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Feasibility of Mussel Shells in Making Hollow Blocks

Arceo, Chester

Lim, Kyle

Mabasa, Jojo

Marquez, Avery

Sonza, Ethan

Lourdes School of Mandaluyong

St. Ignatius of Laconi

Armand John Yangat

February 22, 2013


DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to people who have curious minds that could devote their time,

body, mind, money, and heart for the sake of Science and for the sake of the improvement of

civilization. This study is also aimed for the sake of the prominent minds and bright futures of

the future students of Lourdes School of Mandaluyong.

This study is also dedicated to the researchers’ prominent, outstanding, inspirational

Physics teacher, Sir Armand John Yangat for being their light and guide in conducting the

research.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers express their utmost gratitude to their Physics teacher, Sir Armand

John Yangat, for giving them the opportunity to conduct this experiment and for the support,

encouragement, patience and perseverance he portrayed. Sir Yangat is, indeed, a true

inspiration and role model to society. The researchers would also like to thank the people who

have had helped them in conducting, researching and printing the experiment and research

such as the parents of the researchers for providing the materials, mainly the mussel shells, the

High School Library of Lourdes School of Mandaluyong for providing useful and detailed

information related to the research, the University of the Philippines' Institute of Civil

Engineering for providing past, similar, researches and for testing the components of the hollow

blocks. Lastly but certainly not the least, the researchers would like to thank the people who

have whole-heartedly read, studied and used this research for the greater good of the world.

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ABSTRACT

This study aims to develop with stronger and tougher hollow blocks by the means of

adding mussel shells to the base composition of the hollow block so that it could withstand

greater compressive strength. This will also serve as a substitute for the regular, commercial

hollow blocks that are deemed quite expensive in the current market. Based on initial research,

the researchers believe that mussel shells, or rather a crustacean shell, can offer extra strength

and durability when used properly hence, leading to mussel shells used as an additive in hollow

block making. The study is mainly for the betterment and improvement of civilization by killing

two birds with one stone: addressing the pollution and solid waste problem by recycling mussel

shells and by improving infrastructures by strengthening the foundations of it through improving

the base which, in the Philippines, is usually hollow blocks integrated with the famous cooking

thought: Better ingredients, better food.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ii

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iii

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iv

Chapter I: Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1-4

Background of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2

Hypothesis of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3

Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3

Scope and Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 - 4

Definition of Terms - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4

Chapter II: Review of Related Studies and Literature - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 - 9

Chapter III: Methodology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10

Research Design - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11

Sampling Procedure - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11

Instrumentation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11

Research Procedure - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11 - 12

Research Diagram - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12

Chapter IV: Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data - - - - - - - - - - 13 - 14

Chapter V: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15 - 16

Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15

Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15 - 16

Recommendation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16

Bibliography - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - v

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The world progresses alongside civilization, culture and technology; innovation is a

must. As part of human nature, man continues to make life 'easier' through inventions,

discoveries and innovations hence, the assurance of the best possible service and materials

available for the daily lives of man. As an attempt to 'innovate', the researchers have decided to

commit ourselves to a research that will do just that. An experiment revolving around a common

building tool used in almost every infrastructure around the world: hollow blocks.

Hollow blocks are large rectangular bricks used in construction. It is a basic building tool.

It is also known as concrete blocks, cement blocks and as foundation blocks. These are made

in several different ways such as, in Portland, cement and either sand and fine gravel

aggregates for high density-blocks or industrial wastes for low density-blocks. Those that use

cinders -fly ash or bottom ash- are called cinder blocks in Canada, the US and New Zealand,

breeze blocks -breeze is a synonym of ash- in the UK. Hollow blocks in the Philippines and are

also known as besser blocks or bricks in Australia. Clinker blocks use clinker as aggregate. In

non-technical usage, the terms cinder block and breeze block are often generalized to cover all

of these varieties. Lightweight blocks can also be produced using aerated concrete.

Several environmentalist groups, researchers and students has had experimented over

the matter of what additive is suitable to increase the effectiveness of hollow blocks wherein

lime soil, coconut coir, rice hull, plastic and a few others were used as an additive. This,

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however, did the opposite wherein the hollow block became less 'solid', making its building

options lesser for instance, walls and fences were the only stable products.

After initial research, the researchers stumbled upon a common product that could

strengthen materials with its high calcium carbonate that will supposedly strengthen cement.

Mussel shells, the common product, are considered waste for it is usually thrown out

immediately after consumed. Mussel shells contain 95-99% calcium carbonate by weight, while

an organic component makes up the remaining 1-5%. The resulting composite has fracture

toughness ~3000 times greater than that of the crystals themselves. In the biomineralization of

the mollusk shell, specialized proteins are responsible for directing crystal nucleation, phase,

morphology, and growths dynamics and ultimately give the shell its remarkable mechanical

strength. The application of biomimetic principles elucidated from mollusk shell assembly and

structure may help in fabricating new composite materials with enhanced optical, electronic, or

structural properties.

Statement of the Problem

 How will mussel shells used as an additive affect the hollow block's compressive

strength? Would the ratio of sand to mussel shells affect it?

o 40% Mussel Shells while 60% Sand

o 50% Mussel Shells while 50% Sand

o 60% Mussel Shells while 40% Sand

 Will a commercial hollow block be better than the home-made hollow block with mussel

shells as an additive in terms of compressive strength?

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Hypothesis of the Study

There is no significant difference in the feasibility of the hollow block based on the

amount of mussel shell-additives with the commercial hollow block.

Significance of the Study

The chosen study, Feasibility of Mussel Shells in Making Hollow Blocks, can help the

society in its crisis in solid waste management because with the help of this study, the

researchers can reuse the shells as an additive instead of simply disposing them. This study

can also help the construction industry in producing more efficient and stronger hollow blocks.

Stronger hollow blocks would mean a better, more reliable foundation for infrastructures such as

houses, buildings, bridges, towers and the like. This would also benefit the economy due to the

geographical feature of the Philippines wherein it is surrounded by water, making this, if

successful, an easier and more common way to produce better hollow blocks. Ecology-wise,

this would also beneficial due to the reuse of empty mussel shells because mussel shells are

not easily decomposed. Burning these will harm the atmosphere, environment and the people.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study was formulated to determine if using mussel shells as an additive to hollow

blocks would either make the hollow block stronger or weaker. The research would have four

set-ups; one commercial hollow block and three with mussel shells as an additive but with

different amounts of mussel shells and sand; 40-60, 50-50 and 60-40 respectively.

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The limitation of the study is that the researchers will not conduct the experiment inside

the school, but rather outside of its premises hence, the hollow block would be homemade. The

study cannot be successful without seeking professional help due to the fact that compressive

strength needs to be determined through thorough laboratory analysis. The study will be tested

at the University of the Philippines' Institute of Civil Engineering. Additionally, the research is

only limited in determining the compressive strength of the hollow blocks, making the

conclusions and interpretations of this experiment solely based on the PSI. Any form of building

shall not be used either.

Definition of Terms

cement. a building material made by grinding calcined limestone and clay to fine powder, which

can be mixed with water and poured to form a solid mass; used as an ingredient in making

mortar or concrete

compressive strength. maximum stress a material can sustain under crush loading

hollow block. concrete or burnt clay hollow blocks used for construction of hollow-tile floors

mussel. any of various marine bivalves of the genus Mytilus and related genera especially

medulis. edible mussel; having a dark, slightly elongated shell and, usually, attached to rocks

psi. a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. It is the pressure resulting from a

force of one pound-force applied to an area of one square inch

ultimate load. a statistical figure of the maximum weight a substance can withstand

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

AND REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

This chapter deals with the concepts, research studies and literature of the study. The

concepts are organized around major topics that are derived from the variables that have been

explained in the study.

Concrete blocks are made from cement and aggregate blocks. They are cheaper and

more utilitarian than traditional clay bricks. They are often used for retaining walls and garden

screens, although some blocks that mimic the colour and texture of store are widely used for

dwellings.

A mussel is any bivalve mollusk, especially and edible marine bivalve of the family

Mytiliadae and a freshwater clam of the family Unionidae. The byssal threads of the mussel are

so adhesive that they even cling to Teflon; scientists are now trying to develop a mussel-based

adhesive for use in eye surgery. The oyster creates its own environment by secreting a shell

composed or ninety-five percent (95%) of calcium carbonate. The remainder of the shell is

made up of organic material and trace amounts of manganese, iron, aluminum, sulfate and

magnesium. The structure or the shell of a mussel consists or four distinct layers: periostracum,

a tissue of organic material called conchiolin, secreted by the cells located near the edge of the

mantle. The periostracum is poorly developed in crassostrea virginica and it is not round in old

shells, prismatic layer, which is made up of bricklike prism units. Each prism consists or calcite

crystals laid in a matrix of conchiolin. The conchiolin can be destroyed by boiling in potassium

hydroxide and the prisms are separated, calcite-ostracum is a subnacreous layer consisting or

foliated sheets or calcite laid between thin membranes of conchiolin. This layer is interrupted by

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soft chalky deposits which consist of amorphous material. This layer makes up the major part of

the shell, hypostracum layer is made or shell material under the abductor muscle. In the

crassostrea virginica the layer is pigmented and consists of aragonite. As the oyster grows the

adductor muscle increases in size and the new areas or attachment become covered with

aragonite.

Shells grow by the accretion of material secreted at their edges. The rings on the outer

surfaces or a bivalve shell represent the contours of the shell at different ages. Rings are

common to all bivalves’ shells. Depending on the shape of the shell, the rings are either circular

or oval with a common point or origin at the extreme dorsal side near the umbo. The rate of

growth along the edge of the shell is not uniform and may actually change direction in response

to environmental factors

The mantle of the mussel; the animal inside the shell is covered by a mantle. The

principal function of the mantle is the formation or the shell and its calcification. It is made up of

soft and freshly tissue. The structure of the mantle consists of a sheet of connective tissue

containing muscles, blood vessels, nerves and it is covered on both sides by epithelium. The

mantle receives sensory stimuli, and conveys them to the nervous system and aid in the

shedding and dispersal of eggs. It also participates in respiration, stores reserve materials,

secretes large quantities of mucous and aids in excretion.

The most obvious components of the mantle are the radial muscles, blood vessels and

nerves. The radial muscles are large bands of fibers which extend almost the entire width of the

mantle. The radial muscle contracts and pulls the entire mantle inside and throws its surface

into ridges. The mantle’s blood vessel are the circumpallial artery which sends out many

branches; the common pallial artery, and a large pulsating vessel in the anteriorventral part of

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the mantle called the accessory heart. The nerve provides communication. Close nerve contact

is maintained between the muscles and the organs of the mantle through a fine nerve network.

An important use of calcium carbonate is in the building industry. Due to its wide

abundance and properties, it has been used as a building substance since ancient times. For

example, the Egyptians used limestone for building their pyramids. Another notable monument

made up of white marble is the Taj Mahal in India. Today, calcium carbonate is used in

construction of buildings, roads and other engineering works.

Besides construction, calcium carbonate is also used in other industries like paint,

plastic, rubber, ceramic, cement, glass, steel, oil refining, iron ore purification and biorock

creation for mariculture of sea organisms. It is used as a blackboard chalk and as pH correcting

compound in swimming pools. As per statistics, about 200 tons of chalk is used every year.

Calcium carbonate is the most preferred mineral in the paper industry, used for filling and

coating paper. It helps in production of the best quality printing papers.

Since calcium is essential for healthy bones and teeth, calcium carbonate is used as

dietary calcium supplement. Calcium carbonate supplement is effective to treat certain ailments

related to calcium deficiency, for example, osteoporosis and acidity problems. Calcium

supplements, made from calcium carbonate, are prescribed in various doses as per the

requirement of the patients. Calcium carbonate is used in homeopathy, production of toothpaste

and as an inert substance in tablets.

Calcium carbonate is a primary component of garden lime, also known as agricultural

lime, which is used for neutralizing soil. Acidic soils can be treated with garden lime to enhance

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the soil quality. Garden lime when added in soil acts as a calcium source for plants as well as

increases the pH and water retaining capacity of acidic soils. Calcium carbonate sources such

as limestone and chalk, along with other chemical compounds are used in preparation of garden

lime.

Calcium carbonate has various environmental applications. It is used in the treatment of

drinking water, desulphurisation of flue gas and waste water treatments. Water bodies affected

by acid rain can be neutralized by using calcium carbonate. However, care has to be taken as it

can increase the concentration of aluminum ions.

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand axially

directed pushing forces. It provides data (or a plot) of force vs deformation for the conditions of

the test method. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, brittle materials are

crushed. Concrete can be made to have high compressive strength, e.g. many concrete

structures have compressive strengths in excess of 50 MPa, whereas a material such as soft

sandstone may have a compressive strength as low as 5 or 10 MPa. By contrast, a small plastic

container might have a compressive strength of less than 250 N.

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common

substance found in rocks in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine

organisms, snails, coal balls, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient

in agricultural lime, and is usually the principal cause of hard water. It is commonly used

medicinally as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be

hazardous.

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Ms. Frances Monina M. Obrero’s study, according to investigatoryprojectexample.com,

focused on the possibility of replacing silica in ceramic production with oyster shells. Powdered

oyster shells were used instead of silica in the production of ceramics. The texture, color and

durability of the ceramics were compared to those made with silica. Six kilograms of Vigan clay

and 2.5 kg of ball clay were mixed and soaked in water overnight. The following day, the mixture

was kneaded again and filtered. The mixture was placed over Plaster of Paris for the water to

be absorbed.

The solidified mixture was then rolled and compressed to let the air escape from the

spaces inside the solidified mixture. After this, the mixture was molded, air dried for four days

and fired in a furnace. Three trials were made at different temperatures – 900 degrees Celsius,

950 degrees Celsius and 1000 degrees Celsius. The finished products were compared in terms

of texture and color to those made using silica. Ten evaluators from the staff of the University of

Northern Philippines – Ceramics Research, Training and Development Center rated set-ups in a

scale of 1-10 with 1 being the lowest rating and 10 the highest. It was found that the texture of

the experimental set-up is better than the control set-up. It was also found that the color of the

experimental set-up is comparable to the control set-up. Tests on durability of the ceramics,

which were done at SLU College of Engineering Laboratory, revealed that the experimental set-

up is more durable than the control set-up. This proves that oyster shell can be utilized in the

production of ceramics. It also affirms that ceramics made using oyster shells are better than

those produced using silica in terms of texture and durability.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The study used the experimental method of research. In this kind of research the

investigations manipulate the experimental variables.

Research Design

Dependent Variable Independent Variable Constant Variable

 Compressive  Amount of Mussel  Amount of Cement

Strength of the Shell Additives  Amount of Water

Hollow Block  Amount of Sand  Dried Mussel Shells

 Ultimate Load Additives  Size of the Hollow

 Quality of the Block (Mold)

Hollow Block

Table 1.1. Table of Variables

The experimental method is used to determine the relationship of the variables wherein

the dependent variable would be the compressive strength of the hollow block, the ultimate load

and the quality of the hollow blocks while the independent variables would be the amount of

mussel shell additives and the amount of sand additives and the constant variables would be

the amount of cement, amount of water, the dried mussel shells and the size of the hollow block

depending on the mold or Tupper wear.

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Sampling Procedure

This part of the study briefly discusses the procedures in conducting the study. The

follow steps were taken by the researchers to complete their study; first, they gathered all the

required materials: a hammer, spatula, Tupper wear, mussel shells, sand and water, second;

they sun-dried the shells then crushed them thoroughly, third; prepare the four set-ups. Testing

would be done by people from the University of the Philippines due to the researcher's lack of

equipment. Their laboratory is a necessity and a must in this experiment.

Instrumentation

The researchers aim to make hollow blocks with mussel shells as an additive. To do so,

several tools and materials are required such as: a hammer to crush the shells; a weighing

scale to measure the materials like sand, cement, mussel shells; shovel, a spatula or a wooden

rod for mixing substances and mixtures and; a Tupper wear or any molding material to mold the

hollow block. The study will be going to the University of the Philippines' Institute of Civil

Engineering for the testing of compressive strength.

Research Procedure

This part of the study is a detailed procedure of the whole experiment. The gathered

mussel shells were sun dried for half a day on a sheet of foil. These were then crushed with the

hammer. The set-ups were made by the people from the University of the Philippines wherein

the researchers only provided the materials. As recorded by UP, there were 4 set-ups: A, B, C

and D. Set-up A was a commercial block; set-up B's additive composition had 60% mussel

shells and 40% sand while; set-up C had 50% mussel shells and 50% sand and; set-up D with

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40% mussel shells and 60% sand. They also claim that similar students has had done this exact

request before, making it easier for them. The blocks were left to harden up and will be tested at

their laboratories immediately after the completed hollow block making process. The laboratory

tests would test the four blocks’ compressive through pound force per square inch or PSI. The

results would be sent to the researchers for further analysis and interpretations that would lead

to this experiment's conclusion.

Research Diagram

Let the Conduct the


Gather the
professionals experiment
materials.
do their thing. by...

Testing its
Clean the Bring them to
compressive
mussel shells. the laboratory.
strength.

Sun dry them Observe and


Crush them.
for half a day. record.
Flowchart 1.1. Procedure

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CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Set-Ups Ultimate Load Compressive


Strength

A Commercial Block 50,000 pounds 1.023 psi

B 60% Mussel Shells; 65,000 pounds 1.19 psi


40% Sand

C 50% Mussel Shells; 54,500 pounds 1.089 psi


50% Sand

D 40% Mussel Shells; 51,500 pounds 1.045psi


60% Sand

Table 2.1. Table of Data

As presented in the table, the results of the compressive strength test from the

University of the Philippines' tests is as follows: set-up A, the commercial block, had an ultimate

load of 50,000 pounds resulting to a 1.023 psi (Pounds per Square Inch) while; set-up B, 60/40,

had an ultimate load of 65,000 pounds resulting to a 1.19 psi; set-up C, 50/50, had a 54,500

pound load, leading to a 1.089 psi and; set-up D, 40/60, had the load of 51,500 pounds with the

compressive strength of 1.045 psi.

As seen in the table and by analyzing the results, it is clear that the amount of mussel

shells does indeed affect the compressive strength of the hollow blocks and, as it seems, affects

it in a more positive way wherein its compressive strength is somewhat higher and better than

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that of a commercial hollow block. Additionally, the ratio of mussel shells to sand also affects the

results. As observed in the testing, the more mussel shells there is, the higher compressive

strength and the less mussel shell there is, the lesser the compressive strength. To emphasize

and to clarify the interpreted data regarding the effects of the hollow block-to-sand ratio to the

hollow block’s compressive strength, refer to the presented graph below:

Set-up B

Set-up C Mussel Shells


Sand

Set-up D

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Table 1.1. Ratio of Mussel Shells to Sand

Set-
up B

Set- Set-up D
up C Set-up C
Set-up B

Set-
up D

0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25

Table 1.2. Compressive Strength of the Set-Ups with Mussel Shells

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CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION

AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary of Findings

The results from the conducted tests show that blocks with mussel shells as additives

are indeed more effective wherein, considering the compressive strength and the additional

results of the ultimate load: Set-A, the commercial block, had an ultimate load of 50,000 lbs.

with 1.029 psi while Set-B, having 60% mussel shells, had more than 15,000 lbs. ultimate load

compared to Set-A. The results deem that the compressive strength is directly proportional to

the ultimate load hence, as the ultimate load increases, the compressive strength does too. With

that, comparing Set-C and Set-D respectively to Set-A: 4,500 lbs. difference with 1.089 psi and

1,500 lbs. difference with 1.045 psi.

Conclusion

By observing the analysis, tests and summary of findings, the research’s statement of

the problem can be claimed that the percentage of mussel shells is directly proportional to the

ultimate load which is also directly proportional to the compressive strength hence, concluding

that mussel shells used as an additive in hollow block making does in fact make the hollow

block’s compressive strength greater which can be basically summed up to: mussel shells

additives increase the compressive strength of hollow blocks. As seen at the results of the tests,

the amount of clam shells, particularly set-up B: the 60% mussel shell additive, is a clear result

that more mussel shells would make the hollow block stronger in terms of compressive strength

and ultimate load. Comparing it to set-up A: the commercial hollow block, set-up B would

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appear superior. Same goes to set-up C: 50% mussel shell additive and set-up D: 40% mussel

shell additive in contrast with set-up A. These set-ups support the statement that the more

mussel shell additive added to the hollow block would make the hollow block’s compressive

strength greater wherein these set-ups determined that the less mussel shell additives made the

hollow block’s compressive strength lower. Therefore, the conclusion: mussel shells used as an

additive in hollow block making would make the hollow block stronger in terms of compressive

strength and, additionally, ultimate load.

Recommendation

The researchers would like to recommend: planning ahead of time is highly

recommended for the next batch of researchers for collecting a sizable amount of mussel shells

poses to be an easy task but in reality, it is rather a tedious act. Additionally, the testing

laboratory at the University of the Philippines is highly recommended for testing various

quantities, qualities and compositions such as, in this experiment’s case, ultimate load and

compressive strength. However, planning the tests ahead of schedule would be, also, highly

recommended due to the fact that the people at the University of the Philippines are quite busy;

a scheduled appointment is a must. It is also recommended that instead of using mussel shells,

several other additives may be used such as, as mentioned in the introduction, lime soil,

coconut coir, rice hull, plastic or other Mollusks such clams, oysters, crabs, lobsters and the like.

It is also recommended to, as the original plan of this experiment, try pure additives without the

mix of others such as, in this case, sand; making the experiment only 100% mussel shells or

100% chosen additive which, by theory, should make the hollow block even stronger. Another

recommendation would be seeking professional help in making the hollow block to secure the

best and most accurate results, as did in this experiment. Proper testing, however, would cost at

least 2, 500 Pesos.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Journals:

Reader’s Digest (2005). Concrete and Clam Shells.

Websites:

Chemical Composition of a Mussel Shell (2009). Retrieved on October 17, 2012


accessed from
http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090501145314AAMbNUF
Uses of Calcium Carbonate (2002). Retrieved on August 22, 2012 accessed from
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/uses-of-calcium-carbonate.html
The Mussel (2002). Retrieved on August 23, 2012 accessed from
http://yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1985/7/85.07.02.x.html
Calcium Carbonate (2004). Retrieved on August 22, 2012 accessed from
http://www.famousminechem.com/calcite.htm
Hollow Block (2003). Retrieved on August 22, 2012 accessed from
http://websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/hollow+block
Mussel (2000). Retreived on August 22, 2012 accessed from
http://thefreedictionary.com/mussel
Cement (2000). Retrieved on August 22, 2012 accessed from
http://thefreedictionary.com/cement
Compressive Strength (2008). Retrieved on January 27, 2013 accessed from
http://www.matsc.ktu.lt/index.php/erem/article/viewArticle/42
Calcium Carbonate (2013). Retireved on January 27, 2013 accessed from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonate
Ultimate Load (2013). Retrieved on January 27, 2013 accessed from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_load
Compressive Strength (2013). Retrieved on January 27, 2013 accessed from
http://www.instron.co.uk/wa/glossary/Compressive-Strength.aspx
Testing the Compressive Strength of Concrete. Retrieved on January 27, 2013
accessed from http://www.nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/35p.pdf

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