Material 1 - Solar Training Programme - ANERT

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (ROOFTOP SYSTEMS)
TRAINING PROGRAMME
STUDY NOTES
COMPILED BY
ARBUTUS CONSULTANTS PVT. LTD.

J 507-11, West Wing, Mega Center Magarpatta,
Hadapsar, Pune 411028,
Tel – 00912026890141, 65600457/58/59
www.arbutus.co.in//training
ANERT TRAINING PROGRAME_STUDY MATERIAL (Rev 01) _20171218 1

Disclaimer:
This Document has been compiled by Arbutus Consultants Pvt. Ltd. and associates. Sources and
references have been indicated wherever possible. The Document does not purport to contain all
the information that the recipients may require and is subject to updating, expansion, revision and
amendment. However, Arbutus Consultants Pvt. Ltd. does not have any obligation to update,
expand, revise and amend any information or to correct any inaccuracies contained in this
document or to provide recipients with additional information intended to be used by the
participants from KSEB, Electrical Inspectorate and EPC Contractors who attended the twoday
training program on solar roof top grid connected systems to improve their general knowledge on
solar systems and acquire higher levels of specialization using this as a basic study material.

Two (2) Day Training Programme on Solar PV Power Plants for Field Functionaries
PROGRAMME OUTLINE
[Schedule likely to change depending on the timings of the site visit]
Day 1
Module Timing Course Contents Faculty
9.30 - 10.00 AM Registration of participants
10.00 - 10.30 AM Inauguration; Introduction, ANERT ANERT
Schemes
10.30 - 10.45 AM TEA
Module 1 10.45 - 12.00 PM National and Global Scenario on Solar PV SME on

Power Plants, Introduction to Solar Solar PV
Photovoltaics and Solar PV Systems
(Standalone, Grid-connected, etc)
Module 2 12 - 1.30 PM Solar Inverters SME on

Power
Electronics
1.30 - 2 PM LUNCH
Module 3 2 - 3.30 PM Power Quality Issues, Safety and SME on

Protection features of Solar Grid- Power
connected Inverters with Live demo or Electronics
video
Module 4 3.30 - 6.30 PM Inspection of a Solar PV Plant: SME on

Installation and Commissioning Aspects Installation &
(Includes Site Visit) Commissioning
Day 2
Module 5 10 - 11.30 AM Safety & Power Quality Issues, Role of District
Electrical Inspectorate Electrical
Inspectorate
Module 6 11.30 - 1 PM Regulatory Aspects, Systems & SME on

Procedures and Safety Aspects, Earthing Regulations,
Power
Distribution,
Procedures
1 - 1.30 PM LUNCH
Module 7 1.30 - 3 PM Role of KSEB, Case Study, Challenges KSEB
Module 8 3 - 4 PM Installation (Best Practices), Operation SME on O & M

and Maintenance
4 - 4.30 PM Feedback and Valedictory function

INDEX
MODULE 1: SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS - NATIONAL AND GLOBAL SCENARIO, INTRODUCTION TO
SOLAR PV SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................................................17
1.1 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS - NATIONAL AND GLOBAL SCENARIO .......................................17
1.1.1 SOLAR PV SCENARIO - GLOBAL ..........................................................................................................19
1.1.2 SOLAR PV SCENARIO- INDIA ...............................................................................................................20
1.1.3 KERALA POWER SITUATION AND NEED FOR SOLAR POWER ...............................................................22
1.1.3.1 Power Scenario – Kerala ..................................................................................................................................................... 22

1.1.3.2 KSEB on Solar ........................................................................................................................................................................... 23
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR PV SYSTEMS..................................................................................24
1.2.1 GENERAL.............................................................................................................................................24
1.2.1.1 Schematic of a Grid Connected Solar PV System ..................................................................................................... 24

1.2.1.2 Solar Resource Assessment ................................................................................................................................................ 34
1.2.1.3 Earth Sun Angles ..................................................................................................................................................................... 35
1.2.1.4 Tilt Angle ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
1.2.2 TECHNOLOGIES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS .......................................................................38
1.2.2.1 First -Generation PV Technologies - Crystalline Silicon based Technology .............................................. 38

1.2.2.2 Second-Generation PV Technologies - Thin Film Solar Cells ............................................................................ 41
1.2.2.3 Third-Generation Solar Power Technologies............................................................................................................ 43
1.2.2.4 Comparison between Monocrystalline, polycrystalline and thin film module ......................................... 47
1.2.2.5 Brief Description of Datasheet parameters of PV Modules ............................................................................... 47
1.2.3 PV INVERTER TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................................54
1.2.3.1 PV Inverter Types .................................................................................................................................................................... 54

1.2.3.2 PV Inverter Selection Criteria ........................................................................................................................................... 56
1.2.4 TYPES OF ROOFTOP SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC SYSTEM ........................................................................57
1.2.4.1 Grid connected Rooftop Solar PV system .................................................................................................................... 57

1.2.4.2 Off Grid Rooftop Solar PV system:................................................................................................................................... 58
1.2.5 DESIGN OF A SOLAR PV SYSTEM .........................................................................................................58
1.2.5.1 Software Tools .......................................................................................................................................................................... 58

1.2.5.2 Project Design ........................................................................................................................................................................... 60
1.2.5.3 Definition of a Project ........................................................................................................................................................... 60

1.2.5.4 Creating your first variant for this project ................................................................................................................ 61
1.2.5.5 Executing the Simulation .................................................................................................................................................... 61

1.2.5.6 Results ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
1.2.5.7 Saving Your Simulation ....................................................................................................................................................... 62
1.2.5.8 Losses............................................................................................................................................................................................. 62
1.2.5.9 Sample PVSyst Report ........................................................................................................................................................... 65
1.2.5.10 Single Line Diagrams ............................................................................................................................................................ 69
1.2.6 CASE STUDY - 2 MW GRID-CONNECTED SOLAR PV PLANT ..................................................72
1.2.6.1 Project Design ........................................................................................................................................................................... 72

1.2.6.2 Shadow Analysis ...................................................................................................................................................................... 76
1.2.6.3 PVSyst Report ............................................................................................................................................................................ 81
1.2.7 ASSESSMENT OF ANNUAL ENERGY GENERATION ................................................................................85
1.2.7.1 De-Rating Module Performance ...................................................................................................................................... 86

1.2.7.2 Inverter Selection .................................................................................................................................................................... 87
1.2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF BILL OF MATERIAL ...................................................................................93
1.2.8.1 Bill of Quantities ...................................................................................................................................................................... 93
MODULE 2: SOLAR INVERTERS.................................................................................................................100
2.1 GRID TIED INVERTER ................................................................................................................. 100
2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE AND PROTECTION .............................................................................. 101
2.2.1 INVERTER CIRCUIT ........................................................................................................................... 103
2.2.2 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION ............................................................................................................. 104
2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTERS ................................................................................................... 105
2.3.1 DEPENDING ON THE SIZE AND PLACEMENT IN THE SYSTEM ............................................................... 105
2.3.1.1 Central Inverter .....................................................................................................................................................................105

2.3.1.2 String Inverter ........................................................................................................................................................................106
2.3.1.3 Micro Inverter .........................................................................................................................................................................107
2.3.1.4 Hybrid Inverter .......................................................................................................................................................................108
2.3.2 DEPENDING ON THE PRESENCE OF TRANSFORMER............................................................................. 110
2.3.2.1 Isolated Inverter ....................................................................................................................................................................110

2.3.2.2 Transformer less Inverter .................................................................................................................................................110
2.4 INVERTER SIZING ........................................................................................................................ 111
2.4.1 IMPORTANT DATASHEET PARAMETERS............................................................................................. 113
2.5 ANTI- ISLANDING FEATURE ............................................................................................................... 115

MODULE 3: POWER QUALITY ISSUES, SAFETY AND PROTECTION FEATURES OF SOLAR GRID
CONNECTED INVERTERS ...........................................................................................................................116

3.1 POWER QUALITY ISSUE.............................................................................................................. 116
3.2 SAFETY AND PROTECTION FEATURES OF SOLAR GRID CONNECTED INVERTERS ..... 118
3.2.1 KEY TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS, STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS............................................ 118
3.2.2 ANTI-ISLANDING ............................................................................................................................... 120
3.2.2.1 Passive methods .....................................................................................................................................................................121

3.2.2.2 Active methods .......................................................................................................................................................................123
3.2.2.3 Utility-based methods .........................................................................................................................................................125
3.2.3 GRID SUPPORT FUNCTIONS AFFECTING ANTI-ISLANDING ................................................................ 126
3.2.4 DC INJECTION ................................................................................................................................... 127
3.2.4.1 Procedure and Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................................................127

MODULE 4: INSPECTION OF A SOLAR PV PLANT: INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING
ASPECTS ..........................................................................................................................................................129
4.1 INSTALLATION ASPECTS ........................................................................................................... 129
4.1.1 APPLICABLE STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS ................................................................................... 129
4.1.2 REQUIREMENTS WITH RESPECT TO HARMONICS, DIRECT CURRENT (DC) INJECTION AND FLICKER 129
4.1.3 INSTALLATION DOCUMENTS.............................................................................................................. 130
4.2 COMMISSIONING CHECKS......................................................................................................... 132
4.2.1 VISUAL INSPECTION OF SOLAR MODULE .......................................................................................... 132
4.2.1.1 Micro cracks on Solar Module ........................................................................................................................................133
4.2.1.2 Hot Spot on Solar Module .................................................................................................................................................135

4.2.2 THERMAL IMAGING........................................................................................................................... 136
4.3 STAGES OF INSTALLATION STUDY .......................................................................................... 137
4.3.1 STAGE 1 – PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY .................................................................................................. 137
4.3.2 STAGE 2 – SITE VISIT ......................................................................................................................... 139
4.3.3 STAGE 3 – DETAILED STUDY .............................................................................................................. 140
4.4 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................... 142
4.5 COMMISSIONING ......................................................................................................................... 145
4.5.1 PRE-CONNECTION ACCEPTANCE TEST.............................................................................................. 145
4.5.1.1 Open Circuit Voltage Test .................................................................................................................................................145

4.5.1.2 Short Circuit Current Test ................................................................................................................................................146
4.5.2 POST-CONNECTION ACCEPTANCE TEST ............................................................................................ 146
4.5.2.1 DC Current Test ......................................................................................................................................................................146

4.5.2.2 Performance Ratio Test .....................................................................................................................................................146

4.5.2.3 Availability Test .....................................................................................................................................................................147
4.5.3 PROVISIONAL ACCEPTANCE .............................................................................................................. 147
4.5.4 INSTALLATION CHECKLIST ............................................................................................................... 148
4.5.5 PRE-COMMISSIONING CHECKLIST .................................................................................................... 149
4.5.5.1 Information about Project................................................................................................................................................150

4.5.5.2 Checklist for General Information ................................................................................................................................151
4.5.6 TESTING AND COMMISSIONING CHECKLIST ...................................................................................... 151
4.5.6.1 Information about PV Module ........................................................................................................................................152

4.5.6.2 Inverter Functional Test ....................................................................................................................................................153
4.5.6.3 Acceptance Test .....................................................................................................................................................................154
MODULE 5: SAFETY & POWER QUALITY ISSUES, ROLE OF ELECTRICAL INSPECTORATE ......155
MODULE 6: REGULATORY ASPECTS, SYSTEMS & PROCEDURES AND SAFETY ASPECTS,

EARTHING ......................................................................................................................................................156
6.1 GRID INTERACTIVE DISTRIBUTED SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM REGULATION 2014 ........ 156
6.2 SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS AND SAFETY ........................................................................ 156
6.3 PROCEDURE FOR GRANTING CONNECTION ......................................................................... 157
6.4 CEA REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 158
6.5 HIGH PENATRATION POSSIBLE TECHNICAL ISSUES .......................................................... 160
6.6 CLOUD SHEAR............................................................................................................................... 161
6.7 POWER SYSTEM PLANNING STRETAGIES.............................................................................. 161
6.8 INTEGRATION OF PV INVERTERS ............................................................................................ 162
6.9 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF SOLAR MODULES .................................................................. 162
6.9.1 ROLLING SPHERE METHOD ............................................................................................................... 163
6.10 EARTHING SYSTEM FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEM ........................................................................ 165
MODULE 7: ROLE OF KSEB, CASE STUDY, CHALLENGES...................................................................167
MODULE 8: INSTALLATION (BEST PRACTICES), OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE....................168
8.1 INSTALLATION (BEST PRACTICES) ......................................................................................... 168
8.1.1 PROGRAM AND SCHEDULING ................................................................................................... 168
8.1.1.1 Milestones .................................................................................................................................................................................169

8.1.1.2 Planning and Task Sequencing ......................................................................................................................................170
8.1.1.3 Risk Management .................................................................................................................................................................170
8.1.2 QUALITY MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................... 170
8.1.3 HEALTH AND SAFETY M ANAGEMENT ................................................................................................ 171

8.2 SPECIFIC SOLAR PV CONSTRUCTION ISSUES ....................................................................... 172
8.2.1 CIVIL ............................................................................................................................................... 172
8.2.2 MECHANICAL ............................................................................................................................... 172
8.2.3 ELECTRICAL ................................................................................................................................. 173
8.2.4 GRID CONNECTION ..................................................................................................................... 173
8.2.5 LOGISTICAL .................................................................................................................................. 173
8.3 CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION................................................................................................. 174
8.4 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................ 175

8.4.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS EQUIPMENT INSTALLED IN THE PLANT
176
8.4.1.1 Basic Principles of Operation ..........................................................................................................................................176

8.4.1.2 Modules/Arrays .....................................................................................................................................................................177
8.4.1.3 SMU ..............................................................................................................................................................................................177

8.4.1.4 Inverter .......................................................................................................................................................................................177
8.4.1.5 Transformers and LT/HT Panels/Ring Main Unit ...............................................................................................178
8.4.2 OPERATOR’S DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ..................................................................... 178
8.4.3 MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS AND SCHEDULES IN SOLAR POWER PLANT ............. 179
8.4.3.1 Types of maintenance .........................................................................................................................................................179

8.4.3.2 Maintenance schedules for different equipment ...................................................................................................180
8.5 SAFETY NECESSITIES.................................................................................................................. 183
8.5.1 LOCKOUT/TAG OUT PROCEDURES..................................................................................................... 183
8.5.2 PPE AND OTHER SAFETY EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................. 184
8.5.3 SAFE OPERATION OF ELECTRICAL DISCONNECTS ............................................................................. 184
8.5.4 PV-SPECIFIC SIGNAGE AND WARNINGS ............................................................................................ 185
8.5.5 INSPECTIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 186
8.5.5.1 General Site Annual Inspections ....................................................................................................................................186
8.5.5.2 Detailed Visual Inspections ..............................................................................................................................................186

8.5.5.3 Manufacturer Specific Inverter Inspection ..............................................................................................................187
8.5.5.4 Manufacturer Specific Tracker Inspection...............................................................................................................188
8.5.5.5 Manufacturer Specific Data Acquisition System ...................................................................................................188
8.5.6 GENERAL ISOLATION PROCEDURES ...................................................................................... 189
8.5.6.1 Energized Components.......................................................................................................................................................189
8.5.6.2 Inverter Pad Equipment ....................................................................................................................................................189

8.5.6.3 Transformer Isolation.........................................................................................................................................................189
8.5.7 FAILURE RESPONSE .................................................................................................................... 190
8.5.7.1 Emergency Shutdown .........................................................................................................................................................190
8.5.7.2 Isolation Procedure: Inverter Pad Equipment .......................................................................................................190

8.5.7.3 Isolation Procedure: Field Combiner Box .................................................................................................................190
8.5.7.4 Isolation Procedure: Modules and String Wiring .................................................................................................190
8.5.8 INVERTER TROUBLESHOOTING AND SERVICE.................................................................... 191
8.5.8.1 Inverter Troubleshooting ..................................................................................................................................................191

8.5.8.2 Infrared Service Procedure ..............................................................................................................................................191
8.5.9 DIAGNOSING AND TESTING FOR LOW POWER PRODUCTION .......................................... 192
8.5.9.1 Diagnostic Overview ............................................................................................................................................................192

8.5.9.2 Diagnostic Testing ................................................................................................................................................................193
8.6 SOLAR POWER PLANT MONITORING...................................................................................... 200
8.6.1 INCIDENT RATE ON PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATION........................................................ 202
8.6.2 EFFICIENCY GAP BY CONTINUOUS QUALITY ASSURANCE ............................................... 202
8.6.3 DEFECT CLASSIFICATION ......................................................................................................... 203
8.6.4 BALANCE SHEET .......................................................................................................................... 203
8.6.5 RELIABILITY IN PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATION .............................................................. 204
8.6.5.1 Potential Failures of Photovoltaic Panels .................................................................................................................204
ANNEXURES ...................................................................................................................................................205
ANNEXURE I: SOLAR GRID CONNECTED PPS – KSEB INTRODUCTION......................................... 205
ANNEXURE II: INSPECTORATE GUIDLINES ........................................................................................ 231
ANNEXURE III: SINGLE LINE DIAGRAMS ............................................................................................ 237
I. 2KWP SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG...................................................................................... 237
II. 3KWP SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM........................................................................................................ 238
III. 5KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM .................................................................................................... 239
IV. 5KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG................................................................................... 240
V. 10KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM....................................................................................................... 241
VI. 10KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG................................................................................. 242
VII. 20KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM................................................................................................... 243
VIII. 20KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG................................................................................. 244
IX. 30KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG................................................................................. 245
X. 40KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM....................................................................................................... 246

XI. 40KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG................................................................................. 247
XII. 50KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM................................................................................................... 248
XIII. 50KWP THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG................................................................................. 249
WEBSITE LINKS FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION .............................................................................250
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................252

List of Figures
Figure 1: Market driver - Solar Industry ..................................................................................................17
Figure 2: Solar wise global installed capacity (in GW) .............................................................................19
Figure 3: Share of global electricity demand...........................................................................................19
Figure 4: Year wise installed capacity (in MW)........................................................................................20
Figure 5: Tendering status (in MW) ........................................................................................................21
Figure 6: KSEB Control Room .................................................................................................................22
Figure 7: Demand and Availability of Power in Kerala, India ...................................................................23
Figure 8: Role of KSEB under Solar Policy 2013 .......................................................................................24
Figure 9: Typical Scheme of Grid connected Solar PV System .................................................................25
Figure 10: Cell, Module, Array ................................................................................................................26
Figure 11: Bypass diodes ........................................................................................................................26
Figure 12: I-V Characteristic of Solar Cell ................................................................................................27
Figure 13: I-V Characteristic of Solar Panels............................................................................................28
Figure 14: Effect of Temperature on VI Characteristics ...........................................................................29
Figure 15: Effect of Irradiance on VI Characteristics................................................................................29
Figure 16: Shading of panels due to chimney and nearby roof ................................................................30
Figure 17: Typical modern pyranometer (secondary standard model SR20) ...........................................31
Figure 18: Typical pyrheliometer, for measurement of direct solar radiation..........................................31
Figure 19: Lux Meter ..............................................................................................................................31
Figure 20: Thermographic Camera .........................................................................................................32
Figure 21: Solar Radiation ......................................................................................................................33
Figure 22: Earth’s Sun Angles .................................................................................................................35
Figure 23: Zenith Angle ..........................................................................................................................36
Figure 24: Azimuth Angle .......................................................................................................................36
Figure 25: Tilt Angle ...............................................................................................................................37
Figure 26: Effect of adjusting the Tilt Angle ............................................................................................38
Figure 27: Monocrystalline Silicon Module .............................................................................................39
Figure 28: Polycrystalline Silicon Module ...............................................................................................40
Figure 29: Thin film module ...................................................................................................................41
Figure 30: Parabolic Trough System .......................................................................................................44
Figure 31: Power tower system ..............................................................................................................44
Figure 32: Solar dish-engine system .......................................................................................................45
Figure 33: Characteristics of a solar module ...........................................................................................54
Figure 34: Types of Solar inverters .........................................................................................................56
Figure 35: Grid Connected Rooftop System ............................................................................................57
Figure 36: Off Grid Rooftop System ........................................................................................................58
Figure 37: PVSyst Report – Page 1 ..........................................................................................................65
Figure 41: Typical DC SLD .......................................................................................................................69
Figure 42: Typical AC SLD .......................................................................................................................70
Figure 43: SLD- Grid connected Solar PV System ....................................................................................71
Figure 44: System design screen ............................................................................................................72

Figure 45: Datasheet parameters ...........................................................................................................73
Figure 46: Thermal parameter screen ....................................................................................................73
Figure 47: Ohmic loss parameter screen ................................................................................................74
Figure 48: Module quality mismatch loss screen ....................................................................................74
Figure 49: Soiling loss screen..................................................................................................................75
Figure 50: IAM loss screen .....................................................................................................................75
Figure 51: Elementary shading object screen .........................................................................................76
Figure 52: Create fence of a solar plant ..................................................................................................76
Figure 53: Build modules on site ............................................................................................................77
Figure 54: Creating single table and half table ........................................................................................77
Figure 55: Creating single table area ......................................................................................................78
Figure 56: Partitioning table in modules .................................................................................................78
Figure 57: Copy tables............................................................................................................................79
Figure 58: Final shading scene................................................................................................................79
Figure 59: Shading factor table...............................................................................................................80
Figure 60: 2MW Project PVSyst Report – Page 1.....................................................................................81
Figure 64: Simulation table ....................................................................................................................85
Figure 65: Grid tied Inverter .................................................................................................................101
Figure 66: MPPT of PV module .............................................................................................................102
Figure 67: Typical inverter circuitry (H-Bridge) .....................................................................................103
Figure 68: Closed loop PWM H-Bridge output (Simplified)....................................................................103
Figure 69: H-Bridge PWM output .........................................................................................................104
Figure 70: Central Inverter ...................................................................................................................105
Figure 71: String Inverter .....................................................................................................................106
Figure 72: Micro Inverter .....................................................................................................................107
Figure 73: Hybrid Inverter ....................................................................................................................109
Figure 74: Isolated Inverter ..................................................................................................................110
Figure 75: Transformer less Inverter ....................................................................................................111
Figure 76: Equations for power ratio and DC power for inverter...........................................................112
Figure 77: Typical specifications of Inverter..........................................................................................114
Figure 78: Representation of an island condition..................................................................................115
Figure 79: Location Drawing - Typical ...................................................................................................130
Figure 80: Bill of material - Typical .......................................................................................................131
Figure 81: Schematic Diagram - Typical ................................................................................................131
Figure 82: Single Line Diagram - Typical................................................................................................132
Figure 83: Micro cracks visible with Electro Luminescence (EL) test ......................................................134
Figure 84: Luminescence (EL) test – Defect cells ...................................................................................134
Figure 85: Effect of shaded cell in a series ............................................................................................135
Figure 86: Cracked module due to heat dissipation in shaded cell ........................................................135
Figure 87: Thermography Image ..........................................................................................................136
Figure 88: Measured Average Availability.............................................................................................147
Figure 89: Pre-commissioning Checklist-Information of a Project .........................................................150
Figure 90: Pre-Commissioning Checklist for General Inspection............................................................151

Figure 91: Commissioning Test – Information about PV Module ...........................................................152
Figure 92: Commissioning Test – Invrter Functional Test ......................................................................153
Figure 93: Commissioning Test – Acceptance Test ................................................................................154
Figure 94: Yesterdays Power System ....................................................................................................159
Figure 95: Todays Power System ..........................................................................................................160
Figure 96: System Stability – Cloud Effect.............................................................................................161
Figure 97: Integration of PV Inverter ....................................................................................................162
Figure 98: Rolling sphere method.........................................................................................................164
Figure 99: 2kWp single phase system with DG .....................................................................................237
Figure 100: 5kWp single phase system .................................................................................................238
Figure 101: 5kWp three phase system .................................................................................................239
Figure 102: 5kWp three phase system with DG ....................................................................................240
Figure 103: 10kWp three phase system................................................................................................241
Figure 104: 10kWp three phase system with DG ..................................................................................242

List of Tables
Table 1: Comparison between Monocrystalline, Polycrystalline and Thin Film module ...........................47
Table 2: Datasheet Parameters for PV Module .......................................................................................47
Table 3: A Typical BOQ ...........................................................................................................................93
Table 4: Installation Checklist ...............................................................................................................148
Table 5: Levels of protection ................................................................................................................164

GLOSSARY
AC Alternating Current
AJB Array Junction Box
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
BOQ Bill of Quantity
CEA Central Electricity Authority
CERC Central Electricity Regulatory Commission
CUF Capacity utilization factor
DAS Data acquisition system
DC Direct Current
DSCR Debt Service Coverage Ratio
EBT Earnings before tax
EBDIT Earnings before Depreciation, Interest and tax
EHS Environmental, Health, and Safety
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EPC Engineering Procurement And Construction
GOI Government of India
HV High Voltage
HT High Tension
IAM Incident Angle Modifier
IFC International Finance Corporation
IEC International Electro technical commission
IS Indian Standard
JNNSM Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
KM Kilometres
kV Kilo Volt
kW Kilo Watt
kWh Kilo Watt Hour
kWp Kilo Watt Peak
L&FS Life and Fire Safety
LED Light Emitting Diode
LT Low Tension
MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

MV Medium Voltage
MW Mega Watt
MWp Mega Watt Peak
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
O&M Operation & Maintenance
PCU Power Conditioning Unit
PPA Power Purchase Agreement
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
PV Photovoltaic
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
RE Renewable Energy
REC Renewable Energy Certificate
RMU Ring Main Unit
RPPO Renewable Power Purchase Obligation
SEB State Electricity Board
Si Silicon
SLD Single Line Diagram
SMU String Monitoring Unit
STC Standard Test Condition
SPV Solar Photovoltaic
Wp Watt Peak
XLPE Cross Linked Poly Ethylene
XLPO Cross Linked Poly Olefin

MODULE 1: SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS - NATIONAL AND
GLOBAL SCENARIO, INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR PV
SYSTEMS
1.1 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS - NATIONAL AND GLOBAL SCENARIO
Solar energy generation is one of fastest growing and most promising renewable energy sources of power
generation worldwide. Nowadays, the electrical energy becomes one of the basic needs in our daily life,
which makes increasing demand for it. As a major source of electrical power generation fossil fuels are
depleting day by day and its usage raises serious environmental concerns. These reasons force the
development of new energy sources which are renewable and ecologically safe. Out of all renewable energy
sources, solar energy has the greatest potential in the long term and is predicted to play a major role in
coming years. It is the cheapest method of generating electricity compared with other energy sources.
Figure 1: Market driver - Solar Industry
At the present rate of consumption, all known sources of oil will be used up in 50 years, gas in 70 years
and coal in 120 years. Depletion of these resources is a great threat to energy security especially when the
energy demand is steadily increasing. Increase in the CO2 content in atmosphere due to burning of oil, gas
and coal is the main reason for global warming and air pollution. The only way to address these problems
globally is to aggressively promote renewable energy, with solar photovoltaic leading the way.
Solar power is the conversion of sun radiation into electricity through the use of solar photovoltaic cells.
This conversion takes place in the solar cell by photovoltaic effect. As said by many experts that the amount
of solar energy reaching the earth is more than 10000 times the current energy consumption by man.

Carbon credits (often called a carbon offset) are certificates issued to countries that have successfully
reduced emissions of GHG which causes global warming.
These can be used by governments, industry or private individuals to offset damaging carbon emissions
that they are generating. Carbon credits create market for reducing greenhouse emissions by giving a
monetary value to the cost of polluting the air. Each carbon credit represents one tonne of CO2 either
removed from the atmospheres or saved from being emitted. Carbon credits can be created in many ways
but there are two broad types:
i. Sequestration (retaining or capturing CO2 from the atmosphere) such as afforestration &
reforestration activities.
ii. CO2 saving projects such as the use of renewable energies (wind power, solar energy,
biomass power, hydel power)
Carbon credits can be viewed as a means of empowering the market to care for the Environment. They can
be bought and sold in international markets at prevailing market price.
International climate change mitigation policies/financing mechanisms such as the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM), which created a carbon credit trading market, along with voluntary
carbon markets, have also been well utilised well by Indian renewable energy project developers, which is
demonstrated by the fact that India is the largest source of voluntary carbon credits and second largest
source of CDM carbon credits in the world.
Solar Photovoltaic Power projects can mitigate at a baseline emission of approximately 0.8 – 0.9 kg of CO2
per kWh of electricity.

1.1.1 Solar PV Scenario - Global
Figure 2: Solar wise global installed capacity (in GW)

(Source: Global Status Report 2016, IRENA)
 Renewable accounts 28.90% of Global Power generation

capacity & 23.70% in End Electricity demand
 Approximately 320 GW of Solar PV capacity has been

installed till June 2016
 CAGR (Compounded Annual Growth Rate) of Solar PV is

34.80% approximately YoY from past 6 years and
approximately 17.16 17.50% from the past 34
years
 China added maximum Solar Capacity of 18 GW in

H1’ 201617
Figure 3: Share of global electricity demand

(Source: Global Status Report 2016, IRENA)
2016 was a record year for the solar PV industry globally. A total of 76.6 GW was installed and connected
to the grid in 2016. That’s a 50% yearonyear growth over the 51.2 GW installed in 2015 and the third
highest rate recorded since 2010, though at much higher absolute levels. The 76.6 GW exactly coincides
with the upper end of the high scenario forecasted in the previous Global Market Outlook, due to a number
of markets exceeding expectations. In 2016, global solar power capacity exceeded 300 GW, after it took
the 200 GW mark the year before, and the 100 GW level in 2012. The total installed solar PV power
capacity increased 33% to 306.5 GW by the end of 2016, up from 229.9 GW in 2015.

1.1.2 Solar PV Scenario- India
Even though a late starter, India is installing solar power plants to reach the goal of achieving 100GW
capacity by 2022. India has the fifth largest power generation portfolio in the world and its current
renewable energy contribution stands at 44.812 GW which includes 27.441 GW of Wind power and 8.062
GW of Solar power installed capacity in the country (As on 31.07.2016).
 Overall Solar PV Installed capacity is 2.87 % mixed with Total Installed capacity of India October
2016 & 1.47% penetration in End Energy consumption
 Currently India is having 9 GW of installation capacity from Solar PV and is expected to grow by
5fold as MNRE GoI has set up the vertical moving target of 100 GW up to 2022.
 100 GW is divided into two major segments, 60 GW Ground mounted (Of which 20 GW is
Solar park) and 40 GW Rooftop (OPEX, Capex), Mini and Micro grid.
Figure 4: Year wise installed capacity (in MW)
(Source: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy)
 Leading states are Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka and other 23 states are having ~80% of total share in installation capacity from solar.
 Strong Project development/ Tender pipeline ~1920 GW by End to December 2016 where
78 GW is under development.
 CAGR of ~27.10% YoY has been observed from past 5 years and is expected to increase by 34.33%
YoY in next 56 years

Figure 5: Tendering status (in MW)
(Source: MNRE GW Implementation status)
 11068 MW is expected to be commissioned in Q4’ 201617 and Q1’ 201718

 1900 MW in Telangana, 1950 MW in Karnataka, 1395 MW in Andhra Pradesh, 910 MW in
Rajasthan, 570 MW in Madhya Pradesh, 550 MW in Punjab states are having largest execution
pipeline
 Third largest installed capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP)
 Ambitious target of 175 GW of renewable power by 2022 which will include 100 GW of Solar
power, 60 GW from wind power, 10 GW from biomass power and 5 GW from small hydro
power.
The government of India through Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is playing a proactive
role in promoting the adoption of renewable energy resources by offering various incentives such as
generationbased incentives (GBIs), capital and interest subsidies, viability gap funding (VGF),
concessional finance, fiscal incentives etc. The National Solar Mission aims to promote the development
and use of solar energy for power generation and other uses, with the ultimate objective of making solar
energy compete with fossilbased energy options. The objective of the National Solar Mission is to reduce
the cost of solar power generation in the country through longterm policy, large scale deployment goals,
aggressive R&D and the domestic production of critical raw materials, components and products. The
government has created a liberal environment for foreign investment in renewable energy projects. The
establishment of a dedicated financial institution – the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
(IREDA), makes for renewed impetus on the promotion, development and extension of financial assistance
for renewable energy and energy efficiency/conservation projects.

The Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) has being implemented in the country to create demand for
renewable energy. Under the Electricity Act 2003, the National Electricity Policy 2005 and the Tariff
Policy
2006, State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) are obligated to purchase a certain percentage of
power from renewable energy sources. The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) also plays
a facilitatory role.
Subsequent to the launch of the National Solar Mission, almost every state announced a solar specific
percentage as a part of the overall RPO. These are currently in the range of 0.25% to 0.5% and are expected
to go up to 3% by 2022 as envisaged in the Mission guidelines. These are complemented by solar‐sector
specific Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs).
1.1.3 Kerala Power Situation and Need for Solar Power
1.1.3.1 Power Scenario – Kerala
It is almost 60 years now since Kerala State Electricity Board (now Kerala State Electricity Board Ltd –
KSEBL) was set up to take care of the Electrical Energy requirements of the state. The installed capacity
has increased from 109 MW to 2845 MW by 2016. KSEBL is serving more than one crore customers with
a transmission network of more than 10400 circuit kilometers and distribution network of more than 272480
circuit kilometres.
Figure 6: KSEB Control Room
Until recent past, the hydroelectric plants owned by KSEBL supplied a major portion of the energy
requirements of the state. After the promulgation of Forest Conservation Act in 1980 there has been lot of
restrictions in setting up new hydroelectric plants and KSEBL had to turn to costlier thermal power plants
to support the energy demand.

Over the years, the consumption of the heavily subsidized domestic sector has been increasing and now it
accounts for more than 45% of the total consumption section of domestic consumers. This increase has
brought in a serious problem of raising the peak demand to almost double of the offpeak demand forcing
KSEBL to purchase energy from outside the state at a much higher rate compared to its own cost of
production. This is imposing heavy financial burden on KSEBL.
The peak load has touched up to 3604 MW during the summer in the past years.
Figure 7: Demand and Availability of Power in Kerala, India
(Source: MNRE GW Implementation status)
1.1.3.2 KSEB on Solar

KSEBL has stepped up its activities in the renewable energy sector in the recent years, the aggregate
installed capacities in the state reaching around 300MW. Roof top grid connected systems for domestic
consumers, commercial and industrial establishments, educational institutions, hospitals, etc. are being
promoted very actively in the state with the support of MNRE and ANERT.
Grid connected solar power plant of 28MW (being expanded to 40MW aggregate) at CIAL, floating solar
power plant of 500KW at Banasura Sagar Dam, etc. are some of the unique power installations in Kerala.

Role of KESB under Solar Policy 2013:
Figure 8: Role of KSEB under Solar Policy 2013

(Source: Kerala Solar Energy Policy 2013)
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR PV SYSTEMS
1.2.1 General
1.2.1.1 Schematic of a Grid Connected Solar PV System
Gridconnected photovoltaic system is an electricity generating solar PV system energized by

photovoltaic panels, and connected to utility grid. A grid connected PV system essentially consists of the
PV panels (modules), one or several solar inverters, a protections device for automatic shutdown in case
of a grid breakdown and a counter for the fed in solar electricity. They range from small residential and
commercial rooftop systems to large utilityscale solar power stations. When conditions are right, the
gridconnected PV system supplies the excess power, beyond consumption by the connected load, to the

utility grid. The "mainscommutated" inverter converts the direct current (DC) provided by the modules
to alternating current (AC), simultaneously synchronizing the AC output to the AC in the grid. The power
generating capacity of a photovoltaic system is denoted in kilowatt peak (measured at standard test
conditions and a solar irradiation of 1000 W per m²). As on today, PV modules requires an area between
610 m² per kWp.
Figure 9: Typical Scheme of Grid connected Solar PV System
The efficiency of the photovoltaic process is at its highest if the sun rays hit the panel vertically. Therefore,
PV modules should be oriented to south (speaking of the northern hemisphere) and somewhat inclined;
the optimal inclination angle depends on the location (including latitude, altitude and other factors).
(a) Definitions
 Solar Cell
A PV / Solar Cell is a semiconductor device that can convert solar energy into DC electricity
through the Photovoltaic Effect (Conversion of solar light energy into electrical energy). When
light shines on a PV / Solar Cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or passes right through. But only
the absorbed light generates electricity.

 Solar Modules
To increase their utility, many individual PV cells are interconnected together in a sealed,
weatherproof package called a Panel (Module). For example, a 12 V Panel (Module) will have 36
cells connected in series and a 24 V Panel (Module) will have 72 PV Cells connected in series.
 Array and String
To achieve the desired voltage and current, Modules are wired in series and parallel into what is
called a PV Array. Series combination of modules is also known as a string.
Figure 10: Cell, Module, Array
 Bypass Diode
If many cells are connected in series, shading of individual cells can lead to the destruction of the
shaded cell or of the lamination material, so the Panel (Module) may blister and burst.
Figure 11: Bypass diodes

To avoid such an operational condition, Bypass Diodes are connected antiparallel to the solar cells as in
the above figure. Consequently, larger voltage differences cannot arise in the reversecurrent direction of
the solar cells. In practice, it is sufficient to connect one bypass diode for every 1520 cells. Bypass diodes
also allow current to flow through the PV module when it is partially shaded, even if at a reduced voltage
and power. Bypass diodes do not cause any losses, because under normal operation, current does not flow
through them.
(b) Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves

It is the current and voltage ( IV ) characteristics of a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array
giving a detailed description of its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I
V characteristics (more importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s
output performance and solar efficiency.
The below graph shows currentvoltage ( IV ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell operating under
normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current and voltage (I x V). If the
multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from shortcircuit to opencircuit conditions, the
power curve is obtained for a given radiation level.
With the solar cell opencircuited, i.e. not connected to any load, the current will be at its minimum (zero)
and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc.
Figure 12: I-V Characteristic of Solar Cell

At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected
together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches
its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
The point at which the cell generates maximum electrical power (shown at the top right area of the green
rectangle) is the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore, the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or
panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point. The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is
positioned near the bend in the IV characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be
estimated from the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅
(0.85–0.95)Isc.
The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that the array can actually provide under
normal operating conditions and the product of the opencircuit voltage times the shortcircuit current, (
Voc x Isc ). This fill factor value gives an idea of the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to
1 (unity), the more power the array can provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.
(c) Solar Panel I-V Characteristic Curves

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel combinations, or both to
increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array panels are connected together in a
series combination, then the voltage increases and if connected together in parallel then the current
increases. The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still
be the product of the voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ). However, the solar panels are connected
together, the upper righthand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of the array.
Figure 13: I-V Characteristic of Solar Panels

(d) Effect of temperature and irradiance on V-I Characteristics of a cell
 With the increase in ambient temperature, Voc of the cell reduces, whereas Isc remains constant.
Figure 14: Effect of Temperature on VI Characteristics
 With the increase in irradiance, Isc increases drastically, whereas Voc reduces by small amount
(almost constant).
Figure 15: Effect of Irradiance on VI Characteristics
(e) Effect of shading on Solar PV Modules

Performance of a series connected string of solar cells is adversely affected if all its cells are not equally
illuminated (partially shaded). In a solar array spread over vast area, it is likely that shadow may fall over
some of its cells due to tree leaves falling over it, birds or bird litters on the array, shade of a neighbouring
construction etc. In a series connected string of cells, all the cells carry the same current. Even though a

few cells under shade produce less photon current but these cells are also forced to carry the same current
as the other fully illuminated cells. The shaded cells may get reverse biased, acting as loads, draining power
from fully illuminated cells. If the system is not appropriately protected, hotspot problem can arise and in
several cases, the system can be irreversibly damaged.
A shadow falling on a group of cells will reduce the total output by two mechanisms:
o By reducing the energy input to the cell

o By increasing energy losses in the shaded cells.
Problems become more serious when shaded cells get reverse biased. Power dissipation in the shaded cell
may be substantial leading to increase in its temperature. Due to increased temperature, the cell current gets
concentrated in an increasingly small region of the cell, producing the hot spot. This can damage the cell
encapsulation and eventually produce module failure.
Figure 16: Shading of panels due to chimney and nearby roof
(f) Solar PV Test Equipment

 Pyranometer
A type of actinometer used to measure broadband and solar irradiance on a planar surface. It is a
sensor designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (in watts per metre square) for a field
of view of 180 degrees.

Figure 17: Typical modern pyranometer (secondary standard model SR20)
 Pyrheliometer
It measures direct solar irradiance and is used with solar tracking system to keep the instrument
aimed at the sun.
Figure 18: Typical pyrheliometer, for measurement of direct solar radiation
 Lux Meter
Lux is a measurement of the overall intensity of light within an environment for any given area or
distance from the source. A lux meter is a device for measuring brightness in lux, fc or cd/m². It
works by using a photo cell to capture light. The meter then converts this light to an electrical
current. Measuring this current allows the device to calculate the lux value of the light it captured.
Figure 19: Lux Meter

 Thermographic Camera
A thermographic camera (also called an infrared camera or thermal imaging camera) is a device
that forms an image using infrared radiation, similar to a common camera that forms an image
using visible light. Instead of the 400–700 nanometre range of the visible light camera, infrared
cameras operate in wavelengths as long as 14,000 nm (14 µm). Their use is called thermography.
Figure 20: Thermographic Camera
(g) Solar Radiation
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the electromagnetic radiation emitted
by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and
electricity, using a variety of technologies. However, the technical feasibility and economical operation of
these technologies at a specific location depends on the available solar resource.
 Basic Principles
Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation
that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to Geographic location, Time of
day, Season, Local landscape and Local weather.
Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° (just
above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface
gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the
atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar
Regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun
at all during part of the year.

Figure 21: Solar Radiation
The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the sun during part of the
year. When the sun is nearer the Earth, the Earth's surface receives a little more solar energy. The
Earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern
hemisphere. However, the presence of vast oceans moderates the hotter summers and colder
winters one would expect to see in the southern hemisphere as a result of this difference.
The 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis of rotation is a more significant factor in determining the amount
of sunlight striking the Earth at a particular location. Tilting results in longer days in the northern
hemisphere from the spring (vernal) equinox to the fall (autumnal) equinox and longer days in the
southern hemisphere during the other 6 months. Days and nights are both exactly 12 hours long on
the equinoxes, which occur each year on or around March 23 and September 22.
 Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation

As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by Air
molecules, Water vapour, Clouds, Dust, Pollutants, Forest fires, Volcanoes, etc. This is
called diffuse solar radiation.
The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam
solar radiation.
The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar radiation.
Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10% on clear, dry days and by 100%
during thick, cloudy days.

 Measurement
Scientists measure the amount of sunlight falling on specific locations at different times of the year.
They then estimate the amount of sunlight falling on regions at the same latitude with similar climates.
Measurements of solar energy are typically expressed as total radiation on a horizontal surface, or as
total radiation on a surface tracking the sun.
Radiation data for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems are often represented as kilowatthours per
square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may also be expressed as watts per square
meter (W/m2).
1.2.1.2 Solar Resource Assessment

Solar radiation is the main input and resource for solar energy systems. The availability of radiation directly
determines the revenue of solar energy power plants. Knowledge of this resource is crucial to determine
economic viability. The direct normal irradiance is the amount of solar radiation received directly from the
Sun, falling on a plane perpendicular to the direction of the Sun. It can be used for electricity generation
via concentrating solar thermal power plants or concentrated PV. Direct irradiance has the advantage that
it can be concentrated with mirrors to reach high temperature or high radiative flux. The disadvantage is
that it is only available during clear sky. Therefore, energy systems that use direct irradiance is only possible
in sunny regions where clear sky conditions are prevalent.
(a) Availability of Resource Data

Quite a few data sets for meteorological analysis are available worldwide. These datasets provide
information pertaining to Solar Irradiation, Wind and Temperature etc. These data sources are free as well
as licensed and can be accessed by subscription. These datasets either make use of ground based
measurements at well controlled meteorological stations or use processed satellite imagery.
Actual ground data is not always available but derived data is available at NASA, METEONORM,
GeoModel and IMD.
 NASA's Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy data set: Surface Meteorological and Solar
Energy Program hold satellite monthly data for a grid of 1°x1° (111 km) covering the whole world,
for 22 years (19832005) period, using over 200 satellites and about 1100 ground stations.
 The Meteonorm Global Climatological Database and Synthetic Weather Generator: This
contains a database of ground station measurements of irradiation, temperature, etc. Where a site
is over 193km from the nearest measurement station it provides an output of climatologic averages

estimated using interpolation algorithms. Where no radiation measurement station is available
within 300km from the site, satellite information is used. If the site is between 50 and 300km from
a measurement station a mixture of ground and satellite information is used. Monthly irradiance
data is available from about 1700 stations as average for the period.
 GeoModel: GeoModel Solar operates highresolution meteorological database SolarGIS. Solar

radiation data is available for more regions of Europe, Africa, Asia, West Australia, and North and
South America. Solar radiation is calculated by numerical models, which are parameterized by a
set of inputs characterizing the cloud transmittance, state of the atmosphere and terrain conditions.
Spatial resolution of satellite data used in SolarGIS is about 4 x 5 km at midlatitudes (3 km at sub
satellite point) and the time step is 15 and 30 minutes.
 IMD- India Meteorological Department

To take meteorological observations and to provide current and forecast meteorological
information for optimum operation of weathersensitive activities like agriculture, irrigation,
shipping, aviation, offshore oil explorations, etc.
To warn against severe weather phenomena like tropical cyclones, nor’westers, dust storms, heavy
rains and snow, cold and heat waves, etc., which cause destruction of life and property. To provide
meteorological statistics required for agriculture, water resource management, industries, oil
exploration and other nationbuilding activities.
1.2.1.3 Earth Sun Angles

(a) Elevation (or altitude) angle (h)
The elevation angle (used interchangeably with altitude angle) is the angular height of the sun in the sky
measured from the horizontal. The elevation is 0° at sunrise and 90° when the sun is directly overhead.
Figure 22: Earth’s Sun Angles
(Source: Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division)

(b) Zenith Angle (z)
The zenith angle is the angle between the sun and the vertical. The zenith angle is similar to the elevation
angle but it is measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal, thus making the zenith angle =
90° elevation.
Z = 90° − h
Where, Z – Zenith angle,
h – Elevation or altitude angle
Figure 23: Zenith Angle
(Source: PV Education)
(c) Azimuth Angle
The azimuth angle is measured clockwise on the horizontal plane, from the northpointing coordinate axis
to the projection of the sun’s central ray.
Figure 24: Azimuth Angle
(Source: PV Education)
(d) Declination Angle
The declination of the sun is the angle between the equator and a line drawn from the centre of the Earth to
the centre of the sun. The declination angle, denoted by δ, varies seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth on

its axis of rotation and the rotation of the Earth around the sun. The declination angle can be calculated by
the equation:
δ=23.45°sin [(360/365) * (d81)]
(Source: Renewable and efficient electric power systems Gilbert M. Masters)
Where, d is the day of the year with Jan 1 as d = 1.
1.2.1.4 Tilt Angle

It is the angle, between array and horizontal surface, which gives maximum solar irradiation. Solar panels
should always face true south in the northern hemisphere, or true north in the southern hemisphere. This
shall give maximum incidence of sunlight on the solar modules.
Figure 25: Tilt Angle
To get the most from solar panels, they should be pointed in the direction that captures the most sun. But
there are a number of variables in figuring out the best direction. Panel can be fixed, or can be erected to
an adjustable tilt that can be adjusted seasonally. (Panels that track the movement of the sun throughout the
day can receive 10% (in winter) to 40% (in summer) more energy than fixed panels.
True north is not the same as magnetic north. While using a compass to orient the panels, correction for the
difference should be made, which varies from place to place.
The next question is, at what angle from horizontal should the panels be tilted? Books and articles on solar
energy often give the advice that the tilt should be equal to the latitude, plus 15 degrees in winter or minus
15 degrees in summer.
The graph below shows the effect of adjusting the tilt. The violet line is the amount of solar energy you
would get each day if the panel is fixed at the winter angle. The turquoise line shows the energy per day if
the panel is fixed at the full year angle. The red line shows how much you would get by adjusting the tilt
four times a year as described above. For comparison, the green line shows the energy you would get from

twoaxis tracking, which always points the panel directly at the sun. These figures are calculated for 40°
latitude.
Figure 26: Effect of adjusting the Tilt Angle

(Source: http://www.solarpaneltilt.com/)
1.2.2 TECHNOLOGIES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS
Over the past three decades SPV technology has shown impressive growth towards technological and
economic maturity. Types of SPV technologies based on materials used are:
 First Generation PV Technologies Crystalline Silicon based
 SecondGeneration PV Technologies Thin film based
 ThirdGeneration PV Technologies include technologies, such as concentrating PV (CPV) and
organic PV cells that are still under demonstration or have not yet been widely commercialized, as
well as novel concepts under development.
1.2.2.1 First Generation PV Technologies Crystalline Silicon based Technology

Crystalline silicon is the material most commonly used in the PV industry, and waferbased cSi PV cells
and modules dominate the current market. The manufacturing process of waferbased silicon PV modules
comprises four steps:
Polysilicon production > Ingot/wafer production > Cell production > Module assembly
Crystalline silicon cells are classified into three main types depending on how the Si wafers are made. They
are:

 Monocrystalline (Mono cSi) sometimes also called single crystalline (scSi);
 Polycrystalline (Poly cSi), sometimes referred to as multicrystalline (mcSi); and
 EFG ribbon silicon and silicon sheetdefined film growth (EFG ribbonsheet cSi)
(e) Monocrystalline (Mono c-Si) Silicon Cell Technology
Nearly 80% of the solar cells manufactured all over the world are fabricated using crystalline silicon. These
have been used as semi–conductors almost over the last hundred years in diodes, ICs etc. It is because of
its wide availability as a raw material for the electronics industry.
Figure 27: Monocrystalline Silicon Module
The raw material for the process is silicon oxide (SiO2) available either in the form of quartz sand or
converted into metallurgical grade silicon (MgSi) in a furnace through a reduction process using coal. MgSi
contains 98% Si and 2% impurities. In a chemical process called Chemical Vapour Deposition, silicon
nuggets are produced. This is by making SiO2 react with Hydrogen and Chlorine. The silicon nuggets are
melted in a crucible and using the Czochralski method, in a Crystal Puller, Silicon ingots are produced. The
ingots are cut by wire saw into wafers of 200–250 micron thick which is both expensive and wasteful of
silicon material. In the crystal pulling process, accurate temperature control – within ± 0.1°C of a melt at
1420°C – in an inert environment is required. After cutting, grinding and polishing – all labour intensive –
the wafers are put through a gaseous diffusion process involving the bonding of another material.
Efficiencies of more than 23% have been obtained with silicon cells in the laboratory but on commercial
basis it is around 14–15%. Best commercial modules presently have efficiencies of around 1520%.
Some of the leading manufacturers of monocrystalline modules are:

 JA Solar, China
 BHEL, India
 Sun Power, USA
 Canadian Solar, Canada
(f) Poly Crystalline (Poly c-Si) Silicon Cell Technology
As one does not require silicon with such purity levels, as required for manufacturing of semiconductors
for solar PV, many firms have developed methods to produce polycrystalline silicon blocks which can be
used for cell manufacturing. The silicon purification process (CVD) and crystal growing process (both
highly energy intensive) are eliminated in multicrystalline process. Scrap silicon (of low purity) is used
here for a process called ‘casting’, done in furnaces, to produce slabs of silicon which is then sliced into
wafers (similar to Monocrystalline) for subsequent processes. Reported efficiencies are of the order of 13
16%., marginally lower than ‘Monocrystalline’ at the commercial level.
Some of the factors in favour of multicrystalline modules are:
 Reduced wastage of silicon

 Reduced electricity consumption
 Efficiency at closer levels of Monocrystalline
Figure 28: Polycrystalline Silicon Module
Some of the leading manufacturers of polycrystalline modules are:
 Vikram Solar, India

 Trina Solar, China

 Astronergy, China
 EMMVEE Solar, India
 Yingli Solar, China
 Canadian Solar, Canada
1.2.2.2 SecondGeneration PV Technologies Thin Film Solar Cells

A thinfilm solar cell (TFSC), also called a thinfilm photovoltaic cell (TFPV), is a solar cell that is made
by depositing one or more thin layers (thin film) of photovoltaic material on a substrate. The thickness
range of such a layer is wide and varies from a few nanometres to tens of micrometres.
The various thinfilm technologies currently being developed reduce the amount (or mass) of light
absorbing material required in creating a solar cell. Compared with Crystalline Technology, the efficiency
of these cells is lower (7% 13%), but this is compensated by lower production costs. BIPV (Building
Integrated Photovoltaic) module efficiency is lower as BIPV modules normally are made of thin film which
have lower efficiency.
Figure 29: Thin film module
They have become popular compared to wafer silicon due to lower costs.
The Thin Film Modules can be further distinguished by the type of semiconductor layer:
 Amorphous silicon (aSi)

 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)

 CopperIndium/GalliumDiselenide/Disulphide (CIS, CIGS)
 Multijunction cells (aSi/mSi)
(a) Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
Unlike in crystalline cells, atoms are arranged in a haphazard manner in a–Si modules. It became a good
candidate for solar cells after it was found that it can absorb almost 40 times more light than monocrystalline
silicon. Therefore, solar cells made of amorphous silicon could be very thin (= 1 μm) and thus fabrication
material required is very less.
Main advantages of a–Si modules are as follows:
 High optical absorption

 Larger band gap
 Less material consumption
 Low energy consumption during manufacture
 Possibility of automation of the manufacturing process
Disadvantages are the following:
 Low stabilized efficiency; highest lab efficiency of a–Si cells is about 13.5% commercial level is
about 7%.
 Light induced degradation is another disadvantage which reduces the power output till stabilization.
It is customary, therefore, for a–Si manufacturer to supply higher wattage modules initially.
Some of the leading manufacturers of aSi thinfilm modules are:
 Sharp Solar, Japan

 NexPower, Taiwan
(b) Cadmium telluride solar cell
A cadmium telluride solar cell uses a cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film, a semiconductor layer to absorb
and convert sunlight into electricity. The cadmium present in the cells would be toxic if released. However,
release is impossible during normal operation of the cells and is unlikely during ﬁres in residential roofs. A
square meter of CdTe contains approximately the same amount of Cd as a single cell Nickelcadmium
battery, in a more stable and less soluble form. The first solar cell based on CdTe/CdS has been reported in

1972 with an efficiency of 6%. Since then significant improvement has been made in the cell and highest
efficiency of 16.5% has been reported.
The interest in CdTe arises due to suitable optical properties. It is a direct band gap semiconductor having
high absorption coefficient and can be produced using lowcost techniques.
First Solar, USA, is the major manufacturer of CdTe modules in the world.
(c) Copper-Indium Selenide
CIS films (no Ga) achieved greater than 14% efficiency. However, manufacturing costs of CIS solar cells
at present are high when compared with amorphous silicon solar cells but continuing work is leading to
more costeffective production processes.
The use of gallium increases the optical band gap of the CIGS layer as compared to pure CIS, thus
increasing the opencircuit voltage, but decreasing the short circuit current. In another point of view,
gallium is added to replace indium due to gallium’s relative availability to indium.
Solar Frontier, of Japan, is the major manufacturer of CIS modules in the world.
1.2.2.3 ThirdGeneration Solar Power Technologies

Thirdgeneration PV technologies are beginning to be commercialized, but it remains to be seen how
successful they will be in taking market share from existing technologies. There are four types of third
generation PV technologies:
 Concentrating SP (CSP);
 Dyesensitized solar cells (DSSC);
 Organic solar cells; and
 Novel and emerging solar cell concepts.
(a) Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
Concentrating SP (CSP) systems utilize optical devices, such as lenses or mirrors, to concentrate direct
solar radiation onto very small, highly efficient multijunction solar cells made of a semiconductor material.
The sunlight concentration factor ranges from 2 to 100 suns (low to mediumconcentration) up to 1 000
suns (high concentration). To be effective, the lenses need to be permanently oriented towards the sun,
using a single or doubleaxis tracking system for low and high concentrations, respectively. Cooling
systems (active or passive) are needed for some concentrating PV designs, while other novel approaches

can get round this need. CSP technology utilizes three alternative technological approaches: trough systems,
power tower systems, and dish/engine systems.
Figure 30: Parabolic Trough System
Low to mediumconcentration systems (up to 100 suns) can be combined with silicon solar cells, but higher
temperatures will reduce their efficiency, while high concentration systems (beyond 500 suns) are usually
associated with multijunction solar cells made by semiconductor compounds from groups III and V of the
periodic table (e.g. gallium arsenide), which offer the highest PV conversion efficiency. Multijunction
(either ‘tandem’ or ‘triple’ junction) solar cells consist of a stack of layered p–n junctions, each made from
a distinct set of semiconductors, with different band gap and spectral absorption to absorb as much of the
solar spectrum as possible. Most commonly employed materials are Ge (0.67 eV), GaAs or InGaAs (1.4
eV), and InGaP (1.85 eV). A triplejunction cell with band gaps of 0.74, 1.2 and 1.8 eV would reach a
theoretical efficiency of 59%. Given their complexity and costs, multijunctions are used for smallarea
solar cells with high sunlight concentration or in space applications (Nature Photonics, 2010).
Figure 31: Power tower system

Commercial CPV modules with siliconbased cells offer efficiency in the range of 20% to 25%. CPV based
on multijunction solar cells using IIIV semiconductors have achieved laboratory efficiency of more than
40%. To maximize the electricity generation, CPV modules need to be permanently oriented towards the
sun, using a single or doubleaxis suntracking system.
Figure 32: Solar dish-engine system
(b) Dye-sensitized solar cells
Dyesensitized solar cells use photoelectrochemical solar cells, which are based on semiconductor
structures formed between a photosensitized anode and an electrolyte. In a typical DSSC, the
semiconductor Nano crystals serve as antennae that harvest the sunlight (photons) and the dye molecule is
responsible for the charge separation (photocurrent). These cells are attractive because they use lowcost
materials and are simple to manufacture. They release electrons from, for example, titanium dioxide
covered by a lightabsorbing pigment. However, their performance can degrade over time with exposure to
UV light and the use of a liquid electrolyte can be problematic when there is a risk of freezing.
Laboratory efficiencies of around 12% have been achieved due to the development of new broadband dyes
and electrolytes (Grätzel, 2009), however, commercial efficiencies are low typically under 4% to 5%. The
main reason why efficiencies of DSSC are low is because there are very few dyes that can absorb a broad
spectral range. An interesting area of research is the use of nanocrystalline semiconductors that can allow
DSSCs to have a broad spectral coverage. Thousands of organic dyes have been studied and tested in order
to design, synthesize and assemble nanostructured materials that will allow higher power conversion
efficiencies for DSSCs.

(c) Organic/polymer solar cells
Organic solar cells are composed of organic or polymer materials (such as organic polymers or small
organic molecules). They are inexpensive, but not very efficient. They are emerging as a niche technology,
but their future development is not clear. Their success in recent years has been due to many significant
improvements that have led to higher efficiencies. Organic PV module efficiencies are now in the range
4% to 5% for commercial systems and 6% to 8% in the laboratory (OrgaPVnet, 2009).
The modules can be fixed almost anywhere to anything, or they can be incorporated into the housing of a
device. They can also be rolled up or folded for storage when not in use. These properties will make organic
PV modules attractive for buildingintegrated applications as it will expand the range of shapes and forms
where PV systems can be applied. Another advantage is that the technology uses abundant, nontoxic
materials and is based on a very scalable production process with high productivity.
(d) Novel and emerging solar cell concepts
There are a number of novel solar cell technologies under development that rely on using quantum
dots/wires, quantum wells, or super lattice technologies (Nozik, 2011 and Raffaelle, 2011). These
technologies are likely to be used in concentrating PV technologies where they could achieve very high
efficiencies by overcoming the thermodynamic limitations of conventional (crystalline) cells. However,
these high efficiency approaches are in the fundamental materials research phase. Furthest from the market
are the novel concepts, often incorporating enabling technologies such as nanotechnology, which aim to
modify the active layer to better match the solar spectrum (Leung, 2011).

1.2.2.4 Comparison between Monocrystalline, polycrystalline and thin film module
The comparison between different technologies as given in following Table 1:
Table 1: Comparison between Monocrystalline, Polycrystalline and Thin Film module
1.2.2.5 Brief Description of Datasheet parameters of PV Modules
Specimen datasheet parameters of PV Module have been listed below in the Table: 2.
Table 2: Datasheet Parameters for PV Module
ELECTRICAL DATA (STC)
Peak Power Watts-PMAX(Wp) 305
Power Output Tolerance-PMAX(W) 0~5
Maximum Power Voltage-VMPP(V) 36.6
Maximum Power Current-IMPP(A) 8.33
Open Circuit Voltage-VOC(V) 45.5
Short Circuit Current-ISC(A) 8.81
Module Efficiency ηm(%) 15.7
ELECTRICAL DATA (NOCT)

Maximum Power-PMAX(Wp) 227
Maximum Power Voltage-VMPP(V) 34
Maximum Power Current-IMPP(A) 6.68
Open Circuit Voltage-VOC(V) 42.2
Short Circuit Current-ISC(A) 7.11
MECHANICAL DATA
Solar cells Multicrystalline 156 × 156 mm (6 inches)
Cell orientation 72 cells (6 × 12)
Module dimensions 1956 × 992 × 40 mm(77.0 × 39.1 × 1.6 inches)
Weight 22.5 kg (50 lb)
Glass 3.2 mm,High Transmission, AR Coated Tempered Glass
Backsheet White
Frame Silver Anodized Aluminium Alloy
J-Box IP 65 or IP 67 rated
Cables Photovoltaic Technology cable 4.0mm² (0.006 inches²),

1200mm (47.2 inches)
Connector UTX Amphenol
Fire Type Type 1 or 2
TEMPERATURE RATINGS
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature 44°C (±2°C)

(NOCT)
Temperature Coefficient of PMAX - 0.41%/°C
Temperature Coefficient of VOC - 0.32%/°C
Temperature Coefficient of ISC 0.05%/°C
MAXIMUM RATINGS
Operational Temperature -40~+85°C
Maximum System Voltage 1000VDC (IEC), 1000VDC(UL)
Max Series Fuse Rating 15A

(a) Electrical Data
 I-V Curve
Standard test conditions (STC) are the conditions under which a manufacturer tests module:
1,000 W per m2 irradiance, 25°C (77°F) cell temperature, and 1.5 air mass index.
An IV curve (currentvoltage) curve is generated at STC for every cell and module manufactured.
The IV curve contains five significant data points, Pmax, Vmp, Voc, Imp, and Isc, which are used
for system design, troubleshooting, and module comparisons. IV curves can also be diagrammed
for any operating temperature and irradiance level, but the points listed on a module specification
sheet and those printed on the back of the module are at STC unless otherwise stated.
 Peak Power (Pmax or Pmp)

The specified maximum wattage of a module, the maximum power point (Pmax), sits at the
“knee” of the IV curve, and represents the product of the maximum power voltage (Vmp) and
the maximum power current (Imp). This wattage is produced only under a very specific set of
operating conditions, and real environmental conditions (changing irradiance and cell
temperature) will alter a module’s Pmax.
 Vmp
At STC and tested under load, voltage at max power (Vmp) is the highest operating voltage a
module will produce. Vmp, adjusted for highest operating cell temperature, is used to calculate the
minimum number of modules in series.
 Voc
Opencircuit voltage (Voc) occurs when the module is not connected to a load. No current can flow
in an open circuit and, as a result, Voc occurs at the point on the IV curve where current is zero,
and voltage is at its highest.
Voc is used to calculate the maximum number of modules in a series string. Because voltage rises
as the temperature drops, calculations are performed for the coldest expected operating conditions.
This ensures that NEC parameters and equipment voltage limitations are not exceeded.
 Imp
At STC, and tested under load, the maximum power current (Imp)is the highest amperage a module
can produce. Imp is used in voltage drop calculations when determining wire gauge for PV circuits.
This is a design consideration rather than an NEC ampacity calculation, for minimizing voltage
drop and maximizing array output.

 Isc
Shortcircuit current (Isc) is the maximum amperage that the module can produce. There is no
voltage when a module is shortcircuited, and thus no power. Isc is the measurement used to size
conductors and overcurrent protection, with safety factors as required by the NEC.
 NOCT
Frequently, nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) specifications are also listed on a
manufacturer’s sheet. These are measurements calculated at different conditions than STC, using a
lower sunlight intensity (800 W per m2); an ambient temperature of 20ºC; and a wind speed of 1
meter per second; with the module tilted at 45°. The NOCT value itself is the cell temperature—
given in degrees Celsius—reached under these conditions. NOCT values are used to
mathematically calculate other test condition data points without resorting to further laboratory
tests. NOCT conditions tend to more closely resemble the field conditions PV arrays generally
operate in, and so give a perspective on “realworld” module operation.
(b) Other Electrical Parameters
 Power Tolerance
Power tolerance is the range within which a module manufacturer is stating the module can
deviate from its STCrated Pmax, and thus what the manufacturer warranty covers. Common
values are +/5%, 0%/+5, and up to +/10%. Eg. A 200watt module with a +/5% power
tolerance could produce a measured output of 190 to 210 W.
 Module Efficiency & Cell Efficiency

Efficiency is the measure of electrical power output divided by solar input. At STC, power in is
equal to 1,000 W per m2 and power out is the rated Pmax point. The typical crystalline efficiency
range spans 12% to 15%, but there are highefficiency modules over 19%, and amorphous silicon
modules on the low end with efficiencies around 6% or 7%.
Cell efficiencies will be slightly higher than module efficiencies because there is usually a small
amount of empty space between cells.
 Temperature Coefficient
Modules are directly affected by both irradiance and temperature, and because of environmental
fluctuations, also experience power output fluctuations. When exposed to full sun, the cells will
reach temperatures above the STC temperature of 25°C. And sometimes cell temperatures are
lower than 25°C, such as on cold winter days.

Temperature coefficients are used to mathematically determine the power, current, or voltage a
module will produce at various temperatures deviating from the STC values.
The temperature coefficient of opencircuit voltage is used to figure out the PV array’s maximum
system voltage at a site’s lowest expected temperatures. The temperature coefficient of power can
be used along with pyranometermeasured irradiance to calculate the power an array should be
producing, which can be compared to actual output to verify proper performance.
(c) Maximum Ratings
 Maximum System Voltage

Maximum system voltage is calculated using the Voc at coldest expected temperatures so as not
to exceed the NEC limit and any limits imposed by the ratings of inverters, disconnects, or
conductors.
 Maximum Series Fuse Rating
This is the maximum current a module is designed to carry through the cells and conductors
without damage. While modules themselves are currentlimited, excess current can come from
other sources (series strings) in parallel, or from other equipment in the system such as some
inverters or charge controllers. A fuse or breaker for a series string must be no larger than the
maximum series fuse specification.
(d) Mechanical & General
 Dimensions
Given in inches and/or millimetres, a module’s size determines how many can fit in a given space,
whether on a roof or on a ground or polemount. If rack information is also known, the number of
rows and each row length can be determined, based on the space intermodule clips add between
modules (typically 1/2 to 1inch per gap). Many manufacturers will also diagram the appropriate
rail positioning for their modules, such as how much of the module can overhang the rails, and
whether rails can cross the module in a landscape or portrait orientation or both. Be sure to follow
the complete manufacturer’s instructions, as required by the National Electrical Code [110.3(B)].
 Area
The area of a module is useful for checking power density. The total module area can be used along
with sitespecific data to calculate wind uplift forces and thus lag bolt requirements, or to calculate
weight loading on a structure.
 Thickness
The frame thickness determines what rack components to use, like slipin racks, or the required

size of end and intermodule clips. Typically, thicker frames result in sturdier, although heavier,
modules.
 Weight
Most permitting authorities will ask for basic structural engineering data for roofmounted PV
arrays, and there will be a limit to the weight that can be added to a roof structure. Module weight,
rack weight, and engineering data will restrict the quantity of PV modules that can be installed.
Crystalline, glazed modules with plastic back sheets typically weigh about 3 pounds per square
foot.
 Cells
Cells will be either monocrystalline, polycrystalline, ribbon silicon, thinfilm, or even multiple
silicon layers, such as with Sanyo’s HIT module. Electrical characteristics, efficiencies, and
appearance vary by cell type.
Modules can have variable numbers of cells (usually between 36 and 108), with each crystalline
cell operating at around 0.5 VDC, wired in series or seriesparallel configurations. For example, a
72cell module with all cells in series will operate at a voltage of about 36 volts. But a 72cell
module with two series strings of 36 cells paralleled will operate at about 18 V, perfect for charging
a 12 V battery.
 Cell Dimensions
While all crystalline PV cells operate near 0.5 volts per cell, the diameter of the cell (normally 5
or 6 inches) will partially determine the current output of the cell, with larger cells producing
higher current.
 Glazing
Most crystalline modules use lowiron, hightransparency tempered glass with an antireflection
surface treatment. Lowiron glass has high clarity, and tempered glass shatters into small fragments,
instead of sharp shards, if broken. Modules are strenuously tested for weight loading and impact
resistance, and the front glazing of a module is extremely durable. Thinfilm modules may use a
polymer film (plastic) as the front sheet, which is designed for arrays in highimpact environments.
 Backsheet
Most crystalline modules have a plastic backing material that seals the cells against environmental
infiltration. The most common material is Tedlar, a polyvinyl fluoride film. This back sheet is the
fragile underbelly of the module, and care must be taken not to scratch it.

Some crystalline modules have a glass backing (such as bifacial modules that can also utilize light
reflected to the back side). Thinfilm modules have a wider range of backings, including glass,
stainless steel, and varieties of tough plastic polymers.
 Encapsulation
A glue laminate, such as ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), is used to seal and protect the back and
front of cells within the module glazing and back sheet.
 Frame
Most crystalline modules have anodized aluminium frames, with clearcoated aluminium and black
being the most commonly available colors. But some crystalline modules are frameless with a glass
front and back, similar to the technique used for many thinfilm modules.
 Connectors
The module lead’s connector type is important. The old standard—MultiContact (MC) 4—has
been joined by Tyco, Radox, Amphenol, and others. The 2011 NEC mandates that these connectors
be touchsafe and, for circuits greater than 30 volts, require a tool for opening. Most of these
connectors are not crosscompatible, so mixing modules will require properly mating connectors,
as well as for wire runs to combiner or passthrough boxes.
Factoryinstalled module leads will be listed in the spec sheet with wire size, insulation type, and
length of the leads (positive and negative leads are not always the same length). Wire diameter
generally ranges from 14 AWG to 10 AWG; or they may be listed in square millimetres (mm2).
For lowvoltage systems, less power will be lost to voltage drop if using modules with heavier
gauge wire.
Insulation type on the conductors may be a single listing, such as PV wire, or have multiple cross
listings, including USE2, RHW2, XHHW2, and/or PV wire. All factoryinstalled module lead
insulation types are tested to be sunlightresistant and flexible at low temperatures, and are heavily
or even doubleinsulated for installation in extreme outdoor environments. However tough these
single conductor leads may be, they still must be protected in a raceway when they leave the vicinity
of the array.
 Junction Box
A junction box is factoryinstalled on the back of modules for the connections. Many are sealed
and inaccessible to the end user. If it is specified as fieldserviceable, the junction box can be
opened, and leads and bypass diodes can be installed or replaced. For arrays that are readily
accessible (for example, a groundmounted array), fieldaccessible and conduitready junction

boxes can allow for fittings and protective raceways to be installed and meet NEC 690.31(A)
code requirements for accessible arrays.
Figure 33: Characteristics of a solar module
1.2.3 PV INVERTER TECHNOLOGY

Inverters play a crucial role in any solar energy system. An inverter’s basic function is to “invert” the direct
current (DC) output of the PV modules into alternating current (AC). AC is the standard used by all
commercial appliances, which is why many view inverters as the “gateway” between the photovoltaic (PV)
system and the energy offtaker.
Inverter technologies have advanced significantly, such that in addition to converting DC to AC, it provide
a number of other capabilities and services to ensure that the inverter can operate at an optimal performance
level, such as data monitoring, advanced utility controls, applications and system design engineering.
Inverter manufacturers also provide postinstallation services that are integral to maintaining energy
production and a high level of performance for the project, including preventative maintenance, O&M
services and a quick mean time to repair (MTTR)
1.2.3.1 PV Inverter Types

(a) Micro-inverters
A solar microinverter, or simply micro inverter, is a device used in photovoltaic that converts direct current
(DC) generated by a single solar module to alternating current (AC). The output from several micro
inverters is combined and often fed to the electrical grid. Micro inverters contrast with conventional string
and central solar inverters, which are connected to multiple solar modules or panels of the PV system.
Micro inverters have several advantages over conventional inverters. The main advantage is that small
amounts of shading, debris or snow lines on any one solar module, or even a complete module failure, do

not disproportionately reduce the output of the entire array. Each micro inverter harvests optimum power
by performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for its connected module. Simplicity in system
design, lower amperage wires, simplified stock management, and added safety are other factors introduced
with the micro inverter solution.
(b) String-inverters
A string inverter is the type most commonly used in home and commercial solar PV power systems. It is a
box that is often suspended on the module mounting structure. Depending on the size of installations,
number of strings are connected to the inverter.
(c) Hybrid inverter

The function of a smartgrid is to enable selection and orientation of renewable energy, the energy extracted
from the grid and energy stored based on consumption. Unlike conventional inverters, rather than
systematically storing energy in batteries (with significant loss of yield >20%), hybrid inverters store
energy only when necessary, i.e. when there is more production in the PV System than consumption on a
load. This system also allows choosing whether electricity from photovoltaic panels should be stored or
consumed through an internal intelligent apparatus control unit. This is possible through a technique that
adds different energy sources (phase coupling: ongrid or gridtie techniques) and the management of stored
electricity in the battery (off grid technology). Hybrid inverters therefore operate on grid tie as well as off
grid, both ongrid and offgrid at the same time and Backup.
(d) Central Inverters

Central inverters are designed for applications such as large PV arrays installed on buildings, industrial
facilities as well as groundmounted.

Outdoor Inverters (Central) Hybrid Inverter
String Inverter Micro Inverter
Figure 34: Types of Solar inverters
1.2.3.2 PV Inverter Selection Criteria

This section highlights some of the important selection criteria for PV inverters.
(a) DC input voltage range

The DC input voltage range of the inverter must be compatible to the voltage of connected number of
strings PV System. The inverter datasheet will specify the minimum and maximum operating PV array DC
voltages. Number of modules in series should collectively have the dc voltage compactible to inverter dc
voltage range.
(b) AC output voltage

The AC output voltage of the inverter must be match the Load/grid voltage.
(c) Inverter efficiency

A key performance metric of PV inverters is their efficiency. This is the measure of the amount of power
delivered to the load by the amount of power taken from the PV array. The lost energy is not delivered to
the load, as the extra power delivered by the PV array to the load will be clamped by the inverter itself.
Having a high efficiency inverter increases the amount of energy sent to the load/utility.
(d) Reliability
Historically, inverter issues are the largest contributor to lost energy from a PV system. Evaluating the
reliability of a PV inverter involves communication with the manufacturer and reviewing historical
information.

(e) Housing and protection from environmental conditions
An important consideration in selecting an inverter for a specific project is that it must be designed for the
environmental conditions that it will experience. This includes factors such as the ambient temperature
range exposure to precipitation; and the presence of contaminants such as dust, sand, or chemicals. It should
be confirmed that the environmental specifications of the inverter have sufficient safety margin.
1.2.4 Types of Rooftop Solar Photo Voltaic System

The Solar PV System mainly divided into two categories.
 Grid connected Rooftop system.

 Off Grid Solar Rooftop System
1.2.4.1 Grid connected Rooftop Solar PV system

Gridconnected photovoltaic power systems are power systems energized by photovoltaic panels which are
connected to the utility grid.
A Grid Tie Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) power plant consists of SPV array, Module Mounting Structure,
Power Conditioning Unit (PCU) consisting Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT), Inverter, Controls &
Protections, interconnecting cables and switches. PV Array is mounted on a suitable structure. Grid tie SPV
system is without battery and should be designed with necessary features to supplement the grid power
during day time. Components and parts used in the SPV power plants including the PV modules, metallic
structures, cables, junction box, switches, PCUs etc., should conform to the BIS or IEC or Indian standards.
The following figure shows a typical grid connected Solar PV system.
Figure 35: Grid Connected Rooftop System

1.2.4.2 Off Grid Rooftop Solar PV system:
A dedicated Solar PV System supplying to a unique fixed load, not synchronized with the grid, is an Off
grid system. It is an autonomous system for the production of electrical energy and is an excellent solution
for locations that cannot be connected to the main power grid.
Following figure shows the schematics of offgrid system.
Figure 36: Off Grid Rooftop System
1.2.5 Design of a Solar PV System
1.2.5.1 Software Tools

(a) Meteonorm
We have used Meteonorm 7.1.3.19 solar radiation along with software PVSYST Ver6.30 for the purpose
of analysing and computation of energy generation for the site.
 Meteonorm is a comprehensive meteorological reference. It gives you access to a catalogue of

meteorological data for solar applications and system design at any desired location in the world.
It is based on more than 25 years of experience in the development of meteorological databases
for energy applications.
 The station data is supplemented by surface data from five geostationary satellites.
 Monthly climatological (long term) means are available for the following eight parameters:
o Global radiation
o Ambient air temperature

o Humidity
o Precipitation
o Days with precipitation
o Wind speed
o Wind direction
o Sunshine duration
(b) PVSyst Software
 PVSYST is a computer software package for the study, sizing and data analysis of complete PV
systems developed by André Mermoud, Founder of the PVSyst software a graduate from Geneva
University and holds PhD in particle physics.
 PVSyst deals with gridconnected, standalone, pumping and DCgrid (public transport) PV
systems, and includes extensive meteo and PV systems components databases, as well as general
solar energy tools. It includes a detailed contextual Help menu that explains the procedures and
models that are used, and offers a userfriendly approach with guide to develop a project.
 In the comparisons we mainly refer to the Meteonorm 6.1 data, which are the default data in the
PVsyst6 database, and therefore likely to be used in any "first" simulation of a given system.
(c) Shadow Analysis Software

 Google Sketch up is used, in addition to PVSYST, for shadow analysis. Google Sketchup is a 3D
modelling program for a broad range of applications such as architectural, civil, mechanical, film
as well as video game design.
 The program includes a drawing layout functionality, allows surface rendering in variable
"styles," accommodates thirdparty "plugin" programs enabling other capabilities (e.g., near
photo realistic rendering) and enables placement of its models within Google Earth.
 If a virtual solar plant is created as the model in the Sketchup and is placed in the Google Earth
program, it is easy for shadow analysis and check the shadow effects on the modules at that
location for the whole year by considering 21st June and 21st December as reference dates.
(d) Drafting Software (AutoCAD)
 AUTOCAD is used as the drafting software for creation of 2D drawings that will be used as
reference and for construction. AutoCAD software is used in a range of industries, employed by
architects, project managers and engineers, amongst other professions.

1.2.5.2 Project Design
Project design: tutorial Return to the Project design definitions
For your introduction to the elaboration of a project in PVsyst, we will construct stepby step a full
project, located at Marseille (France).
The main stages, which you are advised to follow for each of your future projects, are:
i. Define the project, which holds mainly the geographic location and the meteo file used.
ii. Define a first system configuration with the minimal parameter set; let PVsyst fix other
parameters to default (reasonable) values). Simulate and save this variant.
iii. Define successive variants by adding progressively perturbations to this first system i.e. far
shadings, near shadings, define specific loss parameters, etc.
You can save each variant for further comparisons.
1.2.5.3 Definition of a Project

The project is the central object (file with *.PRJ extension) for which you will construct different variants
of your system (files with the same name, and extensions *.VC0, *.VC1, etc for "calculation version").
i. In the main page of PVsyst, choose "Project Design" / "Grid connected".

ii. In the next window, choose "Project", and then button "New project".
iii. Define the "Project's name". This will appear in the Project's list choices and on the final report.
The other definitions in this dialog are only for memory; they are not used elsewhere in the
software. You can put for example "Tutorial at Marseille".
iv. Click the button "Site and Meteo".
v. Choose a site in the "sites" database (contains geographic location and monthly meteo data). We
will choose "Marseille".
NB: If you want to define your own site, which is not in the database, it is preferable to define it
first in the database, using "Tools" / "Geographical Location)".
vi. This automatically produces a synthetic hourly data file named "Marseille Syn. MET".
NB: At this stage you can choose another meteo file in the (*.MET) available data if desired.
vii. Click the "Albedo" button. Usually you will never modify the Albedo factor. The value of 0.2 is a
standard adopted by everybody. Nevertheless if you are for example in mountain weather with
some snow, you can define one or two months with 0.8.
viii. Click "OK". You will be prompted to save the project file. The description had already defined
previously. Give a synthetic identifier for the file name, without special characters like accents.

All the files referred to this project will have this name. You can define for example "Marseille
Tutorial".
ix. Save the project.
1.2.5.4 Creating your first variant for this project

i. In the Project's dialog, button "Back (Calculation)".
In this window: a red button means parameters to be defined, or not acceptable.
An orange button means acceptable, but not ideal parameters.
A green lighted button means: Parameters defined, correct.
A green out button, that this topic is not defined for this version.
The "Simulation" will be enabled only when no button is red.
ii. Click" Orientation" button: choose "Fixed tilted plane", Tilt = 25°, Azimuth = 20° (toward east).
NB: When defining the Orientation, you have a tool "Show optimization" for situating your
choice by respect to optimum (regarding the transposition factor). The optimum is different for
gridconnected systems (optimization on the whole year) or standalone/pumping systems
(optimization on the more critical period).
iii. Click "System" button: definition of the PV system will open the system definition dialog.
iv. In the "Pre sizing Help" group, define "Available Area" = 125 m².
v. Choose a PV module. The list will show" All modules", or your "Favorites", or other categories
according to availability. You can sort them by manufacturers, and then choose for example a
module of Photowatt, say the PW1000/110W.
vi. Choose an inverter. The comment in the "Design the array" will propose a suited power for the
inverter (s). In this project we will choose 3 inverters of 4.2 kW, for example Diehl, Platinum
4800 TL.
vii. NB: the button "Show sizing" will open a window where all the sizing constraints are apparent.
Here we see that the maximum voltage of the PV module (here 600V) is a strong limit for this
system, far below the Inverter's VmaxAbs (880 V) or even Vmpp min (710V).
viii. Now the warning panel doesn't show any warning (in orange: not optimal, in red: would prevent
the simulation).
Only by defining the size of the system and the components, PVsyst has proposed an acceptable
design for your PV system. You can click "OK".
1.2.5.5 Executing the Simulation

i. You can now click the "Simulation" button, which is now activated as there are no red buttons.
ii. Give a significant description of this variant (for example "First simulation"),
iii. Press the "Simulation" button, and at the end "OK".

iv. Click button "Results", and then "Report ".
1.2.5.6 Results
This shows the report of your first simulation, which has now 3 pages:
i. First page: all the parameters for this simulation,
ii. Second page: a reminder of the parameters, the main results, graphics of normalized values, and
table of monthly values,
iii. Third page: an arrow loss diagram, showing an energetic balance and all losses along the system.
This is a powerful indicator of the quality of your system, and will immediately indicate the big
sizing errors if any.
1.2.5.7 Saving Your Simulation

You should now "Save" this first variant for further comparisons. This will be saved as
"Marseille_Tutorial.VC0".
Be careful: use "Save As" for avoiding overwriting your previous variants if any.
1.2.5.8 Losses
There are several parameters which are fixed by PVsyst as reasonable default values for your early
simulations, but that you should modify according to the specificities of your system. These are available
in the "System" definition dialog, button "Detailed losses".
(a) Thermal Losses

The thermal behavior of the array is computed at each simulation step, by a thermal balance. This
establishes the instantaneous operating temperature, to be used by the PV modules modeling.
The thermal balance involves the "Heat loss factor" U = Uc + Uv· Wind Speed [W/m²·K]. In practice we
advise not to use the wind dependency, as the wind speed is usually not well defined in the meteo data,
and the Uv is not well known. Therefore, we put Uv = 0 and include an average wind effect in the
constant term.
According to our own measurements on several systems, PVsyst proposes:
Uc = 29 W/m²K for complete free air circulation around the collectors ("nude" collectors).
Uc = 15 W/m²K for integration (back insulated), as only one surface participates to the
convection/radiation cooling.
We don't have wellestablished values for intermediate situations with back air circulation. Our
measurement on quasihorizontal modules on a steel roof, 8 cm spacing and not jointive collectors, gave
18 W/m²K;

NB: up to the version 5.1, the default value was 29 W/m² (freestanding). From this version the default is
set to 20 W/m² as more and more installations are integrated.
The thermal loss effect is visible on the array loss diagram
(b) Wiring Losses

The wiring ohmic resistance induces losses (R·I²) between the power available from the modules and that
at the terminals of the array. These losses can be characterized by just one parameter R defined for the
global array.
The program proposes a default global wiring loss fraction of 1.5% by respect to the STC running
conditions. But you have a specific tool for establishing and optimizing the ohmic losses (press "Detailed
Calculation" button). This tool asks for the average length of wires for the string loops, and between the
intermediate junction boxes and the inverter, and helps the determination of the wire sections.
NB: Remember that the wiring loss behaves as the square of the current. Therefore, operating at half
power (500 W/m²) will lead to only a quarter of the relative loss. The effective loss during a given period
will be given as a simulation result and shown on the loss diagram. It is usually of the order of one half to
60% of the above specified relative loss when operation at MPP.
This part also includes the definition of eventual losses between the output of the inverter and the
injection point (energy counter). You have just to define the distance and the loss will also appear in the
loss diagram.
(c) Module Quality Losses

The aim of this parameter is to reflect the confidence that you put in the matching of your real module set
performance, by respect to the manufacturer's specification. The default PVsyst value is half the lower
tolerance of the modules.
The result in the "Array loss diagram" is not exactly the specified value, at this is referenced to the STC
when in the diagram value it is by respect to the previous energy.
(d) Mismatch Loss

Losses due to "mismatch" are related to the fact that the real modules in the array do not rigorously
present the same I /V characteristics. Remember that in a string the worst module drives the string's
current.
The button "Detailed computation" helps the understanding of this phenomenon, and gives indications on
the loss parameter to be set for the simulation, according to your hypothesis on your effective module set.
This parameter acts as a constant loss during the simulation. It is lower for thin film modules. It could be

about null when sorting the modules according to their real performance (flashtest results provided by
the manufacturer).
NB: There is probably a correlation between these 2 last parameters. The Module quality loss is rather
related to the average of the module's distribution, when the mismatch refers to its width.
(e) Soiling Loss

The soiling effect is about negligible in middleclimate residential situations. It may become significant is
some industrial environments (for example near railway lines), or in desert climates. The monthly
definition allows for taking periodical cleaning or rains into account.
This parameter may also be used for describing a snow effect (for example put 50% in winter month with
15 days coverage).
(f) IAM Loss

The incidence loss (reflections due to the Fresnel's laws) is sufficiently well defined by parameterization
proposes by the "ASHRAE" (US standards office). You will in principle never modify this parameter.
NB: Assuming an isotropic diffuse, the IAM factor on the diffuse part is computed by an integral overall
spaces direction, which include important lowincidence contributions.
(g) AC Ohmic Wiring Loss

The AC wiring losses may simply be defined by the distance between the inverter and the injection point.
The program will determine the minimum section of the wires, and only propose suitable sections if you
want to increase it.
Inversely you can also define a loss fraction at STC, and if the section is defined the corresponding length
will appear, as well as the voltage drop at STC.
(h) External Transformer Loss

In some big PV installations (in the MWp range), the transformer is not part of the inverter, but an
external device directly connected to the grid.
The main losses associated with the transformer are:
The iron losses (mostly due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the core) are proportional to the square of
the core flux, i.e. to the square of the voltage. As we have a constant grid voltage, this is considered as a
constant loss.
The ohmic losses (or copper losses) in the primary and in the secondary windings. These may be
represented by an equivalent resistance, and the loss will be computed as R * I² during the simulation.

1.2.5.9 Sample PVSyst Report
A sample PVSyst report for a gridconnected PV System is illustrated in the following figures.
Figure 37: PVSyst Report – Page 1




1.2.5.10 Single Line Diagrams
(a) DC Single Line Diagram (DC SLD)
The DC SLD is a depictive circuit diagram of the DC portion of the Solar PV Plant. Typically, it represents
the Circuit of the Solar Plant starting from the PV array and includes all the components up to and including
the Inverter. Following figure shows the typical DC SLD.
Figure 41: Typical DC SLD

(b) AC Single Line Diagram (AC SLD)
The AC SLD is a depictive circuit diagram of the AC portion of the Solar PV Plant. Typically, it represents
the Circuit of the Solar Plant starting from Inverter Output up to and including the Switch Yard. Following
figure shows the typical AC SLD.
Figure 42: Typical AC SLD

(c) Single Line Diagram –Grid connected Roof top Solar PV System
The following SLD is of a single phase, 3kWp Grid connected Solar Rooftop System. Some more SLD’s
are attached in the Annexure.
Figure 43: SLD- Grid connected Solar PV System

1.2.6 CASE STUDY - 2 MW GRID-CONNECTED SOLAR PV PLANT
1.2.6.1 Project Design

Consider the following sample project design for Grid connected system:
i. Enter Planned power = 2000 kWp
ii. Select Module (Trina) & Inverter (Power One)
iii. Modules in series will govern the Structural Table Columns
iv. Plan for Overload loss = zero %
Project Design >>> Grid Connected >>> System
Figure 44: System design screen

v. Detailed losses
Figure 45: Datasheet parameters
Either select “Free” mounted modules with air circulation OR NOCT = 44 ⁰ C
Figure 46: Thermal parameter screen

vi. Ohmic losses
Figure 47: Ohmic loss parameter screen
vii. Module Quality Mismatch Loss
Figure 48: Module quality mismatch loss screen

viii. Soiling loss
Figure 49: Soiling loss screen
ix. IAM loss
The incidence effect (the designated term is IAM, for "Incidence Angle Modifier") corresponds to
the decrease of the irradiance really reaching the PV cells's surface, with respect to irradiance under
normal incidence, due to reflexions increasing with the incidence angle.
Figure 50: IAM loss screen

1.2.6.2 Shadow Analysis
Project Design >>> Grid Connected >>> Near Shadings >>> Construction/Perspective
i. Create Fence as per site Layout
Figure 51: Elementary shading object screen
Use different views.
Figure 52: Create fence of a solar plant
ii. Copy, Paste and use ctrl B for Object Positioning. Press red dot while moving. Use Azimuth from
Orientation to rotate object
iii. Build PV Modules on site

Figure 53: Build modules on site
iv. Create Table of PV Modules

As Series Modules are 24. Each Structural Table will have 24 X 3 Modules = 72 Modules.
Leave gap of 2 cm between every Module.
Module Orientation is Landscape.
Figure 54: Creating single table and half table

v. Partition in modules
Figure 55: Creating single table area
In Width = Modules in series = 24
In Height = Number of Module Stacking X Bypass Diode (3 X 2 =6)
Figure 56: Partitioning table in modules

vi. Copying Tables
Copy 1st Table in Y = 5.10
Copy 2nd Table in Y = 10.2
Copy 3rd Table in Y = 15.3
So on. Save scene frequently.
Total Modules in Plant = 24 X 348 = 8352 No.s
Modules per Inverter of 500 kw = 2088
Tables per Inverter = 2088 / 72 = 29 No.s
Tables per Control Room of 1 MW = 29 X 2 = 58 No.s
Fence to Table Distance = 5 m
Figure 57: Copy tables
vii. Final Shading Scene – 2MW
Figure 58: Final shading scene

viii. Shading Factor Table computation >>> According to Module Strings >>>Table >>> O.K.
Less than 1 Value means shading on Modules Exists.
Figure 59: Shading factor table
ix. Project Design >>> Grid Connected >>> Simulation >>>O.k

Enter new simulation Variant if required.

1.2.6.3 PVSyst Report
Figure 60: 2MW Project PVSyst Report – Page 1




Figure 64: Simulation table
1.2.7 Assessment of Annual Energy Generation
There are many commercial tools available to assist in calculating energy yield (PVGC, SunEye,
PVSyst, Solar Pathfinder, etc.). It is recommended one of these tools is used in the site visit to provide
accurate estimates of energy yield. The average yearly energy yield can be estimated as follows:
Esys = Parray_STC x ftemp x fman x f dirt x Htilt x ɳ pv_inv x ɳinv x ɳinv_sb ,
where,
Esys= average yearly energy output of the PV array, in watthours
Parray_stc = rated output power of the array under standard test conditions, in watts
f temp= temperature derating factor, dimensionless
f man= derating factor for manufacturing tolerance, dimensionless
f dirt= derating factor for dirt, dimensionless
H tilt= yearly irradiation value (kWh/m2) for the selected site (allowing for tilt, orientation and shading)
ɳpv_inv = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the PV array and the inverter
ɳ inv= efficiency of the inverter dimensionless
ɳinv_sb = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the inverter and the switchboard.

1.2.7.1 De-Rating Module Performance
(a) Manufacturers output tolerance
The output of a PV module is specified in watts, with a manufacturing tolerance and is based on a cell
temperature of 25°C (STC).
Example: A 160W module has a manufacturer’s tolerance of ±3%. The “worst case” adjusted output of
the PV module is therefore 160W x 0.97 = 155.2W.
(b) De-rating due to dirt
The output of a PV module can be reduced as a result of a buildup of dirt on the surface of the module. The
actual value of this derating will be dependent on the actual location but in some city locations this could
be high due to the amount of pollution in the air. If in doubt, an acceptable derating would be 5%.
Example continued:
The derated module of 160 W would be derated by a further 5% due to dirt: 155.2W x 0.95 = 147.4W.
(c) De-rating due to temperature
The average temperature of the cell within the PV module can be estimated by the following formula:
Tcell.eff = T a.day+ 25°C
where,
Tcell.eff = average daily effective cell temperature, in degrees C and
Ta.day = daytime average ambient temperature (for the month of interest), in degrees C.
Array frames in standalone power systems are typically tilted at higher angles and the modules have good
airflow. With rooftop gridconnected systems, higher temperatures have been observed. For gridconnect
systems the effective cell temperature is determined by the following formula:
T cell.eff = T a.day + Tr
Where,
Tr = effective temperature rise for specific type of installation. It is recommended that the following
temperature rise (Tr) applies for different array frames:
x. Parallel to roof (<150mm standoff): +35°C
xi. Racktype mount (>150mm standoff): +30°C
xii. Topofpole mount, free standing frame and frame on roof with tilt angle of about + 20 degrees to
slope of roof: +25°C.

Solar modules each have different temperature coefficients. These typically range from +0.2%/°C to
0.5%/°C dependant on module technology. (Refer to the manufacturer’s datasheet for exact values). The
derating of the array due to temperature will be dependent on the type of module installed and the average
ambient maximum temperature for the location.
The temperature derating factor is calculated as follows:
ftemp = 1 + (ϒ* (Tcell.eff Tstc))
where,
ftemp = temperature derating factor, dimensionless
ϒ= value of power temperature coefficient per degrees C (see above)
Tcell.eff = average daily cell temperature, in degrees C
T stc = cell temperature at standard test conditions, in degrees C.
(NOTE: The manufacturer’s specified value of power temperature coefficient is applied – include the ve
sign as shown on the data sheet. The formula determines whether the temperature factor is greater or less
than 1 due to actual effective temperature of the cell.)
Example continued:
Assume the average ambient temperature is 25°C (T a.day) and the module is polycrystalline and frame is
parallel to roof but less than 150mm off roof.
The average daily effective cell temperature is: T cell.eff = T a.day + 35
= 25 + 35 = 60°C
In the above formula the absolute value of the temperature coefficient (ϒ) is applied, this is 0.5%/°C and
cell temperature at standard test conditions is 25 °C (Tstc).
Therefore, the effective derating factor due to temperature is: 1 + 0.5% / (60 – 25) = 1 17.5% = 0.825 the
temperature derating becomes 82.5% of 147.4W or 121.6 W.
1.2.7.2 Inverter Selection

The selection of the inverter for the installation will depend on:
 Energy output of the array
 Matching of the allowable inverter string configurations with the size of the array
 Size of the individual modules within that array
 Whether the system will have one central inverter or multiple (smaller) inverters.

(a) Inverter Sizing
Inverters currently available are typically rated for:

 Maximum DC input power i.e. the size of the array in peak watts
 Maximum DC input current
 Maximum specified output power i.e. the AC power they can provide to the grid.
The maximum power of the array is calculated using the following formula:
Array Peak Power = Number of modules in the array x the rated maximum power (Pmp ) of the selected
module at STC.
The designer shall follow the manufacturer’s recommendation when matching the peak power rating of the
array to that of the inverter.
Many manufacturers provide the maximum rating of a solar array in peak power for a specific size inverter.
Accredited designers shall follow the recommendations of the manufacturer.
If the manufacturer does not provide recommendations, then the designer shall match the array to the
inverter allowing for the derating of the /array.
In the section on derating module performance, the typical PV array output in watts is derated due to:
Manufacturer’s tolerance of the modules

 Dirt and temperature.
 Inverter with crystalline modules
Based on figures of:

 0.97 for manufacture
 0.95 for dirt
 0.825 for temperature (based on ambient of 35° C).
The derating of the array is: 0.97 x 0.95 x 0.825 = 0.76
As a result of this type of derating being experienced in the field, the inverter can easily be rated 76% of
the peak power of the array (and possibly even less.)
Inverter with thin film modules the temperature effect on thin film modules is less than that on crystalline
modules. Assuming the temperature coefficient is only 0.1% then the temperature derating at ambient
temperature of 35°C is 0.965
Based on figures of:

 0.97 for manufacturer
 0.95 for dirt

 0.965 For temperature (based on ambient of 35 °C).
The derating of the array is: 0.97 x 0.95 x 0.965 = 0.889
As a result of this type of derating being experienced in the field, the inverter can easily be rated 89% of
the peak power of the array (and possibly even less.)
Example:
Assume the array comprises 16 of the 160Wp crystalline modules then the array peak power = 16 x 160 =
2.56kW should the inverter be rated at a minimum of 2.56kW.
If the manufacturer does not provide recommendations, then following the above guidelines: This array can
be connected to an inverter with an output rating of: 0.76 x 2.56kW = 1.95kW (for crystalline modules)
If thin film modules are used then the inverter could have an output rating of: 0.889 x 2.56kW = 2.27kW.
(b) Design of PV Array
The output power of a solar module is affected by the temperature of the solar cells. In crystalline PV
modules this effect can be as much as 0.5% for every 1degree variation in temperature.
The temperature derating factor for the output power is:
ftemp = 1 + (ϒ*(Tcell.eff Tstc))
Where,
ftemp = temperature derating factor, dimensionless
ϒ = power temperature coefficient per °C (typically 0.005 for crystalline cells)
T cell.eff = average daily cell temperature, in °C (see section on temperature effect on modules)
T stc = cell temperature at standard test conditions, measured in °C.
The maximum power point voltage and open circuit voltage are affected by temperature and the temperature
coefficient as a % is typically very similar to the power coefficient.
The maximum effective cell temperature
T cell_eff = T ave_amb+ Tr
Where,
T cell_eff = the effective cell temperature in °C
T ave_amb = the daytime ambient temperature in °C
Tr = the temperature rise dependent on array frame type in °C

The above can also be applied as the derating factor for open circuit voltage and maximum power point
voltage. With the odd exception, gridinteractive inverters include maximum power point trackers
(MPPTs). Many of the inverters available will have a voltage operating window. If the solar array voltage
is outside this window, then either the inverter will not operate or the output power of the system will be
greatly reduced. Minimum and maximum input voltages will be specified by the manufacturer. The
maximum voltage is the voltage where above this the inverter could be damaged. Some inverters will
nominate a voltage window where they will operate and then a maximum voltage, higher than the maximum
operating voltage of the window, which is the voltage where the inverter could be damaged. For the best
performance of the system the output voltage of the solar array should be matched to the operating voltages
of the inverter. To minimize the risk of damage to the inverter, the maximum voltage of the inverter shall
never be reached. As stated earlier, the output voltage of a module is affected by cell temperature changes
in a similar way as the output power. The PV module manufacturers will provide a voltage temperature co
efficient. It is generally specified in V/°C (or mV/°C) but it can be expressed as a %/°C. To design systems
where the output voltages of the array do not fall outside the range of the inverter’s DC operating voltages
and maximum voltage (if different), the minimum and maximum daytime temperatures for that specific site
are required.
i. Minimum Voltage Window
When the temperature is at a maximum then the maximum power point voltage (Vmp) of the array should
not fall below the minimum operating voltage of the inverter. The actual voltage at the input of the inverter
is not just the V mp of the array the voltage drop in the DC cabling must also be included when determining
the actual inverter input voltage. The temperature derating factor can be adapted to determine the
maximum power point voltage at a specified temperature.
Vmp_cell.eff = Vmpstc + (ϒv* (Tcell.eff Tstc))
Where
Vmp_cell.eff = Maximum power point voltage at effective cell temperature, in volts
Vmpstc = Maximum power point voltage at STC, in volts
ϒv = Voltage temperature (V mp) coefficient in volts per °C
Tcell_eff= Cell temperature at specified ambient temperature, measured in °C
Tstc= Cell temperature at STC, measured in °C
To maximize the performance of the array, the minimum array voltage should never fall below the
minimum voltage operating window of the inverter. The number of modules in the string should be selected

so that the maximum power voltage of the array for the highest temperature expected is above the minimum
voltage operating window of the inverter. Since the daytime ambient temperature in some areas of Australia
can reach, or exceed 35°C it is recommended that maximum effective cell temperature of 70°C is used.
Worked example:
Assume that the minimum voltage window for an inverter is 140V. The module selected has a rated MPP
voltage of 35.4V and a voltage (V mp) coefficient of 0.177V /°C
Using equation for Vmp_cell.eff
Above, the minimum MPP voltage at a maximum effective cell temperature of 70°C, the
Temperature derating is:
Vmin_mpp = 35.4 + (0.177 * (70 25)) = 27.4 V
If we assume a maximum voltage drop in the cables of 3% then the voltage at the inverter for each module
would be
0.97 x 27.4 = 26.6 V
This is the effective minimum MPP voltage input at the inverter for each module in the array, Vmin_mpp_inv
The minimum number of modules in the string can be determined by the following equation
Nmin_per_String = Vinv_min/ Vmin_mpp_inv
Where,
Vinv_min = the minimum inverter input voltage
Vmin_mpp_inv= the effective minimum MPP voltage of a module at the inverter at maximum effective cell
temperature
The minimum voltage allowed at the inverter, in this example, is 140V.
The MPP voltage rises with increases in irradiance. Since the array is typically operating with irradiance
levels less than 1kW/m² then the actual MPP voltage would be reduced (NOTE: the exact variation is
dependent on the quality of the solar cell so it is recommended that a safety margin of 10% is used.)
In the worked example above, a minimum inverter voltage of 1.1 x 140V = 154V should be used.
The minimum number of modules in a string is:

Nmin_per_string = 154 / 26.6 = 5.8 rounded up to 6 modules.

ii. Maximum Voltage Window
At the coldest daytime temperature, the open circuit voltage of the array shall never be greater than the
maximum allowed input voltage for the inverter. The open circuit voltage (Voc) is used because this is
greater than the MPP voltage and it is the applied voltage when the system is first connected (prior to the
inverter starting to operate and connecting to the grid).
NOTE: Some inverters provide a maximum voltage for operation and a higher voltage as the maximum
allowed voltage. In this situation, the MPP voltage is used for the operation window and the open circuit
voltage for the maximum allowed voltage.
In early morning, at first light, the cell temperature will be very close to the ambient temperature because
the sun has not had time to heat up the module.
Therefore, the lowest daytime temperature for the area where the system is installed shall be used to
determine the maximum Voc. This is determined by the following equation
Vmax_oc = Voc_STC + (ϒv* (Tcell.eff TSTC))
Where
Vmax_oc = Open circuit voltage at minimum cell temperature, volts
Voc_STC = Open circuit voltage at STC, volts
ϒv = Voltage temperature Voc coefficient, V/°C
Tmin = Expected min. daily cell temperature, °C
TSTC= Cell temperature STC, °C
In many areas of Australia, the minimum daytime ambient temperature can be less than 0°C while there are
areas where it never falls below 20°C.
It is recommended that the designer use the minimum temperature for the area where the system will be
installed.
In the worked example, assume the minimum effective cell temperature is 0°C:
Vocstc is 43.2 V
And the maximum open circuit voltage at minimum effective temperature – is
Voc_max= 43.2 + (0.16 x (0 25))
= 43.26 (0.16 x 25)
= 43.2 + 4

= 47.2 V
For our example, assuming the maximum voltage allowed by the inverter is 400V (Vinv_max) The maximum
number of modules in the string, Nmax_per_string , is determined by the following equation:
Nmin_per_String = Vinv_max(V)/ Vmin_max(V)
(Source: Clean energy council guidelines)
= 400 / 47.2 = 8.47 rounded down to 8 modules
In the example presented, the PV string must consist of between 6 8 modules only.
In the worked example, for sizing the inverter 16 modules were required. Therefore, we could have two
parallel strings of 8 modules.
1.2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF BILL OF MATERIAL
1.2.8.1 Bill of Quantities

BOQ is the listing of all the components to be used in a project. In solar power plants DC side BOQ can be
prepared by using PVSyst report and DC single line diagram (SLD). For AC side BOQ, AC single line
diagram (SLD) can be referred. A sample DC and AC side BOQ is given below. BOQ is useful for project
cost estimation.
Table 3: A Typical BOQ
DC Side BOQ
Design
S.No. Item type Description Units Make
Qty.
1 Module 310Wp Nos 10647

UV Protected Connector (for the
connection of cable between string
and SCB) MC4 Connectors suitable Nos 507
for 1C×4 Sq.mm Unarmoured solar
MC4 grade cable for positive
2
connectors UV Protected Connector (for the
connection of cable between string
and SCB) MC4 Connectors suitable Nos 507
for 1C×4Sq.mm Unarmoured solar
grade cable for negative

Rated Voltage: 1000V
Fuse Rating at input: 20 A (Input
String Side)
3 Monitoring Fuse Rating at output: 250 A (output Nos 24
Units Side)
IP: 54
12 in 1 out
UV Protected Y Connectors suitable
for 1C×6 Sq.mm Unarmoured solar Nos 254
grade cable for positive
4 Y Connector
UV Protected Y Connectors suitable
for 1C×6 Sq.mm Unarmoured solar Nos 254
grade cable for negative
DC Cables and Terminations
1.1 KV,1C×6 sq.mm,XLPO, copper
multistranded, unarmoured cable,
confirming to IEC 60228 standard KM 5.0
annealed tinned coated copper
Cables from conductor, RED
5
String to SCB 1.1KV,1C× 6 sq.mm copper ,XLPO,
multistranded unarmoured cable,
confirming to IEC 60228 standard KM 5.0
annealed tinned coated copper
conductor, BLACK
1.1 kV, Single Core, XLPE insulated,
PVC sheathed, armoured, confirming
to IS 7098 part 1 standard aluminium KM 2.8
conductor size 240 sq.mm for
Cables from
positive
6 SCB to
1.1 kV, Single Core, XLPE insulated,
Inverter
PVC sheathed, armoured, confirming
to IS 7098 part 1 standard KM 2.8
aluminium conductor size 240sq.mm
for negative.
Termination suitable for 1.1 kV,
XLPO insulated, PVC sheathed,
armoured 1C 6 Sq. mm Copper
conductor cable: Nos 508
SMU start: 6 sq.mm Ring Type
Bimetallic lug suitable for 6Sq. mm
cable
7 Termination
XLPE insulated, PVC sheathed,
armoured 240 Sq. mm aluminium
SMU End: 240 sq.mm Ring Type
Bimetallic lug suitable for 240 sq mm
cable

XLPE insulated, PVC sheathed,
armoured 240 Sq. mm aluminium
Inverter start: 240 sq.mm Ring Type
Bimetallic lug suitable for 240 sq.mm
cable
GI Rod earthing with 3 meter depth
and 40 mm Rod dia. With strip
Array Earthing
8 connector for each earth Nos 8
pits
electrode/pits. And CI plate covering
assembly.
MS Strip of 25x6 sq.mm. Will be
KM 0.65
Earthing buried at 600 mm depth.
9
conductor MS Strip for connecting structures is
KM 0.43
20X3sq.mm.
Lightning ESE type Lightning Arrester,
10 Nos 4
Arrestor Covering Area of radius 97m
PVC Conduit
(From String
11 20 mm dia. KM 2.5
to SMU for 6
sq.mm cable)
AC Side BOQ
Quantity
Sr. No. Item Type Description Units Make
for3.3 MWp
Rating: 1575KW, 406V, 50Hz
1 Inverter DC input Power: 1780kWp No. 2
DC input voltage: 1000V
Type: 3Phase , 50 Hz, 1.7 MVA
Inverter
2 Single Primary Single Secondary No. 2
Transformer
ONAN Transformer
Type: 3Phase, 50 Hz, 30KVA
Auxiliary
4 Single Primary Single Secondary No. 1
Transformer
ONAN Transformer
Enclosure: Comprising of two
incoming feeder, one feeder for
capacitor bank and one outgoing
feeder of 11kV, 3 Phase, 50Hz,
5 HT panel having suitable dimensions for Set 1
circuit breakers, CTs, PTs. Metal
clad, totally enclosed, Sheet steel
cubicle, dust-tight, Vermin proof,
highly corrosive resistant

Enclosure: Comprising of one
incoming feeder and 16 outgoing
feeder of 415V, 3 Phase,4 pole,
50Hz, Sheet steel cubicle, dust-
6 ACDB No. 1
tight, Vermin proof, highly
corrosive resistant. Which will
include push buttons, indications,
CTs, CBCTs etc.
GI Rod earthing with 3 meter
depth and 40 mm Rod dia. With
strip connector for each earth No. 10
7 Earthing electrode/pits. And CI plate
covering assembly.
Earthing strip-50X6 sq.mm for
m 97
equipment protection (MCR)
8 UPS 8kVA UPS with supporting stand set. 1
ABT Meter: 2 nos. Check & main

Metering
9 Unit in Main Auxiliary Supply – Dual Auxiliary Set 1
HT panel supply for 48-276 V AC/DC
Switch yard
Frequency: 50 Hz
System voltage11kV, Three
10 Isolator poleDouble break horizontal Set. 1
Continuous current rating: 630
A,3P,25kA
Type:pole mounted ,Level II
Lightning
11 Voltage: 9 kV No. 3
Arrester
Current: 5 kA
Cables
1.1 kV, Single Core, XLPE
insulated, PVC sheathed,
armoured cable, confirming to IS m 182
7098 Part 1 standard, tin coated AL
Cable From conductor size 500 sq.mm, RED
Inverter To 1.1 kV, Single Core, XLPE
12
Inverter insulated, PVC sheathed,
Transformer armoured cable, confirming to IS m 182
conductor size 500 sq.mm, YELLOW
1.1 kV, Single Core, XLPE
m 182
insulated, PVC sheathed,

armoured cable, confirming to IS
conductor size 500 sq.mm, BLUE
Cable From 11 kV, Three Core, XLPE insulated,
Inverter PVC sheathed, armoured cable,
13 confirming to IS 7098 Part 2 standard m 50
Transformer
Aluminium conductor size 185
To HT Panel sq.mm
Cable from
Inverter 1.1 kV, Three Core, PVC Insulated,
14 Transformer Aluminium conductor cable size 16 m 30
To Auxiliary sq.mm
Transformer
Cable from 11 kV, Three Core, XLPE insulated,

HT Panel To PVC sheathed, armoured cable,
15 Switch yard confirming to IS 7098 Part 2 standard m 140
(Double Pole Aluminium conductor size 185
Structure) sq.mm
Termination
Terminations
For Cable
From
Inverter To
Inverter
Transformer, According To the Requirement In --
16 No.
HT Panel, the plant
Auxillary
Transformer,
Ht Panel,
Switchyard
etc.
Communication and Control cable
2Cx0.34 sq.mm. Shielded twisted
PLC cable pair Cu.cable Communication m 1376
20
From SMU cable
16CX2.5 Sq.mm. Cu. Cable m 40
Control cable 12CX2.5 Sq.mm. Cu. Cable m 104
from HT
21
panel to PLC m 104
Panel 5CX2.5 Sq.mm. Cu. Cable

Illumination And Other
Mounting arrangement for
Monitoring
23 weather station and SEEDs 1
Station
network. Sets
Fire alarm
24 1
System Set Nos.
Firefighting
3
25 Equipment Fire extinguisher Nos
Sand buckets Set. 10
26 CCTV Set Nos. 2
Illumination
27 for Control 32 WTube light Indoor Type.( As 35
room per requirement) Nos.
36 W weather proof LED.(Pole
Peripheral
mounted , Height of pole= 3 34
lighting
28 Mtrs) Nos
Cable for peripheral lighting 4C x
1088
6 sq.mm. Cable Meter
Junction Box
29 for road 230V,50hz,6A Weather proof 34
lighting junction box mounted on pole No
Justification:
1. Modules: According to DC plate rating PVSyst calculated number of PV modules. In this case DC
plate rating is 10647 * 310Wp = 3.3MWp.
2. MC4 connectors: MC4 connectors are required for string to SMU connection. In this case MC4
connectors are at string end only. Number of strings are 253.5 (21 modules in a string; 10647/21 =
253.5 Strings).
Calculation: Number of male connectors = Number of strings = 507(Only for Negative side)
Number of female connectors = Number of strings = 507 (Only for Positive side)
3. Number of SMUs per can be decided. Number of SMUs will be same as number of DC side inputs
available at Inverter. After deciding number of SMUs, its configuration (12 in 1 out) can be
calculated based on number of strings.
Note: Number of SMUs can be decided while preparing DC side single line diagram with the help
of number of strings given by PVSyst and number of DC inputs available at Inverter given by
Inverter manufacturer.

4. DC and AC side Cables: Approximate lengths of DC and AC side cables required can be calculated
after preparing AutoCAD layout. These lengths can change plant by plant.
5. HT panel, Transformer: Number of these AC side equipment will be as per design, in above case
each 1 number is required for 3MW (AC) plant.

MODULE 2: SOLAR INVERTERS
2.1 GRID TIED INVERTER
Solar panel of a particular rating generate a specific amount of energy which is then conditioned and
processed by using inverters to deliver an AC power to the Grid. Grid tie (utility tie) PV systems consist of
solar panels and a gridtie inverter, with no batteries. The solar panels feed a Gridtie inverter which
converts the DC power coming from the solar panels directly into AC power to match the grid
configuration. Any power produced by the solar panels subtracts from what any consumer can use from the
power company. If any consumer is producing more power than they are consuming, then the extra power
is fed to the grid. This inverter is placed between the solar array and the grid. The inverter must monitor
grid voltage, waveform, and frequency. One of the reason for monitoring is, if the grid is off, an inverter
connected to a malfunctioning power line will automatically disconnect in accordance with safety rules.
Another reason for monitoring the grid is for normal operation the inverter must synchronize with the grid
waveform and produce a voltage slightly higher than the grid itself in order to get more sinusoidal waveform
with least harmonic.
A highquality modern gridtie inverter has a moderate power factor, which means its output voltage and
current are perfectly lined up, and its phase angle is within 1 degree of the AC power grid. However, feeding
energy to the grid might be necessary to keep the voltage in the local grid inside allowed limitations.
Otherwise, in a grid segment with considerable power from renewable sources, voltage levels might rise
much higher than desired, i.e. around noon with solar panels.
Gridtie inverters are also designed to quickly disconnect from the grid if the utility grid goes down. When
there is blackout, the grid tie inverter will shut down to prevent inline worker from getting injured while
fixing the internal fault.
(a) Advantages of Grid Connected System

 A gridconnected photovoltaic power system will reduce the power bill as it is possible to sell
surplus electricity produced to the local electricity supplier.
 Gridconnected PV systems are comparatively easier to install as they do not require a battery
system.
 Grid interconnection of photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems has the advantage of effective
utilization of generated power because there are no storage losses involved.
 A photovoltaic power system is carbon negative over its lifespan, as any energy produced over and
above that to build the panel initially offsets the need for burning fossil fuels. Even though the sun
doesn't always shine, any installation gives a reasonably predictable average reduction in carbon
consumption.

Figure 65: Grid tied Inverter
2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE AND PROTECTION

The power conditioning and control system is constituted by an inverter that converts direct current to
alternating current and controls the quality of the output power to be delivered to the grid, also by means
of an LC filter inside the inverter. The inverter acts as a current source that injects available energy from
a PV array into the connected Grid and uses line voltage and frequency measurements to synchronize to its
grid connection. It operates as a two‐wire (1Ø) or 3‐wire (3Ø) current source. The transistor, used as static
switches are controlled by an openingclosing signal which, in the simplest mode, would result in an output
square waveform. To obtain a waveform as sinusoidal as possible, a more sophisticated technique Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) is used. PWM technique allows a regulation to be achieved on the frequency as
well as on the rms value of the output waveform. Solar inverters use maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) to get the maximum possible power from the PV array. The inverter must control the
injected current such that it is balanced on all available phases at all times. Although, it utilizes measured
values of grid voltage and frequency, it cannot control the line voltage or frequency at the point of
interconnection to the grid.

Starting from the IV curve of the PV modules the maximum point of power transfer corresponds to the
point of tangency between the IV characteristic for a given value of solar radiation and the hyperbola of
equation V .I = const.
Figure 66: MPPT of PV module
The MPPT systems commercially used to identify the maximum power point on the characteristic curve of
the PV module by causing small variations of loads at regular intervals which determine deviations of the
voltagecurrent values and evalute if the new product IV is higher or lower than the previous one. In case
of a rise, the load conditions are kept varying in the considered direction. Otherwise, the conditions are
modified in the opposite direction. Due to the characteristics of the required performances the inverters for
standalone plants and for gridconnected plants shall have different characteristics:
 In the standalone plants the inverters shall be able to supply a voltage AC side as constant as possible
at the varying of the production of the generator and of the load demand;
 In the gridconnected plants the inverters shall reproduce the network voltage and at the same time
optimize and maximize the energy output of the PV panels.

2.2.1 Inverter Circuit
An H bridge circuit performs the basic conversion from dc to ac. In order to generate three phase outputs,
60 Hz transformerbased central inverters typically use a 3phase bridge, whereas for single phase output,
single phase bridge is required. The bridge shown below is with a 4switch design.
Figure 67: Typical inverter circuitry (H-Bridge)
By alternately closing the top left and bottom right switches, then the top right and bottom left switches,
the dc voltage is inverted from positive to negative, creating a rectangular ac waveform. The role of the
components after the Hbridge is to smooth and change the magnitude of that approximated sine wave. For
this, the magnetic components include the inductor, the capacitor and the transformer. These magnetic
components filter the wave shapes resulting from the PWM switching, smoothing out the sine waves,
and bring ac voltages to the correct levels for grid interconnection. The magnetics also provide
isolation between the dc circuits and the ac grid.
Figure 68: Closed loop PWM H-Bridge output (Simplified)
The ac waveform entering the inductor is raw and triangular; but on leaving the device, it is a clean 180
Vac sine wave. Because 180 Vac cannot be directly connected to the utility grid, it goes through a 60 Hz
transformer. The resulting smooth, sinusoidal 208, 240 V ac is connected to Grid. Grid synchronous
operation is made possible by grid sensing feedback. Grid voltage information is provided to the inverter’s

digital signal processor (DSP) or microcontroller, the device that controls the Hbridge. The inverter’s dc
input bus voltage needs to be greater than the peak of the ac voltage on the primary side of the transformer.
In order to maintain this relationship at all times, an additional control and safety margin is required. With
a minimum PV input voltage of 250 Vdc, for example, the highest amplitude ac sine wave you can create
is about 180 Vac. The most important use of capacitors in the inverter power stage is for filtering ripple
currents on dc lines. Ripple is an undesirable phenomenon caused by power semiconductor switching.
Capacitors are also used to keep the dc bus voltage stable and minimize resistive losses over the dc wiring
between the PV array and the inverter, since the resulting current from the array to the inverter dc bus
is constant.
2.2.2 Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse width modulation is the process of modifying the width of the pulse train in direct proportion to a
small control signal. The greater the control voltage, the wider the resulting pulse become. By using a
sinusoid of desired frequency as the control voltage for a PWM circuit, it is possible to produce a high
power waveform whose average voltage varies in sinusoidal manner.
Figure 69: H-Bridge PWM output
The above figure shows the PWM output over the positive half cycle. Waveform is divided into a number
of small equal time segments determined by PWM switching frequency and then each segment is turned
on for a given duty cycle depending on V, of grid.

2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTERS
2.3.1 Depending on the size and placement in the system
2.3.1.1 Central Inverter

In this type of inverter, all strings are connected to the DC side and the single AC output is connected to
the utility grid. The rated Maximum DC input power (Pdcmax) for these inverters will be in the range of
50 – 1MWp.
Figure 70: Central Inverter
Advantages of a Central Inverter:

 The most traditional inverter topology
 Easy system design and implementation
 Low cost per Watt
 Easy accessibility for maintenance and troubleshooting
Disadvantages of a Central Inverter
 High DC wiring costs and power loss due to Voltage Drop.
 Single MPPT for the entire PV system
 System output can be drastically reduced in case of partial shading and string mismatch
 Difficult to add strings or arrays for future expansion
 Single failure point for the entire system
 Monitoring at array level
 Huge size

2.3.1.2 String Inverter
As the name indicates, each string of PV modules has its own inverter. In this case, we are moving closer
to the PV modules level. A string inverter is a device for converting DC to AC power and which is designed
for high voltage DC inputs. The rated Maximum DC input power (Pdcmax) for these inverters will be in
the range of 2 – 30kWp.
Figure 71: String Inverter
Advantages of a String Inverter
• Smaller in size when compared to central inverters

• Better MPPT capability per string
• Scalability for future expansion by adding parallel strings
• Short DC wires
• Monitoring at string level
Disadvantages of a String Inverter
• The installation requires special racking for the inverter for each string
• Poor flexibility at partial shading
• Higher per Watt cost than central inverter

2.3.1.3 Micro Inverter
Micro inverters are small inverters rated to handle the output of a single panel. Modern gridtie panels are
normally rated between 225 and 275W, but rarely produce this in practice, so micro inverters are typically
rated between 190 and 220 W. Because it is operated at this lower power point, many design issues inherent
to larger designs simply go away; the need for a large transformer is generally eliminated, large electrolytic
capacitors can be replaced by more reliable thinfilm capacitors, and cooling loads are reduced so no fans
are needed. Mean time between failures (MTBF) are quoted in hundreds of years.
More importantly, a micro inverter attached to a single panel allows it to isolate and tune the output of that
panel. For example, in the same 10panel array used as an example above, with micro inverters any panel
that is underperforming has no effect on panels around it. In that case, the array as a whole produces as
much as 5% more power than it would with a string inverter. When shadowing is factored in, if present,
these gains can become considerable, with manufacturers generally claiming 5% better output at a
minimum, and up to 25% better in some cases. Furthermore, a single model can be used with a wide variety
of panels, new panels can be added to an array at any time, and do not have to have the same rating as
existing panels.
Micro inverters produce gridmatching power directly at the back of the panel. Arrays of panels are
connected in parallel to each other, and then to the grid. This has the major advantage that a single failing
panel or inverter cannot take the entire string offline. Combined with the lower power and heat loads, and
improved MTBF, some suggest that overall array reliability of a micro inverterbased system is
significantly greater than a string inverterbased one. This assertion is supported by longer warranties,
typically 15 to 25 years, compared with 5 or 10 year warranties that are more typical for string inverters.
Additionally, when faults occur, they are identifiable to a single point, as opposed to an entire string. This
not only makes fault isolation easier, but unmasks minor problems that might not otherwise become visible
– a single underperforming panel may not affect a long string's output enough to be noticed.
Figure 72: Micro Inverter

Advantages of Micro Inverters
 Resilience to partial shading effects as compared to the central and string inverters.
 MPPT at module level
 Highest system flexibility for future expansion
 Minimum DC wiring costs
 Monitoring at module level
Disadvantages of Micro Inverters
 High per Watt cost
 High maintenance costs
 Difficult access for maintenance since the installation is under the PV modules
2.3.1.4 Hybrid Inverter

A hybrid inverter (sometimes referred to as a multimode inverter) is an inverter which can simultaneously
manage inputs from both solar panels and a battery bank, charging batteries with either solar panels or the
electricity grid (depending on which is more economical or preferred). The rated Maximum DC input power
for these inverters will be in the range from 100 VA onwards.
Usage
 Use in off grid mode (without network) with the possibility of linking to a generator. The inverter must
be connected to a battery bank and must have true off grid capabilities not all Hybrid inverters are
created equal or can be used in off grid applications.
 Use in ongrid or gridtie (connected to the network) with the possibility of selling energy or excess
energy. There is a need to have the norm compliance of protection and decoupling (DIN VDE 0126.1).
 Use in hybrid mode the inverter functions with a battery bank, but also connected to the grid. This dual
functionality is the highlight of hybrid inverters that hence enable energy management (smart grid).
 Use in Backup mode, or storage mode prevents blackouts by switching from ongrid mode to offgrid
mode at the moment of electric outage, thereby eliminates network cuts.

Figure 73: Hybrid Inverter
Advantages of Hybrid Inverters
 Allinone inverter solution for gridconnected solarplusstorage systems
 Frequently intelligent and programmable for maximizing overall system efficiency and savings
 Can usually be installed without batteries for future expansion
Disadvantages of Hybrid Inverters
 Less design flexibility than modular solutions which use separate PV and battery inverters.
 Generally less efficient than dedicated solaronly or batteryonly inverters.

2.3.2 Depending on the presence of transformer
2.3.2.1 Isolated Inverter

Standard inverters have a transformer within them that synchronises the voltage with that of the grid and
your appliances.
Figure 74: Isolated Inverter
Isolated Inverters have an internal isolation transformers that provide required galvanic isolation.
It require PV circuits to be ground referenced in order to insure the fuse‐controlled GFD operational (NEC
690.5), and they support all types of PV Modules.
2.3.2.2 Transformer less Inverter

Transformer less inverters use a computerized multistep process and electronic components to convert DC
to high frequency AC, back to DC, and ultimately to standardfrequency AC. TL inverters dominate the
European market and work on the premise that in a gridconnected system, transformers are already in
place in buildings or just a short way down the line. As such the individual transformer within the home
scale inverter becomes redundant.
This type of inverter has higher efficiency than that of conventional inverter, since they don’t have losses
associated with isolation transformer. TL Inverters do not have (or need) galvanic isolation between input
and output because arrays are floating with respect to ground (referenced to grid).
TL Inverters require the PV circuit to be floating, i.e., cannot be referenced to ground (re: NEC 690.35,
floating arrays)

Figure 75: Transformer less Inverter
Usable PV modules must be provisioned with double insulated lead wire per UL4703, or marked as “PV
wire” per NEC & locking connectors. They cannot support panels requiring grounding, e.g., some Thin
Film Technologies. Also, due to absence of heavy transformer, these inverters are easier to install and
shipping and handling costs are less. They are also much safer from fire perspective in following ways:
 Floating array is double insulated
o PV Wire required on PV modules and other PV source wiring
o No HV DC referenced to Ground
 Proven Two‐Step GF Detection Technology is considered safer than arrays grounded via GFD
Detector fuse (690.5)
 Eliminates the so‐called GF blind spot issues – fire hazards due to ground faults in the grounded
conductor that allow bypass of fault current around GFD fuse – can cause GFD system to fail.
2.4 INVERTER SIZING

It is not possible to formulate an optimal inverter sizing strategy that applies in all cases. Project specifics
such as the solar resource and module tilt angle play a very important role when choosing a design. While
the rule of thumb has been to use an invertertoarray power ratio less than unity, this is not always the
best design approach. For example, this option might lead to a situation where the inverter manages to
curtail power spikes not anticipated by irradiance profiles (based on onehour data). Or, it could fail to
achieve grid code compliance in cases where reactive power injection to the grid is required. The optimal
sizing is, therefore, dependent on the specifics of the plant design. Most plants will have an inverter sizing
range within the limits defined by:

0.8 < Power ratio < 1.2
Figure 76: Equations for power ratio and DC power for inverter
Guidance on inverter and PV array sizing can be obtained from the inverter manufacturers, who offer
system sizing software. Such tools also provide an indication of the total number of inverters required. A
number of factors and guidelines must be assessed when sizing an inverter:
 The maximum Voc in the coldest daytime temperature must be less than the inverter maximum DC
input voltage (V Inv, DC Max).
 The inverter must be able to safely withstand the maximum array current.
 The minimum Voc in the hottest daytime temperature must be greater than the inverter DC turnoff
voltage (V Inv, DC Turnoff).
 The maximum inverter DC current must be greater than the PV array(s) current.
 The inverter MPP range must include PV array MPP points at different temperatures.
 When installed, some thin film modules produce a voltage greater than the nominal voltage. This
happens for a period of time until initial degradation has occurred, and must be taken into account to
prevent the inverter from being damaged.
 Grid code requirements: for example, reactive power injection.
 The operating voltage should be optimized for maximum inverter efficiency.
 Site conditions of temperature and irradiation profiles.
 Economics and costeffectiveness.
Inverters with reactive power control are recommended. Inverters can control reactive power by
controlling the phase angle of the current injection. Moreover, aspects such as inverter ventilation, air
conditioning, lighting and cabinet heating must be considered. When optimizing the voltage, it should be
borne in mind that the inverter efficiency is dependent on voltage. Specification sheets and voltage
dependency graphs are required for efficient voltagematching.

2.4.1 Important Datasheet Parameters
Typical specifications of Inverter are given below:
 DC Voltage Range
The voltage range in which the inverter starts its inverting operation. This voltage has to be
maintained at the input side of the inverter.
 Maximum DC Voltage
It is the maximum voltage which allows the PV array to deliver a certain amount of voltage at
the input of the inverter.
 Maximum DC Current
It is the maximum current at which inverter can operate. If the inverter has multiple MPPT
inputs, maximum DC current is related to each single input.
 Number of protected DC Inputs

It is the number of inputs that can be connected to inverter through String monitoring box
(SMB).
 AC (output) nominal power
The AC nominal power of the solar power inverter is defined as the output specified for the PV
inverter when in continuous operation.

Figure 77: Typical specifications of Inverter
 Maximum Output Power

It is the maximum power that inverter can deliver in continuous operation.
 Nominal AC Current
It is an AC current that an inverter allows to deliver at the output or to the grid.
 Nominal Output Voltage
It is the output voltage that an inverter allows to energize the grid.
 Own consumption in operation & Standby Operation Consumption
It is the consumption an inverter draws when required for the internal circuitry to operate for a
certain amount of time.
 Harmonic Distortion
The harmonic distortion is defined as the ratio of sum of the power of all the signal harmonics
to that of the power of the fundamental frequency.

2.5 Anti- Islanding Feature
Inverters utilized for grid‐parallel operation (aka, “grid‐tied” or grid‐interactive inverters) operate as AC
current sources that feed power into the utility grid. These inverters act as AC current sources, and cannot
operate as voltage source, and therefore, this class of inverter is typically unable to supply the utility grid
as a stand‐alone generator. Grid‐tied inverters feed power into the grid as AC current at the same frequency
as the grid voltage.
Figure 78: Representation of an island condition
An “island” condition arises when a grid‐tied inverter continues to power the connected network even
though voltage sources from the electric utility are no longer present. An “island” (aka, “islanding”)
condition can occur due to a fault condition within the grid or when the grid shows a resonant‐load
behaviour. In such conditions even if the voltage from the grid network is no longer present, the resonance
between the reactive components (L‐C) of the grid will maintain the voltage at the inverter’s output
terminal. In this scenario a current source inverter cannot detect the absence of grid voltage, and if the
resistive load matches the power produced by the inverter, the parallel operation is perpetuated creating an
“island condition”.

MODULE 3: POWER QUALITY ISSUES, SAFETY AND
PROTECTION FEATURES OF SOLAR GRID CONNECTED
INVERTERS
3.1 POWER QUALITY ISSUE
Harmonic voltage levels in lowvoltage networks represent an important aspect of power quality. From the
point of view of electromagnetic compatibility, they must be kept within the compatibility levels to enable
satisfactory operation of all the equipment supplied by the network.
As photovoltaic systems incorporate power converters, which are harmonic generating devices, they will
have an influence on the power quality of the supply network. High harmonic distortion levels have also
been observed in certain remote regions such as winter sports resorts and rural areas far away from
substations. Distributed generation (DG) impacts the network. This impact is dependent on the location,
characteristics of the distributed energy source, related power electronic device, network configurations,
voltage level at the connection point, and the capacity of DG relative to load consumption. Consequently,
utilities are faced with the risk that the permissible levels defined in standard EN 50160 will be exceeded
in a significant number of networks in the future. It has been estimated that already in 2012, 60% of the
power system loads in USA were nonlinear loads.
Over the past decade, power quality (PQ) issues have become increasingly important in the distribution
grid with the widespread use of nonlinear electronic equipment. The most cited PQ problems that may
arise due to grid connected PV generation are voltage dips and fluctuations, harmonic distortion, transient
phenomena and reverse power flow. These effects result in potential damaging of sensitive electronic
equipment and capacitor banks, overheating of transformers and neutral conductors and additional losses
in the power system. Degraded power quality entails additional costs for both the electricity distributor and
its customers.
Harmonic currents in a network largely depend on the harmonic characteristics of the connected devices,
their phase angles and the background distortion level of the supply voltage. Harmonic current emission
spectrum information of a device (or a group of devices connected at a PCC) under different supply voltage
conditions is very useful for analysing the device’s influence in the network. This can be further utilised to
determine the probability density profile of each order harmonic currents in the network considering their
“timevarying” behaviour.
Some loads draw current with total harmonic distortion over 100%, but their active power consumption is
not as significant when compared to other harmonic generating devices. In such cases, harmonic distortion
may increase significantly when numerous harmonic emitting devices are utilized in bulk. The total impact
depends on the number of appliances, their power ratings, and their harmonic diversity. Harmonic angle

diversity is also relevant when multiple appliances are operating simultaneously, creating either emergence
or cancellation of harmonics. The attenuation effect is dependent only on the phase angle, but the effect’s
severity is dependent on the magnitude of the harmonic voltage.
The harmonic generation of a PV system depends on the inverter technology, solar irradiance, temperature,
loads, and the supply system characteristics. The harmonic distortion generated in PV plants can occur as
a result of intrinsic and extrinsic effects. Intrinsic harmonic distortions are related to inverter deficiencies,
e.g. components and control loop nonlinearities, measurement inaccuracies, and limited pulsewidth
modulation (PWM) resolution. Connection to a weak and distorted electrical grid can be considered an
extrinsic effect on the output waveform of a PV plant. A distorted voltage acts like a disturbance in the
inverter control system, causing distortion of the current waveform generated by the inverter.
Several factors affect the power quality characteristics of the PV inverter output current. Both the current
THD and the output reactive power are related to the output active power levels, which in turn are strongly
dependent on solar irradiance levels. Most of the inverters consume or feed reactive power into the network
depending on their output active power and their technology. During operation at low solar irradiance levels
(e.g. sunrise, sunset, cloudy days), current THD values can increase rapidly, since the THD factor is
inversely proportional to the output active power of the PV inverters. Nevertheless, THD is notably reduced
as the output active power of the PV Inverters increases and reaches its nominal value. The intrinsic
characteristics of the control circuit and nonlinear components of PV inverters may explain the current
distortion behaviour in the low power generation stages.
Varying power density of renewable energy resources (i.e. irradiance level and temperature in PV
conversion) potentially cause voltage and frequency variation or sag/swell patterns in the grid. Also,
application of power converters as interfaces between energy sources and the grid and their interaction with
other system components may cause high harmonics distortion.
In small and distributed or decentralized PV controlled systems, the CSIs (current source inverters) can
generate highly distorted current waveforms so that their cumulative effect in high penetration PV systems
can create hot spots within transformers; ultimately generating excessive eddy or copper loss.
The differing influences of harmonics in distribution networks are not necessarily visible/evident initially.
However, harmonics can have serious longterm consequences, of which the most important ones are:
 Overloading of consumer’s electrical installations and power system elements by higher order
frequencies of currents and voltages;
 Increased heating of neutral conductors caused by triple current harmonics (frequency multiplier
of number 3). The increased level of the triple harmonics in the neutral conductor can cause

serious damage and even lead to fires because the neutral conductor is not usually overload
protected;
 Increased transformer heating caused by higher (order and magnitude) harmonics, as well as
saturation effects in the core;
 Higher harmonics the power system can cause interference to telecommunication lines;
 Overstressing and resonant condition on the capacitors bank.
3.2 SAFETY AND PROTECTION FEATURES OF SOLAR GRID CONNECTED

INVERTERS
All inverters shall have the following standard protection features:
 DC U/O voltage
 Over Current/Short Circuit
 AC U/O voltage
 U/O Frequency
 DC side & AC side Earth Leakage
 Surge Protection
 Ingress Protection
Apart from these, the most important safety feature of a Grid connected inverter is AntiIslanding. Islanding
is a condition in which a distributed generator continues to power a location where utility power is no longer
available.
 Hazardous to Utility Workers if power lines remain energized.

 May hamper automatic reclosure devices.
 May cause abnormal voltage and frequency levels.
Solar Grid Inverters are required to have automatic AntiIslanding Protection.
3.2.1 Key Technical Considerations, Standards and Specifications

CEA’s (Technical Standards for Connectivity of the Distributed Generation Resources) Regulations, 2013
primarily govern the standards and guidelines for rooftop PV systems in India. These regulations refer to
relevant IS issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Further, in case of absence of relevant IS,
equivalent international standard should be followed in the following order: (a) International Electro
Technical Commission (IEC), (b) British Standard (BS), (c) American National Standard Institute (ANSI),
or (d) any other equivalent international standard. In addition, the regulations state that industry best
practices for installation, operation and maintenance should also be followed along with the relevant
standards.

Electrical Safety
i. General: All PV Systems should comply with the CEA’s (Measures relating to Safety and
Electrical Supply) Regulations, 2010
ii. Anti-Islanding: All grid connected, and Hybrid PV Inverters are designed to shut down
when the grid parameters like voltage, frequency, rate of change of frequency, etc change
beyond the predefined range of the inverter.
iii. Earthing (or Grounding): While earthing practice in India are common and guided by IS
30431987(Reaffirmed 2006), but as a PV system contains both AC and DC equipment,
earthing practices are often not obvious for such systems. Hence, clarification regarding
earthing practices become critical from System Designer’s as well asthe Electrical
Inspector’s perspective.
iv. DC Overcurrent Protection: The PV system is protected from overcurrent from the PV
modules with the help of fuses at the string junction box. As PV modules are connected in
series in a string, the shortcircuit current of the string is equal to the short circuit current
of the PV module. Each string should have two fuses, one connected to the positive and
the other to the negative terminal of the string. The fuse should be rated at 156 percent of
shortcircuit current and 1,000 VDC; if the exact current rating is not available, the nearest
available higher rating should be used.
v. DC Surge Protection: Several makes for DC surge arresters or SPD are available
specifically for PV applications. The surge arrestors should be of Type 2 (with reference
to Standard IEC 616431, “Low Voltage Surge Protective Devices”), rated at a continuous
operating voltage of at least 125 percent of the opencircuit voltage of the PV string, and a
flash current of more than 5 A. As the string inverters used for rooftop PV systems do not
allow more than 800 VDC, surge arrestors rated for 1,000 VDCare commonly used. The
surge arrestors should be connected to both positive and negative outgoing terminal of the
string junction box (if the inverter already does not have an equivalent inbuild DC surge
arrestor).
vi. Lightning Protection: Lightning protection installations should follow IS 23091989
(Reaffirmed 2010).
vii. Ingress Protection: All PV equipment, if installed outdoors, should have an ingress
protection rating of at least IP65. This strictly applies to all junction boxes, inverters and
connectors. Although many inverters are rated for operation up to a maximum ambient
temperature of 60°C, it is highly recommended to make an additional shading arrangement
to avoid exposure to direct sunlight and rain.

viii. Labelling of PV System Equipment: Labelling of PV equipment is a crucial aspect of
safety owing to the high DC voltages as well nonfamiliarity of technicians and laymen
with such a system. The labelling of a PV system should conform to IEC 62446 standard.
Electrical Quality
i. DC Power Injection: Most gridconnected inverters are transformerless, and hence,

utilities are concerned about DC power injection into the grid.
ii. Harmonic Injection: Most inverters are rated for THD of less than 3 percent of power
injected into the grid, and hence, are suitable for interconnection from a harmonic injection
standpoint in India.
iii. Phase Imbalance (or Unbalance): Phase imbalance can occur due to varied loads and
power injected into different phases of the distribution grid. The DISCOM should always
limit its voltage imbalance to less than 3 percent. Phase imbalance can potentially arise
from singlephase inverters feeding into the distribution grid. It is recommended that
DISCOMs should keep track of the PV capacity connected to each phase for
troubleshooting any extreme cases.
iv. Flicker: IEC 61000 is a set of standards on electromagnetic compatibility, which are
subdivided into sections that define:
 The environment from the EMC viewpoint and establish the compatibility levels
that the distributors must guarantee.
 The emission levels into the networks and immunity levels of the appliances.
v. Power Factor: Gridconnected PV inverters are typically capable of injecting energy into
the grid at unity power factor, and hence tend to have a positive impact on the grid.
3.2.2 Anti-Islanding
IEEE 15472003 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems
stipulates that inverters paired with Distributed Energy Resources are required to disconnect from the
Electric Power System within two seconds of the formation of an electrical island.
Islanding is the condition in which a distributed generator (DG) continues to power a location even
though electrical grid power is no longer present. Islanding can be dangerous to utility workers, who may
not realize that a circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic reconnection of devices.
Additionally, without strict frequency control the balance between load and generation in the islanded
circuit is going to be violated, leading to abnormal frequencies and voltages. For those reasons, distributed
generators must detect islanding and immediately disconnect from the circuit; this is referred to as anti-
islanding.

An island condition can be dangerous primarily due to the following reasons:
 Safety concerns: If an island condition is present utility workers working on the grid may be
encounter live conductors when expecting no voltage is present on the line.
 Equipment damage: Damage to customer equipment could occur if operating parameters differ
greatly from expected nominal values. In this case, the utility is liable for the damage.
 Reconnect to Grid: Reclosing the grid onto an active island may result in problems with the
utility's equipment, and/or cause automatic reclosing systems to fail to identify the problem.
 Inverter damage: Reclosing onto an active island may cause damage to connected inverters.
Differences in safety standards lead to different requirements for implementation of anti‐islanding

protection. Parameters shown below are typical of these variations:
 Time to detection interval (of an island condition) ‐ how quickly does the system identify an
island condition on the grid
 Time interval from detection to grid disconnection once detected, how quickly must the inverter
be disconnected from the grid ‐
 Grid parameters such as a variation in the Q‐factor used in the grid LC resonant load model
For a given inverter design, though a test methodology may be the same, these variations require capability
of different settings of the anti‐islanding circuit controls.
Detecting an islanding condition is the subject of considerable research. In general, these can be classified
into passive methods, which look for transient events on the grid, and active methods, which probe the grid
by sending signals of some sort from the inverter or the grid distribution point. There are also methods that
the utility can use to detect the conditions that would cause the inverterbased methods to fail, and
deliberately upset those conditions in order to make the inverters switch off.
3.2.2.1 Passive methods

Passive methods include any system that attempts to detect transient changes on the grid, and use that
information as the basis as a probabilistic determination of whether or not the grid has failed, or some other
condition has resulted in a temporary change.
(a) Under/over voltage

According to Ohm's law, the voltage in an electrical circuit is a function of electric current (the supply of
electrons) and the applied load (resistance). In the case of a grid interruption, the current being supplied by
the local source is unlikely to match the load so perfectly as to be able to maintain a constant voltage. A

system that periodically samples voltage and looks for sudden changes can be used to detect a fault
condition.
Under/over voltage detection is normally trivial to implement in gridinteractive inverters, because the basic
function of the inverter is to match the grid conditions, including voltage. That means that all grid
interactive inverters, by necessity, have the circuitry needed to detect the changes. All that is needed is an
algorithm to detect sudden changes. However, sudden changes in voltage are a common occurrence on the
grid as loads are attached and removed, so a threshold must be used to avoid false disconnections.
The range of conditions that result in nondetection with this method may be large, and these systems are
generally used along with other detection systems.
(b) Under/over frequency

The frequency of the power being delivered to the grid is a function of the supply, one that the inverters
carefully match. When the grid source is lost, the frequency of the power would fall to the natural resonant
frequency of the circuits in the island. Looking for changes in this frequency, like voltage, is easy to
implement using already required functionality, and for this reason almost all inverters also look for fault
conditions using this method as well.
Unlike changes in voltage, it is generally considered highly unlikely that a random circuit would naturally
have a natural frequency the same as the grid power. However, many devices deliberately synchronize to
the grid frequency, like televisions.
(c) Rate of change of frequency

In order to decrease the time in which an island is detected, rate of change of frequency has been adopted
as a detection method. The rate of change of frequency is given by the following expression:
Where f is the system frequency, t is the time, Delta P is the power imbalance (Delta P = Pm – Pe), G is
the system capacity, and H is the system inertia.
Should the rate of change of frequency, or ROCOF value, be greater than a certain value, the embedded
generation will be disconnected from the network.
(d) Voltage phase jump detection

Loads generally have power factors that are not perfect, meaning that they do not accept the voltage from
the grid perfectly, but impede it slightly. Gridtie inverters, by definition, have power factors of 1. This can
lead to changes in phase when the grid fails, which can be used to detect islanding.

Inverters generally track the phase of the grid signal using a phase locked loop (PLL) of some sort. The
PLL stays in sync with the grid signal by tracking when the signal crosses zero volts. Between those events,
the system is essentially "drawing" a sineshaped output, varying the current output to the circuit to produce
the proper voltage waveform. When the grid disconnects, the power factor suddenly changes from the grid's
(1) to the load's (~1). As the circuit is still providing a current that would produce a smooth voltage output
given the known loads, this condition will result in a sudden change in voltage. By the time the waveform
is completed and returns to zero, the signal will be out of phase.
The main advantage to this approach is that the shift in phase will occur even if the load exactly matches
the supply in terms of Ohm's law the NDZ is based on power factors of the island, which are very rarely
1. The downside is that many common events, like motors starting, also cause phase jumps as new
impedances are added to the circuit. This forces the system to use relatively large thresholds, reducing its
effectiveness.
(e) Harmonics detection

Even with noisy sources, like motors, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of a gridconnected circuit is
generally unmeasurable due to the essentially infinite capacity of the grid that filters these events out.
Inverters, on the other hand, generally have much larger distortions, as much as 5% THD. This is a function
of their construction; some THD is a natural sideeffect of the switchedmode power supply circuits most
inverters are based on.
Thus, when the grid disconnects, the THD of the local circuit will naturally increase to that of the inverters
themselves. This provides a very secure method of detecting islanding, because there are generally no other
sources of THD that would match that of the inverter. Additionally, interactions within the inverters
themselves, notably the transformers, have nonlinear effects that produce unique 2nd and 3rd harmonics
that are easily measurable.
The drawback of this approach is that some loads may filter out the distortion, in the same way that the
inverter attempts to. If this filtering effect is strong enough, it may reduce the THD below the threshold
needed to trigger detection. Systems without a transformer on the "inside" of the disconnect point will make
detection more difficult. However, the largest problem is that modern inverters attempt to lower the THD
as much as possible, in some cases to unmeasurable limits.
3.2.2.2 Active methods

Active methods generally attempt to detect a grid failure by injecting small signals into the line, and then
detecting whether or not the signal changes.

(a) Negative-sequence current injection
This method is an active islanding detection method which can be used by threephase electronically
coupled distributed generation (DG) units. The method is based on injecting a negativesequence current
through the voltagesourced converter (VSC) controller and detecting and quantifying the corresponding
negativesequence voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) of the VSC by means of a unified three
phase signal processor (UTSP). The UTSP system is an enhanced phaselocked loop (PLL) which provides
a high degree of immunity to noise, and thus enables islanding detection based on injecting a small negative
sequence current. The negativesequence current is injected by a negativesequence controller which is
adopted as the complementary of the conventional VSC current controller. The negativesequence current
injection method detects an islanding event within 60 ms (3.5 cycles) under UL1741 test conditions,
requires 2% to 3% negativesequence current injection for islanding detection, can correctly detect an
islanding event for the grid short circuit ratio of 2 or higher, and is insensitive to variations of the load
parameters of UL1741 test system.
(b) Impedance measurement

Impedance Measurement attempts to measure the overall impedance of the circuit being fed by the inverter.
It does this by slightly "forcing" the current amplitude through the AC cycle, presenting too much current
at a given time. Normally this would have no effect on the measured voltage, as the grid is an effectively
infinitely stiff voltage source. In the event of a disconnection, even the small forcing would result in a
noticeable change in voltage, allowing detection of the island.
The main advantage of this method is that it has a vanishingly small NDZ for any given single inverter.
However, the inverse is also the main weakness of this method; in the case of multiple inverters, each one
would be forcing a slightly different signal into the line, hiding the effects on any one inverter. It is possible
to address this problem by communication between the inverters to ensure they all force on the same
schedule, but in a nonhomogeneous install (multiple installations on a single branch) this becomes difficult
or impossible in practice. Additionally, the method only works if the grid is effectively infinite, and in
practice many realworld grid connections do not sufficiently meet this criterion.
(c) Impedance measurement at a specific frequency

Although the methodology is similar to Impedance Measurement, this method, also known as "harmonic
amplitude jump", is actually closer to Harmonics Detection. In this case, the inverter deliberately introduces
harmonics at a given frequency, and as in the case of Impedance Measurement, expects the signal from the
grid to overwhelm it until the grid fails. Like Harmonics Detection, the signal may be filtered out by real
world circuits.

(d) Slip mode frequency shift
This is one of the newest methods of islanding detection, and in theory, one of the best. It is based on
forcing the phase of the inverter's output to be slightly missaligned with the grid, with the expectation that
the grid will overwhelm this signal. The system relies on the actions of a finely tuned phaselocked loop to
become unstable when the grid signal is missing; in this case, the PLL attempts to adjust the signal back to
itself, which is tuned to continue to drift. In the case of grid failure, the system will quickly drift away from
the design frequency, eventually causing the inverter to shut down.
The major advantage of this approach is that it can be implemented using circuitry that is already present
in the inverter. The main disadvantage is that it requires the inverter to always be slightly out of time with
the grid, a lowered power factor. Generally speaking, the system has a vanishingly small NDZ and will
quickly disconnect, but it is known that there are some loads that will react to offset the detection
(e) Frequency bias

Frequency bias forces a slightly offfrequency signal into the grid, but "fixes" this at the end of every cycle
by jumping back into phase when the voltage passes zero. This creates a signal similar to Slip Mode, but
the power factor remains closer to that of the grid's, and resets itself every cycle. Moreover, the signal is
less likely to be filtered out by known loads. The main disadvantage is that every inverter would have to
agree to shift the signal back to zero at the same point on the cycle, say as the voltage crosses back to zero,
otherwise different inverters will force the signal in different directions and filter it out.
There are numerous possible variations to this basic scheme. The Frequency Jump version, also known as
the "zebra method", inserts forcing only on a specific number of cycles in a set pattern. This dramatically
reduces the chance that external circuits may filter the signal out. This advantage disappears with multiple
inverters, unless some way of synchronizing the patterns is used.
3.2.2.3 Utility-based methods

The utility also has a variety of methods available to it to force systems offline in the event of a failure.
(a) Manual disconnection

Most small generator connections require a mechanical disconnect switch, so at a minimum the utility could
send a repairman to pull them all. For very large sources, one might simply install a dedicated telephone
hotline that can be used to have an operator manually shut down the generator. In either case, the reaction
time is likely to be on the order of minutes, or hours.
(b) Automated disconnection

Manual disconnection could be automated through the use of signals sent though the grid, or on secondary
means. For instance, power line carrier communications could be installed in all inverters, periodically

checking for signals from the utility and disconnecting either on command, or if the signal disappears for a
fixed time. Such a system would be highly reliable, but expensive to implement.
(c) Transfer-trip method

As the utility can be reasonably assured that they will always have a method for discovering a fault, whether
that be automated or simply looking at the recloser, it is possible for the utility to use this information and
transmit it down the line. This can be used to force the tripping of properly equipped DG systems by
deliberately opening a series of recloser in the grid to force the DG system to be isolated in a way that
forces it out of the NDZ. This method can be guaranteed to work, but requires the grid to be equipped with
automated recloser systems, and external communications systems that guarantee the signal will make it
through to the recloser.
(d) Impedance insertion

A related concept is to deliberately force a section of the grid into a condition that will guarantee the DG
systems will disconnect. This is similar to the transfertrip method, but uses active systems at the headend
of the utility, as opposed to relying on the topology of the network.
A simple example is a large bank of capacitors that are added to a branch, left charged up and normally
disconnected by a switch. In the event of a failure, the capacitors are switched into the branch by the utility
after a short delay. This can be easily accomplished through automatic means at the point of distribution.
The capacitors can only supply current for a brief period, ensuring that the start or end of the pulse they
deliver will cause enough of a change to trip the inverters.
There appears to be no NDZ for this method of antiislanding. Its main disadvantage is cost; the capacitor
bank has to be large enough to cause changes in voltage that will be detected, and this is a function of the
amount of load on the branch. In theory, very large banks would be needed, an expense the utility is unlikely
to look on favourably.
(e) SCADA
Antiislanding protection can be improved through the use of the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems already widely used in the utility market. For instance, an alarm could sound if the
SCADA system detects voltage on a line where a failure is known to be in progress. This does not affect
the antiislanding systems, but may allow any of the systems noted above to be quickly implemented.
3.2.3 Grid Support Functions Affecting Anti-Islanding

 Low and high voltage ride through: The inverter must remain connected during certain defined
excursions of voltage away from nominal.

 Low and high frequency ride through: The inverter must remain connected during certain
defined excursions of frequency away from nominal.
 Volt-VAr control: The inverter controls its reactive power output following a predefined curve
based on the AC voltage at its terminals.
 Frequency-Watt control: The inverter controls its real power output following a predefined
curve based on the AC frequency at its terminals.
3.2.4 DC Injection
All certified models must meet the requirements of related safety standards relative to power quality, which
includes DC current injection.
As per IEEE1547 (referenced through UL1741), Transformer less Designs must be qualified by testing to
show DC current injection to the grid is limited to no more than 0.5% of full rated AC output current of the
inverter.
VDE V 0126-1-1, is a European standard that addresses DC injection protection and requires the following:
 DC Current Injection levels higher than 1A shall result in disconnection of the inverter from the
grid in less than 200ms.
 For all ABC models the current limit is set at 900ma and a grid disconnect time of no greater than
160ms is utilized.
 This measurement is accomplished by use of electronic/ computing circuitry that calculates DC
injection current on a cyclebycycle basis in real time, and uses the resulting measurement to
control the grid interconnection.
3.2.4.1 Procedure and Data Analysis

For all output current levels tested, the following data analysis is required:
i. Calculate average values of rms current and voltage on each phase. For each measurement, the
average shall include every sample point recorded during the 5 min test period.
ii. Verify that the average rms current on each phase is within 5% of the intended test point (33%,
66%, and 100%).
iii. Verify that the average rms voltage on each phase is within 5% of the nominal voltage.
iv. Calculate average values for the magnitude of the dc component of current on each phase. The
average shall be taken of the absolute (unsigned) value of every sample point recorded during the
5 min test period.

v. For each phase, divide the average dc component magnitude value by the rated output current of
the EUT and multiply the result by 100. Record the final calculated values as the percent dc
injection current for each phase.
vi. At the EUT output, measure the rms voltage, rms current, and dc component (frequency less than
1 Hz) of current on all phases. The averaging window for all measurements shall be not less than
one cycle and not more than 60 cycles.
vii. Record all measurements at a sampling rate of not less than the reciprocal of the selected
averaging window for a period of 5 min.
viii. Repeat steps v. through vii. with the DR operating at 66% and at a level as close to 100% of its
rated output current as practical.

MODULE 4: INSPECTION OF A SOLAR PV PLANT:
INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING ASPECTS
4.1 INSTALLATION ASPECTS
The management of the construction phase of a solar PV project should be in accordance with general
construction project management best practice. Therefore, the aim is to construct the project to the required
level of quality, within the time and cost limits. During construction, issues like environmental impact,
health and safety of the workforce (and other affected people) should also be carefully managed.
Grid connectivity, inspection and approval mark the final steps within the rooftop solar PV project process.
A successful connectivity and inspection procedure requires adherence to certain standards, regulations and
guidelines which are designed to commission a technically safe and compliant project and ensuring that the
system is operational.
These standards detail the requirements related to performances, operation, testing, safety and maintenance
of grid connectivity and inspection activities.
These standards can either be purchased or sourced from the web. Full text description of the standards is
beyond the scope of this training manual. However, general principles of these standards are summarized
in the following sections.
4.1.1 Applicable Standards and Regulations

 KSERC (Grid Interactive Distributed Solar Energy Systems) Regulations 2014
 KSERC (Renewable Energy) Regulations 2015
 CEA (Technical Standards for connectivity of the Distributed Generation Resources) Regulations
2010
NB: Refer 3.2.1 for more standards.
4.1.2 Requirements with respect to Harmonics, Direct Current (DC) Injection and
Flicker
 Harmonic current injections from a generating station shall not exceed the limits specified in
Institute of Electrical and Electronics (IEEE) Standard 519.
 The Generating station shall not inject DC current greater than 0.5 % of the full rated output at
the interconnection point.
 The Generating station shall not introduce flicker beyond the limits specified in IEC 61000.
 Measurement of harmonic content, DC injection and flicker shall be done at least once in a year
in presence of the parties concerned and the indicative date for the same shall be mentioned in

the connection agreement; Provided that in addition to annual measurement, if distribution
licensee or transmission licensee or the generating company, as the case may be, desires to
measure harmonic content or DC injection or flicker, it shall inform the other party in writing and
the measurement shall be carried out within 5 working days;
 The generating station shall be capable of supplying dynamically varying reactive power support
so as to maintain power factor within limits of 0.95 Lagging to 0.95 leading.
 The generating units shall be capable of operating in the frequency range of 4.5 Hz to 52 Hz and
shall be able to deliver rated output in the frequency range of 49.5 Hz to 50 Hz.
4.1.3 Installation Documents

 Equipment location The location for fixing the GTI to be finalised
 A layout drawing clearly indicating the position of each components (GTI, isolator, meter etc)
should be prepared.
Figure 79: Location Drawing - Typical
 BOM indicating the list of components, quantity, make etc shall be made ready and shall be
available at the time of installation, to verify the correct instruments are being installed.

Figure 80: Bill of material - Typical
 Schematic diagram indicating the interconnection of each components has to be there for reference.
Figure 81: Schematic Diagram - Typical

 Wiring diagram indicating the interconnection wiring their size, type, color code etc., is to be
accompanied.
 Block/single line diagram This will help in identifying each component.
Figure 82: Single Line Diagram - Typical
4.2 COMMISSIONING CHECKS

4.2.1 Visual Inspection of Solar Module
The very first item to inspect is the PV array. This can be difficult at times, particularly if the array is
on multiple roof faces and portions of the building blocks visual access to the roof. Ideally, the
inspector will get on the roof, with fall protection supplied by the contractor, so that a detailed
inspection of the array can be carried out. At times, the steepness of the roof, or the insurance
provisions of the county will not allow inspectors to get on the roof. In the case where the
inspector is unable to get on the roof, the array inspection should take place using a secured
ladder or personnel lift. The contractor should have one of those options prepared at the time of
the inspection.
Once access to the roof has been obtained, or view of the roof is available from a ladder, the
first item is simply to count the number of modules in the system. It is critical that number of
modules agree with the provided plans since the ratings of equipment, both for voltage and current
depend on the proper configuration. It is common for suppliers to substitute different product
between when the permit is pulled and the final installation. Although this is understandable, the
new array configuration must be provided in supplied asbuilt plans, and the alternative calculations
made for changes in the photovoltaic power source sign. Once the number of PV modules is
confirmed to match the drawing, the PV module model number should be compared with the
modules shown in the plans. Occasionally, module model numbers can change between the time

that the permit documents are approved and the final inspection. For products that are substantially
identical, the different module model number can be substituted without being considered a product
difference, provided documentation shows that the products are the same. Confirming the model
number of a module can be a challenge. For residential rooftop PV systems, the listing labels supplied
by the testing laboratory are on the back side and difficult or impossible to view. One option is
for a digital photo to be taken of the PV module label, and a copy of the photo supplied at the
time of inspection. An alternative to a printed version would be for the contractor take a picture
of the back side of the module and show the picture to the inspector. If neither of these methods
can be accomplished, a single representative module should be moved to provide a visual inspection
of the label. Lastly, with the module model number and quantity of modules confirmed, the
physical layout of the array should match the supplied site plan. Small variations may be common
to avoid roofing obstacles not noted in the original design which may be acceptable. However,
wholesale location changes should be documented in the permit package with an accurate as‐built
drawing in case the location change has structural implications.
4.2.1.1 Micro cracks on Solar Module

Solar panel micro cracks, or more precisely micro cracks in solar cells pose a frequent and complicated
challenge for manufacturers of photovoltaic (PV) modules. While on the one hand it is difficult to assess
in detail their impact on the overall efficiency and longevity of a solar panel, they are one of the main
sources of malfunctioning or even inactive cells. However, micro cracks are nearly impossible to avoid and
– in the longrun –will affect most solar panels, including ‘high quality’ ones. They are triggered by
mechanical and chemical natural factors stressing the panel operating in field, such as hail, snow, sun, wind
and severe cold. Further stress factors are geared to the thermal cycles of the cells involving contracting,
expanding and flexing metal contacts, solder and wire interconnects.
(a) Potential Impact on Solar Module

Even though they are nearly impossible to avoid in the longrun, their potential impacts pose quite a serious
issue that should be addressed as early as possible – a requirement that is only insufficiently met during
quality control at many manufacturers.
Micro cracks may have various defect origins and result in rather “soft” outcomes such as yieldreducing
shattering of parts of the affected cell up to mores severe impacts involving decreases of the short circuit
current and cell efficiency.
Often, they are a result of mechanical forces or thermal stress. In the production process, micro cracks most
frequently occur during lamination of the panel, especially when using certain EVA films with weak
moisture impermeability.

Figure 83: Micro cracks visible with Electro Luminescence (EL) test
If in such cases even slight moisture occurs, it cannot easily evaporate which is particularly problematic in
hot areas and environments. The moisture may in such cases pass through the micro cracks on the front of
the laminate, followed by the oxidization of the contact fingers.
(b) Micro cracks in a monocrystalline Solar PV Module

Micro cracks can also occur during manual soldering when varying thermal expansions of the copper and
the silicon elements develop at temperatures above 300°C. Those temperature differentials can lead to the
formation of micro cracks in the substrate and thus result in higher cell resistance. Cracks potentially grow
over a longer operational time and thus extend their malicious impact on the functionality and performance
of a PV module, potentially triggering hot spots as well. Undetected, microcracks can result in a less than
expected field lifespan. They differ in size, location on the cell and impact quality. There are different
quality testing methods to identify micro cracks of which electroluminescence (EL) or electroluminescence
crack detection (ELCD) testing is one of the most applied method.EL testing can detect hidden defects that
were before untraceable by other testing methods, such as infrared (IR) imaging with thermal cameras, V
A characteristic and flash testing. It is an image analysis and measurement process allowing to peer directly
into the cells of a pv module and locate potential inherent defects.
Figure 84: Luminescence (EL) test – Defect cells

4.2.1.2 Hot Spot on Solar Module
Hotspot heating occurs when there is one low current solar cell in a string of at least several high short
circuit current solar cells, as shown in the figure below.
Figure 85: Effect of shaded cell in a series
If the operating current of the overall series string approaches the shortcircuit current of the "bad" cell, the
overall current becomes limited by the bad cell. The extra current produced by the good cells then forward
biases the good solar cells. If the series string is short circuited, then the forward bias across all of these
cells reverse biases the shaded cell. Hotspot heating occurs when a large number of series connected cells
cause a large reverse bias across the shaded cell, leading to large dissipation of power in the poor cell.
Essentially the entire generating capacity of all the good cells is dissipated in the poor cell. The enormous
power dissipation occurring in a small area results in local overheating, or "hotspots", which in turn leads
to destructive effects, such as cell or glass cracking, melting of solder or degradation of the solar cell.
Figure 86: Cracked module due to heat dissipation in shaded cell

4.2.2 Thermal Imaging
Thermal imaging is a method of improving visibility of objects in a dark environment by detecting the
objects' infrared radiation and creating an image based on that information. Thermal imaging, nearinfrared
illumination, lowlight imaging and are the three most commonly used night vision technologies. Unlike
the other two methods, thermal imaging works in environments without any ambient light. Like near
infrared illumination, thermal imaging can penetrate obscurants such as smoke, fog and haze.
Here's a brief explanation of how thermal imaging works: All objects emit infrared energy (heat) as a
function of their temperature. The infrared energy emitted by an object is known as its heat signature. In
general, the hotter an object is, the more radiation it emits. A thermal imager (also known as a thermal
camera) is essentially a heat sensor that is capable of detecting tiny differences in temperature. The device
collects the infrared radiation from objects in the scene and creates an electronic image based on
information about the temperature differences. Because objects are rarely precisely the same temperature
as other objects around them, a thermal camera can detect them and they will appear as distinct in a thermal
image.
Thermal images are normally grayscale in nature: black objects are cold, white objects are hot and the depth
of gray indicates variations between the two. Some thermal cameras, however, add color to images to help
users identify objects at different temperatures.
Figure 87: Thermography Image
Thermography
Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal imaging, and thermal video are examples of infrared imaging
science. Thermographic cameras usually detect radiation in the longinfrared range of the electromagnetic
spectrum (roughly 9,000–14,000 nanometers or 9–14 µm) and produce images of that radiation, called
thermograms. Thermography is used in allergy detection and veterinary medicine. It is also used for breast

screening, though primarily by alternative practitioners as it is considerably less accurate and specific than
competing techniques.
A thermal imager (also known as a thermal camera) is essentially a heat sensor that is capable of detecting
tiny differences in temperature. The device collects the infrared radiation from objects in the scene and
creates an electronic image based on information about the temperature differences.
4.3 STAGES OF INSTALLATION STUDY

The scope of works outlined in this proposal is presented in three welldefined stages (as summarised
below) with Break Points as shown. If, at the end of either of the first two stages the installation of a solar
PV array is judged to be technically, financially or logistically unfeasible or simply deemed inappropriate
for the designated site, then the project will end without progressing to the next stage.
 Stage 1. PreFeasibility Study. A desktop based analysis of the site(s) to provide a highlevel
analysis of the options and feasibility of installing a PV array.
 Stage 2. Site Visit. The walkover survey to provide an opportunity to gain a better understanding
of the site(s) and any potential issues.
 Stage 3. Detailed Study. A detailed study providing clear advice on viable array options, installation
considerations and to produce a workpackage of installation information
4.3.1 Stage 1 – Pre-Feasibility Study

The Preliminary Feasibility Study will provide with a high level options appraisal of the various key
considerations to address when installing a solar PV array and whether the proposed array(s) will be
building integrated or ground mounted.
This desk based study will include advice on the possible array size, electrical performance and financial
payback while also identifying barriers to the scheme development. The objectives of the study will be to:
 Identify site options for potential array configurations

 Undertake a constraints analysis to assess the technical, economic and logistical viability of each
potential array configuration
 Identify any issues that may compromise the installation of a solar PV array or limit its
performance, whether these issues are technical, financial or logistical in nature.
 Develop a roadmap for the next steps going forward

(a) Scope of Study
The key elements of the Preliminary Feasibility Study are listed below. Any additional requirements the
consultant is aware of should be included in your proposal.
 Site and resource assessment

o High level site solar resource assessment
o Location/building suitability assessment
o Potential grid connection issues
 Array Considerations
o Options appraisal on different array configurations (e.g. ground mounted, building
integrated etc.)
o Approximate array sizes
o Any shading implications
o Wind loading considerations
o Array maintenance and cleaning issues
o A review of module mounting systems
 Performance assessment
o Simple financial appraisal and payback calculations
 Practical aspects
 An assessment of required planning applications
(b) Deliverables
The deliverable from the Preliminary Feasibility Study will be a single report which addresses each of the
points listed within the Scope of the study, and any other relevant information, and includes a concluding
section that highlights any issues that may impact on the installation or compromise its performance at the
proposed location.

4.3.2 Stage 2 – Site visit
The main focus of the Site Visit will be a walkover survey and visual inspection of the site(s) and the
proposed array locations. It will provide an opportunity for consultants to gain a better understanding of the
site(s) and highlight any potential issues. The objectives of the study will be to:
 Follow up on any potential issues highlighted at the preliminary feasibility stage

 Highlight any issues which may arise through the installation process
 Gather site specific details to enable all technical documents to be produced to complete the
installation (eg planning applications, grid connection applications, applications for finance,
hardware procurement)
 Identify any issues that may impact on the array installation(s) or limit its performance
 Develop a roadmap for the next steps going forward
(a) Scope of Study

The key elements of the Site Visit(s) are listed below. Any additional requirements the consultant is aware
of should be included in your proposal.
 Obtain building EPC certificate(s) as required

 Discuss the electricity use of the building(s), what is the total electricity use and monthly electricity
use. How well does the electricity use match the output of solar PV?
 Confirm space allocations for array components (e.g. modules, inverters, balance of systems (BOS)
components such as cabling and switching gear and future access for maintenance)
 Review any site access issues that may impact on the installation (e.g. scaffolding requirements,
site access routes, deliveries etc.)
 Confirm any array shading issues highlighted at the previous stage, including shading on the roof
from existing equipment.
 Carry out a shading survey, which if appropriate, follows the latest guidance provided by the
Scheme (MCS)
 Assess site layout and confirm scheme design
 Identification of suitable grid infrastructure in the local vicinity (and initial discussions with the
DNO as required)
 For roof mounted, review the condition and loading of the roof, assess if a structural engineers
report is needed.
 For ground mounted, review ground conditions, assess if further geotechnical analysis required and
complete as appropriate

(b) Deliverables
The deliverable from the Site Visit stage of this work will be a single report which addresses each of the
points listed within the Scope of study and any additional points the consultant considers relevant, including
a concluding section that highlights any issues that may impact on the installation or compromise its
performance at the proposed location.
4.3.3 Stage 3 – Detailed Study

A final Detailed Study will provide clear advice on the available array options and highlight those with the
greatest potential for development. Any potential risks or barriers will be highlighted along with advice on
those risks or barriers that can be mitigated and those which could prove to be insurmountable. The study
should also consider how financial benefits will be achieved and provide advice on a range of potential
business models, indicating the strengths and weaknesses of each.
Following completion of the detailed study should be provided with enough information to make a fully
informed decision regarding the location, scale, cost and suppliers of the scheme. The objectives of the
study will be to:
 Follow up on any issues highlighted at the previous stage.

 Confirm array performance data and financial details.
 Compile a complete package of installation information.
 Identify any issues that may impact on the installation or performance of an installed solar PV
array.
 Identify key areas of risk and suggest mitigation actions.
 Secure all consents, permits, accreditations, etc. necessary for the development.
 Identify potential suppliers and installers.
(a) Scope of Study

They key elements of the detailed study are listed below.
 Financial appraisal
o Full financial appraisal with costs obtained from 3 potential suppliers (capital cost
estimates and operation & maintenance) and revenue clearly noting method of
estimation, details of relevant assumptions and uncertainty of estimates.
o Scenario modelling of potential increase in costs or reductions in revenue
o Account for most recent FIT tariff rates that may influence the sizing of the scheme and
sizing to optimise benefit from the FIT.
 Planning issues

o Consult the local planning authority (LPA) to determine if a planning application is
required for the PV system and (where necessary) prepare and submit the full planning
application with all necessary supporting environmental and technical documentation to
the LPA.
o Liaise with the LPA and their statutory consultees as required after submission of the
application to ensure planning is consented for the solar PV system.
o Liaise with building control through the design process to ensure the project complies
with building regulations and to secure all necessary building warrants.
o Obtain all necessary consents to construct and operate a solar PV system at the site.
 System design
o Prepare a full design of the solar PV system (including electrical diagrams, module
mounting system details etc.)
 Project Management
o Approximate project initiation date and installation duration, highlighting any site access
requirements that the owner needs to be aware of.
o Risk Assessment of developing a solar PV scheme at the site(s), and how these risks are
best mitigated going forward.
o Provide the documents needed for preliminary accreditation for the FIT, planning
consent, grid connection etc.
o Assess the impact of digression, to show the impact of a slippage in timeline for
implementation.
 Grid connection issues
o Liaise with the distribution network operator (DNO) to secure G83/G59 grid connection
consent with an export capacity for the rated output of the system
 Environmental considerations
o Detailed evaluation of CO2 emissions offset.
o Environmental impacts on the local area (e.g. Scottish Natural Heritage designated
protected areas, glare etc.)
The performance assessment should include the reduction in solar PV system over its lifetime and the need
to replace inverters over the systems lifetime.
(b) Deliverables
There are two deliverables resulting from the Detailed Study stage of this work. The first of these is a report
which addresses each of the points listed in the Scope of study and includes a concluding section that

highlights any issues that may impact on the installation or performance of an installed solar PV array at
the proposed location.
The second deliverable is a complete package of installation information (Design Document) which
includes all the information necessary for a thirdparty organisation to complete the installation as specified.
4.4 METHODOLOGY
Consultants should present how they intend to approach the delivery of the requirements set out above
The project will be phased to include break points, where any barriers identified to the development of the
project that could completely prohibit further development, should be outlined. will determine, in
consultation with the appointed consultant, whether the project should proceed further.
We would expect the following activities to be included as part of the outlined scope of works:
 An introductory meeting with to assess needs, preferences and aspirations, as well as to agree
ways of working, timeframe, logistics, etc.;
 Confirmation of the scope of works following the introductory meeting with any amendments /
adjustments to the proposal highlighted and issued. It is anticipated there will be minimal
changes;
 Close liaison and collaboration with throughout the duration of the project;
 Presentation to of the findings and draft reports, with opportunities for discussion and questions.
The outcome of this will be used to finalise the reports.
The successful supplier is to provide a full design service in full compliance with MCS requirements if
relevant, for all aspects of the solar PV system including its mounting (building integrated or ground
mounted), its integrity and its connection with the private electrical infrastructure at the site. This is to
include the following (among others):
 Structural assessment (if required) to confirm building suitability for the additional loads from the
solar PV system – building mounted
 Structural design for any modifications required to the building to accommodate the solar PV
system – building mounted.
 Optimum layout of the solar panels to maximise return on investment for the Client and to achieve
the required performance specifications.
 Safe access and lifting for the installation of the frame and panels on ground mounting or building
mounted.
 Design of the mounting system to fix the panels to the ground mounting or building mounting and
to ensure a weather proof seal.

 DC and AC cabling, switchgear, inverters, G83/G59 relay protection and grid connection.
 Annual energy yield from the PV system with a performance and availability guarantee.
The system is to be Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) accredited (if any sites are less than
50kWp in size) and will claim FeedInTariffs for the energy generated.
A design document will be produced by the successful bidder and issued to for approval before the project
proceeds to the procurement, supply and installation stage.
This design document will include the following information (among others):
 Results of the structural/ ground survey.

 Design of structural modifications to the building to accommodate the solar PV system (where
necessary).
 Solar PV array design (PV panel specification, number of strings, modules in each string, inverter
specification).
 Details of the safe access and lifting methodology for the installation.
 All health and safety documentation for the safe installation of the solar PV system.
 Details of the mounting system design, method of fixing to the ground mounting or building
mounting and method of sealing penetrations with workmanship warranties.
 Drawing showing the plan and elevation layout of the PV system.
 AC and DC cable specification, protection equipment specification, OFGEM accredited meter
specification and grid connection specification.
 Bill of materials detailing the specification of all equipment to be used for the supply, installation
and commissioning of the project.
 Annual energy yield from PVSol software (or equivalent), hours of shading, allowable losses in
the system, performance guarantee and availability guarantee.
For the avoidance of doubt, the design service is to include every aspect necessary to install and operate the
solar PV system at the respective site(s), given the existing infrastructure at the site(s). does not anticipate
employing any further consultants to carry out any design work for the project.
The key underlying specifications to be upheld in providing the above listed services are that for the final
system designed and installed:
 The supplier will be accredited on the MCS certification scheme for solar PV installations if
required.
 The PV system will have planning consent or confirmation of permitted development rights.

 The PV system will have building control approval if an installation does not comply with the
relevant Permitted Development rights.
 The PV system will be designed and installed in compliance with appropriate guidelines, for
example:
o MIS3002: Requirements for Contractors Undertaking the Design, Supply, Installation, Set
to Work Commissioning and Handover of Solar Photovoltaic Microgeneration Systems;
o MCS Guide to the Installation of Photovoltaic Systems. 1st Edition 2012; and
o BS EN 62548: Installation and Safety Requirements for Photovoltaic (PV) Generators
 The PV system will comply with all relevant building warrants; Health and Safety and CDM
regulations; British Standards, European Standard, Microgeneration Certification Scheme
standards and all other relevant standards and regulations.
 If appropriate, the solar PV panels and inverters will be MCS accredited and will be manufactured
by a global reputable organisation.
 The PV system will be installed in compliance with all health and safety and CDM regulations.
 The PV system will be inspected and tested in compliance with BS 7671 and as agreed with the
distribution network operator (DNO).
 The PV system will be labelled as required by all relevant standards and the DNO.
 If appropriate, the PV system(s) will be MCS accredited.
 The PV system will include an OFGEM accredited total generation meter and will be registered for
FeedInTariffs with OFGEM.
(a) Expected Outputs

The expected outputs are stated in the scope of works. These are predominantly in a report format or specific
to the deliverable.
 A preliminary feasibility study report should be provided electronically, covering each of the points
listed in Stage 1 (PreFeasibility Study) of the work.
 A site visit report should be provided electronically, covering each of the points listed in Stage 2
(Site Visit) of the work.
 A detailed study report should be provided electronically, covering each of the points listed in Stage
3 (Detailed Study) of the work.
 A package of installation information (a Design Document) as outlined above in Stage 3.
(b) Project Time Table

The key milestones are:
 Closing date for tender responses

 Successful bidder will be notified
 Project initiation
 Submission of preliminary feasibility report
 Submission of site visit report
 Submission of detailed study report
There is flexibility in the timetable for the project phases and details of the timescales for completion of
each phase will be agreed with selected consultant at the project initiation.
4.5 COMMISSIONING
Commissioning should start immediately after installation has been completed or, where appropriate,
sequentially as strings are connected. For power plants employing modules which require a settlingin
period, for example, thin film amorphous silicon modules, performance testing should begin once the
settling in period has been completed and the modules have degraded. Since irradiance has an impact on
performance, tests should be carried out under stable sky conditions. The temperature of the cells within
the modules should be recorded in addition to the irradiance and time.
Ideally, commissioning should be carried out by an independent specialist third party selected by the owner.
It should include both visual and electrical testing. In particular, visual testing should be carried out before
any system is energized. The testing outlined in this section does not preclude local norms which will vary
from country to country. Test results should be recorded as part of a signedoff commissioning record.
While an independent specialist would be expected to carry out these tests, it is important that the developer
and owner are aware of them and make sure that the required documentation is completed, submitted and
recorded.
4.5.1 Pre-Connection Acceptance Test

Prior to connecting the power plant to the grid, electrical continuity and conductivity should be checked by
the electrical contractor. Once completed, preconnection acceptance testing should be carried out on the
DC side of the inverters.
These tests according to IEC 62446 should include:
 Open Circuit Voltage Test

 Short Circuit Current Test
4.5.1.1 Open Circuit Voltage Test

This test checks whether all strings are properly connected (module and string polarity) and whether all
modules are producing the voltage level as per the module data sheet. The test should be conducted for all

strings. The open circuit voltage, Voc, should be recorded and compared with temperature adjusted
theoretical values.
4.5.1.2 Short Circuit Current Test

This test verifies whether all strings are properly connected, and the modules are producing the expected
current. The test should be conducted for all strings. The short circuit current, Isc, should be recorded and
compared with the temperature adjusted theoretical values.
4.5.2 Post-Connection Acceptance Test

Once the power plant is connected to the grid, the inverters will be powered up according to the
manufacturer’s startup sequence. Inverter internal meters and displays should be verified prior to use.
Post grid connection should include:
 DC current test
 Performance ratio test
4.5.2.1 DC Current Test

This test verifies whether all strings are producing adequate and consistent operating current as per the
module data sheets. The test should be conducted for all strings. The string current values per inverter will
be checked against the average values of all strings connected to the same inverter and checked against
acceptance criteria.
4.5.2.2 Performance Ratio Test

This test checks if the power plant is performing at or above the performance ratio agreed or warranted
within the EPC contract. A standard testing period would be continuous testing for a minimum of ten
consecutive days. Typically, a minimum irradiance will be defined, and the performance ratio measured for
the period in which that irradiance is exceeded. The electrical energy generated should be recorded at the
metering point (or as agreed in the contract documentation) and compared with the guaranteed value
provided by the EPC contractor. An adjustment can be made to account for the temperatures observed
during the test. This is known as the adjusted performance ratio. The electrical energy generated is typically
considered to be acceptable if it is within ± 35% of the value given by the agreed temperature adjusted
performance ratio. If there are significant differences between the contractual and actual adjusted
performance ratio, the EPC contractor should identify and rectify the discrepancy before repeating the
performance ratio test.

4.5.2.3 Availability Test
An availability test should be performed in parallel with the performance ratio test as described above. This
will confirm that an acceptable availability is being achieved according to guaranteed values. The test will
typically be performed for a minimum of ten consecutive days under stable sky conditions.
The availability of the system can be defined using the formula:
Figure 88: Measured Average Availability
4.5.3 Provisional Acceptance

The completion of the commissioning tests outlined above often forms part of the acceptance tests for the
PV power plant. In some instances, the performance ratio test will be repeated after a period of operation.
In such a case, the completion of the commissioning tests marks the provisional acceptance of the PV power
plant. The final acceptance takes place after a successful repeated performance ratio test. The period of
operation between the two tests is dependent on the contract with the EPC contractor and the level of risk
taken on the components of the PV power plant.
For example, a PV power plant with a new technology, an untested module manufacturer or a new EPC
contractor may carry a larger degree of technology risk. Therefore, repeating the performance ratio test
after one or two year’s operation helps identify degradation and teething problems.

4.5.4 Installation Checklist
Table 4: Installation Checklist
Item No. Type of item No. reqd. Details ok
1 PV module
2 Solar mounting structure
3 Hardware for connecting frame to roof
4 Hardware for connecting module for
frame
5 Hardware for ensuring roof is watertight
6 Cable between module & junction box
7 Conduit if required (module to junction
box)
8 Fastening hardware for inverter
9 Junction box
10 Hardware for fastening junction box to
wall
11 PV array DC isolator between solar array
and inverter
12 Cable from disconnect to inverter
13 Conduit if required (disconnect to
inverter)
14 Fastening hardware for cable/conduit
15 Inverter model
16 Fastening hardware for inverter
17 Cable between inverter and switchboard
18 Conduit if required (inverter to
switchboard
19 Fastening hardware for cable/conduit
20 PV inverter AC isolator
21 Required signage
22 Installation tools

4.5.5 Pre-Commissioning Checklist
 Prior to commissioning, the service provider of the SPV systems must perform the pre
commissioning checks.
 This activity shall be conducted by the competent persons as stated at the end of the checklist,
whilst adhering to the relevant laws and regulations.
 A copy of the completed precommissioning checklist and test results must be submitted to Project
Owner and Distribution Licensee (DL) for application of Testing and Commissioning.
 During the precommissioning checks, the GCPV systems SHALL NOT BE ENGAGED to the
grid.
The precommissioning checks consist the following (mandatory minimum):
1. Information about Project

2. Checklist for General Inspection
3. Checklist for PV Module Mounting Structure & Civil foundation
4. Checklist for DC Junction Box or String Monitoring Box
5. Checklist for Earthing & Lightning Arrestor
6. Checklist for PV Module
7. Checklist for Inverter
8. Checklist for AC Distribution Box
9. Checklist of Cable identification and cable routing inspection
10. Checklist for weather monitoring station and monitoring system
11. Cable insulation test
12. String fuse continuity and string open circuit voltage test
13. String DC short circuit current test
14. Isolation device functional test
Sample of PreInspection checklists are illustrated in the following sections.

4.5.5.1 Information about Project
Figure 89: Pre-commissioning Checklist-Information of a Project

4.5.5.2 Checklist for General Information
Figure 90: Pre-Commissioning Checklist for General Inspection
4.5.6 Testing and Commissioning Checklist

 This activity shall be conducted by competent persons as stated at the end of the checklist whilst
adhering to the provisions of all relevant laws and regulations.
 After completion of the precommissioning checklist and tests, the service provider must perform
 Ccommissioning tests to ensure all interconnections of the components are satisfactory.
The commissioning test comprises the following:
1. Information about PV module
2. Information about PV array
3. Information about inverter
4. Inverter functional test
5. Acceptance test

Conditions:
1. All tests must be done in sequence.
2. If a test fails, the next test shall not be performed.
3. Failure of any test nullifies the entire Testing and Commissioning.
4. The Weather Monitoring Station and PV Monitoring System shall be provided (In case Ground
Mounted Plant), installed.
Sample of PreInspection checklists are as follows.
4.5.6.1 Information about PV Module
Figure 91: Commissioning Test – Information about PV Module

4.5.6.2 Inverter Functional Test
Figure 92: Commissioning Test – Invrter Functional Test

4.5.6.3 Acceptance Test
Figure 93: Commissioning Test – Acceptance Test

MODULE 5: SAFETY & POWER QUALITY ISSUES, ROLE OF
ELECTRICAL INSPECTORATE
Discussion with District Electrical Inspector on various aspects

MODULE 6: REGULATORY ASPECTS, SYSTEMS &
PROCEDURES AND SAFETY ASPECTS, EARTHING
6.1 GRID INTERACTIVE DISTRIBUTED SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM
REGULATION 2014
 Minimum capacity 1 kW peak
 Maximum 1 MW peak
 Located in the premises of the consumer
 Distribution licensee shall give connectivity to low tension consumers and high tension consumers
 For low tension consumers 15 % of transformer capacity
 For 11 kV consumers
 Cumulative capacity of the solar energy systems is less than 80% of the average minimum load on the
feeder for one year prior to submission of application form
 The licensee shall extend the facility to bank the electricity generated and injected into the feeder
 The eligible consumer in T.O.D billing system shall be entitled to use the quantum of electricity banked
first in corresponding normal period and the balance in peak period and in off peak period in succession
in subsequent billing period
6.2 SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS AND SAFETY

 CEA Technical standards for connectivity Regulations 2013
 CEA Measures relating to safety and Electric supply Regulations 2010
 CEA Installation and operation of Meters Regulations 2006
 The net meter shall be installed at the interconnection point of the consumer with the network of the
licensee
 Solar meter shall be installed at the delivery point of the solar energy system
 Solar meter and net meter shall have facility for reading using meter reading instrument (MRI)
 Meters shall be tested and sealed
 Licensee shall make available a correct net meter and solar meter to consumer
 Consumer can also opt for purchase of meter

 Consumer shall have the right to avail open access for wheeling the excess energy generated in other
premises owned by him
 Right of wheeling excess energy shall be available only if the electricity wheeled to the other premises
owned by the consumer exceeds 500 units in a month.
 Wheeling charges will be 5 % of the units wheeled.
6.3 PROCEDURE FOR GRANTING CONNECTION

 Consumer has to apply in prescribed form.
 Application to be acknowledged
 Licensee shall assess the feasibility and inform the consumer within 15 days of receipt of the
application. Validity 1 month
 The consumer on receipt of intimation shall submit an application with details of the solar installation
proposed to be installed
 The licensee shall intimate the consumer the amount of registration fee and any defect noticed in the
solar system proposed within 3 days.
 On receipt of the registration fee and rectifying the defects if any the licensee shall assign a registration
number. Validity 6 months.
 The consumer has to install the solar system within 6 months and obtain the Sanction for Energization
from the Electrical Inspector.
 Joint inspection has to be arranged
 The licensee shall within 15 days shall conduct any test in accordance with the CEA regulations 2013
 On successful completion of the tests the consumer shall execute a connection agreement in the format
containing the general and specific conditions a approved by the Commission.
 The licensee shall within 7 days from the date of execution of the agreement, commission the solar
power system.
 License to give statement of accounts
 Quantum of banked energy
 Quantum of energy injected
 Quantum of net electricity

 Quantum of energy injected in excess of drawal to be carried over to the next bill.
 The licensee shall pay for the net electricity banked by the consumer at the end of the settlement period
at the average pooled purchase cost of electricity as approved by the Commission.
6.4 CEA REGULATIONS

CEA (TECHNICAL STANDARDS FOR CONNECTIVITY OF DISTRIBUTEED GENERATION
SOURCES) REGULATION 2013
PUBLISHED IN THE GAZETE OF INDIA, OCTOBER 7 2013
GAZETTE OF INDIA EXTRAORDINARY PART 3 SECTION 4
 The applicant shall make a request to the licensee for connectivity
 The applicant shall be responsible for design, construction and safe operation
 Necessary facility for communication and storage of data as stipulated by the licensee
 Shall coordinate with the licensee for protection , safety and metering
 The licensee shall conduct study to determine
 Point of inter connection
 Maximum net capacity
 Impact on quality of service
 Additional measures to safety of equipment and personnel
 Shall have a connection agreement
 Licensee shall inform the STU and SLDC
 The applicant shall comply CEA ( Measures relating to safety and electricity supply ) Regulation 2010
 Metering shall be provided as stipulated in CEA ( installation and operation of meters ) Regulation
2006
 Measurement of harmonic current injection, direct current (DC ) injection , and flicker shall be done
with a calibrated meter
 Harmonic current injection shall not exceed the limits specified in IEEE 519
 Direct current injection shall not be more than 0.5 % of the full rated capacity at the inter connection
point
 Shall not introduce flicker beyond the limit specified by IEC 6100

 Shall be equipped with automatic synchronizing device
 Protection for over voltage and under voltage 110 % and 80 % respectively
 Over frequency and under frequency protection – 50.5 Hz – 47.5 Hz
 Shall be provided with voltage, frequency sensing and time delay to verify the stability of voltage and
frequency for at least 60 seconds
 Shall not cause voltage fluctuation of more than 5% ( plus or minus ) when connected.
 Shall be provided with a switch showing physical isolation
 Shall clearly show open and closed conditions
 Shall be installed at a height of 2.44 m above the ground at accessible position
 Shall have Anti Islanding protection
 One copy of the approved drawing showing protection and control features signed by the applicant
and the licensee shall be in possession of the applicant and the licensee
Figure 94: Yesterdays Power System

Figure 95: Todays Power System
6.5 HIGH PENATRATION POSSIBLE TECHNICAL ISSUES

 Voltage rise/reverse power flow
 Islanding
 System stability & efficiency
 Phase Imbalance
 Grid voltage fluctuation/frequency changes
 PV Power output fluctuation
 Power Quality ( Short term fluctuations)
 Reverse Generation Requirements (Longer term fluctuations)
 Power factor decrease
 Harmonics
 Fault behavior

Figure 96: System Stability – Cloud Effect
6.6 CLOUD SHEAR

 Impacts of aggregated systems unknown
 Time resolution of load data seen by generators insufficient
 Work being undertaken to predict fluctuations and dynamically adjust spinning reverse
 Solutions
 Frequency (& voltage) ride through
6.7 POWER SYSTEM PLANNING STRETAGIES

 PM forecast
 Monitoring (Large systems & selection of small)
 Utility Control (e.g: 300kWp planned system)
 Control output
 Reactive power support
 Fault ride through

 Potential
 Dynamic spinning reverse strategy
 Can regulations be interpreted differently?
6.8 INTEGRATION OF PV INVERTERS
Figure 97: Integration of PV Inverter
6.9 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF SOLAR MODULES

 Component of LPS
 Natural Air Termination
 Down conductor
 Earth electrode
 External LPS is intended to intercept direct lightning flashes to the structure and conduct the lightning
current to the ground
 Earth termination system
 From the view point of lightning protection , a single integrated structure earth termination system is
preferable and is suitable for all purpose ( lightning protection, power system and telecommunication
system )
 Low earth resistance ( lower than 10 ohm ) is recommended

 Installation earth electrode
 Number of earth electrode shall not be less than number of down conductors
 The ring earth electrode should be preferably buried at a depth of 0.5 m and 1 m away from external
walls
 Component of LPS shall be
 Copper, Aluminium, hot dip galvanized steel, stainless steel, copper coated steel
 Minimum dimension of conductors
 Copper 16 square mm
 Aluminium 25 square mm
 Steel 50 square mm
 Minimum dimension for connecting to bonding bar
 Copper – 6 square mm
 Aluminum 10 square mm
 Steel 16 square mm
6.9.1 Rolling Sphere Method

The rolling sphere theory is based on two assumptions:
 The point of strike of lightning is determined when the downward leader approaches the earth or a
structure with a striking distance
 Lightning strikes the nearest earth object from the orientation point and so its worst position is the
center of a sphere which attaches several earth objects.
No lightning will strike the structure to be protected if its striking distance is greater than the radius of the
sphere. While the efficiency of the air termination system is not determined by the radius of the sphere, the
rolling sphere method is now the best design procedure for air termination systems. The rolling sphere
theory was developed by Professor Horváth.
The Method is as follows:
 It uses an imaginary sphere of radius S over the surface of a substation.

 The sphere rolls up and over (and is supported by) lightning masts, shield wires, substation fences
and other grounded metallic objects that can provide lightning shielding.

 A piece of equipment is said to be protected from a direct stroke if it remains below the curved
surface of the sphere.
Figure 98: Rolling sphere method
 Spacing between air terminations
 IEC 62305
 Method adopted for positioning Air Terminations
Table 5: Levels of protection
Radius of rolling Levels of

sphere in meters Protection
20 M Level 1
30 M Level 2
45 M Level 3

 d = 2 x √ (2rh─h2)
 d – Distance between air terminations
 r – radius of rolling sphere, h height of air termination
6.10 EARTHING SYSTEM FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEM

Earthing practices in India are common and guided by IS:30431987 (Reaffirmed 2006), but as a PV
system contains both AC and DC equipment, earthing practices are often not obvious for such systems.
Hence, clarification regarding earthing practices become critical from System Designer’s as well as
the Electrical Inspector’s perspective.
IS: 30431987 (Reaffirmed 2006), “Code of Practice for Earthing,” governs the practices for PV system.
Earthing is required for PV module frames, array structures, (power, communication and protective)
equipment and enclosures, AC conductors and lightning conductors. Although DC and AC systems are
considered separate, they should be connected together during earthing. Earthing of DC cable is not
required in most cases. However, some inverters (usually with transformers) allow DC conductor earthing.
In such cases, if allowed by the inverter, the negative DC cable should be connected to earth in
order to reduce PotentialInduced Degradation (PID) of the PV modules. Only earthing of the lightning
conductor should be isolated from the earthing of the remaining PV system.
When earthing PV modules, all frames should be connected to one continuous earthing cable. Many
installers use small pieces jumper cables to connect frames of consecutive modules, which is a wrong
practice. Further, startype washers should be used when bolting the lugs of earthing cable with the
module frame that can scratch the anodization of the module frame to make contact with its aluminium.
The earthing conductor should be rated for 1.56 times the maximum short circuit current of the PV array.
The factor 1.56 considers 25 percent as a safety factor and 25 percent as albedo factor to protect
from any unaccounted external reflection onto the PV modules increasing its current.
In any case, the crosssection area or the earthing conductor for PV equipment should not be less than 6
mm2 if copper, 10 mm2 if aluminium, or 70 mm2 if hotdipped galvanized iron. For the earthing of
lightning arrestor, crosssection are of the earthing conductor should not be less than 16 mm2 of copper,
or 70 mm2 if hotdipped galvanized iron. Frames are typically made of anodized aluminium and are
used to protect the PV module, mount the module using clamps or bolts, and connect to the body
earthing of the overall module. Resistance between any point of the PV system and earth should not be
greater than 5 Ω at any time. All earthing paths should be created using two parallel earth pits to protect the
PV system against failure of one earth pit.

Wire and earthing layout diagram, which appears similar to the equipment layout diagram, but indicates
the electrical interconnections including PV modules, junction boxes, inverters, transformers (if
applicable), disconnectors and various equipment, up to the interconnection or meter. In addition, this
drawing also indicates the earthing interconnection scheme for various DC and AC equipment and lightning
arrestor, while also clearly showing the location of the earth pits.

MODULE 7: Role of KSEB, Case Study, Challenges
Discussion by Senior Electrical Engineering Faculty, KSEB

MODULE 8: INSTALLATION (BEST PRACTICES),
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
8.1 INSTALLATION (BEST PRACTICES)
The management of the construction phase of a solar PV project should be in accordance with general
construction project management best practice. Therefore, the aim is to construct the project to the required
level of quality, within the time and cost limits. During construction, issues like environmental impact,
health and safety of the workforce (and other affected people) should also be carefully managed.
The approach to construction project management for a solar PV plant will depend on many factors. Of
them, one of the most important is the project contract strategy. From a developer’s perspective,
construction project management for a full turnkey EPC contract will be significantly less onerous than that
required for a multicontract approach. However, a multicontract approach gives the developer greater
control over the final plant configuration. Regardless of the contract strategy selected, there are a number
of key activities that will need to be carried out, either by the developer or a contractor. These activities are
described in the following sections.
8.1.1 PROGRAM AND SCHEDULING

A realistic and comprehensive construction programme is a vital tool for the construction planning and
management of a solar PV project. The programme should be sufficiently detailed to show:
 Tasks and durations.
 Restrictions placed on any task.
 Contingency of each task.
 Milestones and key dates.
 Interdependencies between tasks.
 Parties responsible for tasks.
 Project critical path.
 Actual progress against plan.
All tasks and the expected time scale for completion should be detailed along with any restrictions to a
particular task. For example, if permits or weather constraints stop construction during particular months.
For a solar PV project, it is likely that the programme will have different levels, incorporating different
levels of detail around each of the following main work areas:

 Site access
 Security
 Foundation construction
 Module assembly
 Mounting frame construction
 Substation construction
 Electrical site works
 Grid interconnection works
 Commissioning and testing
A high level programme should be produced to outline the time scales of each task, the ordering of the tasks
and any key deadlines. This should be completed as part of the detailed design. The programme will then
be built up to detail all the associated tasks and sub tasks, ensuring that they will be completed within the
critical time scale. A thorough programme will keep aside time and resources for any contingency. It will
also allocate allowance for weather risk or permit restrictions for each task.
Interdependencies between tasks will allow the programme to clearly define the ordering of tasks. A project
scheduling package will then indicate the start date of dependent tasks as well highlighting the critical path.
Critical path analysis is important to ensure that tasks that can affect the overall delivery date of the project
are highlighted and prioritized. A comprehensive programme should also take into account resource
availability. This will ensure that tasks are scheduled for when required staff or plant are available.
Incorporating a procurement schedule that focuses on items with a long manufacturing lead time (such as
transformers, central inverters and modules) will ensure that they are ordered and delivered to schedule. It
will also highlight any issues with the timings between delivery and construction, and the need for storage
onsite.
8.1.1.1 Milestones
Milestones are goals that are tied in with contractual obligations, incentives or penalties. Incorporating
milestones in the programme helps the project team to focus on achieving these goals. In effect, construction
must be planned around certain milestones or fixed dates (for example, the grid connection date).
If the contracted milestones are included in the programme, the impact of slippage on these dates will be
apparent. Appropriate budgetary and resourcing decisions can then be made for those delays. The
milestones can also indicate when payments are due to a contractor.

8.1.1.2 Planning and Task Sequencing
Appropriate sequencing of tasks is a vital part of the planning process. The tasks must be sequenced
logically and efficiently. The overall sequence of works is generally: site access, site clearance, security,
foundation construction, cable trenches and ducts, substation construction, mounting frame construction,
electrical site works, communications, onsite grid works and then testing and commissioning. Each of these
work areas should be broken down into a series of subtasks. Alongside, an assessment of the inputs
required for each task (especially when interfaces are involved) will help develop a logical and efficient
sequence.
Consideration should also be given to any factors that could prevent or limit possible overlap of tasks.
These factors could include:
 Access requirements
 Resource availability (plant and manpower)
 Planning (or other regulatory) restrictions
 Safety considerations
8.1.1.3 Risk Management

The risks associated with the project should be identified, assessed and managed throughout the
construction process. The hazards need to be incorporated in the planning and scheduling of the project.
Each aspect of the project should be assessed for likelihood and impact of potential risks. The next step
would be to develop a suitable action plan to mitigate identified risks. If a particular risk could affect the
delivery of the whole project, alternatives for contingency (in terms of time and budget) should be included.
8.1.2 QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Controlling construction quality is essential for the success of the project. The required level of quality
should be defined clearly and in detail in the contract specifications. A quality plan is an overview document
(generally in a tabular form), which details all works, deliveries and tests to be completed within the project.
This allows work to be signed off by the contractor and enables the developer to confirm if the required
quality procedures are being met. A quality plan will generally include the following information:
 Tasks (broken into sections if required).
 Contractor completing each task or accepting equipment.
 Acceptance criteria.

 Completion date.
 Details of any records to be kept (for example, photographs or test results).
 Signature or confirmation of contractor completing tasks or accepting delivery.
 Signature of person who is confirming tasks or tests on behalf of the developer.
Quality audits should be completed regularly. These will help developers verify if contractors are
completing their works in line with their quality plans. Audits also highlight quality issues that need to be
addressed at an early stage. Suitably experienced personnel should undertake these audits.
8.1.3 Health and Safety Management
The health and safety of the project work force and other affected people should be carefully overseen by
the project developer. Apart from ethical considerations, the costs of not complying with health and safety
legislation can represent a major risk to the project. Furthermore, a project with a sensitive approach to
health and safety issues is more likely to obtain international financing. The IFC EHS guidelines cover two
main areas of health and safety: occupational health and safety and community health and safety. The issues
covered under these areas are listed below.
Occupational Health and Safety:
 General Facility design and operation
 Communication and Training
 Physical Hazards
 Chemical Hazards
 Biological Hazards
 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
 Special Hazard Environments
 Monitoring
Community Health and Safety:
 Water Quality and Availability

 Structural Safety of Project Infrastructure
 Life and Fire Safety (L&FS)
 Traffic Safety
 Transport of Hazardous Materials
 Disease Prevention
 Emergency Preparedness and response
The IFC guidelines give guidance on how each of these aspects of H&S should be approached, outline
minimum requirements for each aspect and list appropriate control measures that can be put in place to
reduce risks. As a minimum standard, compliance with local H&S legislation should be rigorously
enforced. Where local legal requirements are not as demanding as the IFC guidelines, it is recommended
that the IFC guidelines be followed.
8.2 SPECIFIC SOLAR PV CONSTRUCTION ISSUES

The following sections describe common pitfalls or mistakes that can occur during the construction phase
of a solar PV project. Most of these pitfalls can be avoided by appropriate design, monitoring, quality
control and testing on site.
8.2.1 CIVIL
The civil works relating to the construction of a solar PV plant are relatively straightforward. However,
there can be serious and expensive consequences if the foundations and road networks are not adequately
designed for the site. The main risks lie with the ground conditions. Importantly, ground surveys lacking in
meticulous detailing or proper interpretation could lead to risks such as unsuitable foundations.
Used land also poses a risk during the civil engineering works. Due to the nature of digging or pile driving
for foundations, it is important to be aware of hazardous obstacles or substances below the surface. This is
especially important in former industrial sites or military bases.
8.2.2 MECHANICAL
The mechanical construction phase usually involves the installation and assembly of mounting structures
on the site. Some simple mistakes can turn out to be costly, especially if these include:
 Incorrect use of torque wrenches
 Cross bracing not applied
 Incorrect orientation

If a tracking system is being used for the mounting structure, other risks include:
 Lack of clearance for rotation of modules
 Actuator being incorrectly installed (or as specified), resulting in the modules moving or vibrating
instead of locking effectively in the desired position.
These mistakes are likely to result in remedial work being required before handover and involve extra
cost.
8.2.3 ELECTRICAL
Cables should be installed in line with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Installation should be done
with care as damage can occur when pulling the cable into position. The correct pulling tensions and
bending radii should be adhered to by the installation contractor to prevent damage to the cable. Similarly,
cables attached to the mounting structure require the correct protection, attachment and strain relief to make
sure that they are not damaged.
Underground cables should be buried at a suitable depth (generally between 500mm and 1,000mm) with
warning tape or tiles placed above and marking posts at suitable intervals on the surface. Cables may either
be buried directly or in ducts. If cables are buried directly, they should be enveloped in a layer of sand or
sifted soil should be included to avoid damage by backfill material. Comprehensive tests should be
undertaken prior to energization to verify that there has been no damage to the cables.
8.2.4 GRID CONNECTION

The grid connection will generally be carried out by a third party over whom the project developer will
have limited control. Close communication with the grid connection contractor is essential to ensure that
the grid requirements are met. Delay in the completion of the grid connection will affect the energisation
date, which will delay the start of commercial operation.
8.2.5 LOGISTICAL
Logistical issues can arise if designs or schedules have not been wellthought through. Issues that may arise
include:
 Lack of adequate clearance between rows of modules for access.
 Constrained access due to inclement weather conditions.
 For larger tracking systems and central inverters, cranes may be required. Therefore, suitable
access and maneuverability room within the site is essential.

8.3 CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION
It is recommended that the owner and lenders of the project are kept informed of developments during
construction. Construction supervision may be carried out by inhouse resources. Alternatively, a “technical
advisor” or “owner’s engineer” may be commissioned to carry out the work on their behalf.
The role of the technical advisor during the construction phase is to ensure contractor compliance with the
relevant contracts, as well as to report on progress and budget. The construction supervision team would
generally comprise of a site engineer supported by technical experts in an office. The main parts of the
technical advisor’s role are: review of proposed designs, construction monitoring and witnessing of key
tests.
Design reviews will generally be carried out on:
 Design basis statements
 Studies/investigations
 Design specifications
 Design of structures
 Drawings (all revisions)
 Calculations
 Execution plans
 Risk assessments and method statements
 Quality plans
 Safety plans/reports
 Material and equipment selection
 O&M manuals
 Test reports
The objective of the design review is to ensure that the contractor has designed the works in accordance
with the contract agreements and relevant industry standards. It also aims to ascertain that the works will
be suitably resourced and sequenced to deliver the project as specified. The design review could also cover
specific areas such as grid compliance or geotechnical issues, depending upon the specific project
requirements and experience of the developers.
Key stages and tests for witnessing will include:

 Inspection of road construction
 Inspection of foundations
 Verification of cable routes
 Inspection of cable tracks
 Witnessing of delivery/offload of solar modules, transformers, inverters and switchgear
 Inspection of module, switchgear and inverter installation
 Witnessing of site acceptance tests
 Witnessing of completion tests
 Monitoring and expediting defects
Besides the owner’s engineer, the lender’s engineer has the additional role of signing off and issuing
certificates that state the percentage of the project completed. These certificates are required by the lenders
prior to releasing funds in accordance with the project payment milestones.
8.4 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

A Solar PV Plant is a generator of electricity using solar photovoltaic modules. Except for the basic
generator which is a solar module here, the plant is akin to any other type of generator such as hydro,
biomass etc, when the electric equipment installed ate compared. There are transformers, HT/LT panels,
electric cables, Switch yard equipment and so on. The basic generator, the module needs little maintenance
and there are no moving parts. Whereas, all other electrical and switching equipment require appropriate
and specified maintenance, repair and replacements due to fair wear and tear.
Operation
A module does not require an operator. In fact, the module shall perform its job of electricity generation,
as long as it remains exposed to the sun. However, the equipment installed for converting this DC voltage
in to AC and further transmission activities require adequate watch and monitoring to ensure break down
free continuous supply of electricity. There are mandatory requirements as per statutory laws to man sub
stations dealing with high voltages and thus the requirement of trained operators. Typically, requirement of
the operators 24hour basis will be at the Main control room and Switch Yard only.
Maintenance
Maintenance shall primarily be defined in two categories, routine and preventive maintenance. While
routine maintenance relates to maintaining an efficient performance and maximizing output, preventive
maintenance aims to prevent break down and consequent repairs. Maintenance requirement in a SPV plant

can be divided into two parts, one for modules and wiring of modules, the other maintenance of all other
equipment.
8.4.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS EQUIPMENT

INSTALLED IN THE PLANT
Unlike any thermal power station or a factory producing engineering goods, a solar power generating plant
is silent in operation as there are no moving components. Except for the humming noise of the transformers,
there is no other sound emanating from the plant. However, the plant is potentially dangerous with very
high lethal voltages which can cause serious damage to human and equipment of not operated and
maintained properly. In this chapter, an attempt is made to lay down the basics of operation, operators
qualifications/experience requirements and the procedures to be adopted by the operators of various
equipment in detail. Illustrations with pictures have been added as far as possible.
8.4.1.1 Basic Principles of Operation

The operation of the plant starts with the commissioning. In broad terms, if commissioning is perfect, the
plant shall function smoothly. It is necessary to ensure that all equipment are completely erected before
operations begin. Operating a plant with insufficient instrumentation, controls, and alarms is very
dangerous. The commissioning procedures should never compromise personnel and the system safety.
A proper checklist procedure must be drawn up, which would include all the sections of the plant and shall
take into account the contractual responsibilities, the technological relationship between the various
sections, precommissioning, cleaning requirements, etc. The checklists procedure helps in the following:
 To ensure that the necessary checks are carried out on each item of the plant before it is put into
commercial service
 To ensure that energy is supplied to equipment or a plant when it is safe to do so
 To facilitate the recording of the progress on the various commissioning activities
 To provide a basis for the plant history
The operation of the power plant unit interconnected to the grid is an activity that must be properly
coordinated, within the plant as well as with the substation to which the plant feeds power.
An important feature of the modern power generating plant is the automatic safety lockout devices. While
sufficient thought goes into it at the design stage, it remains the responsibility of the operating staff to
ensure that the safety devices are set correctly and kept in operation.
While safety of the plant and personnel is the foremost importance in the operation, the efficient operation
of the plant cannot be ignored. While operating, it is important to check the essential parameters of the plant
and equipment to ensure that the plant performance is at the optimum level. Any variations in the operating

parameters or any deviations from normal performance of the equipment or plant shall have to be analyzed
immediately to diagnose the problem and to take remedial measures to bring back the plant and equipment
to its original parameters.
The plant operator should follow the guidelines given below:
Frequent checking and calibration of instruments;
Developing a habit of cross checking instrument indications with each other to determine whether the
instrument is faulty or there is an abnormal operating condition;
And developing a habit of analyzing indicated data to determine accurately what could be wrong.
8.4.1.2 Modules/Arrays
Modules require no operator intervention. Once exposed to the sun, modules produce electricity to their
maximum efficiency, based on their condition. Casual watch by routine inspection is only necessary which
form part of maintenance and covered under maintenance.
8.4.1.3 SMU
The SMUs (String Monitoring Units) are electronic equipment and require no manual intervention. They
automatically connect and convey the power generated by the modules. Periodic inspection is only
necessary which is covered under maintenance.
8.4.1.4 Inverter
Inverters are also electronic equipment, designed to ‘wake up’ every morning automatically and start
exporting power generated by the solar modules, as soon as a minimum threshold level is reached. Inverters
require certain initial power to trigger them. This power is generally provided through auxiliary supply.
Inverters also could obtain this power from the generated power. The operator on duty every morning and
evening should physically undertake following:
 All inverters have commenced exporting power.
 Power quality and quantity by each inverter.
 In case the power is not produced by any inverter, he shall carry out a physical investigation and
look for visible disconnections and tighten them. If no visible disconnections are seen he shall take
steps as below.
 He shall make a log of the event and immediately call up the supervisor as well as the maintenance
technician for attending to the same.
 Similarly, every evening, the operator shall keep a watch on the time of switching off of inverters.

 In case he observes any inverter switching off unusually earlier when there is still sufficient
sunlight, he shall make a log of that event and inform his supervisor accordingly.
8.4.1.5 Transformers and LT/HT Panels/Ring Main Unit

These electrical equipment’s are automatic performers as long as the connections are intact, and they are
not defective. There is no intervention from the operator necessary. However, the operator on duty shall
take a tour of all transformers and allied equipment, looking for any visible damage or any defect. He shall
physically confirm following:
 He shall listen to the humming sound from the transformer and confirm it is normal. If he notices
anything unusual or feels that the sound is more than normal, he shall make a log of the event and
report the matter to the Supervisor.
 He shall record the temperature of transformers, preferably at the same time every day and record
the readings in log book. He shall immediately bring to the attention of Supervisor any unusual
high temperature recorded by him.
 He shall undertake a visual observation oh HT/LT switchgears and record the various power
parameters like voltage, current power etc. at designated times. If he detects any abnormality, he
shall immediately investigate to identify the cause and rectify if within his capabilities. If not, he
shall immediately inform the Supervisor for remedial action.
 He shall verify that the alarm indicators, relays for protection are functional by observing their
indicator lamps on the Control and Relay Panel. If he observes any malfunction he shall
immediately record the log and intimate the maintenance personnel and the Supervisor. Till such
time the defect is rectified, the operator shall keep a strict vigil on all parameters of power output
and keep a watch for any abnormality arising till the maintenance staff arrive and attend to the
defect.
8.4.2 OPERATOR’S DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Prior to Operation and Usage of the Photovoltaic plant, it shall be ensured that personnel involved in
Operation and Usage of PV System(s):
 Have been fully trained on Usage and Operation of PV system Installed.
 Have been given knowledge on the system components to be operated in the Installed system.
 Have been trained and educated for basic preventive maintenance of the system.
 Have been educated with Cautions, Precautions and Informative symbols for safe operation

 Have been handed over the user manual and educated on the preservation of the same within easy
reach.
The operators’ duties and responsibilities are more or less as below:
 There shall be designated operators on duty round the clock.
 There shall be three shifts.
 During day time, the power generation occurs and hence the number of operators shall be more.
However, during night there is no power generation and no. of operators can be less.
 The operators shall be qualified electricians with sufficient experience in high voltage switch gears
and allied equipment.
 They shall be educated enough to understand simple English (read and write).
 They should be capable of reading this manual if required and carry out necessary immediate
maintenance and repairs.
 The operators should be very familiar with all the safety signs/symbols and warning signs
commonly used in electrical and other installations.
8.4.3 MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS AND SCHEDULES IN SOLAR

POWER PLANT
The main objectives of the plant maintenance are to keep the plant running reliably and efficiently as long
as possible. Reliability is impaired when a plant undergoes forced and unforeseen outages. This aspect
assumes greater significance for a SPV power plant exporting power to the grid under contractual
commitments. It is imperative that any planned maintenance is undertaken with closer coordination with
evacuating substation.
Efficient operation implies close control not only over the cost of production but also over the cost of
maintenance. There are two components in maintenance cost: one is the direct cost of maintenance, (i.e.
the material and labour), and the other is the cost of production loss.
8.4.3.1 Types of maintenance

 Routine maintenance involves routine tasks and is aimed at keeping the component functional
continuously. This may not involve opening up the component.

 Preventive maintenance which is necessary to prevent break downs and lowering of efficiency.
This may involve opening up the component and carrying out maintenance. Shut down may be
necessary for preventive maintenance.
While routine maintenance is a normal matter, preventive maintenance activity needs to be carefully
planned with regard to the availability of material and labour. It is also essential to develop proper
inspection procedures with nondestructive testing methods. Such inspections by trained personnel reveal
defects not necessarily detected by mere visual inspection. The following steps will help in reducing the
breakdown and also in planning for preventive maintenance:
 Careful logging of operation data/historical information from the Data Monitoring Systems, and
periodically processing it to determine abnormal or slowly deteriorating conditions.
 Walk down checks of the plant.
 Careful control and supervision of operating conditions.
Regulate routine maintenance work such as keeping equipment clean, cleaning SPV modules and delicate
ingredients of transformers and circuit breakers. Cleanliness of Isolators also is to be ensured. It is extremely
important that proper records are maintained not merely for the maintenance work done but also of the
material used and actual man hours spent, etc. machine History card system shall have to be introduced to
keep records that are most useful in future planning of outages and providing for effective control.
Another important requirement of a good maintenance program is to ensure that spares are ordered in time
and good stocks of the frequently required spares are maintained.
8.4.3.2 Maintenance schedules for different equipment

The requirement of maintenance in terms of periodicity, complexity, time, material and labour vary from
equipment. In a SPV plant the solar modules need very little attention, while transformers need more time
and frequent maintenance to keep up their efficient performance. The requirement of such maintenance
shall be compiled below item wise.
Maintenance schedule of all equipment is given below:
(a) PV Modules
i. Daily No Maintenance required
ii. Weekly No Maintenance required
iii. Fort nightly No Maintenance required
iv. Monthly –
a. Cleaning of modules using soft service water.
b. Check modules for any crack or Damage. Replace if necessary

c. Visual inspection: Look for hot spots, cracks, bubbling of cells, bending, tear etc
d. Check for: any disconnection of male & female couplers in the PV module arrays
e. Check for any detachment of module terminal junction box & replace with a new module
v. Quarterly Check current and voltage in randomly selected modules
vi. Half Yearly No Maintenance required
vii. Yearly Randomly check & test the Open Circuit Voltage & Short circuit current of modules for
degradation.
(b) String Combiner Boxes

i. Daily No Maintenance required
ii. Weekly No Maintenance required
iii. Fort nightly No Maintenance required
iv. Monthly –
a. Check that all the JB covers are closed & locked properly
b. Check all the cable markers & ferrules are properly fixed & available in the JB terminals
v. Quarterly Clean all the outer surface of the JB’s using Dry cloth
vi. Half Yearly No Maintenance required
vii. Yearly No Maintenance required
(c) Inverter
i. Daily Clean with dry cloth and observe for any defects
ii. Monthly –
a. Air inlet filter: Remove cover, and clean filter. If required, replace filter mat
b. Error Protocol: If error message displays, Check and replace parts if necessary
c. Output Check and compare actual output with ideal output. If less, investigate and
replace parts if necessary
iii. Yearly –
d. Exterior components Check and replace/repair damaged parts
e. Interior Check and take remedial action
f. Cables and terminals Check –tighten/replace or clean joints
g. Look for colour change in cables
h. Warning stickers/signs: Check and replace
i. Fan: Check and tighten loose bolts etc, replace if necessary
j. Insulation, voltage and earth fault monitoring: Conduct functional test and confirm
results within limits

k. PV generator: Carry out insulation check for earth fault at the grounded and non
grounded pole
l. Over voltage protection: Visual inspection of controls and functional test Switches,
contactors etc: Visual inspection for colour change, burnt look etc. Contact service
personnel for replacement
m. Replacement of worn out cables from SCBs: Replace cable in the proper terminal
(d) Transformer
i. Daily –
a. Oil levels in Transformer and OLTC Check that they are commensurate with ambient
Temperature and Load. If low, top up with dry
b. Explosion Vent Diaphragms Observe for oil in the sight glass of Explosion Vent. If
present, it indicates that lower Diaphragm is bust. Proceed as per troubleshooting
instruction Sr.No.7. If absent, confirms healthiness. Observe upper Diaphragms. If
broken replace.
c. Breather on Transformer and OLTC Checks colour of Silica Gel. It should be blue. If
Pink, replace by a spare charge.
d. Charge removed should be heat treated for next usage.
e. Oil level in condenser Bushings Oil should be seen in the sight glass, otherwise, refer to
Bushing Service Manual for further action. Different manufacturers have different
recommendations.
ii. Quarterly –
a. Fan Motors Clean the surface, Examine for Chips and Cracks. If necessary, replace.
b. OLTC driving mechanism Check oil level. Add if required.
c. OLTC controls and interlocks Check all circuits independently. Check step by step
operation including limit switches.
d. Breathers on Transformers and OLTC Check oil level in oil cup.
e. Ventilators and Fins Check that air passages are free.
iii. Half Yearly Cable Boxes, gasket joints, gauges, external paint Inspect, make good any deficiency
noticed
iv. Yearly –
a. Overall Inspection Every 5 years for transformers below 3000 KVA
b. Overall Inspection 7 Yearly for Transformers greater than 3000KVA. Lift core and coil
assembly. Wash by hosing down with clean dry oil. Tighten clamping nuts pressing the
coil assembly and top and bottom yokes.

c. Tank the core – coil assembly in shortest possible time but not more than 8 hours.
Circulate tank oil at 70 C for 2 passes by means of Filter Machine
(e) Earth Grid and Maintaining Earth Resistance
i. Half Yearly Add Water and check value
ii. Yearly –
a. Measure resistance Do as above for half yearly
b. Inspect quality of GI strip for corrosion Replace portion and weld
c. Check Value again.
iii. Every 5 years:
a. Inspect earth pit and resistance
b. Re construct pit
c. Measure and confirm earth resistance values
8.5 SAFETY NECESSITIES

Safety initiates with tolerable scheduling and research. Valuable safety strategies must be in state, human
resources and contractors have to be familiar with (and devoted to) safety procedures in order to avoid
accident or damage. Most important safety necessities during solar power plant operating consist of the
proper use of Lockout/Tag out procedures, the exploit of personal protective equipment (PPE) procedures
for securely disconnecting live paths, and appropriate examination and in conformity with the entire solar
power installations specific system signage and warnings.
8.5.1 Lockout/Tag out Procedures

Lockout/Tag out procedures are designed to ensure safe working practices and must be strictly followed
whenever systems are deenergized prior to servicing. Lockout/Tag out procedures are required when
energized equipment is serviced or maintained; safety guards are removed or bypassed; a worker has to
place any part of his or her body in the equipment’s point of operation, or hazardous energy sources are
present. Lockout/Tag out procedure steps include: notify others that the equipment will be shut down,
perform a controlled shutdown to power down the equipment, open all of the energy isolating devices
identified on the equipment’s specific procedure, lock and tag all energy isolating devices, dissipate or
restrain stored or residual energy, verify that the equipment is completely deenergized by attempting to
cycle it, and verify that the equipment is completely deenergized by testing for voltage with a voltmeter.
Proper procedure labelling includes: name of the person placing the procedure and the date placed, details
regarding the shutdown procedure for specific equipment, a list of all of the energy sources and isolating
devices, and labels indicating the nature and magnitude of stored potential or residual energy within the
equipment.

The lock placed on equipment during servicing should be removed only by the person who placed it. The
lockout devices, such as padlocks, shall be approved for Lockout/Tag out procedures applications. OSHA
provides variations in Lockout/Tag out procedures that may be used depending on an approved energy
control program. Safety protocols need to be followed when reenergizing equipment, including notifying
others that the system is about to be energized.
8.5.2 PPE and Other Safety Equipment

Service personnel must know what PPE is required for a specific task and wear it while completing the
task. PPE includes fall protection, arc flash protection, firerated clothing, hot gloves, boots, and protective
eyewear, among other items. PPE is designed to help minimize exposure to inherent system hazards.
Identification of potential hazards is crucial to the process of selecting the appropriate PPE for the task at
hand. All personnel working on or near photovoltaic systems should be trained to recognize hazards and
choose the appropriate PPE to eliminate or reduce those hazards. Rubberinsulating gloves, often referred
to as “hot gloves,” are the first line of defence against electric shock. They should always be worn with
protective leather gloves over them and inspected before each use.
Additionally, OSHA requires the gloves to be recertified or replaced at regular intervals, beginning 6
months after they are placed in service. Insulated hand tools provide an additional layer of shock protection.
As solar power plant systems get larger and direct current operating voltages up to 1,000 V become
increasingly common, arc flash requirements are a growing concern and it is more common to see arc flash
warning labels on combiner boxes and disconnects. Unfortunately, for maintenance personnel, many
existing solar power systems have been installed without labels warning of arc flash hazard. Service
personnel needs to be able to perform onsite evaluations to determine when a higher category of PPE is
required to perform the work. Tasks such as performing thermal imaging on operating inverters with opened
coverings or doors or verifying voltages in switchgear commonly require arc flashrated PPE.
Even when not required by statute or regulations, general industrial safety equipment’s such as hardhats,
safety glasses, boots, firerated clothing, and safety vests are strongly recommended when working on
construction sites or around live electrical equipment. The jobsite also must be equipped with appropriate
fire extinguisher sand first aid supplies, and all personnel must have proper training in their use. Lastly, at
least two qualified people trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be onsite at all times.
8.5.3 Safe Operation of Electrical Disconnects

Switching on or off an electrical contact or disconnect is a process often taken for granted as safe, but it can
be one of the more dangerous tasks involved in maintaining a photovoltaic system. Workers must wear
proper PPE when operating disconnects, and care should be taken to use the proper technique for throwing
switches. Some of the switches used to control the dc circuits of photovoltaic systems are not rated for load

break operation. Nonloadbreakrated switches, which must be labelled as nonloadbreakrated, must
never be opened while the system is operating. Before opening a dc switch that is not rated for load break,
the system should be shut down by turning off the connected inverter.
The pivots of most disconnect switches are on the left side of the switch, and the handles are on the right.
A recommended safety protocol is to follow the lefthand rule, which involves standing to the right side of
the switch and using the left hand to throw the switch. This ensures that the worker’s body is not in front
of the switch should an arc flash occur. The proper technique for safely throwing an electrical disconnect
includes: wear proper PPE, shut the system off at the inverter, stand to the right of the switch, grab the
handle with the left hand, turn body and face away from the switch, close eyes, take a deep breath and hold
it (to avoid breathing in flames if an arc flash occurs), throw (operate) the disconnect lever, use a properly
rated voltmeter to confirm that no voltage is present on the disconnected circuit, and use Lockout/Tagout
procedures methods to ensure the switch remains off.
8.5.4 PV-Specific Signage and Warnings

PVspecific signage and warnings that must be present on every solar power system. Additional signage
may also be required by the local jurisdiction or utility. These placards and warnings need to be visible to
those working on or near the systems and should never be covered or painted over. Early solar power
systems often operated with maximum system voltages less than 50 Vdc. Today, 600 Vdc systems are
common, and 1,000 Vdc systems are allowed by code in commercial and largescale installations. Qualified
personnel must use properly rated equipment and be trained for servicing the higher voltage systems.
Particular care must be taken to observe and follow warning labels reading “DO NOT DISCONNECT
UNDER LOAD” located on module connections, combiner boxes, disconnects, and some inverter switches
not designed as a loadbreak switch. Failure to heed these warning labels can lead to instrument
malfunction, arcing, fires, and personnel injuries. Although it is impossible to compile a list of universally
applicable safety guidelines, the authors suggest the following steps as crucial to safe work: Before
operating the solar power system, read all instructions for each product. All system components must be
assumed to be energized with maximum dc voltages (up to 1,000 V) until personnel verify that the voltage
has been removed. All enclosure doors should remain closed with latches tightened, except when they must
be open for maintenance or testing. Only qualified personnel who meet all local and governmental code
requirements for licensing and training for the installation of electrical power systems with alternating
current (ac) and dc voltages up to 1,000 V (or 600 V, when applicable) should perform solar power system
servicing. To reduce the risk of electric shock, only qualified persons should perform servicing other than
that specified in the installation instructions. In order to remove all sources of voltage from the inverter, the
incoming power must be deenergized at the source. This may be done by opening the ac disconnect and
the dc disconnect

Follow manufacturer guidelines for specifics of how to deenergize the inverter. In addition, allow a
minimum of 5 min for the dc bus capacitors to discharge after disconnecting the power, always testing that
voltage is reduced to touchsafe levels (30 Vdc) before working on the system. Always follow
Lockout/Tagout procedures. Always check for ground faults. If there is a ground mistake, there may be a
voltage potential between the inverter and ground. Further, check that the normally grounded pole is
properly grounded and has not been energized by a fault. Do not work alone when servicing solar power
equipment. A team of two is required until the equipment is properly deenergized, locked out, and tagged
out. Verify with a meter that the equipment is deenergized. Do not open a string (also known as a source
circuit) combiner fuse holder without first confirming that there is no current flowing on the circuit. Do not
disconnect (unplug) module leads, jumpers, or home run wires under load.
8.5.5 Inspections
8.5.5.1 General Site Annual Inspections

Preventive maintenance is the planned maintenance of plant infrastructure and equipment with the goal of
improving equipment life by preventing excess depreciation and impairment. This maintenance includes,
but is not limited to, adjustments, cleaning, lubrication, repairs, replacements, and the extension of
equipment life. At least once a year, O&M personnel should conduct a general inspection of the solar power
installation site.
During this inspection, technicians should: Ensure roof penetrations are watertight, if applicable, ensure
roof drainage is adequate, roof drains are not clogged, and confirm that there are no signs of water pooling
in the vicinity of the array, check for vegetation growth or other new shade items such as a satellite dish,
check for ground erosion near the footings of a ground mount system, confirm proper system signage is in
place, confirm appropriate expansion joints are used where needed in long conduit runs, confirm electrical
enclosures are only accessible to authorized personnel who are secured with padlocks or combination locks
and have restricted access signage, check for corrosion on the outside of enclosures and the racking system,
check for cleanliness throughout the site—there should be no debris in the inverter pad area or elsewhere,
check for loose hanging wires in the array, and check for signs of animal infestation under the array
8.5.5.2 Detailed Visual Inspections

The installation should be inspected regularly for issues that impact the physical integrity or performance
of the PV system. A visual inspection should include the following actions: inspect the inverter/electrical
pad to make sure it does not show excessive cracking or signs of wear. The inverter should be bolted to the
pad at all mounting points per the manufacturer installation requirements. Depending on the size, location,
and accessibility of the system to unqualified Operation and Maintenance Methods in Solar Power Plants.
The inverters, combiner boxes, and disconnect switches should require tools or have locks to prevent

unauthorized access to the equipment. Look for warning placards including arc flash or PPE requirements
for accessing equipment. Be sure to comply with all warning placards. If no placards are present, or if some
placards are missing, make a note of it and install the missing placards during the maintenance visit.
Consult the NEC and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) standards as well as the site host to determine signage
requirements. Inspect PV modules for defects that can appear in the form of burn marks, discoloration,
delamination, or broken glass. Check modules for excessive soiling from dirt build up or animal droppings.
Ensure that the module wiring is secure and not resting on the roof, hanging loose and exposed to potential
damage, bent to an unapproved radius, or stretched across sharp or abrasive surfaces. Inspect racking system
for defects including rust, corrosion, sagging, and missing or broken clips or bolts. If sprinklers are used to
spray the array, check that the water is free of minerals (demineralized) as these minerals can cause gradual
performance degradation. Inspect conduits for proper support, bushings, and expansion joints, where
needed. In roofmounted systems, check the integrity of the penetrations.
In groundmounted systems, look for signs of corrosion near the supports. Open combiner boxes and check
for torque marks on the connections. Torque marks are made when lugs have been tightened to the proper
torque value. Ideally, they are applied during initial installation, but if not, the technician can mark the lug
after torqueing during a maintenance visit. A proper torque mark is made with a specialized torque marking
pen. The mark is a straight line through the lug and the housing. Over time, if the line separates between
the lug and the housing, it shows that the lug has moved and needs to be re torqued. Look for debris inside
the boxes and any evidence of damaging water intrusion. Look for discoloration on the terminals, boards,
and fuse holders. Open the door to disconnect and look for signs of corrosion or damage. Check to make
sure whether cabinet penetrations are properly sealed and there is no evidence of water ingress. Check for
torque marks on the terminals. Perform a visual inspection of the interior and exterior of the inverter. Look
for signs of water, rodent, or dust intrusion into the inverter. Check for torque marks on the field
terminations. If a weather station is present, ensure that the sensors are in the correct location and at the
correct tilt and azimuth. A global horizontal irradiance sensor should be flat, and a plane of array irradiance
sensor should be installed to the same pitch and orientation as the array. Irradiance sensors should be
cleaned to remove dirt and bird droppings.
8.5.5.3 Manufacturer Specific Inverter Inspection

Each inverter manufacturer will have specific requirements for inspection, testing, services, and
documentation to meet its warranty obligations. Typical requirements for inverter inspections include:
Record and validate all voltages and production values from the record last logged. Clean filters, clean the
inside of the cabinet, test fans for proper operation, check fuses, check torque on terminations, check gasket
seal, confirm warning labels are in place, look for discoloration from excessive heat buildup, check integrity
of lightning arrestors, check continuity of system ground and equipment grounding, check mechanical

connection of the inverter to the wall or ground, check internal disconnect operation, verify that current
software is installed, contact installer and/or manufacturer about any issues found, document findings for
all work performed.
8.5.5.4 Manufacturer Specific Tracker Inspection

Tracker manufacturers will have specific requirements for inspections, testing, service, and documentation
to meet their warranty obligations. Typical maintenance or startup requirements for tracker systems
include: lubricate tracker by inserting grease with grease gun into appropriate grease caps per manufacturer
maintenance recommendation, check voltages inside the controller box, use a digital level to check the
calibration and positioning of the inclinometers, check array for signs of parts hitting or rubbing other parts,
remove vegetation that is near the drive shaft or moving components, check windstow operation
Use appropriate (volt, ohm, dc clampon) meters to test: continuity of the equipment grounding at the
inverter, combiner boxes, and disconnects, continuity of all system fuses at the combiner boxes,
disconnects, and inside the inverters, open circuit voltage (Voc) of all strings with the inverter off, and
maximum power current (Imp) of all strings with the inverter on and at specified or recorded levels of
power. Additional testing (used when problems are identified or required by contract terms) may include:
thermal images of combiner boxes (opened and closed), disconnects, inverters (external and internal at a
specified operating point for a specified period of time), and modules, shortcircuit (Isc) testing of strings,
currentvoltage (IV) curve testing of strings, insulation resistance tests of conductors at specified voltage,
and comparison of a weathercorrected performance calculation of expected output to actual output of the
system.
8.5.5.5 Manufacturer Specific Data Acquisition System

Data acquisition system (DAS) manufacturers will have specific requirements for inspections, testing,
service, and documentation to meet their warranty obligations. Typical maintenance or startup
requirements for DASs include: taking voltage readings of power supplies, validating current transducer
readings by comparing to calibrated equipment, and validating sensor reading by comparing to calibrated
equipment. To confirm proper functionality of the DAS, the values measured by the DAS must be verified
against values from devices with traceable calibration records. Comparing the irradiance, temperature, and
power measurements recorded by the DAS to values obtained from calibrated instruments will help identify
sensor calibration issues that could result in the DAS data being incorrect. The solar power industry as a
whole is getting better at DAS installation and documentation, but it is still typical for DAS plans to be
omitted or insufficiently detailed.
As a result of such an omission, plan checkers often do not check for errors in the DAS design and inspectors
have nothing to compare the asbuilt with for compliance. If the DAS will be tied into the building

information technology system, O&M personnel should be aware that building networking upgrades or
routine maintenance can cause connectivity issues.
8.5.6 GENERAL ISOLATION PROCEDURES
8.5.6.1 Energized Components

Some testing and maintenance activities may require the system to be energized while workers are working
on or near the equipment—string current testing is one example. Another common testing practice is to use
an insulation resistance meter to induce voltage to wiring or other components in an effort to identify signs
of damage to insulation or resistance/leakage from other sources such as loose connections.
Guidance for what must be done in order to work safely on energized systems is as follows:
Only qualified employees can work on electric circuits or equipment that has not been deenergized using
Lockout/Tagout procedures, qualified employees must be able to work safely on energized circuits, the
qualified employee must be familiar with the proper use of special precautionary techniques, PPE,
insulating and shielding materials, and insulated tools. Employees working in areas where there are
potential electrical hazards must be provided with and use electrical protective equipment that is appropriate
for the specific parts of the body to be protected and for the work to be performed.
8.5.6.2 Inverter Pad Equipment

Use the following procedures for disconnecting a single inverter from the grid: If applicable, follow the
inverter manufacturer guidelines for a controlled shutdown using the HMI keypad to pilot and select a
shutdown, if the inverter has an on/off switch, turn it to off, turn the ac disconnect switch on the inverter
off, turn the dc disconnect switch on the inverter off, turn any remaining external disconnect switches
connected to the inverter off, install lockout devices on all disconnects, locking them in the open or off
position, and repeat for all inverters and switches to completely isolate the entire solar power system from
the grid and the inverters from the solar power source.
8.5.6.3 Transformer Isolation

Use the following procedures for transformer shutdown: For inverters connected to the transformer, turn
the on/off switch to off, turn the ac disconnect off for the inverters connected to the transformer, turn the
dc disconnect off for the inverters connected to the transformer, install lockout devices on the disconnects,
turn off the transformer switch, which is either a dedicated standalone switch or is located in the
switchgear, install a lockout device on the transformer switch, repeat for all transformers to completely
isolate them from the switchgear.

8.5.7 FAILURE RESPONSE
8.5.7.1 Emergency Shutdown

In an emergency: If the inverters have Emergency Stop buttons, push them in on each inverter; if the inverter
has an on/off switch, turn it to the off position (this may require a key). Each inverter should be manually
turned to the off Operation and Maintenance Methods This will immediately open the internal ac and dc
contactors (if present) inside the inverter. Note that some inverters do not have an on/off switch or an
Emergency Stop button. For these inverters, it will be necessary to turn the systems off using the disconnect
switches attached to or located near the inverters. Do not open switches that are specifically labelled “Do
not disconnect under load” until a loadbreak switch has been opened and current flow is stopped.
Generally, the first available upstream loadbreak ac switch or circuit breaker is safer to operate first (before
the dc switch), because the inverter instantly shuts down the transistor bridge when ac voltage is removed.
Once the system is off, the remaining switches can be opened, and the system can be locked out until the
fault condition is repaired or it is safe to turn it back on.
8.5.7.2 Isolation Procedure: Inverter Pad Equipment

To isolate the inverter pad safely: Shut the inverters off through a controlled shutdown, turn off all dc and
ac disconnects that feed the pad, follow the procedure in the Lockout/Tagout section for opening electrical
disconnects, use Lockout/Tag out procedures to ensure the system remains off, always wear appropriate
PPE and test for voltages with a properly rated meter to confirm the system is completely isolated.
8.5.7.3 Isolation Procedure: Field Combiner Box

To isolate field combiner boxes: Turn off the inverters as described above, operate the switch of the
combiner by turning the handle to the off position, use a dc clamp on the meter to confirm there is no current
passing through the ungrounded conductors in the combiner box, and then open all of the fuses, if further
isolation of the box is needed, use the string diagrams to locate the homeruns (end connectors of the PV
strings), use a clampon dc current meter to confirm that the homerun does not have any current passing
through it, and then disconnect the string by opening the homerun positive and negative connectors and
putting caps on the source circuit connectors, go back to the combiner box and use a voltmeter to confirm
that each string has been successfully disconnected .
8.5.7.4 Isolation Procedure: Modules and String Wiring

After turning off the inverter, switches, and combiner boxes and isolating the combiner boxes from the
array, disconnect individual modules from the string: Before disconnecting any string, use a dc clampon
meter to confirm there is no current passing through the string, use the appropriate connector unlocking
tool to disengage the module connector, repeat for each module to be isolated from the system, if modules

are removed from a system, even temporarily, technicians must ensure that the equipment grounding system
remains intact for the remaining modules.
8.5.8 INVERTER TROUBLESHOOTING AND SERVICE

There is an understandable focus on maximizing return on investments and system production. System
uptime and availability is a key objective of O&M. Inverters that are offline can have a dramatic negative
impact on the return on investments of a PV installation. Inverter failure rates are important to return on
investments, but even more important than how often an inverter goes offline is how quickly it can be
placed back into service. The type of inverter fault often dictates how quickly it can be placed back into
service. Inverters with known failure modes need a failure response procedure. This may include stocking
critical parts that have long supply lead times so that the system is not left offline because of a lack of spare
parts.
8.5.8.1 Inverter Troubleshooting

When an inverter goes offline, technicians must determine why and correct the error as quickly as possible.
They can check the HMI for reported errors and then follow the actions noted in the table jointed. Some
inverter faults will clear automatically when the fault condition returns to normal, but some fault conditions
require a manual reset of the inverter. The ground fault fuse and even AC fuses can be nonstandard items
that are difficult to purchase. Keep replacements on hand, especially if there are multiple inverters of the
same size on site or in the portfolio. Having qualified technicians available and properly equipped with
common replacement parts helps maximize system uptime.
8.5.8.2 Infrared Service Procedure

Some inverter service actions require that the system be shut down for safe inspection. Always begin with
an examination of the equipment as described in the routine scheduled preventive maintenance table and
further inspect subassemblies, wiring harnesses, contacts, and major components. The following sample
inverter service checklist applies to larger inverters in industrial scale and is not intended to be complete
for all models from all manufacturers: Check insulated gate bipolar transistors and inverter boards for
discoloration. Use inspection mirror if necessary.
Check input dc and output ac capacitors for signs Operation and Maintenance Methods in Solar Power
Plants of damage from overheating, record all voltage and current readings from the front display panel,
check appearance/cleanliness of the cabinet, ventilation system, and insulated surfaces, check for
corrosion/overheating on terminals and cables, torque terminals, connectors, and bolts as needed, record
ambient weather conditions, including the temperature and whether the day is cloudy or sunny, check the
appearance of both the ac and dc surge suppressors for damage or burn marks, check the operation of all
safety devices (emergency stop devices, door switches, ground fault detector interrupter), inspect (clean or

replace) air filter elements, correct any detected deficiencies, complete maintenance schedule card,
complete written inspection report, if manufacturertrained personnel are available onsite, install and
perform any recommended engineering field modifications, including software upgrades.
8.5.9 DIAGNOSING AND TESTING FOR LOW POWER PRODUCTION

Low power production also impacts return on investment, and O&M personnel need effective strategies for
identifying and correcting problems quickly. System operators or owners may become conscientious of a
PV installation’s underperformance through one of the following means: A predefined DAS alert, which
may be weatherrelated, a result of comparison with other systems in the range, or a result of comparison
with other monitored parts of the system at a site with multiple inverters, a manual review of the DAS data
through online gateway that indicates performance anomalies, a comparison of present performance with
performance test results from preceding maintenance visits, and customer or external individual reports of
a potential problem, often because of an unexpected boost in a monthly schedule.
8.5.9.1 Diagnostic Overview

Once the underperformance is confirmed, personnel must determine what is causing it. Steps to diagnosing
power production deficiencies include: During routine maintenance and when diagnosing an
underperforming system, the first and most important components to check are the fuses. Fuses generally
must be removed from their holders to determine whether they have blown, perform a system performance
data review using the DAS or a program such as the PV Watts calculator [10] to calculate the expected
system output based on weather conditions and system size to compare actual to modeled systems
production, dispatch a field technician to the site to do the following: Check that onsite performance meters
have similar values. Often systems will have revenue grade performance monitoring that can be compared
against the inverter display totals, if there is a difference in the values, 80 M. Hatti then ideally the
technician can log into the DAS system (when available) to investigate, a phase that has a different output
than the others could be the result of a bad current transformer or a blown fuse in the current transformer
circuit (i.e., an instrumentation problem), if there is no difference in recorded values, then use the inverter
operator display/interface to identify the inverter error log. See inverter diagnostics for errors that may have
caused the inverter to perform at less than 100 % power.
Verify that the array maximum power point voltage is in the maximum power point tracking window of the
inverter, using an IV curve tracer on a sample string or group of strings. Modules will degrade over time
and an array that begins service at the lower end of the inverter maximum power voltage window may
degrade until its maximum power voltage no longer falls within this range, further compounding the effects
of module degradation. Look for external causes of the production drop, such as unexpected shade on the
array. Vegetation growth is the most common form of shading, but it is not unusual to find a satellite dish
or other object shading the array that was not present when the system was built.

Take photographs of the installation during commissioning and keep a visual record of any noticeable
differences during maintenance visits. Perform general system checks as necessary to identify problems by
to: Check all fuses at the inverter and work out to the combiner boxes, perform Voc string testing, perform
Imp string testing, validate weather sensors, look for soiling. If soiling might be the problem, test an
individual string (Voc, Imp, IV curve) and then clean the string and retest, perform IV curve tracing, take
infrared (IR) images of the PV cells.
8.5.9.2 Diagnostic Testing

Operation and maintenance staff can exploit a number of diagnostic procedures to determine the causes of
power deficiencies in a PV installation as:
(a) Infrared Image Procedure
This procedure describes how to properly achieve field diagnostics of a PV installation using an IR camera
to detect abnormal heat signatures, within the test conditions as: IR imaging should be completed with the
system operating at peak levels if possible, do not open or work in electrical boxes, during rainy or wet
conditions under safety considerations: Ensure all OSHA and environmental health and safety requirements
are met, especially if working on angled roofs and/or at heights greater than 6 ft, safety precautions should
also be taken when working near active high voltage systems or near surfaces that may be very hot to the
touch, contact local health, security, safety, and environment personnel for questions and access to pertinent
documentation. Infrared Imaging Procedure Prior to opening the IR scan, verify that the PV array is
working, because temperature differences in modules are not apparent when the system is not operational,
check inverter display for instantaneous kilowatt output, check current on each string in combiner box to
ensure that it is operational, if the inverter or any of the strings are not operational, these must be corrected
before the test can be conducted.
(b) Infrared Camera Settings
Set the IR camera to “autoscaling” rather than manual scaling. This will allow for automatic adjustment
of the temperature scale. The IR camera does not capture shiny surfaces such as polished metals well due
to their low emissivity value. However, for most active components on a solar module such as cells, JBox,
and cables, a value of 0.95 will be sufficient. Set temperature units to Celsius. Set color palette to Iron or
Rainbow. “A thermal imager interprets IRradiated or reflected heat by assigning a visible graduated color
or gray scale to a radiated portrait of the scene. The color palette displays hot spots as white with
diminishing temperatures through redorangeyellowgreenblueindigoviolet to black being cold”.

When sunlight is present and camera settings are properly set, point the lens at the object of interest. In the
case of solar modules in operation, looking through the glass onto the active cells is the most common
inspection technique. Ensure that the picture is focused, either manually or automatically. For best results,
position the camera as close to the module as possible without shading it or creating a reflection in the glass
surface. If possible, the distance between the camera and the surface to be measured should not exceed 3m.
This will depend on the camera’s minimum focal distance and other specifications. Some temperature
differences will not be picked up if the camera is too far away from the module. For best results, position
the camera as perpendicular as possible to the object being measured. Hot spots will be easier to see if the
image is taken perpendicular to the module surface. Image quality will degrade at camera angles other than
normal (i.e., perpendicular) incidence. Care should be taken to avoid shading any part of the module while
capturing images. Record module serial number, time, date, picture number, and module location in the
array for all issues.
(c) Infrared Testing Procedure
Turn system off at the inverter, post “High Voltage,” “Testing in progress,” “Stay clear of photovoltaic
array!” signs around all entry points to array, use LOTO procedures, record test conditions including
ambient temperature and irradiance, open disconnect switch on combiner box. If there is no switch at the
combiner box, open the applicable disconnect or fuse at the inverter to isolate the combiner box circuit.
Isolate the outputcircuitgrounded conductor (negative in a negative grounded system, positive in a
positivegrounded system) by removing the cable from its termination, remove any surge protection devices
from circuits being tested (if testing at more than 50 Vdc). Visually inspect box for signs of damage, as
heat discoloration, corrosion, water intrusion, and conductors rubbing against metal in enclosure or other
insulation damage. Use dc current meter to confirm there is no current present in the combiner box, open
all fuse holders, and use ohmmeter to verify continuity of the box enclosure to ground. If enclosure is not
metal, verify ground wire connection to ground, test Voc of all strings to confirm proper polarity and voltage
of each string.
(d) Megohmmeter Testing
Megohmmeter or “megger” testing is a valuable way to identify weakened conductor insulation and loose
wiring connections. These tests are often used in system acceptance and commissioning procedures but not
often used in general maintenance unless a scrupulous troubleshooting of a fault condition is needed. The
insulation resistance tester (IRT) applies a voltage to the circuit under test and measures return current to
determine the insulation resistance and reliability. IRTs have various test voltage settings, such as 50, 100,
250, 500, and 1,000 V. Generally, the higher voltage settings are better for detecting highimpedance shorts
in the wiring than lowervoltage settings. However, some newer lowvoltage equipment has sophisticated

filtering that enables effective measurements even on circuits with PV modules. All 600Vrated wire and
PV modules should be capable of being tested at 1,000 Vdc, because they are factory proof tested at twice
the maximum rated voltage plus 1,000 V—this adds up to 2,200 V for 600 V cable and PV modules. This
test is shortterm and will not damage the wire or module insulation. To test specific products, including
strings of modules, it is best to confirm that the testing (high voltage) will not void the warranties of those
materials. It is best to get written permission for testing procedures from the module manufacturer if they
do not already have approved megohmmeter testing guidelines. Some manufacturers explicitly disallow
megohmmeter testing on their modules. Although it is true that some products may not allow this testing,
the most common location of ground faults in PV systems is in the module wiring and modules. Testing
using the 500Vdc setting may be appropriate for some modules. Lower voltages are often necessary when
the system includes surge protection devices within the combiner boxes. Insulation testers are now available
with 50Vdc settings that will not damage the surge protectors. If these are used, it is important to ensure
that they have filtering capable of compensating for the array capacitance. The added benefit of a low
voltage insulation test is that it can detect problems Operation and Maintenance Methods in Solar Power
Plants 83 with surge protectors. Leaking surge protectors are a common fault of older PV systems.
Tools used for such test include: IR tester megohmmeter, PPE rated for the appropriate voltages,
screwdriver or combiner box key, dc clampon meter, dc voltmeter, electrical tape, system drawings—
string wiring diagram, warning signs: “High Voltage—Testing in progress—Stay clear of photovoltaic
array!” and recording device (pen and paper, laptop or tablet preferred). Safety considerations and test
conditions are that do not open or work in electrical boxes, in wet conditions. Also, shock hazard, live
voltages present, fall hazard, combiner boxes are often elevated, need for proper PPE for electrical voltage
testing, recognition that normally deenergized circuits may be energized in fault conditions, and
requirement for two qualified people trained.
(e) Fuse Checks
Fuses blow for a reason. Whenever a blown fuse is found, investigate why the fuse blew. When replacing
fuses, it is essential to source the appropriate size, type, and rating. Do not assume that the fuse being
replaced was the correct size, type, and rating, because an incorrect rating or size could be the reason the
fuse blew. It may be necessary to consult the product manual to ensure the correct fuse is sourced. It is
common to come across operating systems with incorrect fuses in place.
(f) Fuse Testing Procedure and Safety Considerations
Confirm system is deenergized with a voltmeter, use Lockout/Tagout procedures and use an ohmmeter to
test the continuity of the fuse. It may be possible to get voltage through a fuse that has not completely blown
but is about to blow. For this reason, having voltage only on the load side of the fuse is not enough, set

ohmmeter on a brawny surface, remove the fuse to be tested from the fuse holder unless it is clear that no
alternative continuity paths can exist that would provide a false reading, use meter and test the fuse by
placing a lead on each end of the fuse and listening for the meter to beep confirming continuity. If the beep
continuity reading is not constant while still holding the leads on each end of the fuse, then look at the ohm
settings for a measurement of the resistance, make sure your fingers are not touching each end of the fuse
as this will give a resistance reading for an open fuse that can be confusing, look at the fuse and confirm
the size, type, and rating of the fuse. If the fuse fails the test or is not the properly rated size or type, replace
the fuse with the correct fuse, always test replacement fuses before installing to confirm the fuse was good
when it was placed in service, fuses should never be replaced or tested while the circuit is energized. Shut
the system down prior to servicing fuses. Wear proper PPE for electrical voltage testing, at least until no
voltage has been verified and the source has been locked out, if applicable.
(g) DC System Voc Checks
Dc voltage checks are done with the system off, but “depending on the system size” voltages of up to 1,000
Vdc may be present. Ideally, test in stable sunlight of more than 750 W/m2. However, stable conditions
more than 200 W/m2 still allow for simple comparisons among strings do not open or work in electrical
boxes; in wet conditions, perform testing at the combiner boxes. Safety considerations and tools include:
Shock hazard, live voltages present, fall hazard, combiner boxes are often elevated, proper PPE for
electrical voltage testing, recognition that normally deenergized circuits may be energized in fault
conditions, and requirement for two qualified people trained to use dc voltmeter, PPE, irradiance meter,
temperature sensor, screwdriver or combiner box key, and recording device (pen and paper, laptop, or tablet
preferred).
Voltage testing procedure is resumed as turn system off at the inverter, use Lockout/Tagout procedures,
record test conditions including ambient temperature and irradiance, open disconnect switch on combiner
box, if applicable. Visually inspect box for signs of damage, heat discoloration, corrosion, water intrusion,
and conductors rubbing against metal in enclosure or other insulation damage. Open all fuse holders, attach
red lead to red terminal on tester, and attach black lead to black terminal on tester, use ohmmeter to verify
continuity of the box enclosure to ground. If enclosure is not metal, verify ground wire connection to
ground, use dc clampon ammeter to test for current in the equipment grounding conductor. If current is
present, stop this procedure and proceed to the ground fault troubleshooting procedure. Use voltmeter to
test equipment, grounding conductor to ground. If voltage is present, find source of problem before placing
combiner box back into service. Test ungrounded conductors one at a time by removing them from the
bussing. Wear PPE and use insulated tools to remove ungrounded conductors under a fault condition,
ideally, use an alligator clip meter cable for the black lead, connect to ground, and take the red lead and
individually test from the line side of the open fuse holder for the ungrounded conductor. Record results,

making a note of voltage and polarity of each string, and if polarity is incorrect, find the source of problem
before placing back into service, if reverse polarity is observed, do not just switch it without further
investigation to identify the problem. Reidentify and properly label conductors if a switch is made. A
change to the asbuilt plans may also be necessary. All voltages should be within 10 % of each other.
If one string is the equivalent of the Voc of one module (roughly 30–40 V depending on the module) less
than the average and one string is 30–40 V more than the average, it is a good indication that the stringing
is incorrect for both strings. Given the same example of 40 Voc, if one string is 10–20 V less, then there
may be an issue with one of the modules, and further investigation may be necessary (such as performing
IV curve tracing). If Imp testing is going to be carried out in the same combiner box, it is best to plan the
box for the Imp testing. Ensure all terminations are properly torqued. Pull on conductors to ensure a large
enough loop for the current meter to attach to. If necessary, cut zip ties, close fuse holders, close disconnect,
plane of array irradiance: Ensure location is not shaded, use inclinometer and compass to ensure it is in the
same pitch and orientation as the array, clean with a cloth and mild soap solution if necessary, log into DAS
program, place cleaned and recently calibrated handheld sensor in same pitch and orientation, compare
results, if outside of acceptable range, replace sensor, noting the serial number of the new sensor for as
built updates. For ambient temperature sensor make a same procedure as here above, rather than risk
damaging the module, leave the sensor in place and install the new sensor in the middle of the next closest
cell. Also for the anemometer, current transducers, voltage reference, and revenue meter have to log into
DAS program, navigate program to compare programmed CT ratio to the ratio listed on the CTs, look at
power factor of all three phases to confirm it is close to one with the system operating, note that power
factor may be low at startup or in lowlight conditions of less than 250 W/m2, confirm good phase rotation
with system running, compare revenue grade data with inverter data, noting differences .
Finally, the inverter direct, the maintainer has to log into DAS program, confirm system is checking in
accurately, and look at system history to confirm data is not intermittent. Intermittent data from inverters
can be the result of noise induced by the inverter; thus, check that the recommended shielded cable is used
for communication wiring, check route of communication wiring to ensure it is away from voltage carrying
conductors, confirm shield is only landed in one spot; best to do this at the DAS enclosure, confirm
appropriate resistor or termination is installed in the last inverter in the chain (if required).
(h) Combiner Box Level Monitoring Procedure
Log into DAS program, confirm that all boxes are visible, compare results to Imp string test results, and
confirm communication to all devices, shade individual modules to confirm module mapping is accurate.
Ensure location of global horizontal irradiance sensor is not shaded, use level to make sure it is level, clean
with a cloth and mild soap solution if necessary, log into DAS program, place cleaned and recently

calibrated handheld sensor in same pitch and orientation, compare results and if outside of acceptable range,
replace sensor, noting serial number of the new sensor for asbuilt updates.
(i) Array Washing Procedure
Depending on the site conditions, an annual or even quarterly cleaning may pay for itself in gained
production. Some sites have more accumulation of dirt and other build up than other sites. Depending on
the tilt of the array and amount of seasonal rainfall, the soiling can have a dramatic impact on the overall
production of the system. Most module manufacturers have specific guidelines about how not to clean
modules, such as not using highpressure water, not using harmful chemicals, and even not using cold water
when the module glass temperature is hot or using hot water to clean cold modules. Thermal shock from
the difference in temperature between the glass surface temperature and the water temperature can result in
fracturing or breaking of the glass. Safety considerations must be taken as wear rubber sole shoes with good
traction to prevent slips and falls, never walk on the modules, use nonconductive extended reach broom
and hose handles to reach modules and a lift may be needed to access the array. Follow a serial lift safety
procedures, including wearing a harness if required.
(j) Before Washing Modules
Walk the site to confirm that there are no broken modules (shattered glass). Never spray broken modules
with water. Perform a safety evaluation of the site looking for safety hazards such as trip hazards or areas
that will become excessively slippery when wet, plan for water runoff. If the site has a storm water
prevention plan in place, determine how the used water will be collected and disposed of. If harmful
chemicals are not used during the cleaning process, drain guards can be used to filter out sediments. Be
aware of trip hazards introduced by having hoses spread throughout the property, cone off area if needed.
Determine whether the module cover glass is too hot and will be damaged by coming into contact with cool
water.
Depending on the local climate and time of year, it may be best to limit washing activities to the morning
or evening hours. Identify the water source to be used. Ideally, there will be a source of water near the array.
If not, it may be necessary to bring in water from an outside source, which will involve a tank or water
truck. Determine the best method of getting water to the modules. Typically, a 3/4 inch garden hose is used
to connect to a spigot near the array. Set up hoses and tools. If required, block or install drain guards for
filtration or water capture purposes. Take a baseline production reading of the system, noting both kilowatt
hour (kWh) output of each of the inverters and weather conditions including temperature and irradiance.

(k) Washing Modules
Deionized water is preferred to prevent spotting and calcium build up. Normal water pressure is
recommended; do not use highpressure washers. If highpressure washers are necessary, hold the pressure
source far enough away from the modules to prevent damage. As a rule of thumb, if the stream is too strong
to comfortably hold one’s hand in, it is too much pressure for the modules, spray the modules with water,
use a softbristled brush to get stubborn dirt off, if needed, use a nondamaging soap, use extensions with
tools to be able to reach extended distances, if needed, squeegee modules dry. Operation and Maintenance
Methods in Solar Power Plants.
(l) After Washing Modules
After the system returns to steadystate temperature (i.e., there is no remaining impact from the cooling
effect of wash water), take another production reading of the system, noting both kWh output of each of
the inverters and weather conditions including temperature and irradiance, clean up tools, remove any drain
guards or blocks, record the washing in the maintenance log, compare production of the clean system to the
previous production values.
(m)Vegetation Management
Vegetation management is particularly important in ground mount systems, but is a concern for all solar
installations. Vegetation can grow into and cause problems with trackers, can cause problems with array
wiring, and can cause shading, which will definitely impact production but could also cause damage to an
operating system. Vegetation should also be controlled around the inverter pad and other areas where
electrical equipment is present. Note: PV arrays are often home to snakes, bees, and venomous animals of
all kinds. Wear protective clothing and be alert for possible encounters.
Safety considerations must be taken into account as wear rubbersoled shoes with good traction to prevent
slips and falls, wear PPE to prevent bites and stings from insects, snakes, and vermin. Mowing or weed
trimming vegetation around a ground mount can lead to problems if the mowing or weed trimming kicks
up debris that can break the glass or cause general soiling those results in underperformance [4]. Poisoning
weeds can lead to environmental and health problems. Permanent abatement at the time of installation is
the ideal way to deal with vegetation management. During inspections, note the amount of vegetation
growth and document it through pictures. Work with the site owners to come up with a specific vegetation
management plan that involves carefully removing or cutting back vegetation that is currently shading or
will eventually grow to shade parts of the array.

(n) System Warranties
It is important to know and understand the warranty requirements of the specific products used in a solar
power plant. Not all warranties are created equal. The O&M personnel should have a very clear
understanding of the warranty terms from the suppliers. They also need to know the type of defects or
problems that are covered under warranty, the duration of the warranty and also the key personnel from the
supplier with whom warranty claims can be taken up and enforced in a timely manner. Warranty
requirements not followed, including documenting regularly conducted preventive maintenance, can result
in a voided warranty. However, the tasks are often simple and serve to protect the products and ensure
greater longterm reliability.
8.6 SOLAR POWER PLANT MONITORING

Solar power plant needs to be monitored to detect breakdown and optimize their operation. Several solar
power plants’ monitoring strategies are depending on the output of the installation and its nature.
Monitoring can be performed on site or remotely. It can measure production only, retrieve all the data from
the inverter or retrieve all of the data from the communicating equipment (probes, meters, etc.). PV
monitoring is the cornerstone of the o and m of a solar power plant. Monitoring includes inspection,
supervision, sending signals and messages, and receiving signals from the environment.
The performance of monitoring depends on the performance and availability of solar power. It is therefore
essential to bring in an expert organization, human, and material resources necessary to ensure effective
monitoring and appropriate quality. Monitoring tools can be dedicated to supervision only or offer
additional functions. Individual inverters and battery charge controllers may include monitoring using
manufacturerspecific protocols and software [2]. Energy metering of an inverter may be of limited
accuracy and not suitable for revenue metering purposes. A thirdparty DAS can monitor multiple inverters,
using the inverter manufacturer’s protocols, and also acquire weatherrelated information. Independent
smart meters may measure the total energy production of a PV array system. Separate measures such as
satellite image analysis or a solar radiation meter can be used to estimate total insulation for comparison.
Data collected from a monitoring system can be displayed remotely over the World Wide Web. For
example, the open solar outdoors test field (OSOTF) is a gridconnected photovoltaic test system, which
continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to
a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings. The OSOTF is organized under opensource
principles— all data and analyses are being made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and
the general public.
There are several technical solutions for monitoring different photovoltaic systems, depending on the type
and accuracy of the information provided as well as their prices. The first category is the first to have

emerged since it comes from one of the major players in the solar system, the inverter. These solutions have
the advantage of back up information from the inverter and to provide a local display or transmit on the
Internet, especially alerts the inverter itself (temperature, loss of connection with networks, etc.). Yet they
remain expensive for single inverter, and installations are of course linked to an inverter brand. Moreover,
the energy metering (kWh) is performed by the inverters more or less precise depending on the model. All
major manufacturers of inverters have a data acquisition box. The “universal” solutions connected inverters
allow to overcome the major drawback of solutions inverter manufacturers, they are compatible with many
brands (more or less depending on model). These data acquisition boxes connect the series connection of
inverters in accordance with the protocol of each manufacturer. Universal solutions are generally more
affordable than those of UPS manufacturers. The data transmission is most often an ADSL connection, but
also GSM /GPRS or PSTN. According to the manufacturers, other communicating devices can be
connected to these boxes.
In particular, the weather sensors (cells pyranometer, anemometers, thermometers) and optionally safety
devices. Note that some controllers can play the role of universal acquisition unit. The last category is the
most recent in the photovoltaic world. It consists of information for energy production directly back (kWh)
without using the inverter. Today, there are two possibilities, each with their advantages. The first is to
connect the ICT output electric meters; the second is to provide an electric meter communicating. These
solutions are used to monitor production alone. To overcome the lack of information related to single
monitor production, some companies offer crossproduction data with a measure of sunlight (radiation in
Wh/m2) obtained by analysis of satellite images. The measurement of radiation is essential to ensure precise
control of the performance of a facility. Without this measure, impossible to verify the performance ratio
(PR) of a facility.
There are different solutions to track irradiance data. Either one uses one or more sensors installed adjacent
photovoltaic panels or satellite Customer Provide readings directly to the customer Update readings enough
often to use information to achieve energy savings Metering Operator Allow remote reading by the operator
Provide twoway communication between SMTs and external networks Allow the use of information in
network planning Commercial Aspects of energy Supply Support advanced tariff systems Allow remote
on/off control of supply and/or flow limitation Security and data protection Provide secure data
communication Provide for fraud prevention and detection Distributed Generation Provide import/export
and reactive metering Fig. 5 Common minimum functional requirements for smart metering technologies
90 M. Hatti data is used. With the information on the installation position, the inclination, and orientation
of the panels, satellites data provide information about the radiation received by a photovoltaic system. If
these two options are compared for acquiring information, the advantage of satellite data is a lower price
for sufficient accuracy. In addition, this solution requires no additional installation (and therefore no

maintenance). For consequence, the data collected with pyranometer have the advantage of being more
accurate. Depending on the class of pyranometer, and therefore its price, accuracy may be up to 1 % or
below.
Some solutions using monitoring control cells for monitoring the operation of the generator. This solution
is less accurate than using a pyranometer but more economical addition as the latter [1]. Today, most
monitoring systems work with photovoltaic sensors. Solutions using satellite images are fewer. All the
solutions mentioned above have either online portals or local software assigned to supervision. UPS
manufacturers have almost all set up a portal data recovery, provided free with the purchase of their DAS.
However, some manufacturers offer more industrial supervision software locally installed. Offer emerges
publisher’s specialized software for data processing, regardless of the acquisition system. These software
are being developed and are beyond simple monitoring of production, should provide further diagnosis,
that is to say, a more precise analysis of data. Publishers’ monitoring solutions for energy meters also offer
their Web software.
8.6.1 INCIDENT RATE ON PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATION

Think that photovoltaic installations require no maintenance over their entire life is a legend still very
persistent in the solar power industry. The reality is quite different and solar power systems like any other
technical equipment have abnormalities in their production and should be checked and technically framed.
For this, DINEN standards set for regular examinations maintaining operating rules.
8.6.2 EFFICIENCY GAP BY CONTINUOUS QUALITY ASSURANCE

Comparing the performance data of photovoltaic installations that are either collected directly on counter
or recovered by a professional monitoring, we find that photovoltaic installations without blame or
servicing yield losses of 5.7 %. The average ratio of performance facilities subjects to either a remote
monitoring system, or a regular servicing by a technician stood at 76.8 %. Photovoltaic systems that are
framed professionally by a manager or a company that specializes in solar power plant have an average
ratio of performance 81.4 %. Obviously, there are facilities that produce unframed without malfunction,
but in the majority cases, small or large efficiency losses are identified much later and Operation and
Maintenance Methods in Solar Power Plants 91 the operator records a decline in production. Conversely,
there are facilities that despite has a performance below the average. However, this can be explained in
general by major technical errors that affect negative on the performance of the installation. Most
photovoltaic installations with supervision or service distinguished by the fact that the predicted total
returns. In general, it results in a difference in the PR of the order of 4.6 % and thus a relative decrease yield
of 5.7 %. An operator this means that photovoltaic system that could achieve a specific annual yield of 950
kWh/kWp reached frameless an annual yield of only 896 kWh/kWp. This leads to the operator of a facility
with a capacity of 10 kWac (with purchase price of 0.195 €/kWh) a financial loss of € 106 per year [10].

Individual yield loss can obviously be even higher. The research institute Fraunhofer ISE had already
reached this conclusion in a study from 2008: loss of service quality performance without plants was 4.3%.
8.6.3 DEFECT CLASSIFICATION

The defects are classified into five different categories: on the malfunctioning of the entire solar power
system due to power failures or well tripping protection, decoupling of the inverter, a temporary
malfunction of the UPS, a failure of the chain of modules, a problem of communication data. All events on
solar power installations are based on the total number of plants examined, and then, there is an average of
5 per year reported failures that need to be analysed systematically. Most often these are technical problems
that appear on the inverter, twothirds of malfunctions on solar power installations are assigned to the
inverter. Nearly 40 % of failures are disruptions in the operation of inverters, there are such cuts due to low
insulation resistance due to cable failure or modules, or due to a shadow which leads to a decrease inverter
efficiency. About a quarter of alerts are caused by failures of the inverter. Therefore, for string inverter is
done in general with their replacement and central inverters to return to service is done on site by teams of
specialists. Disruptions in the communication of data are about 20 % identified by the remote monitoring
system errors. These disturbances do not affect performance because only the data transfer is cancelled.
However, we cannot identify any failure of a technical component when perturbations in the data
transmission. The judgment of the entire solar power system represents only 10 % of the cases analysed,
which is not much, but it happens more often on small plants than for large solar power plants. The reason
is that, for example, in small and mediumsized facilities, the general circuit breaker can be triggered so
that the installation is disconnected from the network in case of technical problems. Failures on a single
channel module are relatively rare with only 2 % of cases and rarely contribute to the failure of solar power
installations. They represent more than 55 % yield losses. Decoupling a single inverter is about 40 % yield
loss. We also note that the inverter malfunctions are the most common, but they represent only 6 % of
losses. It is for this reason that without a 92 M. Hatti system of remote monitoring and services such failures
are often not detected and lead to a longterm sensitive yield loss. Losses resulting from normal faults, in
particular, failures on strings of modules do not cause major losses.
8.6.4 BALANCE SHEET

On average, a photovoltaic installation can have around 5 incidents per year that can cause a loss
performance requiring detailed analysis. Operators are selfmaintenance, and a permanent monitoring
should expect an average yield loss 5.7 % per year. This could be avoided by the use of a service system
and central station. The alerts analysis 2year operation showed that the inverters are responsible for two
thirds of failures on solar power installations. Control both the performance of the entire system that each
inverter is essential in order to identify defects before and resolve them quickly. Otherwise operator risk
significant yield losses that depreciate the investment in the solar power plant.

8.6.5 RELIABILITY IN PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATION
As part of their marketing photovoltaic modules must be certified from standardized tests (IEC 61215 for
crystalline modules, IEC 61646 for thin modules and IEC 62108 diapers modules concentration). In
addition, to establish the dependability of these, the tests of IEC 61730 must also be made. However, it
should be noted that the test sequences described in these standards are too short to determine the lifetime
of a photovoltaic module [4]. However, manufacturers still ensure the strength of their products over a very
long period (80 % of the initial power after 20 or 25 years depending on the manufacturer) only by the
standards mentioned above. A reliability study would allow manufacturers to determine the warranty on
their modules with more certainty and evaluate the risks they take to ensure their products as they do now.
Moreover, the thermal regulation RT 2012 requires the integration of a renewable energy source. Thus, for
the solar photovoltaic or a permanent solution used, it is important to understand its reliability and lifetime.
8.6.5.1 Potential Failures of Photovoltaic Panels

Thanks to various technical publications on the subject, possible failures of a crystalline photovoltaic
module are known, and it is possible to reproduce accelerated testing. A module is considered failed when
its power is less than 80 % of its original power according to manufacturers’ warranties. Two failure modes
have been studied in detail and highlighted, discoloration of the encapsulate which causes a Operation and
Maintenance Methods in Solar Power Plants 93 significant loss of the power of the photovoltaic module
and which can be reproduced by an UV exposure test, corrosion in the photovoltaic module that can be
reproduced by a damp heat test. For each failure mode, an accelerated degradation test and simulation tool
atmospheric conditions developed during the procedure can be used to determine the reliability curve of
the photovoltaic module in real conditions of use [10]. Finally, when the reliability curve is defined for each
failure mode, the total reliability of the photovoltaic module can be determined as well as its average
lifespan. With this methodology, the manufacturer may specify precisely the average life of its photovoltaic
modules and be able to define the proportion of modules that is likely to be defective during the warranty
period.

ANNEXURES
ANNEXURE I: SOLAR GRID CONNECTED PPS – KSEB INTRODUCTION

ANNEXURE II: INSPECTORATE GUIDLINES

ANNEXURE III: SINGLE LINE DIAGRAMS
I. 2kWp SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG
Figure 99: 2kWp single phase system with DG

II. 3kWp SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM
Figure 100: 5kWp single phase system

III. 5kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM
Figure 101: 5kWp three phase system

IV. 5kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG
Figure 102: 5kWp three phase system with DG

V. 10kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM

VI. 10kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG

VII. 20kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM

VIII. 20kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG

IX. 30kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG

X. 40kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM

XI. 40kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG

XII. 50kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM

XIII. 50kWp THREE PHASE SYSTEM WITH DG

Website Links for Additional Information
1. General
a) Exxon Mobil Energy Outlook
http://corporate.exxonmobil.com/en/energy/energyoutlook/downloadthereportand
presentation/downloadtheoutlookforenergyreport
b) BP Statistical Review
http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/aboutbp/energyeconomics/statisticalreviewofworld
energy.html
c) World Energy Outlook

http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/pressmedia/recentpresentations/LondonNovember12.pdf
d) International and Indian Solar Photovoltaic Sector Outlook: Current scenario, Investment and
growth Trajectory
http://solarquarter.com/index.php/3853internationalandindiansolarphotovoltaicsector
outlookcurrentscenarioinvestmentandgrowthtrajectory
e) Global Market Outlook For Solar Power / 2017 2021

http://solarquarter.com/index.php/resources/83industryreports/6817globalmarketoutlookfor
solarpower20172021
f) Renewable Energy
http://www.makeinindia.com/sector/renewableenergy
g) Solar Radiation Basics

https://energy.gov/eere/energybasics/articles/solarradiationbasics
h) Power Quality Issues Concerning Photovoltaic Generation in Distribution Grids

Smart Grid and Renewable Energy, 2015, 6, 148163
Published Online June 2015 in SciRes.
http://www.scirp.org/journal/sgre
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/sgre.2015.66014
2. Renewable / Solar Energy

a) REN 21
http://www.ren21.net/ren21activities/globalstatusreport.aspx
b) Greentech Media
http://www.greentechmedia.com/research/list/category/solar
c) NPD Solarbuzz
http://www.solarbuzz.com/
d) PV Tech
http://www.pvtech.org/

e) PV Magazine
http://www.pvmagazine.com/#axzz3FAq8Mpk6
f) Photon News
http://www.photon.info/photon_news_overview_en.photon
g) Solar Quarter
http://www.solarquarter.com/
h) Energy Alternatives India News Letter

http://www.eai.in/newsletter/
i) PV Resources

REFERENCES
1. Arianfar AH, Mehraban Jahromi MH, Mosalanejad M, Dehghan B (2009) Design and modeling remote
monitoring system for solar power plant. IEEE Int Conf Comput Electr Eng pp 8199
2. Camacho EF, Berenguel M, Rubio F (1994) Application of gain scheduling generalized predictive
controller to a solar power plant. Control Eng Pract 2(2):227–237
3. Fluke Corporation (2006, 2008) Infrared thermal imagers: a primer for HVAC technicians
4. Haney J, Burnstein A (2013) Solar America Board for Codes and Standards Report, 2013.
www.solarabcs.org. Accessed Jan 2014
5. Mehraban Jahromi MH, Shabaninia F (2007) Introducing effective parameters in teleoperation system
assessment. Iran J Eng Educ 9(36):111–132
6. Munir S, Book WJ (2002) Internetbased teleoperation using wave variables with prediction.
IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron
7(2):16 7. Mync P, Berdner J (2009) PV system ground faults. SolarPro. Issue 2.5.
http://solarprofessional.com/ articles/operationsmaintenance/pvsystemgroundfaults. Accessed on Jan
2014
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) (2011a) National Electrical Code® (NEC), NFPA 70®.
Article 100
9. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) (2011b) National Electrical Code® (NEC), NFPA 70®.
Article 690
10. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2012) PVWatts calculator. www.nrel.
gov/rredc/pvwatts/. Accessed Jan 2014
11. Quaschning V (2003) Technology fundamentals: solar thermal power plants. Renew Energy World
6(06):109–113
12. Sherwood L (2013) U.S. Solar Market Trends 2012. Interstate Renewable Energy Council.
www.irecusa.org/wpcontent/uploads/IRECSolar
13. National Solar Mission BestPracticesGuideonImplementation of StateLevelSolarRooftop
PhotovoltaicPrograms – MNRE (June 2016)

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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (ROOFTOP SYSTEMS)

ARBUTUS CONSULTANTS PVT. LTD.

ANERT TRAINING PROGRAME_STUDY MATERIAL (Rev 01) _20171218 1

ANERT TRAINING PROGRAME_STUDY MATERIAL (Rev 01) _20171218 2

Module 1 10.45 - 12.00 PM National and Global Scenario on Solar PV SME on

Module 2 12 - 1.30 PM Solar Inverters SME on

Module 3 2 - 3.30 PM Power Quality Issues, Safety and SME on

Module 4 3.30 - 6.30 PM Inspection of a Solar PV Plant: SME on

Module 6 11.30 - 1 PM Regulatory Aspects, Systems & SME on

Module 7 1.30 - 3 PM Role of KSEB, Case Study, Challenges KSEB

Module 8 3 - 4 PM Installation (Best Practices), Operation SME on O & M

ANERT TRAINING PROGRAME_STUDY MATERIAL (Rev 01) _20171218 3

1.1 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS - NATIONAL AND GLOBAL SCENARIO .......................................17

1.1.1 SOLAR PV SCENARIO - GLOBAL ..........................................................................................................19

1.1.2 SOLAR PV SCENARIO- INDIA ...............................................................................................................20

1.1.3.1 Power Scenario – Kerala ..................................................................................................................................................... 22

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR PV SYSTEMS..................................................................................24

1.2.1.1 Schematic of a Grid Connected Solar PV System ..................................................................................................... 24

1.2.2 TECHNOLOGIES OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS .......................................................................38

1.2.2.1 First -Generation PV Technologies - Crystalline Silicon based Technology .............................................. 38

1.2.3 PV INVERTER TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................................54

1.2.3.1 PV Inverter Types .................................................................................................................................................................... 54

1.2.4.1 Grid connected Rooftop Solar PV system .................................................................................................................... 57

1.2.5.1 Software Tools .......................................................................................................................................................................... 58

1.2.5.3 Definition of a Project ........................................................................................................................................................... 60

ANERT TRAINING PROGRAME_STUDY MATERIAL (Rev 01) _20171218 4

1.2.5.10 Single Line Diagrams ............................................................................................................................................................ 69

1.2.6 CASE STUDY - 2 MW GRID-CONNECTED SOLAR PV PLANT ..................................................72

1.2.6.1 Project Design ........................................................................................................................................................................... 72

1.2.6.3 PVSyst Report ............................................................................................................................................................................ 81

1.2.7 ASSESSMENT OF ANNUAL ENERGY GENERATION ................................................................................85

1.2.7.1 De-Rating Module Performance ...................................................................................................................................... 86

1.2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF BILL OF MATERIAL ...................................................................................93

1.2.8.1 Bill of Quantities ...................................................................................................................................................................... 93

MODULE 2: SOLAR INVERTERS.................................................................................................................100

2.1 GRID TIED INVERTER ................................................................................................................. 100

2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE AND PROTECTION .............................................................................. 101

2.2.1 INVERTER CIRCUIT ........................................................................................................................... 103

2.2.2 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION ............................................................................................................. 104

2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTERS ................................................................................................... 105

2.3.1.1 Central Inverter .....................................................................................................................................................................105

2.3.2 DEPENDING ON THE PRESENCE OF TRANSFORMER............................................................................. 110

2.3.2.1 Isolated Inverter ....................................................................................................................................................................110

2.4 INVERTER SIZING ........................................................................................................................ 111

2.4.1 IMPORTANT DATASHEET PARAMETERS............................................................................................. 113

2.5 ANTI- ISLANDING FEATURE ............................................................................................................... 115

ANERT TRAINING PROGRAME_STUDY MATERIAL (Rev 01) _20171218 5

3.2.1 KEY TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS, STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS............................................ 118

3.2.2 ANTI-ISLANDING ............................................................................................................................... 120

3.2.2.1 Passive methods .....................................................................................................................................................................121

3.2.2.3 Utility-based methods .........................................................................................................................................................125

3.2.3 GRID SUPPORT FUNCTIONS AFFECTING ANTI-ISLANDING ................................................................ 126

3.2.4 DC INJECTION ................................................................................................................................... 127

3.2.4.1 Procedure and Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................................................127

4.1 INSTALLATION ASPECTS ........................................................................................................... 129

4.1.1 APPLICABLE STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS ................................................................................... 129

4.1.3 INSTALLATION DOCUMENTS.............................................................................................................. 130

4.2 COMMISSIONING CHECKS......................................................................................................... 132

4.2.1 VISUAL INSPECTION OF SOLAR MODULE .......................................................................................... 132

4.2.1.1 Micro cracks on Solar Module ........................................................................................................................................133

4.2.1.2 Hot Spot on Solar Module .................................................................................................................................................135

4.3 STAGES OF INSTALLATION STUDY .......................................................................................... 137

4.3.1 STAGE 1 – PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY .................................................................................................. 137