Properties of Fluid

The states of matter are generally classified as solid, liquid and gas. The classification of
these states is based on the different spacing of molecules in a matter and on the behavior
of matter when subjected to stresses.

A solid is generally conceived as a substance that has its own shape and undergoes an
infinitesimal change in volume under pure compressive load. It offers resistance to
change in shape without a change in volume under the application of tangential force
(shear force). Eg. bricks, steel, diamond, rubber and paper.

The liquid and gases do not have their own shape and do not offer any resistance to
change in shape when deforming tangential force (shear force) is applied. They deform
continuously deform under the action of such forces. No matter how small that shear
force may be. The continuous deformation under the action of tangential force causes
liquids and gases to flow rather than remain solid. And because of this similarity in
dynamic behavior in the dynamic behavior of liquids and gases, these are called fluids.
Eg; water, milk, gasoline, lubrication oils and air

Fluid:

A fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear
stress. No matter how small that shear force may be. All liquids and all gases are fluids.
Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to
some extent, plastic solids.

Fluid Mechanics:

Fluid mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the behavior of the fluids (liquids
or gases) either in motion or at rest and the subsequent effects of the fluid upon the
boundaries, which may be either solid surfaces or interfaces with other fluids.

• The study of fluid at rest is called Fluid statics.

• The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called
fluid kinematics and if the pressure force are, is called fluid dynamics.

Fluid Properties:

Density or Mass density:

Density or Mass density is defined as the ratio mass of a fluid to its volume. It is denoted
by the symbol ρ (rho). It is expressed in kg/m3. The density of liquids may be considered
as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature.

Mass of fluid m kg
Mathematically, density is written as ρ = =
Volume of fluid V m3

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The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.

Specific Weight or Weight density

Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its
volume. It is usually denoted by w. it is expressed in N/ m3 or kN/ m3.

Mathematically, specific weight is written as

Weight of fluid (Mass of fuid) × (Accelerat ion due to gravity) m ×g ρ g

w= = = =
Volume of fluid Volume of fluid V
kN
m3

The value of Specific weight for water is 9.81 kN/ m3.

Specific Volume
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by unit mass or
volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. It is denoted by ‘v’. it is
expressed in m3/kg.

Mathematically, specific volume is written as

Voulme of a fluid 1 m3
Specific Voulume v = =
Mass of fluid ρ kg

Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density

Specific Gravity or Relative Density

Specific gravity is the ratio of weight density (or density)of a fluid to the weight density
(or density) of a standard fluid. For liquid the standard fluid is taken as water and for
gases the standard fluid is taken as air. It is dimensionless quantity and it is denoted by
the symbol S.

Density of Liquid ρ
Mathematically For Liquids S = Density of Water = ρ
H O 2

Density of Gas ρ
For Gases S = =
Density of air ρ Air

Note: if the specific gravity of a substance is less than one, then it indicates that the
substance floats on water. Hence it is very interesting property since it will allow us to
immediately determine that given fluid floats on water or not.

Temperature:
The temperature is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from the cold
body. The temperature is a measure of molecular activity of a substance, the greater the

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movement of the molecules, the higher the temperature. It is the relative measure of how
hot or cold a substance is and can be used tp predict the direction of heat transfer.

Temperature Scales: °R = °F + 459.69

K = °C + 273.16

Pressure:
It is defined as the normal component of force per unit area. The pressure in a fluid at
rest at a given point is the same in all directions. When dealing with liquids and gases we
ordinarily speak of pressure. For solids we speak of stresses.
The intensity of pressure may be expressed either in N/m2, in Pascal (Pa) or in bar,
where
1bar =105 Pa
= 0.1 Mpa
=100 kPa

Atmospheric Pressure, Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure:

The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in contact
and it is known as atmospheric pressure. It is also known as barometric pressure. The
atmospheric Pressure at sea lev1 (above absolute zero) is called standard atmospheric
pressure and its value is given as follows :

Standard atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kN / m 2 or kPa (1 kN / m2 =1 kPa)

= 10.3 m of water
= 760 mm of Hg

The pressure measured with the help of a pressure gauge is known as gauge pressure, in
which atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. All the pressure gauges record the
difference between the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure. The actual pressure
is known as absolute pressure. Mathematically

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure (Positive)

This relation is used for pressures above atmospheric, i.e. for positive gauge pressure, as
shown in Fig. 1 (below), Similarly, for pressures below atmospheric, the gauge
pressure will be negative . This negative gauge pressure is known as vacuum pressure.
Therefore

Absolute pressure= Atmospheric pressure – Negative gauge pressure or vacuum

pressure

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 Fig 1: Pressure Relationships
Viscosity
The viscosity is an essential property of the fluid. It is the measure of resistance to flow.
It is a characteristic which decides the ease with which a fluid will flow. It is often
identified with the stickiness or sometimes by the thick appearance of liquid. Thin
liquids, such as water, benzene, alcohol etc. flow easily and are less viscous than thick
liquids like liquids like honey, syrup or lubricating oils. It is denoted by the symbol ‘μ’.

Let us consider two layers of a fluid, at a distance dy apart, move one over the other at
different velocities, say u and u+du as shown in fig 2, the viscosity together with relative
velocity causes a shear stress(τ) acting between the fluid layer. The top layer causes a
shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while lower layer causes a shear stress on the
adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with
respect to y.

du
Mathematically, shear stress τ ∝
dy
du
or τ =μ
dy
where μ is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic
du
viscosity or only viscosity, dy represents the rate of shear strain or shear deformation or
velocity gradient.

τ
μ=
From the above equation we have  du 

 dy 

 

Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear
strain.

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Unit of viscosity:

dyne - sec
The unit of viscosity in CGS is called ‘Poise’ which is equal to
cm 2
kg - sec
The unit of viscosity in MKS is
m2
N -s
The unit of viscosity in SI is
m2

1  kg - sec  1  N -s 
Where 1 Poise =  2 =  2 
9.81  m  10  m 
1
and 1centipoise = poise
100

Kinematic viscosity:

It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is denoted
by the symbol ‘ν’ (nu).

Visosity μ
Mathematically ν = Density = ρ

Unit of Kinematic viscosity:

cm 2
The unit of Kinematic viscosity in CGS is called ‘stoke’ which is equal to
sec
m2
In MKS and SI, the unit of Kinematic viscosity is
sec

2
2
 1  m m2
Where one stoke =   = 10 −4
100  sec sec
1
and 1centistoke = stoke
100

Newton’s law of Viscosity: It states that the state of shear stress (τ) on a fluid element
layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is
called the co-efficient of viscosity.
du
Mathematically, τ =μ dy
Fluid which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluid and fluids which do
not obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids

Variation of Viscosity with temperature:

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The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of
the gases increases with the increase of temperature.

The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are:

 1 
For liquids, μ = μ 0  
 1 + αt + βt
2

Where μ = Viscosity of liquids at tºC, in poise
μ0 = Viscosity of liquid at 0ºC, in poise
α, β = are constants for the liquid
For water, μ0 = 1.79×10–3 poise, α = 0.03368 and β = 0.000221

For a gas, μ = μ0 + αt – βt2

Where for air μ0 = 1.7×10–5, α = 5.6×10–6, β = 0.1189×10–9.

Surface tension:

Surface tension is a phenomenon in which the surface of a liquid, where the liquid is in
contact with gas, acts like a thin elastic sheet or a stretched, because of intermolecular
forces. Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the free
surface of a liquid.

Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length or of energy per unit area. It is
denoted by the symbol ‘σ’ and it is expressed in N/m. Sometimes it is also expressed in
work per unit area, in that a case it is expressed in J/m2.

The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by the fig-12. Consider three water
molecules A, B & C of a liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by
the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant for acting on the molecule A
is zero. But the molecule B is situated near the surface, is acted upon by the upward and
downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus the net resultant force on molecule B is
acting the downward direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of the liquid,
does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface
experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film
under tension

Surface tension is caused by intermolecular forces at the liquid’s interface with a gas or a
solid. Surface tension depends on the nature of the liquid, the surrounding media and
temperature. Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces will have higher values of
surface tension than liquids that have weak intermolecular forces.

In general, surface tension of a liquid will decreases with the increase of temperature due
to a reduction of cohesive forces resulting from a higher frequency of vibration of the
liquid’s molecules at a higher temperature.

Few examples of Surface Tension

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Drops of water: When using a water dropper, the water does not flow in a continuous
stream, but rather in a series of drops. The shape of the drops is caused by the surface
tension of the water. The only reason the drop of water isn't completely spherical is
because of the force of gravity pulling down on it. In the absence of gravity, the drop
would minimize the surface area in order to minimize tension, which would result in a
perfectly spherical shape.

Insects walking on water: Several insects are able to walk on water, such as the water
strider. Their legs are formed to distribute their weight, causing the surface of the liquid
to become depressed, minimizing the potential energy to create a balance of forces so that
the strider can move across the surface of the water without breaking through the surface.
This is similar in concept to wearing snow shoes to walk across deep snowdrifts without
your feet sinking.

Needle (or paper clip) floating on water. Even though the densities of these objects are
greater than water, the surface tension along the depression is enough to counteract the
force of gravity pulling down on the metal object.

Mercury used in the thermometer: The mercury used in the thermometer does not stick
to the wall of the capillary tube because of the surface tension. Had it stuck to the walls
the measurement of temperature would not have been correct

Separation of oil and water: The separation of oil and water is caused due to the
difference in surface tension of the two liquids. There is also separation of the fuel and
lubricating oil in the engine due to their surface tension.

Surface tension of Liquid Droplet.

Consider of a small spherical droplet of radius r. on the entire surface of the droplet, the
tensile force sue to surface tension will be acting.

Let σ = Surface tension of the liquid droplet.

p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet
d = Diameter of droplet.

Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half will be

(1) Tensile force due to surface tension around the circumference of the cut portion as
shown in fig12 and this will be equal to = σ × Circumference
=σ×πd
π 2  π 2
(2) Pressure force on the area  d  =p× d
4  4

As shown in fig12. These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium
conditions, i.e.

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 π 2
p× d = σ×πd
4
σ ×πd 4σ
p = =
or π d
×d 2
4

Above equation shows that with the decrease of diameter of the droplet, pressure
intensity inside the droplet increases.

Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble.

A hallow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside
and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such case, we
have
π 2
p× d = 2 ×( σ × π d )
4
2 σ ×π d 8σ
p = =
π d
×d 2
4

Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet

Consider a liquid jet of diameter‘d’ and length ‘L’ as shown in fig12.

Let p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above out side pressure
σ = Surface tension of the liquid.
Consider the equilibrium of the jet, we have

(1) Force due to pressure = p × area of semi jet

=p×L×d

(2) Force due to surface tension = σ × 2 L

Equating the forces we have

p×L×d=σ×2L
σ ×2 L 2 ×σ 2 ×σ
p= = = [Where ‘r’ = radius of the jet]
L ×d d 2r
σ
=
r
In all the above cases if r is very small, the value of p become very large. For small
bubbles in liquid, if this pressure is greater than the pressure of vapor or gas in a bubble,
the bubble will collapse. On many problems, with which engineers are concerned, the
magnitude of surface tension forces are small compared with other forces acting on the
fluid may be neglected. The Surface tension forces can be reduced by adding detergents.

Capillarity

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Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in small tube
relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the
liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of liquid is
known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. It value
depends upon he specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of
the liquid.

Note:
We have seen that surface tension arises because of the intermolecular forces of
attraction that molecules in a liquid exert on one another. These forces, which are
between like molecules, are called cohesive forces. A liquid, however, is often in contact
with a solid surface, such as glass. Then additional forces of attraction come into play.
They occur between molecules of the liquid and molecules of the solid surface and, being
between unlike molecules, are called adhesive forces.

Expression of Capillary Rise:

Consider a tube with a very small diameter, which is called a capillary. When a capillary,
open at both ends, is inserted into a liquid, the result of the competition between cohesive
and adhesive forces can be observed. In this case, the adhesive forces are stronger than
the cohesive forces, so that the water molecules are attracted to the glass more strongly
than to each other. The result is that the water surface curves upward against the glass. It
is said that the water “wets” the glass. The surface tensile force σ acts on the circular
boundary between the water and the glass. This force is oriented at an angle θ . The
vertical component of σ pulls the water up into the tube to a height h. At this height the
vertical component of σ balances the weight of the column of water of length h.

The weight of liquid of height h in the tube = (Area of the tube × h)× ρ×g
π 2
= d ×h ×ρ ×g -------(1)
4
[where ρ = density of liquid]

Vertical component of surface tensile force = ( σ × Circumference ) × cos θ

= σ × π d × cos θ -------(2)

For equilibrium, equating (1) and (2), we get

π 2
d ×h ×ρ ×g = σ × π d × cos θ
4

σ ×π d ×cos θ
4 σ cos θ
h= π 2 = ρ ×g ×d
d ×ρ ×g
4
The value of θ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and
hence cos θ is equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by

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 4σ
h=
ρgd

Expression for Capillary fall:

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