards Organization establishes uniform
terminology, units, and equivalancies in international metric
terms.
NEC - National Electric Code is an ANSI standard sponsored
by the National Fire Protection Association for the purpose of
safeguarding persons and property from electrical hazards. The
code covers wiring methods and materials, protection of
branch circuits, motors and controls, grounding, hazardous
locations, and recommendations. See Figure 1.
NEMA - National Electrical Manufacturers Association is a
trade association organized and supported by manufacturers of
electrical equipment and supplies. Voluntary standards define
products, processes, and procedures with reference to
nomenclature, construction, dimensions, tolerances, operating
characteristics, performance, testing, and rating. The standards
cover such matters as motor-frame sizes and designations,
circuit connections, lead markings, torque classifications, and a
basis for ratings. Some of the more important items
standardized by NEMA are:
Speeds - see Figure 3.
Horsepower Ratings - see Figure 3.
Frame Sizes and Dimensions - see Figure 4.
Conduit Box Locations - see Figure 5.
Standard Voltages and Frequencies*
Service Factors*
Enclosures*
Starting Current
Torques
* Note: refer to Engineering Letter 22 - Integral Motors for
Centrifugal Fans.
UL - Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. is an independent testing
organization specializing in testing products, systems, and
materials with particular reference to life, fire, and casualty
hazards. Standards have been developed for motors and
controls in cooperation with the manufacturers. The variety of
standards for motors compliance include:
1. Motors for use where explosive vapors, combustible
dusts, or easily ignitible flyings exist…as adopted by
NEC.
2. Motor-operated appliances.
3. Motor overload protection devices.
 NEC EXPLOSION-PROOF MOTOR DESIGNATIONS
The National Electrical Code categorizes common hazardous atmospheres and locations. Classification of hazards might be
defined by the plant safety engineer or by the insurance company. Since the type and degree of hazard varies widely according to
the materials encountered and their probable presence in hazardous quantities, the following methods of identification are used:
Class - materials are “classed” as flammable vapors or gases (Class I); or as combustible dusts (Class II).
Group - materials are “grouped” according to their relative degree of hazard with Groups C and D applicable to vapors or gases,
and Groups E through G applicable to combustible dusts.
Division - the containment aspects are defined by “divisions” according to the likely concentration of the hazard. Division 1 is
applicable to routine or periodic exposure, while Division 2 refers to a hazard that is normally confined within a system or
container and which would only escape in the event of some abnormal circumstance or equipment failure. NEC requires the use
of explosion-proof motors for all Division 1 locations.
Class I Group C - Atmospheres containing ethyl vapors, ethylene, or cyclopropane.
Class I Group D - Atmospheres containing gasoline, hexane, naptha, benzine, butane, alcohol, acetone, benzol,
lacquer-solvent vapors, or natural gas.
Class II Group E - Atmospheres containing metal dust.
Class II Group F - Atmospheres containing carbon black, coal, or coke dust.
Class II Group G - Atmospheres containing flour, starch, or grain dust.
The specific motor Class and Group must be determined for the particular hazard involved. Motors designed and rated for one
type of hazard or location are not necessarily suitable for use in another situation . . . consult the motor manufacturer for specific
application information.
The explosion-proof motor ratings normally stocked by motor manufacturers or distributors are Class I, Group D and Class II,
Groups F and G, Division 1. Other ratings, such as Class I, Group C or Class II, Group E, Division 1 are non-standard but are
available on special order.

Figure 1

COMMON MOTOR WEIGHTS AND SHEAVE LIMITS NEMA STANDARD FRAME SIZES
Motor Weights (lbs.)1
Sheave Limitations (Inches) 2 Synchronous Speed (RPM) 3
Rating
Frame ODP TE Min. Maximum Width 3600 1800 1200
(HP)
Min./Max. Min./Max. Pitch Dia. Narrow Conven. ODP TEFC ODP TEFC ODP TEFC
143T 26/41 28/65 2.2 21/4 41/4 3/4 -- -- -- -- 143T 143T
145T 33/55 35/70 2.4 21/4 41/4 1 -- -- 143T 143T 145T 145T
182T 50/105 55/111 2.6 23/4 51/4 11/2 143T 143T 145T 145T 182T 182T
184T 60/120 70/125 3.0 23/4 51/4 2 145T 145T 145T 145T 184T 184T
213T 90/137 99/197 3.0 33/8 61/2 3 145T 182T 182T 182T 213T 213T
215T 100/160 121/224 3.8 33/8 61/2 5 182T 184T 184T 184T 215T 215T
254T 145/275 23 1/384 4.4 4 73/4 71/2 184T 213T 213T 213T 254T 254T
256T 160/3 10 265/415 4.6 4 73/4 10 213T 215T 215T 215T 256T 256T
284T 228/374 359/495 5.0 45/8 9 15 215T 254T 254T 254T 284T 284T
284TS 225/372 356/425 * * * 20 254T 256T 256T 256T 286T 286T
286T 275/409 390/499 5.4 45/8 9 25 256T 284TS 284T 284T 324T 324T
286TS 250/380 380/475 * * * 30 284TS 286TS 286T 286T 326T 326T
324T 366/495 490/700 6.0 51/4 101/4 40 286TS 324TS 324T 324T 364T 364T
324TS 333/478 458/671 * * * 50 324TS 326TS 326T 326T 365T 365T
326T 415/600 526/766 6.8 51/4 101/4 60 326TS 364TS 364T 364T 404T 404T
326TS 406/565 490/73 8 * * * 70 364TS 365TS 365T 365T 405T 405T
364T 580/792 748/948 7.4 57/8 111/2 100 365TS 405TS 404T 405T 444T 444T
364TS 519/777 730/916 * * * 125 404TS 444TS 405T 444T 445T 445T
365T 620/835 804/1040 9.0 57/8 111/2 150 405TS 445TS 444T 445T 445T 445T
365TS 600/821 777/1004 * * * 200 444TS 447TS 445T 445T 445T 447T
404T 845/1110 1100/1220 9.0 71/4 141/4 Figure 3
404TS 750/1108 1000/1211 * * * 1. Motor weights are not standardized and vary with manufacturer,
405T 816/1163 1049/1368 11.5 71/4 141/4 enclosure, frame, etc. The minimum and maximum weights shown
405TS 800/1150 907/1312 * * * are representative of the range available from several major
444T 1122/1528 1400/1820 11.0 81/2 163/4 manufacturers as of March, 2018. Where exact weights are
required, consult the specific manufacturer.
444TS 1100/1515 1365/1799 * * *
2. The sheave limitations shown represent the most restricted
445T 1250/1750 1500/2458 13.2 81/2 163/4 parameters from several major manufacturers. It may be possible
445TS 1200/1600 1481/2300 * * * to exceed these parameters for a given situation by consulting the
* Not recommended for belt drive specific manufacturer.
Figure 2 3. Motor frame sizes may vary with special features or characteristics.
Refer to Engineering Letter 22 - Integral Motors for Centrifugal
Fans for nominal speeds.

Page 2
 NEMA STANDARD DIMENSIONS (Inches)

C-ODP1 C-TE1
Frame BA D* E F U V† 1

Min. Max. Min. Max.

143T 2.25 3.50 2.75 2.00 .875 2.00 10.99 12.82 10.45 13.35
145T 2.25 3.50 2.75 2.50 .875 2.00 11.12 12.99 11.45 14.35
182T 2.75 4.50 3.75 2.25 1.125 2.50 12.36 14.72 13.55 17.15
184T 2.75 4.50 3.75 2.75 1.125 2.50 13.56 16.50 13.55 17.15
213T 3.50 5.25 4.25 2.75 1.375 3.13 15.50 18.19 17.18 20.28
215T 3.50 5.25 4.25 3.50 1.375 3.13 16.31 18.19 17.18 20.28
254T 4.25 6.25 5.00 4.12 1.625 3.75 20.00 22.32 21.50 25.60
256T 4.25 6.25 5.00 5.00 1.625 3.75 21.69 23.19 23.20 25.60
284T 4.75 7.00 5.50 4.75 1.875 4.38 23.19 25.94 25.33 28.93
284TS 4.75 7.00 5.50 4.75 1.625 3.00 21.82 22.44 23.95 27.55
286T 4.75 7.00 5.50 5.50 1.875 4.38 23.81 25.06 26.83 28.93
286TS 4.75 7.00 5.50 5.50 1.625 3.00 22.44 23.69 25.45 27.55
324T 5.25 8.00 6.25 5.25 2.125 5.00 21.38 27.25 28.15 32.25
324TS 5.25 8.00 6.25 5.25 1.875 3.50 21.38 25.75 26.65 30.75
326T 5.25 8.00 6.25 6.00 2.125 5.00 26.69 28.50 29.65 32.25
326TS 5.25 8.00 6.25 6.00 1.875 3.50 25.19 27.00 28.15 30.75
364T 5.88 9.00 7.00 5.62 2.375 5.63 28.62 29.69 31.28 34.28
364TS 5.88 9.00 7.00 5.62 1.875 3.50 26.50 29.70 29.15 32.15
365T 5.88 9.00 7.00 6.12 2.375 5.63 26.57 29.69 31.28 34.28
365TS 5.88 9.00 7.00 6.12 1.875 3.50 27.50 29.81 29.15 32.15
404T 6.63 10.00 8.00 6.12 2.875 7.00 32.38 34.19 33.88 39.91
404TS 6.63 10.00 8.00 6.12 2.125 4.00 29.38 31.19 30.89 36.91
405T 6.63 10.00 8.00 6.87 2.875 7.00 33.88 34.19 36.85 41.95
405TS 6.63 10.00 8.00 6.87 2.125 4.00 30.88 31.19 33.85 38.95
444T 7.50 11.00 9.00 7.25 3.375 8.25 37.56 39.94 39.56 46.68
444TS 7.50 11.00 9.00 7.25 2.375 4.50 33.81 36.18 35.31 42.93
445T 7.50 11.00 9.00 8.25 3.375 8.25 38.62 39.94 39.56 48.68
445TS 7.50 11.00 9.00 8.25 2.375 4.50 35.87 36.18 35.31 44.93
*Tolerance: 8" or less, + .000, - .03 1, Over 8", +.000, - .062.  Tolerance: 11/ 2" dia. or less +.0000, - .0005; Over 11/ 2" dia. + .000, - .001.
† V is usable shaft length.

Figure 4

1. The overall motor length is uniformly designated as
NEMA “C,” but the dimension itself varies between
manufacturers. The “C” dimensions shown are
representative of the range available from several
manufacturers as of March, 2018. Where exact
dimensions are required, consult the specific motor
manufacturer.
2. The distance from the center of the motor shaft to the
outside edge of the conduit box is known as NEMA
“AB.” Since this dimension varies with manufacturer,
enclosure, frame, etc., consult the specific motor
manufacturer.

Page 3
 Conduit-box locations . . . the standard location for
floor mounted motors is designated as F-1, where the
conduit box is on the right when viewing the end
opposite the shaft. Although other arrangements are
available as indicated, they are non-standard and
require special production and extended delivery
schedules in most cases. Thus, the F-1 is used for
the majority of fan applications regardless of fan
arrangement. See Figure 6.

Assembly F-1, W-2, W-3, W-6, W-8 and C-2 =

Standard Lead Location.

Assembly F-2, W-1, W-4, W-5, W-7, and C-1 = Lead

Location Opposite Standard.

MOTOR ROTATION DESIGNATIONS

Motor rotation . . . the direction of the motor rotation

can be significant, particularly in large fan-cooled
motors. The increasing demand for energy-efficient
and quiet-operating motors has forced motor
manufacturers to use uni-directional cooling fans in
many cases. Thus, the motor manufacturer will need
to know the required rotation in many cases.

Most motor manufacturers specify CW or CCW

when viewing the end opposite the shaft. Therefore,
the motor rotation will be the same as the fan rotation
in Arrangements 4, 7, 8, and 1 or 3 with motor
positions X and Y. The motor rotation will be
opposite the fan’s in Arrangements 9, 10, and 1 or 3
with motor positions W and Z. This may differ with
some manufacturers, since there is no formal standard.

Figure 6
Form 318 JLK
 ENGINEERING LETTER 24
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

FUNDAMENTALS OF STEAM
INTRODUCTION

A good knowledge of steam heating, for process work and air

handling/ventilation systems, is important to design engineers,
building owners, and maintenance personnel who may
encounter steam systems. This Engineering Letter was written
as a basic reference tool, primarily for those who have not been
regularly involved in designing and operating steam-heating
systems.

LATENT HEAT

One of the factors important in holding the earth’s surface

temperature within its rather narrow bounds is the fact that
while it takes about 1 Btu to change the temperature of a
pound of liquid water by 1 °F., it takes 144 Btu to freeze one
pound of water (latent heat of fusion) and about 1000 Btu to
convert one pound of water to steam (latent heat of evapo-
ration). The relatively large amount of heat change required to
convert water into either ice or steam acts to keep the earth’s
temperature moderate. BTU to raise the temperature of one pound of water.
Figure 1

Heating water from 32°F. to its boiling point, 2 12°F. at sea

level, requires about 180 Btu per pound (one Btu per degree).
This is referred to as sensible heat. Converting the water at
212°F. to steam at the same temperature requires about 1000
Btu per pound. This is the heat applied in a steam boiler.
Conversely, when the latent heat is extracted from the steam,
perhaps by condensing it in a section of STEELfin coil, the
1000 Btu per pound is given up by the steam without any
change in temperature.
Figure 1 shows how the temperature of one pound of water
would vary if subjected to a constant rate of Btu input. Notice
that it would stay at 32°F. and 2 12°F. (at sea level) until, in
each case the latent heat conversions had taken place for the
entire pound of water.
SATURATION
If a container of water is heated sufficiently at a constant
pressure, the water temperature will rise until the boiling point
is reached. While boiling, the temperature will remain constant
until all the water has been converted to steam. Then the
temperature will rise again as the steam is further heated, as
shown in Figure 1. Steam at the temperature at which it co-exists
with water is called saturated steam. The temperature is called
the saturation temperature. The saturation temperature varies
with the pressure. An increase in pressure increases the
temperature at which the latent heat transfer takes place. The
pressure at which the latent heat transfer takes place (at a
given temperature) is called the saturation pressure.
For example, at sea level normal atmospheric pressure is 14.7 The increase in temperature above the saturation temperature
psia (absolute pressure). The saturation temperature is 212°F. At is called superheat. Steam that has a small amount of super-
2 12°F. the saturation pressure is also 14.7 psia (which is also 0 heat is called dry steam. If heated more than a few degrees
psig see Pressures, below). Almost all useful steam-heat above the saturation temperature it is referred to as
transfer work takes place at the latent heat-saturation superheated steam. Obviously, neither dry nor superheated
temperature and pressure point. Saturation pressures, steam can co-exist with liquid water. Since steam is a gas it
temperatures, and latent heat values are shown in Figure 2. tends to expand with a direct relation to temperature. The
increased volume and small amount of extra heat value makes
superheat a relatively worthless factor in steam heating. Its
only real value is to ensure that there will be dry steam at the
Gauge Temp. Latent Gauge Temp. Latent point where the steam is to be used. In other words, a few
Pressure °F. Heat Pressure °F. Heat
degrees of superheat at the boiler will minimize condensation
2 219 966 80 324 891 in the supply lines to the steam coils.
5 227 960 90 331 886
10 239 953 100 338 880
CONDENSATION
15 250 945 110 344 875
20 259 939 120 350 871 When steam gives up its latent heat and changes from saturated
25 267 933 130 356 866 steam to water at the same temperature, it condenses. The
water is referred to as condensate.
30 274 929 140 361 861
40 286 920 150 366 857
HEAT TRANSFER
50 298 912 175 377 847
60 307 905 200 388 837 Figure 3 shows the cross section of a typical steam coil. The
70 316 898 heat produced by the condensation of the steam travels
Steam gauge pressures, saturation temperatures, and latent heat through the boundary layer of steam, through the
values at sea level, standard barometric pressure of condensation that forms on the inside of the tube, through the
29.92" Hg = 14.7 psia. tube itself, out into the fins, and through the boundary layer of
Figure 2 air on the fins’ surfaces and into the passing stream of air.

PRESSURES
In the English system of measure, steam pressures are
measured in pounds per square inch. In international units,
steam pressures are measured in pascals or kilopascals where 1
psi is equal to 6894.7 pascals. For the sake of simplicity,
English units are used in this Engineering Letter.

There are, necessarily, two reference levels for measuring

pressure. One is the pressure above atmospheric. This is the
boiler pressure, commonly called gauge pressure and
abbreviated either psi or psig. Because of the variable nature of
atmospheric pressure, steam pressures are more accurately
described in terms of their absolute pressure. This is the total
amount of pressure above a perfect vacuum. At sea level, Steam coil cross-section showing the temperature gradient
with 5 psig steam (227°F. saturation temperature)
atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia. Hence gauge pressure (psig)
heating air to 90°F.
+ 14.7 = absolute pressure (psia).
Figure 3

SUPERHEAT
Steam is a gas. As in the case of any gas, it can be heated
above the boiling point. Once it is past the saturation
temperature it requires only about .5 Btu per pound to increase its
temperature 1°F.
All steam coils are 100% efficient in the sense that the heat
released by condensing steam within the coil has nowhere to
go but into the air surrounding the coil. Tube-and-fin material,
fin spacing, air velocity, and some other factors affect the rate
at which the heat transfer (and therefore the condensation)
takes place but they cannot alter the fact the steam’s latent
heat has only one place to go: into the airstream.

Form 60 7 GAW
 ENGINEERING LETTER 25
The New York Blower Company ●7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530
I N D U S T R I A L S T E AM H E AT I N G S Y S T E M S
INTRODUCTION
Reduced to its barest elements, a steam heating system consists
of a boiler to convert water to steam, piping to conduct the
steam to where it is to be used, a coil or other surface for
condensing the steam and transferring the latent heat from the
steam to the air, a trap to prevent the steam from passing
through the coil before it is condensed, and return piping to
bring the condensate back to the boiler. The purpose of this
Engineering Letter is to provide a basic overview of the major
elements found in typical industrial steam heating systems.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Boilers
While the boiler and its attachments are major factors in the
steam heating system, it is not the intent of this Letter to do
more than point out that boilers are generally divided into
“Low Pressure” and “High Pressure” designs. Low pressure
boilers, running up to 15 psig, are generally used for space
heating with unit heaters, make-up air units, heating and
ventilating units, etc. There is no benefit in raising the steam
pressure or temperature much beyond the minimum needed to
boil water and to provide the pressure necessary to drive the
steam through the piping system. Higher pressures not only
require more expensive piping and fittings but the added
danger involved in higher pressures and temperatures has given
rise to municipal and insurance codes requiring additional safety
features, licensed operators, etc.
High pressure boilers generate more than 15 psig. High-
pressure systems are used either to provide adequate pressure
for long runs of steam piping or to develop higher temperatures
for process systems. The air passing across a steam coil cannot
be heated any higher than the steam temperature. At 5 psig the
steam temperature is 227°F. At 200 psig it is 388°F. There is
little difference between the amount of total heat at 5 psig and at
200 psig but the fact that the heat is released at a higher
temperature gives the capability of producing substantially higher
final air temperatures.
Piping
Piping is addressed on page 3.
Steam Coils
The steam coil is the part of the system designed to condense results of the two kinds of failures is that water hammer gives a
the steam and transfer the latent heat to the airstream. If all coils symmetrical bulge at the end of the tube, where freezing gives a
are 100% efficient, then what differentiates a good steam coil non-symmetrical distortion.
from a poor one? Here are some important factors:
1. The metal or metals of which a steam coil is manufactured
are relatively unimportant insofar as heating capacities are
concerned but may be extremely important in determining the
life of the coil. Coils have been successfully made from almost
every conceivable metal. Copper tubes have long been a favorite
because of copper’s supposed corrosion resistance and ease of
soldering, brazing, and forming. However, other tubes,
particularly steel, are quite adaptable to the manufacture of
steam coils. Conventional copper or steel tube coils are usually
adequate for commercial heating installations.
2. Industrial heating and process applications demand the
most rugged possible coil construction. The most practical coil
is one using heavy-gauge, welded-steel tubes with an oval-
shaped cross-section. The resultant strength is several times
that of light-gauge copper or steel tubing. A round tube will
sp lit when filled with water and frozen, as so often happens
when the condensate return system fails for one reason or
another. An oval tube deforms slightly, increasing its cross-
sectional area, but rupture normally will not occur if the oval
tube is made of heavy-gauge, high-strength steel.
3. Condensate is water and it runs downhill. The condensate
drains from the coil’s tubes by gravity. Good coil installation
produces an almost uniform pressure through the coil. The
steam pressure cannot and does not force the condensate
through the tubes. For high heating capacities, the tubes should
be vertical. This allows quick drainage and clearing of the
tubes. In addition to reducing the possibility of freezing, the
washing action brought about by the quick drainage also
reduces the boundary layer of water in the tubes and improves
heat transfer.
An advantage of vertical-tube coils, often overlooked, is their
lack of susceptibility to water hammer. Water is virtually
incompressible. When driven through a pipe or co il tube at the
velocity of steam, it “hammers” the turns in the pipe or the end
of the coil tube. Vertical drainage eliminates water hammer in
vertical-tube coils. Horizontal-tube coils are destroyed by
repeated water hammer. Typically, water hammer results in a
fairly uniform bulge, or rounding, at the end of the steam coil
tube. When the bulge finally ruptures it is frequently mistaken
for failure due to freezing. The visual distinction between the
4. Lack of maintenance, particularly in industrial plants, can
cause deterioration of the coil and of its capacity. Coils with
thin copper tubes and thin aluminum or copper fins are
physically weak. Normal industrial cleaning methods can be
too rough. Cleaning aluminum or copper fins with an air hose is
almost certain to deform the fins and result in a loss of heating
capacity. Welded-steel tubes with steel fins bonded to them and
reinforced with hot-dipped galvanizing offer the physical
strength to withstand scrubbing or high-pressure air-hose
cleaning.
For systems with modulating types of steam control, the trap
should be at least twelve inches below the coil to ensure the
trap of a water head when the modulating valve has throttled
down to 0 psig at the coil. Therefore, for modulating systems,
the trap should be sized to handle the maximum condensate
load at the pressure available in the water leg only. For a
twelve -inch leg, this would be .43 psi.
The two types of traps of most interest for industrial heating
and process work are described below:

Although not precisely related to the subject of this Engineer-
ing Letter, it seems worth recording the “Steam Formula”, the
equation used to predict coil performance at one steam pressure
and entering air temperature from the performance of the same
coil at the same standard air velocity but at a different steam
pressure and/or entering air temperature:
TR1 ST1 - EAT 1
= , where
TR2 ST2 - EAT 2
The Float and Thermostatic Trap shown in Figure 1 is the
closest thing to a general-purpose trap for industrial heating
and process work. F and T traps function well over broad
ranges of pressure and steam volume. They are especially
suitable for low to medium pressures up to about 20 psig.
However, they should not be used on systems involving steam
that is superheated more than a few degrees. In operation, air is
vented through the thermostatic element on systems with under
20 psi steam pressure at the coil. Condensate raises the float,
opening the lower port.

TR is air temperature rise through the coil, The Inverted Bucket Trap of Figure 2 should, generally, take
ST is steam saturation temperature, the place of the F and T trap for both high pressure steam and
EAT is entering air temperature. for superheated steam systems. There are other types of traps,
but they should not be used as condensate traps on heating and
Traps
ventilating systems.
All steam traps serve the same basic purposes:
1. The trap prevents the higher steam supply pressure from
passing directly to the return line. If the supply pressure had
ready access to the return piping, the whole system would be at
the same pressure and there would be reduced steam flow.
2. The steam must not be allowed to pass through the trap
until it has condensed in the coil. The whole purpose of the
steam heating system is to condense the steam in the coil, and
nowhere else.
3. When a steam heating system is started up, the system is
filled with air. The water used to produce steam contains
dissolved air, which is released when the water is heated. It
may also contain nascent oxygen and noncondensable gases
which can form CO2 and which, if not released immediately Float and Thermostatic Trap (Courtesy of Sarco Co.)
from the coil, will inhibit heat transfer and may attack the tube Figure 1
walls. The air and gases must be allowed to pass through the
coil and out of the trap. On high-pressure steam systems, the
trap may not have enough air-venting capacity. Refer to note 3
on condensate piping later on in this Letter.

All traps are rated on the basis of constant steam and condensate
flow at a differential in pressure across the trap. In practice,
constant flow rates are seldom encountered. Temperature
control variations are the principal cause of uneven flow rates.
All steam traps should be sized to handle three times the
anticipated maximum condensate rate to ensure condensate
removal under surge-load conditions and cold startups.
Condensate will not flow from one side of a trap’s orifice to
the other without a pressure differential.
For systems with non-modulating types of steam control, the
trap must at least be below the coil to ensure that the water Inverted Bucket Trap (Courtesy of Sarco Co.)
level in the trap is below the coil. Figure 2

Page 2
PIPING

The key to successful steam piping requires that these two

principles be kept in mind:

A. Steam is a gas and can flow in any direction, but

condensate, a liquid, flows downhill.

C. Both steam and condensate cause friction when they

flow. As with air flowing in ducts, consideration must be
given to velocity, pipe size, and pressure drop.

Bringing the steam to the coil is not nearly so difficult nor

troublesome as getting the condensate from the coil back to
the boiler. Because “steam” is the working element in the
system and condensate is, after all, only ordinary water, we
tend to concentrate our attention on the steam piping and
ignore the condensate piping. We should do just the opposite.
Although the following discussion treats steam piping first, it is
the return piping that demands most careful attention.

Referring to Figures 3 (Low Pressure) and 4 (High Pressure)

the elements of a good steam-piping system are:
A. Steam mains must be sized based on the steam pressure,
how much of the pressure may be used to overcome friction
drop, and the length of the longest run. (System designers
accustomed to air-duct design will recognize the basic similarity.)
A nomograph for sizing steam pipes is contained on page 8.

Pipe expands when heated. The increase is .00008 in./ft.°F. A

100-foot long main for 50 psig steam would expand
.00008(100) (298-70) = 1.82". Piping must be installed so the
expansion may take place without placing stress on the pipe or
the equipment to which it is connected. Some of the methods
employed to accommodate expansion are metal bellows
expansion joints, expansion loops (Figure 5), swing connections
(Figure 6), and pipe-support brackets employing rollers.

Page 3
Some steam condenses in the steam mains. The amount may
be minimized by insulating the pipes and by using superheat,
but all steam supply piping should provide for condensate
drainage.
Vertical-steam pipes cause no particular problem if the steam
if flowing down, but long up-flowing steam lines can be
troublesome. Water hammer can be avoided by installing a
short horizontal swing connection and drip leg every 20 to 40
feet.
The condensate that forms in the steam pipe is passed through a
trap to the return (condensate) line. (Sometimes the connection
and trap are called the drip leg and drip trap.) See Figure 7.
Figure 7 -Drip Leg and Trap Systems Use Swing Connections
The purpose of good drainage and drip lines is to avoid water
hammer. Steam traveling at high velocity has the capability of
scooping up condensate and driving it, in slugs, against a pipe
turn, valve, coil, etc. The hammering effect can be violent
enough to burst pipes. The only prevention of water hammer is
to keep the steam lines “dry”, i.e., clear them of condensate at
frequent intervals.
B. Steam supply to the coils should consist of these
components:
1. A drip line and trap should parallel the coils unless the
coils are located quite close to a drip line on the main. The
steam supply should rise above the drip line, as it approaches
the coil, for best drainage.
2. Swing connections, see Figures 3, 4, and 6, from the main
to the branch and from the branch to the coils.
3. A strainer to keep foreign matter out of the valves, coils,
and traps. See Figure 8.
4. A shutoff valve for possible maintenance use.
5. A pressure-control valve.
6. A union. By putting unions and shutoff valves on both
sides of coils and traps, an individual coil or trap may be
removed without shutting down the entire system.
Page 4
Steam or Condensate Strainers (Courtesy of Sarco Co.)
Figure 8
C. Condensate (return) piping should include:
1. A stub pipe or “dirt pocket”, at least 8" long, directly below
the coil. This is simply a settling spot for dirt and scale, and
should be periodically emptied.
2. The strainer, Figure 8, with the dirt pocket, keeps
extraneous matter from the mechanism of the trap. Boilers,
pipes, and coils are apt to contain small particles of scale, weld-
spatter or thread-turnings. The strainer in the condensate line is
intended primarily to pick up dirt, pipe dope, etc., that find their
way into the system during installation. The element should be
removed from the condensate strainer assembly after the
system is fully in operation. It should not be replaced. The
strainer on the supply side of the coil is adequate for the entire
system. Since “high pressure” steam implies high velocity and
rapid scouring of dirt from pipes, especially when the system is
new, it may be best to use strainers that are available with
accessory blow-down valves for frequent and quick cleaning.
3. On high-pressure systems, over 15 psig, it is desirable to
provide more air-venting capacity than is incorporated in the
trap. This may be done in one of two ways:
a. With an air eliminator, which is a thermostatic vent. This
type should be used only if it can be guaranteed to operate
at the elevated temperature corresponding to the steam
temperature.
b. By means of a petcock left continuously open. The lost
steam is far less costly than the damage done to coils by
inadequate venting.
Improper venting of high pressure systems is a major cause of
coil problems. The high-temperature gases entrained in the
steam, if not eliminated, may combine with the condensate to
form acids.

4. The traps, described in a previous section, must be installed
below the coils. Water flows downhill. Overhead return lines
(Figure 9) are perhaps the biggest single cause of freezing, water
hammer, coil corrosion, and trap failure.
While it is theoretically possible for the steam pressure in the
coil to push (lift) water into an overhead return line there are
just too many reasons why the pressure may not be available
when most needed. Consider, for example, a 25 psi boiler
system. Assuming a 5 psi drop through the lines, the remaining
20 psi should be able to raise water 46 feet. (One sea level
atmosphere is equal to 14.7 psi. This is, in turn, equivalent to a
“head” of 34 feet of water. Stated differently, standard
barometric pressure at sea level is 34 feet of water. Since 14.7
psi will “lift” 34 feet of water then 1 psi will lift 2.3 feet and
the 20 psi in the example will lift 46 feet.) On this basis a 15-
foot “lift” into an overhead line would seem reasonable.
But, on the first cold Monday morning of winter, when the
plant heating and process systems were shut down over the
weekend, every terminal on the steam system will be at
maximum demand. The boiler may develop only 20 psi.
The steam will travel at higher-than-ordinary speeds, and the
pressure drop may become 10 psi. The steam coils, normally
thought of as having negligible pressure drop, will be temporarily
starved for steam. The steam will condense so rapidly in the
cold coils that the 10 psi at the coil inlets might drop to 5 psi in
the coils. Five psi will lift water 111/ 2 feet, but cannot buck the
15-foot rise. The trap and coil will become waterlogged. Water
hammer may be severe in horizontal tube coils. If the coil is
handling air below 32°F. the coil will freeze.
Or, consider shutting down the same system at the end of the
heating season. As the steam pressure drops, a point is reached
where the coil is again waterlogged. A stagnant water level in a
coil is an invitation to corrosion.
5. Not shown in Figures 3 or 4, but often advantageous, is an
“aquastat” strapped to the return line just beyond the trap. It is
set so cold temperature, indicating no condensate flow, shuts
off the fan and thereby prevents freezing air from passing over a
water-filled coil. It does not prevent the occurrence of water
hammer in horizontal tube coils.
Page 5
6. Where overhead returns are unavoidable, the only good
solution is to drop first into a vented reservoir (sometimes
called receiver) and use a motor-driven condensate pump to lift
the water into the overhead line. This relieves the trap and coil
of the dangers of waterlogging.
Despite all of the reasons for not using overhead returns without
condensate pumps, such installations are found. In fact, they
are so common that they will be discussed here. This is best
done by differentiating between those systems that use
modulating steam control and those that use non-modulating
control.
a. Non-modulating control systems may be calculated as
the steam pressure is always great enough to overcome
the rise in the return line. It can be argued that there are
steam systems that do not involve handling low-
temperature air and therefore present no problems of
freezing. Such a system might be a process system
completely enclosed within a manufacturing plant.
However, even in such a system there comes a time
when the steam valve is shut off. The condensate that is,
at the moment, on the supply side of the trap cannot be
discharged from the system (unless fitted with another
small trap line that can drain this trapped water into a
sewer) and if the water level happens to be such that it
settles out across a coil and is allowed to sit there for any
length of time, the coil is apt to corrode at the water
surface.
b. Modulating systems present a unique situation in that
under most conditions the only pressure available at the
trap is the water leg between the coil and the trap. For
example, a coil that will heat from -10°F. to 60°F. with 5
psig (227°F.) steam will heat from -4°F. to 60°F. with 0
psig (212°F.) steam. This not only makes control
difficult but aggravates the condensate removal problem.
Therefore, a modulating system must be provided with a
vacuum-breaker on the retur n side of the coil to ensure
that the trap will at least have equal pressure on the
upstream and downstream sides - plus the maximum
water head over twelve inches that space will allow. (A
vacuum-breaker is just a swing check valve installed so it
opens into the system.) Obviously overhead returns
cannot be tolerated on this type system without the use of
a vented reservoir and condensate pump.
c. Due to the difference in volume between water and
steam, condensate pipes may be sized at 60% of the
diameter of the steam pipe, for gravity-return systems.
Pumped systems may be sized at 40% of the steam pipe
diameter.
CONTROL METHODS
Control, when referring to steam, means control of the air
temperature leaving the coil. Proponents of other heating
methods point out that temperature control is difficult with
steam. This is a fair criticism. Compare a steam coil to a gas
burner, for example. The heat released by the gas burner is a
more or less direct function of the amount of gas burned.
Contrast this to a 5 psig steam system. The maximum
temperature of the coil, at 5 psig, is 227°F. By throttling the
steam pressure down to 0 psig the temperature can be reduced
only to 212°F. This difference doesn’t allow good control.
Attempting to go to a lower temperature necessitates operating
at a less than atmospheric pressure and introducing more air
into the coil through the vacuum-breaker. This raises the very
sort of condensate drainage problems that were discussed in
the previous section.
However, there are methods of obtaining satisfactory control.
A. On-Off. Two-position control is relatively trouble-free but
gives the least desirable type of temperature control. In Unit
Heaters it is accomplished by leaving the steam “on” all the
time and turning the fan on or off as required by a thermostat.
In Make-Up Air and most process and ventilation systems,
where constant airflow is desired, the steam is turned full-on
or full-off. Before dismissing such systems as too primitive,
recognize that most residential heating is done by basically on-
off systems. On-off steam systems have one great advantage -
full steam pressure is available at all times to operate traps and
(despite warnings) overhead return lines, and to minimize the
danger of freezing.
B. Face and Bypass. By allowing some air to bypass the
coils, and thereby remain unheated, and by blending the “face”
and “bypass” airstreams it is possible to obtain good temperature
control and still maintain full steam pressure on the coils. This
is the system best-suited for steam Make-Up Air (See Figure
10). Face and bypass systems may be built-up (plenum) or
packaged. Both may have the disadvantages listed below but,
generally speaking, built-up systems can be designed to avoid
them.
1. The presence of steam in the coils generally precludes the
possibility of handling 100% bypass air without a temperature
rise of a few degrees.
2. Most packaged units are designed with less bypass area
than is desirable for 100% bypass flow. Most manufacturers
Page 6
assume that summer operation will be with the steam off and
air flowing through the face. Most customers seem to prefer
low unit height to full bypass capability.
3. The two different temperature airstreams force the fan
(generally downstream of the coils) to operate with inlet
stratification. This damages fan performance.
One important factor often overlooked in the selection or
design of face-and-bypass systems is that the damper blades
should have their axis of rotation perpendicular to the axis of the
coil tubes. Imagine horizontal dampers and horizontal tubes
and you can see that in a partly throttled condition, air would
be directed towards some tubes and away from others. Using
vertical tubes and horizontal dampers gives the best possible
combination.
C. Modulating Valves. Since the heat comes from the steam,
it seems reasonable to control the heat by throttling the incoming
steam. By now the reader has been through the previous
discussion of the difficulties involved in operating with this
sort of control that results in poor drainage. In addition to the
danger of freezing, there is the possibility that horizontal coils
and long tubes can set up water hammer that will ruin the coil.
D. Preheat-Reheat. Two coils in series can be used to give
good temperature control and a reasonable measure of freeze
protection (See Figure 11). The coils must be accurately sized.
The first “preheat” coil is selected to raise the entering air
temperature to about 40°F. to 50°F. The second “reheat” coil
raises the air to the desired final temperature. The preheat coil is
supplied with a snap action on-off steam valve. The reheat coil
has a modulating steam valve. Under maximum conditions,
with the coldest (design) entering air temperature, both coils will
be under maximum pressure. The thermostatic controls are set to
throttle the reheat coil until it is fully closed. The preheat coil is
sized so that it will not overheat at full pressure.
E. Combinations can be made of preheat-reheat with face
and bypass. Fresh air and recirculating dampers may be used
to exercise some control by closing down on fresh air in cold
weather. Caution should be used in designing combination
systems. Complex control systems are often maintenance
headaches. Keep it simple.
F. High-pressure steam presents the special problems of
superheat and “flashing”.
The high temperature of high pressure steam can aggravate the
problems of control. One solution is to pass the steam through a
pressure-reducing valve before it gets to the coil or temperature
control valve. Reducing the pressure reduces the temperature at
which the latent heat will be released and makes control
easier. However, reducing the pressure does not, in itself,
extract any heat from the steam - so the reduced pressure
steam is superheated. Reducing saturated 150 psi steam, at
366°F., to 25 psi steam, at 266°F., gives steam with up to 52°
of superheat. Since superheated steam is just another gas until it
has been cooled to saturation temperature, it is necessary to
increase the size of the coil. The added coil face may be
thought of as room for the superheated steam to sit and cool to
the saturation temperature. Dry superheated steam has a lower
film coefficient than does the wet saturated steam. This also
Page 7
adversely affects the overall coefficient of heat transfer. A
good rule of thumb is to increase the coil area by 10% for each
100° of superheat.
When high pressure steam is used, without pressure reduction,
the condensate temperature may be high enough to cause some
of the condensate to flash back into steam as it enters the low-
pressure condensate line, downstream of the trap. Not all the
condensate flashes - just a small part of it, enough to absorb
the amount of heat needed to produce a stable mixture of steam
and water. The mixture is therefore at a lower temperature than
the high-pressure condensate.
G. Vacuum-steam systems. One-pipe steam systems and
some other variations were, and sometimes still are, used for
small space heating installations. They are seldom of much
interest in industrial heating or process work.
CONCLUSION
A knowledge of the fundamentals of steam heating is still a
necessity in some process applications and building heating
systems. The purpose of this Engineering Letter was to provide
a basic overview. Engineers and designers of steam-heating
systems are encouraged to seek out additional training and
reso urces to build their knowledge base.
P a ge 8
 ENGINEERING LETTER E
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 - 5530

MI S CE L L AN E O US E NG I NEE RI NG D AT A
The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to provide reference data commonly required in routine fan system computations.

BASIC FAN LAWS FAN EFFICIENCY

Variable When Speed Changes When Density Changes Mechanical Air Horsepower out
= Shaft Horsepower x 100%
Volume CFM 2 = CFM 1
RPM 2
RPM 1 ( ) Does Not Change
Efficiency
TP x CFM
in
Mechanical
( ) ( )
RPM 2 2 D2 = 6343.3 x BHP x 100%
Pressure P 2 = P 1 P2 = P1 Efficiency
RPM 1 D1
Static SP x CFM
Horsepower BHP2 = BHP1 (
RPM 2 3
RPM 1 ) B HP 2 = B HP 1
D2
D1( ) Efficiency
= 6343.3 x BHP x 100%

UNITS COMMONLY USED IN FAN APPLICATIONS

Pressure
In. WG Pascals Psi In. HG mm WG mm HG Atm
1 248.36 .03602 .07334 25.400 1.8628 .00245
.00403 1 .00015 .00030 .10227 .00750 .00001
27.761 6894.7 1 2.0360 705.13 51.715 .06805
13.635 3386.4 .49116 1 346.33 25.400 .03342
.03937 9.7779 .00142 .00289 1 .07334 .00010
.53681 133.32 .01934 .03937 13.635 1 .00132
407.98 101325 14.696 29.921 10363 760.00 1

Volume Flow Rotating Speed

CFM m /s
3
m /min.
3
m3 /hr. l/s l/min. RPM rps
1 .000472 .02832 1.6990 .47195 28.317 1 .01667
2118.9 1 60.000 3600.0 1000.0 60000 60.000 1
35.314 .01667 1 60.000 16.667 1000
.58858 .00028 .01667 1 .27778 16.667
2.1189 .00100 .06000 3.6000 1 60.000 Density
.03531 .00002 .00100 .06000 .01667 1
lbs./ft. 3 Kg/m3
Velocity 1 16.018
ft./min. m/s m/min. m/hr. mph Knots .06243 1
1 .00508 .30480 18.288 .01136 .00987
196.85 1 60.000 3600.0 2.2369 1.9425
3.2808 .01667 1 60.000 .03728 .03238 Power
.05468 .00028 .01667 1 .00062 .00054 HP Watts
88.000 .44704 26.822 1609.4 1 .86839 1 .7457
101.34 .51479 30.887 1853.2 1.1516 1 1.341 1
 PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS VELOCITY PRESSURES
(At Standard Density .075 lbs./ft.3 )
Inches Inches Ounces Pounds Millimeters
Water Mercury Per Sq. In. Per Sq. In. Water Velocity VP Velocity VP
(FPM) (In. Water) (FPM) (In. Water)
1 .0733 .5763 .0360 25.4
2 .1467 1.153 .0720 50.8 500 .016 3000 .561
3 .2200 1.729 .1081 76.2 600 .022 3200 .638
4 .2934 2.305 .1441 101.6 700 .031 3400 .721
5 .3667 2.882 .1801 127.0 800 .040 3600 .808
6 .4400 3.458 .2161 152.4 900 .050 3800 .900
7 .5134 4.034 .2522 177.8 1000 .062 4000 .998
8 .5867 4.611 .2882 203.2 1100 .075 4200 1.10
9 .6601 5.187 .3242 228.6 1200 .090 4400 1.21
10 .7334 5.763 .3602 254.0 1300 .105 4600 1.32
11 .8067 6.340 .3962 279.4 1400 .122 4800 1.44
12 .8801 6.916 .4323 304.8 1500 .140 5000 1.56
13 .9534 7.493 .4683 330.2 1600 .160 5200 1.69
14 1.027 8.069 .5043 355.6 1700 .180 5400 1.82
15 1.100 8.645 .5403 381.0
1800 .202 5600 1.96
16 1.173 9.222 .5763 406.4
17 1.247 9.798 .6124 431.8 2000 .249 5800 2.10
18 1.320 10.374 .6484 457.2 2200 .302 6000 2.24
19 1.393 10.951 .6844 482.6 2400 .359 6200 2.40
20 1.467 11.527 .7204 508.0 2600 .421 6400 2.55
21 1.540 12.103 .7565 533.4 2800 .489 6600 2.72
22 1.613 12.680 .7925 558.8 6800 2.88
23 1.687 13.256 .8285 584.2
24 1.760 13.832 .8645 609.6
25 1.834 14.409 .9005 635.0 FAN SYSTEM EFFECT FACTORS
26 1.907 14.985 .9366 660.4 Pressure Drop, Inches Water Gauge
27 1.980 15.561 .9726 685.8
28 2.054 16.238 1.009 711.2 Round, Mitred Elbow Square-Duct Elbow
29 2.127 16.714 1.045 736.6 Air W/Out Turning With Turning
30 2.200 17.290 1.081 762.0 Velocity Two- Multi-piece Vanes Vanes
31 2.274 17.867 1.117 787.4 (FPM) piece
R R R R R R
32 2.347 18.443 1.153 812.8 =1 =2 =1 =2 =1 =2
D D D D D D
33 2.420 19.019 1.189 838.2
34 2.494 19.596 1.225 863.6 Elbow On The Inlet
35 2.567 20.172 1.261 889.0 3000 1.8 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.1
36 2.640 20.748 1.297 914.4 4000 3.2 1.3 1.0 1.3 0.8 0.6 0.3
37 2.714 21.325 1.333 939.8 5000 5.0 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.3 0.8 0.4
38 2.787 21.901 1.369 965.2 Elbow (2) Duct Diameters From The Inlet
39 2.860 22.478 1.405 990.6 3000 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
40 2.934 23.054 1.441 1016.0
4000 2.0 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.2
41 3.007 23.630 1.477 1041.4
42 3.080 24.207 1.513 1066.8 5000 3.0 1.0 0.8 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.3
43 3.154 24.783 1.549 1092.2 Elbow (5) Duct Diameters From The Inlet
44 3.227 25.359 1.585 1117.6 3000 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0
45 3.300 25.936 1.621 1143.0 4000 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
5000 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
DENSITIES OF SATURATED AIR
Temp. Density Temp. Density
FAN PRESSURES
(°F.) (lbs./ft.3 ) (°F.) (lbs./ft.3 )
-20 .09027 100 .06917 TP = SP + VP
-10 .08824 110 .06741
0 .08632 120 .06552 TP fan = TP outlet - TP inlet
10 .08445 130 .06349
20 .08264 140 .06132 SP fan = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet
30 .08090 150 .05895
40 .07921 160 .05634
50 .07753 170 .05346 VP = Velocity Pressure
60 .07589 180 .05036
70 .07425 190 .04667 TP = Total Pressure
80 .07262 200 .04270
SP = Static Pressure
90 .07094 212 .03730

Page 2
 ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FACTORS
(Multiply Factor by SP at Conditions)
Air Altitude (feet)
Temp.
(°F.) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
0 .87 .91 .94 .98 1.01 1.05 1.09 1.13 1.17 1.22 1.26
50 .96 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.11 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.34 1.39
70 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45
100 1.07 1.10 1.14 1.19 1.23 1.28 1.33 1.38 1.43 1.48 1.54
150 1.15 1.20 1.24 1.29 1.33 1.38 1.44 1.50 1.55 1.61 1.67
200 1.25 1.29 1.34 1.40 1.45 1.51 1.56 1.63 1.69 1.75 1.81
250 1.34 1.39 1.45 1.50 1.56 1.62 1.68 1.74 1.81 1.88 1.94
300 1.43 1.49 1.55 1.61 1.67 1.74 1.79 1.86 1.93 2.00 2.07
350 1.53 1.59 1.62 1.72 1.78 1.85 1.91 1.99 2.07 2.14 2.22
400 1.62 1.69 1.75 1.82 1.89 1.96 2.03 2.11 2.19 2.27 2.35
450 1.72 1.79 1.86 1.93 2.00 2.08 2.15 2.24 2.32 2.41 2.49
500 1.81 1.88 1.96 2.03 2.11 2.19 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.53 2.62
550 1.91 1.98 2.06 2.14 2.22 2.30 2.39 2.48 2.58 2.67 2.77
600 2.00 2.08 2.16 2.24 2.33 2.42 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80 2.90
650 2.10 2.18 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.54 2.62 2.73 2.84 2.94 3.05
700 2.19 2.27 2.36 2.46 2.55 2.65 2.74 2.85 2.94 3.01 3.18
750 2.28 2.37 2.47 2.56 2.66 2.76 2.81 2.96 3.08 3.19 3.31
800 2.38 2.48 2.57 2.66 2.76 2.86 2.98 3.09 3.21 3.33 3.45
850 2.47 2.57 2.67 2.77 2.87 2.96 3.09 3.21 3.33 3.46 3.58
900 2.56 2.66 2.76 2.87 2.97 3.07 3.20 3.33 3.46 3.58 3.71
950 2.66 2.77 2.87 2.98 3.09 3.19 3.33 3.46 3.59 3.72 3.86
1000 2.76 2.87 2.98 3.09 3.20 3.31 3.45 3.59 3.73 3.86 4.00

WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS, MEAN VALUES

Density Density Density Density
Material Material Material Material
lbs./ft.3 lbs./ft.3 lbs./ft.3 lbs./ft.3
Air .0749 Cinders 43 Gravel, loose, piled 120 Salt, gran, and piled 48
Aluminum 165 Clay, loose, dry 63 Grit blast dust 160 Saltpeter 80
Aluminum chips 48 moist 110 Gypsum, compressed 152 Sand, dry, loose 99
Antimony 414 Coal, anthracite 98 loose 70 Sand, wet 110
Asbestos 153 anthracite, piled 54 Iron, gray cast 442 Sandstone 144
Asbestos, loose 64 bituminous 85 Iron ore, loose 150 Sandstone, crushed 82
Ashes, coal, dry 40 bituminous, piled 47 Lead 710 Sawdust 7-15
Ashes, wood, dry 47 Coffee 48 Lead oxide (red) 567 Shale, riprap 105
Bakelite, Laminated 86 Coke 75 Leather 56 Shavings, planer 7-15
wood filler 85 Coke, piled 28 Lime 53-64 Slag, Iron 172
asbestos filler 118 Coke, dry, crushed 15 Limestone 163 Slag, granulated 60
crushed 43 Concrete, cinder 97 Lucite 74 Slate 172
Baking powder 56 stone 142 Magnesia 214 Soda ash 74
Bauxite, dry, crushed 43 Copper 556 Magnesium 109 Soda ash, granulated 30
Borax 109 Copper ore, crushed 190 Manganese ore, crushed 259 Sodium carbonate 91
Borax, dry, crushed 75 Copper oxide 190 Marble, crushed 95 Sodium nitrate 141
Brass 530 Cork 15 Mica 183 Sodium sulphate 167
Brass chips 163 Corn meal 40 Monel metal 556 Starch 95
Brick, masonry 118 Corundum, alundum 247 Natural gas 0.04475 granulated 35
Bronze 509 Cotton, baled 93 Nickel 547 Steel 487
Bronze, phosphor 554 loose 30 Nylon 70 Sucrose 100
Calcium, carbonate 177 Dolomite 181 Paper 58 Sugar, bulk 55
Calcium chloride 134 Duralumin 175 Strawboard or Sulphur 126
Calcium sulphate 185 Earth, dry and loose 76 newspaper 33-44 Sulphur, crushed 50
Carbide, dry, crushed 50 Earth, moist & loose 78 Paraffin 56 Talc 170
Carborundum 195 Emery 250 Peat, dry 30 Tar, bituminous 69
Carborundum, loose 140 Feldspar 160 Phosphate, ground 75 Tile 113
Caustic soda 88 Feldspar, crushed 88 Porcelain 150 Tin 457
Celluloid 90 Ferrous, grind dust 125 Potash 60 Tobacco 16
Cellulose 94 Flour, compressed barreled 47 Quartz 165 Water 62.4
Cement, loose 94 loose 28 Quartz, ground 84 Zinc 443
Cereals, bulk barley, corn 37 Fullers earth, dry 30 Resin 67 Zinc oxide 350
oats 26 Glass, crown 160 Rubber, India 58
rye, wheat 48 Glass, flint 215 compound 115
Chalk 142 pyrex 140 hard 75
Charcoal, hardwood 34 ground 90 hard sponge 30
softwood 23 Granite 165 tire reclaim, solid 74
broken 12 loose, piled 96 tire reclaim, shred 27
Graphite 132

Page 3
 MISCELLANEOUS CONVERSION FACTORS U. S. INCH

Pressure Area Fraction Decimal MM

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 in.2 = 6.4516 cm2 1/16 0.06250 1.588
1 Pa = 10 dy/cm2 1 ft.2 = 0.0929 m2 1/8 0.12500 3.175
1 psi. = 0.0703 kg/cm2 1 yd.2 = 0.8361 m2
1 lb./ft.2 = 4.884 kg/m2 1 mi.2 = 2.5899 km2 3/16 0.18750 4.763
Length Volume 1/4 0.25000 6.3 50
1 mil. = 0.0254 mm 1 in. = 16.3871 cm3
3
5/16 0.31250 7.938
1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 ft.3 = 0.0283 m3
3/8 0.37500 9.525
1 ft. = 0.3048 m 1 ft.3 = 7.48 gal.
1 mi. = 1.6093 km 1 ft.3 = 28.316 l. 7/16 0.4375 11.113
1 nau. mi. = 1.1516 mi. 1 yd.3 = 0.7646 m3 1/2 0.5000 12.700
Energy 1 oz. = 29.57 ml.
9/16 0.56250 14.288
1 gal. = 3.785 l.
1 Btu = 777.97 ft.-lb. 1 gal. U.S. = 0.833 Imp. gal. 5/8 0.62500 15.875
1 HP = 2545 Btu/Hr.
Metric Prefixes 11/16 0.68750 17.463
1 HP = 1.014 metric HP
1 HP = 0.0761 boiler HP deci = x 0.1 3/4 0.75000 19.050
1 KW = 3414 Btu/Hr. centi = x 0.01 13/16 0.81250 20.638
1 Ton = 12000 Btu/Hr. mili = x 0.001
micro = x 0.000001 7/8 0.87500 22.225
Mass
deca = x 10.0 15/16 0.93750 23.813
hecto = x 100.00
1 lb. = 453.5924 g. 1 1.00000 25.400
kilo = x 1000.00

METAL SHEET AND PLATE DATA SHAFTING DATA

Mild Steel, Stainless (Mild Steel, Stainless)
Aluminum
T-1, INX Diameter Weight
Weight Weight (in.) (lbs./ft.)
Gauge Thickness Gauge
(lbs./ft.2 ) (lbs./ft.2 ) 5/8 1.04
1" 1.0 40.8 .250 3.50 1 2.67
3/4" .75 30.6 .190 2.65 1 3/16 3.77
5/8" .625 25.5 .160 2.24 1 7/16 5.52
1/2" .50 20.4 .125 1.75 1 11/16 7.60
3/8" .375 15.3 .100 1.40 1 15/16 10.02
1/4" .250 10.2 .080 1.12 2 3/16 12.78
7 (3/16") .1875 7.5 2 7/16 15.87
10 .1345 5.625 2 11/16 19.29
12 .1046 4.375 2 15/16 23.04
14 .0747 3.125 3 3/16 27.13
16 .0598 2.50 3 7/16 31.55
18 .0478 2.0 3 15/16 41.40
4 7/16 52.58
4 15/16 65.10
5 7/16 78.95
ELECTRICAL FORMULAS 6 96.13
Volts (E) = Amps (I) x Ohms (R)
BHP (3 phase) = Volts x Amps x 1.732 x Eff. x Power Factor TEMPERATURE
746 CONVERSION

BHP (1 phase) = Volts x Amps x Eff. x Power Factor °C = (°F - 32) ÷ 1.8 °K
746 = °C + 273.15
°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32 °R
Torque (lb.-ft.)= Horsepower x 5250 = °F + 459.67
RPM

Form 21 9 JLK
 ENGINEERING LETTER G
The New York Blower Company ● 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

GLOSSARY
The following terms are common to the fields of air movement, general ventilation, industrial process, and pollution control. The
definitions contained in this glossary provide brief descriptions of the terms as generally used in these fields. In many cases, a
more thorough discussion of these terms can be found in the text of the appropriate Engineering Letter.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE degrees Rankine, where

absolute 0°R. = -459.7°F.; density corrections for temperature ALTITUDE the height above sea level of a given location.
are based on the percentage rate of change in degrees Rankine: Density corrections for altitude are made using the following
degrees Kelvin where absolute 0°K = -273.1°C. formula where Z is the feet above sea level.

Density (temp.) = Density (Alt) = Density (Std) x [1 - (6.73 x 10 - 6 ) Z] 5.258

( )
Density (std.) x
460°F. +70°F. AMBIENT immediate surroundings or vicinity.
460°F. + °F. (non-standard)
AMCA Air Movement and Control Association.
ABSORPTION the process of one substance entering into the
inner structure of another. ANEMOMETER a device which reads air velocity such as a
wind vane. In fan applications, it is usually a spinning-vane-
ACCELERATION LOSS the energy required to induce air to type instrument used to read low velocities at registers or grills.
move at the entry to a system. ANNEAL the process of relieving stress and brittleness in
ACCESS DOOR a door mounted on the housing of fan to metals by heating.
allow access to interior of fan for inspection. ANODIZE an electrolytic action of affixing a protective
ACFM actual cubic feet per minute; the quantity or volume coating or film, usually applied to aluminum.
of a gas flowing at any point in a system. Fans are rated and ANSI American National Standards Institute.
selected on the basis of ACFM, as a fan handles the same volume
of airregardless of density. API American Petroleum Institute.
.075
ACFM =
actual density
x SCFM APPURTENANCES accessories added to a fan for the purposes
of control, isolation, safety, static pressure regain, wear, etc.
ACTUATOR mechanical device attached to a damper to move
its blades. May be manual, electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic. ARI Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute.
ADSORPTION adhesion of a thin film of liquid or gases to the ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and
surface of a solid substance. Air Conditioning Engineers.
AIRFOIL fan wheel design with airfoil-shaped blades. ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
AIR CONDITIONING treating air to meet the requirements of a ASPECT RATIO the ratio of the width to the length.
conditioned space by controlling its temperature, humidity,
cleanliness, and distribution. ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

AIR CURTAIN mechanical air-moving device designed to
limit the influx of unwanted air at a building opening.
AIR-HANDLING UNIT factory-made encased assembly
consisting of a fan or fans and other equipment to circulate,
clean, heat, cool, humidify, dehumidify, or mix air.
AIR VELOCITY rate of speed of an airstream, expressed in
FPM.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE one atmosphere is approximately
14.7 PSI; 408" water gauge. Airflow is the result of a difference
in pressure (above or below atmospheric) between two points.
ATTENUATION absorption of sound pressure. Attenuation
reduces the amplitude only of a sound wave while leaving the
frequency unchanged.
AXIAL FAN fan where the airflow through the impeller is
predominantly parallel to the axis of rotation. The impeller is
contained in a cylindrical housing.

AXIAL FLOW in-line air movement parallel to the fan or

motor shaft.
BABBITT METAL an alloy containing tin, copper, and BTU British Thermal Unit; heat required to raise the
antimony; commonly used for lining bearings. temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 °F. The Btu/hr. required to
raise the temperature of a volume of standard air a specific
Backward Incline aerodynamic, single surface blade number of degrees is calculated by the formula:
shape offers alternative selection points to the Airfoil.
BACKDRAFT DAMPER damper used in a system to relieve Btu/hr = Temp. Rise x CFM x 1.085
air pressure in one direction and to prevent airflow in the CAPACITOR START MOTOR type of single-phase induction
opposite direction. motor with a capacitor connected in series with the starting
winding. High-starting and breakdown torque, medium starting
BALANCING the process of adding (or removing) weight on a current. Used in hard-starting applications; compressors,
rotor in order to move the center of gravity toward the axis of pumps, etc.
rotation.
CAPTURE VELOCITY air velocity necessary to overcome
BARCOL NUMBER a standard measure of FRP surface hardness. opposing air currents or natural flow and cause contaminated
air, fumes, or material to flow in a desired direction.
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE a measurement of the pressure of
the atmosphere; standard is 29.92" Hg. CARBON STEEL steel with the main alloying element being
carbon, and whose properties are dependent on the percentage
BEARING LOSSES the power losses resulting from friction in of carbon present (also referred to as Mild Steel)
the main bearings.
CATALYST the final ingredient that triggers the chemical
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM the principle that the total energy reaction known as curing, which converts liquid resin to a solid.
per unit of mass in the streamline flow of a moving fluid is
constant, being the sum of the potential energy, the kinetic CELSIUS a thermometric scale in which water boils at 100°
energy, and the energy due to pressure. In terms of air and freezes at 0°, same as centigrade:
movement, the theorem states that the static pressure plus
velocity pressure as measured at a point upstream in the direction °C = .5556 x [°F. - 32°]
of airflow is equal to the static pressure plus velocity pressure
as measured at a point downstream in the direction of airflow CENTRIFUGAL FAN a fan design in which air is discharged
plus the friction and dynamic losses between the points. perpendicular to the wheel’s rotational axis.

BI fan wheel design with backwardly-inclined blades.
BILLET a section of semi-finished metal or non-ferrous alloy.
BLADE the flow element of a wheel.
BLADE LINERS pieces of material added over the wheel
blades to reduce abrasion of the blades.
COEFFICIENT OF CONDUCTIVITY the rate of heat transfer
BLADE-PASS FREQUENCY the tone generated by the blades through a material, expressed in Btu transmitted per hour
passing a fixed object.
BLAST AREA the fan outlet area less the projected area of the
cut-off.
BOILER HORSEPOWER the capability to evaporate 34.5 COMPRESSIBILITY a factor used by fan manufacturers to
pounds of water per hour into dry steam at 2 12°F. at sea level;
33,500 BTU/Hr.
BRAKE HORSEPOWER [BHP] mechanical energy consumed
at a rate of 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute; a consumption rating, as
compared to the production rating of horsepower itself.
BREAKDOWN TORQUE maximum torque a motor will
produce without a sudden decrease in speed. Often referred to
as pull-out torque or maximum torque.
BRINELL NUMBER a standard measure of metal surface
hardness; metals with Brinell hardness ratings of 250 or more
are generally considered abrasion-resistant.
CFM cubic feet per minute; the volume of flow for a given
fan or system.
COATINGS specialty coverings, typically referred to as paints,
with varying degrees of resistance to atmospheric or chemical
corrosion.
CLEAN OUT DOOR see Access Door
through one square foot of surface per degree difference in
temperature across the material. Figures are usually expressed
for basic materials, such as wood or insulation; per inch of
thickness, and called by the symbol “K”.
correct performance ratings in higher pressure ranges to
account for the fact that air is a compressible gas that does not
follow the perfect gas laws.
COMPANION FLANGES flange designed to fit flush with fan
inlet or outlet flanges, provided with a matching hole pattern
COMPRESSION a phenomenon related to positive pressure.
When air is forced into a system it is compressed and becomes
more dense. Depending on the volume or weight of air
required down stream in the positive pressure portion of the
system, the volume of air at the inlet of a fan may have to be
adjusted by the ratio of absolute pressure at the entrance of the
fan versus the design requirements in the system.

Page 2
CONVEYING VELOCITY the air velocity required in a duct DUST COLLECTOR an air-cleaning device used to remove
system to maintain entrainment of a specific material. heavy-particulate loadings from exhaust systems prior to
discharge.
CORROSION the deterioration of a material by chemical or
electrochemical reaction resulting from exposure to weathering, DWDI double-width, double-inlet fans, Arrangement 3.
moisture, chemical, or other agents in the environment in
which it is placed. DYNAMIC BALANCE the mechanical balancing of a rotating
part or assembly in motion.
CRP Certified Ratings Program.
DYNAMIC INSERTION LOSS a reduction of airborne noise
CSA Canadian Standards Association. Sets safety standards for levels affected by the installation of an acoustical silencer.
motors and other electrical equipment used in Canada.
CURVE, FAN PERFORMANCE a graphic representation of DYNE a unit of force equal to that which would accelerate one
static or total pressure and fan BHP requirements over an gram by one centimeter per second.
airflow volume range at a stated inlet density and fan speed.
EFFICIENCY, MECHANICAL TOTAL the ratio of fan output
CURVE, SYSTEM a graphic representation of the pressure to the power applied to the fan. Can be helpful in selecting fan
versus flow characteristics of a given system and density. size, type, or manufacturer for the same application:

DAMPER an accessory to be installed at the fan inlet or outlet TP x CFM

ME =
for air-volume modulation. 6356 x BHP
EFFICIENCY, STATIC the ratio of fan output less the kinetic
dbA sound-pressure level corrected to the “A” weighing energy [outlet-velocity pressure] leaving the fan to the power
network. applied to the fan:

DECIBEL the logarithmic ratio between some known reference SP x CFM

SE =
and some quantity of electric or acoustic signal power. 6356 X BHP

DENSITY the measure of unit mass equal to its weight divided ELEVATION the distance of the subject site above or below
by its volume (lbs./ft.3); standard air is .075 lbs./ft.3. sea level.

DEW POINT the temperature at which condensation begins to END REFLECTION a known value of sound radiated back
form as air is cooled. into a duct or opening.

DFT dry-film thickness usually expressed in thousandths of ENTHALPY the heat content per unit mass of a substance.
an inch (mils).
ENTRY LOSS the loss in pressure caused by air flowing into a
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE the difference of static pressures system; normally expressed in fractions of velocity pressure.
at the fan outlet and inlet; also see FAN CAPACITY.
EQUIVALENT DUCT DIAMETER for rectangular duct with
DILUTION VENTILATING the mixing of contaminated air sides a and b is:
with uncontaminated supply air for the purpose of attaining
acceptable working or living conditions. D = (4ab/π)0.5

DIRECT DRIVE wheel fitted to or connected to a motor without EVASE a diffuser at the fan outlet which gradually increases in
a drive mechanism, a housing, or a means of variable speed drive. area to decrease velocity and to convert kinetic energy to static
pressure [regain.]
DIRECTIVITY FACTOR the number representative of the
radiation characteristics of a sound source. FAHRENHEIT a thermometric scale in which water boils at
212° and freezes at 32°.
DRAIN welded tank flange located at the lowest point in the
housing scroll. °F = (1.8 x °C) + 32°

DRY- BULB TEMPERATURE the combined temperature of a FAN a power-driven machine which moves a continuous
water vapor and air mixture. volume of air by converting rotational mechanical energy to an
increase in the total pressure of the moving air.
DUST air suspension of particles [aerosol] of any solid
material, usually with a particle size smaller than 100 FAN CAPACITY performance requirement for which a fan is
micrometers. selected to meet specific system calculations given in terms of
ACFM at the fan inlet.
FAN CLASS operating limits at which a fan must be physically
capable of operating safely.

Page 3
 GALVANIZING the process of coating or plating with a zinc-
FAN LAWS theoretical constant relationships between CFM, rich solution; can be a hot-dip process, cold spray, or brush
RPM, SP, and BHP for a given fan used in a given fixed application.
system:
GAS STREAM the specific airstream composition within any
CFM varies as RPM
fan or system.
SP varies as (RPM)2
BHP varies as (RPM)3 GASES formless fluids which tend to occupy an entire space
uniformly at ordinary temperatures and pressures.
FC fan wheel design using forward-curved blades.
GAUGE (GAGE) metal manufacturers’ standard measure of
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA) computerized analytical thickness for sheet stock; some examples for steel are:
technique used to divide a rotating body into many segments to
determine the stress of each segment and therefore the Thickness Weight of Steel
complete body. Gauge
(Inches) (Lbs./Ft. 2)
FLANGED INLET/OUTLET enables bolted attachment of duct 7 .1793 7.50
work to the fan’s inlet or outlet. 10 .1345 5.625
12 .1046 4.375
FLASHING sheet-metal strip placed at the junction of inter- 14 .0747 3.125
secting exterior building surfaces to make the joint water-tight. 16 .0598 2.50
FOOT- POUND ( F t . - L b . ) torque rating or requirement;
equivalent to the force required to move a one-pound weight
GAUGE PRESSURE the pressure differential between
atmospheric and that measured in the system.
one foot in distance, equal to 12 in.-lb.
GEL COAT a special resin system, sometimes including
FORCED DRAFT how air is provided in a process, such as a pigment, but without glass-reinforcing, that is applied to the
combustion process; when air is blown or forced into a process, mold before applying the FRP.
it is known as a “forced draft” system. Also see induced draft.
GROUND MOTOR a short circuit between any point in the
FPM feet per minute; commonly defines air velocity (to motor’s electrical circuit and its connection to the ground.
determine velocity pressure or suitability for material-
conveying), shaft/bearing speeds (used to determine lubrication HEAT EXCHANGER a device such as a coil or radiator which
requirements) and wheel tip speeds. is used to transfer heat between two physically separated
FRAME SIZE a set of physical dimensions of motors as fluids.
established by National Electrical Manufacturers Association HEPA FILTER high-efficiency particulate air filters
(NEMA) for interchangeability between manufacturers. commonly called absolute filters.
Dimensions include; shaft diameter, shaft height, and motor
mounting foot print. HERTZ frequency measured in cycles per second.
FREE FIELD the surroundings of a specific equipment Hg symbol for mercury. Pressure is often measured in inches
location in which no obstructions or reverberant surfaces exist to
of mercury: (1" Hg. = 13.64" WG)
distort or amplify sound waves.
ORSEPOWER (as applied to motors) is an index of the
FREQUENCY any cyclic event whether vibration, alternating H amount of the work the machine can perform in a period of
current, or rotational speed. Usually expressed in cycles per
time. 1 HP equals 33,000 ft. lbs. of work per minute, also
second (cps) or just “cycles.”
equal to 0.746 kilowatts. Horsepower can be calculated by:
FRICTION LOSS resistance to air flow through any duct or Torque (ft. lbs.) x RPM
fitting, given in terms of static pressure. HP =
5250
FRP abbreviation for fiberglass-reinforced-plastic. HOUSING the casing or shroud of a centrifugal fan.
FULL-LOAD SPEED the speed at which the rated horsepower HVAC heating, ventilating, and air conditioning.
is developed. This speed is less than synchronous speed and
varies with motor type and manufacturer. IMPELLER another term for fan “wheel.” The rotating portion
of the fan designed to increase the energy level of the gas
FULL-LOAD TORQUE the torque required to produce the stream.
rated horsepower at full-load speed.
IMPELLER DIAMETER the maximum diameter measured
FUMES airborne particles, usually less than 1 micrometer in over the impeller blades.
size, formed by condensation of vapors, sublimation, distillation,
or chemical reaction.

Page 4
 LITHIUM a soft element in the alkali metal group commonly
IMPINGEMENT striking or impacting; such as material used as a lubricant base.
impingement on a fan wheel.
LOGARITHM a mathematical term used as a basis of the
INCH OF WATER unit of pressure equal to the pressure decimal system. A logarithm is the exponent of 10 which
exerted by a column of water one inch high at a standard produces a given number. For instance, the log of 100 is 2 since:
density (27.73" water = 1 PSI).
l o g 10 100 = 2 10 2= 100
INCH-POUND torque equal to one-twelfth foot pound.
OUVER a device comprised of multiple blades which, when
INCLINED MANOMETER a metering device used to obtain L
mounted in an opening, permits the flow of air but inhibits the
accurate pressure measurements.
entrance of undesirable elements.
INDUCED DRAFT how air is provided in a process, such as a LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT the lowest percentage of an
combustion process; where air is drawn or pulled through a element in otherwise standard air that will explode when
process. Also see forced draft. exposed to a spark.
INDUCTION the production of an electric current in a conductor LS WHEEL flat radial-blade design. Best for material-
in a changing magnetic field.
conveying applications with airstreams containing coarse
material or heavy dust and particulate matter.
INERTIA tendency of an object to remain in the state it is in;
see WR2. MACH NUMBER a fraction of the speed of sound; used in fan
engineering where air moving at a Mach number of 0.9, or 9/10
INLET BOX device which minimizes entry losses normally the speed of sound, begins to deviate from the fan laws.
associated with 90ᵒ turns at or near fan inlet
MAKE-UP AIR a ventilating term which refers to the
INLET CONE a streamlining device used to reduce entrance replacement of air lost because of exhaust air requirements.
losses at the inlet of a fan. MANOMETER instrument for measuring pressure, u-shaped,
and partially filled with liquid, either water, light oil, or
INLET SCREEN screen on inlet of fan. Allows passage of air, but mercury.
prevents object from entering fan housing.
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING the point at which the
INLET-VANE DAMPER round multiblade damper mounted fan is expected to operate.
to the inlet of a fan to vary the airflow.
MICROBAR a unit of pressure equal to one-millionth of an
INSTABILITY the point of operation at which a fan or system atmospheric pressure; 0.0000 146 PSI.
will “hunt” or pulse; common in FC fans and some other fan
types where the point of operation is left of the peak of the MICRON a unit of measure equal to one-millionth of a meter,
static-pressure curve. commonly used in dust collection and material-handling
applications to designate particle size.
INTERFERENCE FIT specified interference between mating
parts requiring either a press fit or a shrink fit. MIL a unit of measure equal to 25 microns or one-thousandth
of an inch.
KELVIN see Absolute Temperature.
MILD STEEL see Carbon Steel
KILOPASCAL Kpa; metric pressure unit; one-inch water
gauge is 0.24836 Kpa. MIXED- FLOW FAN a fan where the airflow is primarily
axial and is changed by the blade shape to induce a small radial
KILOWATT Kw; measure of power equal to 1.34 horsepower. flow at the discharge.

L-10 BEARING LIFE the theoretical number of hours after MOLECULAR WEIGHT the weight of a molecule expressed
which 90% of the bearings subjected to a given set of conditions on a scale in which the carbon isotope weighs exactly 12.0;
will still be in operation; also known as B-10. represents the sum of the weights of all the atoms in a molecule.
As air is a gas mixture, it does not have a true molecular
LAMINAR FLOW gas or fluid in parallel layers with some weight but an apparent molecular weight determined by the
sliding motion between the layers. percentages of the molecular weights of each gas in a
composition.
LAMINATE the total structure of the FRP part. For nyb
corrosion-resistant products it consists of a resin-rich surface MOTOR BASE structure that the motor is mounted to.
and a thickness of glass-reinforced resin as required for NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
structural strength.
NATURAL FREQUENCY the frequency at which a component
LIFTING EYES attachments to allow for easy lifting of the or system resonates.
fan.
Page 5
NEC National Electrical Code.
NEMA the National Electrical Manufacturers Association;
the trade association establishing standards of dimensions,
ratings, enclosures, insulation, and other design criteria for
electric motors.
NOISE CRITERIA a way for an architect to specify the
maximum permissible sound-power level in each of the eight
octave bands. NC curves give, in a graphical form, maximum
permissible intensity per octave band.
PLENUM a chamber or enclosure within an air-handling
system in which two or more branches converge or where
system components such as fans, coils, filters, or dampers are
located.
PLR WHEEL flat, single-thickness, backwardly inclined
blades. Includes a non-overloading power curve.
PLUG FAN fan having an unhoused wheel arranged such that
the system into which it is inserted acts as a housing, allowing
air to be drawn into the wheel inlet.

OCTAVE BANDS ranges of frequencies. These octave bands
are identified by their center frequencies (63, 125, 250, etc.).
OHM a measure of electrical resistance. A wire in which one
volt produces a current of one ampere has a resistance of one
Ohm.
OPPOSED- BLADE DAMPER a type of damper where
adjacent blades rotate in the opposite direction.
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
OSI ounces per square inch; a unit of pressure equal to one-
sixteenth PSI or 1.733 inches of water.
PARALLEL- BLADE DAMPER a type of damper where the
blades rotate in the same direction.
PARALLEL FANS two or more fans which draw air from a
common source and exhaust into a common duct or plenum. A
parallel fan arrangement is generally used to meet volume
requirements beyond that of single fans. Two identical fans in
parallel will effectively deliver twice the rated flow of any one
of the fans at the same static pressure.
PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTOR very low starting PULL-OUT TORQUE breakdown torque.
torque. Performance and applications similar to shaded pole PURE TONE a sound that is characterized by a very uniform
but more efficient, with lower line current and higher horse-
power capabilities.
pH a symbol as part of a logarithmic designation to indicate
acidity or alkalinity on a scale from 0 to 14; pH7 is taken as
neutral, 6 to 0 increasingly acid, 8 to 14 increasingly alkaline.
PHENOLIC a thermosetting resin system used for coatings and RADIAL BLADE fan wheel design with blades positioned in
adhesives.
POINT OF OPERATION the intersection of a fan’s static
pressure curve and the system curve to which the fan is being
applied; may be designated as velocity pressure divided by
static pressure or by a given CFM and SP.
POLES the number of magnetic poles established inside an
electric motor by the placement and connection of the
windings.
POLYESTER a large group of thermosetting plastics which
exhibit a high degree of corrosion-resistance over a wide
spectrum of corrosive agents.
PSI pounds per square inch measured in gauge pressure, not
including atmospheric.
PSIG pounds per square inch measured in gauge pressure, not
including atmospheric.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART a graphic depiction of the
relationship between pressure, density, humidity, temperature,
and enthalpy for any gas-vapor mixture, used extensively in
comfort ventilation.
wave pattern. Such a sound might be created by a tuning fork.
PVC polyvinyl chloride; a synthetic thermoplastic polymer.
QUADRANT commonly the damper control plate.
straight radial direction from the hub.

PIEZOMETER RING a device consisting of a number of RADIAL TIP blade design to be curved forward at entry and
pressure taps connected to a common manifold to measure radial at the tip of the leaving end.
pressure.
RANDOM NOISE a sound that has an average amplitude and
PITCH DIAMETER the mean diameter or point at which V-belts constantly changing frequency.
ride within a sheave. This dimension is necessary for accurate
drive calculations. RANKINE see Absolute Temperature.
RAREFICATION a phenomenon related to negative pressure.
PITOT TUBE a metering device consisting of a double-walled When air is drawn through resistance into a fan inlet, the air is
tube with a short right-angle bend; the periphery of the tube has stretched out, or rarefied, and becomes less dense than at the
several holes through which static pressure is measured; the entry to the system. While negligible at low pressures and
bent end of the tube has a hole through which total pressure is volumes, high pressure fan selection must be based on rarefied
measured when pointed upstream in a moving gas stream. inlet density.

Page 6
RELATIVE HUMIDITY the ratio of existing water vapor to SI UNITS Systeme International d’Unites, International
System of Units; any one of the units of measure in the
that of saturated air at the same dry-bulb temperature.
international meter-kilogram-second system.
RESIN an organic polymer in liquid form which, when reacted SLIP the percentage difference between synchronous and
with the proper catalyst, becomes solid. operating speeds.

REYNOLDS NUMBER a mathematical factor used to express SOUND produced by the vibration of matter. The vibration
the relation between velocity, viscosity, density, and dimensions causes sound waves to spread through the surrounding
in a system of flow; used to define fan proportionality. medium.

RIM WHEEL flat radial-blade design best for material- SOUND-POWER LEVEL acoustic power radiating from a
conveying application with rim plate on either side of wheel. sound source. Expressed in watts or in decibels.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS a standard measure of a metal’s SOUND-PRESSURE LEVEL the acoustic pressure at a point
surface hardness. Also see Brinell Number. in space where the microphone or listener’s ear is situated.
Expressed in units of pressure or in decibels.
ROTOR the rotating part of most AC motors.
SP static pressure; pressure as measured in all directions
RPM revolutions per minute. within an air-handling system, not including the force or
pressure of air movement.
RT fan wheel design with radial-tip blades.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY the ratio of the weight or mass of a
RTP reinforced thermoset plastic. Also see FRP. given volume of any substance to that of an equal volume of
some other substance taken as a standard. The ratio of the
SATURATED AIR air containing the maximum amount of density of any gas to the density of dry air at the same
water vapor for a given temperature and pressure. temperature and pressure is the specific gravity of the gas.
SCFM standard cubic feet per minute; a volume of air at SPECIFIC HEAT the ratio of the quantity of heat required to
0.075 lbs./ft.3 density; used as an equivalent weight. raise a certain volume one degree to that required to raise an
equal volume of water one degree.
SCROLL the general shape of a centrifugal fan housing; the
formed piece to which housing sides are welded. SPI Society of the Plastics Industry.
SENSIBLE HEAT any portion of heat which effects a change in SPLIT HOUSING housing of a fan is divided into spate
a substance’s temperature but does not alter that substance’s sections to allow for access of interior housing.
state.
SPLIT-PHASE MOTOR the most common type of single-
SERIES FANS a combination of fans connected such that the phase induction motor. Moderate starting torque, high starting
outlet of one fan exhausts into the inlet of another. Fans current, high breakdown torque. Used on easy-starting
connected in this manner are capable of higher pressures than a equipment, such as belt-drive fans.
single fan and are used to meet pressure requirements greater
than single fans. SPRING ISOLATORS springs used to reduce vibration, usually
mounted on a unitary base.
SERVICE FACTOR the number by which the horsepower
rating is multiplied to determine the maximum safe load that a SQUIRREL-CAGE WINDING a permanently short-circuited
motor may be expected to carry continuously. winding, usually uninsulated and chiefly used in induction
motors, having its conductors uniformly distributed around the
SHADED- POLE MOTOR a special type of single-phase periphery of the machine and joined by continuous end rings.
induction motor. Low starting torque, low cost. Usually used
on direct-drive fans. SRC Spark-Resistant Construction; AMCA standard of
SHAFT COOLER used to absorb and dissipate heat from the guidelines for general methods of fan construction when
shaft while circulating air over the inboard bearing. handling potentially explosive or flammable particles, fumes,
SHAFT SEAL a device to limit gas leakage between the shaft or vapors.
and fan housing. SSPC Steel Structures Painting Council.
SHUNT- WOUND MOTOR a DC motor in which the field
circuit and armature circuit are connected in parallel. STANDARD AIR DENSITY 0.0750 lbs./ft.3, corresponds
approximately to dry air at 70°F. and 29.92 in. Hg.

STARTING TORQUE the torque produced by a motor as it

begins to turn from a standstill and accelerate. Sometimes
called locked rotor torque.

Page 7
STATIC BALANCE the mechanical balance of a rotating part or TORQUE a force which produces, or tends to produce, rotation;
assembly by adding weights to counter-balance gravitational commonly measured in ft.-lbs. or in.-lbs. A force of one pound
rotating of the part without power driving it. applied to the handle of a crank, the center of which is displaced
one foot from the center of the shaft, produces a torque of one
STATIC PRESSURE the static pressure for which a fan is to be ft.-lb. on the shaft if the force is provided perpendicular to, not
selected based on system calculations; along, the crank. Torque can be calculated by:
fan SP = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet
HP x 5250
Torque (ft. lbs.) =
STATOR the stationary parts of a magnetic circuit with RPM
associated windings.
TP total pressure; the sum of velocity pressure plus static
SURGE LIMIT that point near the peak of the pressure curve pressure.
which corresponds to the minimum flow at which the fan can
be operated without instability.
TUBEAXIAL FAN axial fan without guide vanes.
TUBULAR CENTRIFUGAL FAN fan with a centrifugal
SWSI Single-Width Single-Inlet Centrifugal Fans. impeller within a cylindrical housing discharging the gas in an
axial direction.
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED rated motor speed expressed in
RPM. Synchronous speed = 120 x frequency divided by TURBULENT FLOW airflow in which true velocities at a
number of poles. given point vary erratically in speed and direction.
SYSTEM a series of ducts, conduits, elbows, filters, diffusers, UNBALANCE the condition of a rotor in which its rotation
etc., designed to guide the flow of air, gas, or vapor to and from results in centrifugal force being applied to the rotors support-
one or more locations. A fan provides the energy necessary to ing bearings.
overcome the system’s resistance to flow and causes air or gas
to flow through the system. UNIFORM FLOW airflow in which velocities between any
two given points remain fairly constant.
SYSTEM CURVE graphic presentation of the pressure versus
volume flow rate characteristics of a particular system. UNIT HEATER factory-assembled unit designed to heat and
circulate air. Types include steam, hot water, or gas fired.
SYSTEM EFFECT the effect on the performance of a fan
resulting from the difference between the fan inlet and outlet UNITARY BASE base which provides common support for fan
connections to the actual system, and the standardized and motor.
connections used in laboratory tests to obtain fan-performance
ratings.
UTILITY SET centrifugal fan designed as a packaged unit,
ready to run.
TACHOMETER an instrument which measures the speed of
rotation; usually in RPM. VANEAXIAL FAN axial fan with either inlet or discharge
guide vanes or both. Includes fixed-pitch, adjustable-pitch, and
TENSILE STRENGTH the maximum stress a material can variable-pitch impellers.
withstand before it breaks; expressed in pounds per square
inch.
VENA CONTRACTA the smallest flow area for flow through a
sharp-edged orifice.
TEST BLOCK an operating point above and beyond the VENTILATION supplying and removing air by natural or
maximum specified continuous rating demonstrating the fan
mechanical means to and from any space.
margin to the customer.
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES TLV; the values for airborne VIBRATION alternating mechanical motion of an elastic
toxic materials which are to be used as guides in the control of system, components of which are amplitude, frequency, and
health hazards and represent time weighted concentrations to phase.
which nearly all workers may be exposed 8 hours per day over VIBRATION ISOLATOR rubber-in-shear or spring-type
extended periods of time without adverse effects (OSHA). isolation mounted to unitary base reduces the transmission of
vibration to the mounting structure.
TIP SPEED fan wheel velocity at a point corresponding to the VINYL ESTER a significant variation of polyester providing
outside diameter of the wheel blades; normally expressed in
increased corrosion-resistance, strength, and flexibility, hence
feet per minute (circumference times RPM).
its suitability to the fabrication of FRP fan wheels.
VISCOSITY the characteristic of all fluids to resist flow.
VOLT a unit of electrical potential or pressure. 110 or 220
volts are normally found in the U.S.

Form 507 DJK

Page 8
VP velocity pressure; the pressure or force of air in motion.
The common equation based on standard air is: WET-BULB DEPRESSION the difference between the dry-
bulb and wet-bulb temperatures at the same location.
Velocity 2
VP = ( 4005 ) WET-BULB TEMPERATURE temperature at which air is
brought to saturation by evaporating a liquid into the air at the
same temperature.
VP/SP velocity pressure divided by static pressure; a single
number reference used to define a fan’s point of operation. WG water gauge; see Inch of Water.
Each system curve has a unique VP/SP value.
WHEEL the rotating portion of the fan designed to increase the
WATT a unit of power. In electrical terms, the product of energy level of the gas steam.
voltage and amperage. 746 watts are equal to one horsepower.
WR the unit designation of fan wheel rotational inertia in lb.-
2
WEATHER COVER completely encloses the motor and drive ft.2, also known as WK2.
assembly for protection. can be easily removed for inspection
and maintenance. YIELD STRENGTH maximum stress to which a ductile
material can be subjected before it physically distorts.

Form 318 JLK

Page 9