Dynamics of Machines

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Panimalar Institute
of Technology
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w .Ea OF MECHANICAL
DEPARTMENT
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ENGINEERING
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Notes of Lesson rinon
Dynamics of Machinery
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ME2302 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
OBJECTIVE:
To understand the method of static force analysis and dynamic force analysis of mechanisms
To study the undesirable effects of unbalances in rotors and engines.
To understand the concept of vibratory systems and their analysis
To understand the principles of governors and gyroscopes.
UNIT I FORCE ANALYSIS AND FLYWHEELS 12

Static force analysis of mechanisms – D ’ Alemberts principle - Inertia force and Inertia torque –
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Dynamic force analysis - Dynamic Analysis in Reciprocating Engines – Gas Forces - Equivalent
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masses - Bearing loads - Crank shaft Torque–Engine shaking Forces - Turning moment diagrams
- Flywheels of engines and punch press
UNIT II BALANCING
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Static and dynamic balancing - Balancing of rotating masses - Balancing a single cylinder
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Engine – Primary and secondary unbalanced forces - Balancing Multi-cylinder
UNIT III FREE VIBRATION gin

Engines – Firing order – Pivoted cradle balancing machines
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Basic features of vibratory systems - Basic elements and lumping of parameters - Degrees of
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freedom - Single degree of freedom - Free vibration - Equations of motion - natural frequency -
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Types of Damping - Damped free vibration – Whirling of shafts and critical speed - Torsional
systems; Natural frequency of two and three rotor systems.
UNIT IV FORCED VIBRATION
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Response to periodic forcing - Harmonic Forcing – Forced vibration caused by unbalance -
Support motion – Force transmissibility and amplitude transmissibility - Vibration isolation
UNIT V MECHANISMSFOR CONTROL 12
Governors - Types - Centrifugal governors - Gravity controlled and spring controlled centrifugal
governors –Characteristics - Effect of friction - Controlling Force – Quality of governors – effect
of friction.
Gyroscopes - Gyroscopic couple - Gyroscopic stabilization - Gyroscopic effects in Automobiles
and ships

UNIT – 1FORCE ANALYSIS AND FLYWHEELS
Static force analysis of mechanisms – D ’ Alemberts principle - Inertia force and Inertia torque –
Dynamic force analysis - Dynamic Analysis in Reciprocating Engines – Gas Forces - Equivalent
masses - Bearing loads - Crank shaft Torque–Engine shaking Forces - Turning moment diagrams
- Flywheels of engines and punch press
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The subject Theory of Machines may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science,

which deals with the study of relative motion between the various parts of a machine, and forces
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which act on them. The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an engineer in designing
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the various parts
of a machine.
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A machine is a device which receives energy in some available form and utilises it to do some
particular type of work.
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Sub-divisions of Theory of Machines gin
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The Theory of Machines may be sub-divided into the following four branches :
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1. Kinematics.It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the relative motion
between the various parts of the machines.
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2. Dynamics. It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the forces and their
effects, while acting
upon the machine parts in motion.
3. Kinetics.It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the inertia forces which
arise from the combined effect of the mass and motion of the machine parts.
4. Statics.It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the forces and their effects
while the machineparts are at rest. The mass of the parts is assumed to be negligible.

Inertia Forces in ReciprocatingParts
The inertia force is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid body, brings it in an
equilibrium position. Itis numerically equal to the accelerating force in magnitude, but opposite
in direction. Mathematically,
Inertia force = – Accelerating force = – m.a
wherem = Mass of the body, and

a = Linear acceleration of the centre of gravity of the body.
Similarly, the inertia torque is an imaginary torque, which when applied upon the rigid body,
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brings it in equilibriumposition. It is equal to the accelerating couple in magnitude but opposite
in direction.
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D-Alembert’s Principle
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D-Alembert’s principle states that the resultant force acting on a body together with the
reversed effective force (or inertia force), are in equilibrium.
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Consider a rigid body acted upon bya system of forces. The system may bereduced to a single
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resultant force acting onthe body whose magnitude is given by theproduct of the mass of the
body and the linearacceleration of the centre of mass of the body.
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According to Newton’s second law ofmotion,
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A little consideration will show, that if the quantity – m.a be treated as a force, equal, opposite
and with the same line of action as the resultant force F, and include this force with the system of
forces of which F is the resultant, then the complete system of forces will be in equilibrium. This
principle is known as D-Alembert’s principle. The equal and opposite force – m.ais known as
reversed effective force or the inertia force (briefly written as F ). The equation (ii) may be
written as

Approximate Analytical Method for Velocity and Acceleration of the Piston
Consider the motion of a crank and connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine as shown in
Fig. 15.7. Let OC be the crank and PC the connecting rod. Let the crank rotates with angular
velocity of rad/s and the crank turns through an angle  from the inner dead centre (briefly
written as I.D.C). Let x be the displacement of a Reciprocating body P from I.D.C. after time t
seconds, during which the crank has turned through an angle .
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Velocity of the piston gin
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Acceleration of the piston
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Angular Velocity and Acceleration of the Connecting Rod
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1. If the crank and the connecting rod are 300 mm and 1 m long respectively and the crank
rotates at a constant speed of 200 r.p.m., determine:1. The crank angle at which the
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maximum velocity occurs, and 2. Maximum velocity of the piston.
Given :r = 300 mm = 0.3 m ; l = 1 m ; N = 200 r.p.m. or ω = 2 p × 200/60 = 20.95

rad/s
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1. Crank angle at which the maximum velocity occurs
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Forces on the Reciprocating Parts of an Engine, Neglecting the Weight of the Connecting
Rod
The various forces acting on the reciprocating parts of a horizontal engine are shown in Fig.2.
The expressions for these forces, neglecting the weight of the connecting rod, may be derived as
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discussed below
1. Piston effort. It is the net force acting on the piston or crosshead pin, along the line of
w.Estroke. It is denoted by FP in Fig. 15.8.
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2. Force acting along the connecting rod.
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3. Thrust on the sides of the cylinder walls or normal reaction on the guide bars
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4. Crank-pin effort and thrust on crank shaft bearings
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5. Crank effort or turning moment or torque on the crank shaft
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The product of the crankpineffort(F) and the crank pin radius (r) is known as crank
effortorturning moment or torque onthe crank shaft. Mathematically,

1. The crank-pin circle radius of a horizontal engine is 300 mm. The mass of the
reciprocating parts is 250 kg. When the crank has travelled 60° from I.D.C., the
difference between the driving and the back pressures is 0.35 N/mm2. The connecting
rod length between centres is 1.2 m and the cylinder bore is 0.5 m. If the engine runs at
250 r.p.m. and if the effect of piston rod diameter is neglected, calculate :1. pressure on
slide bars, 2. thrust in the connecting rod, 3.tangential force on the crank-pin, and 4.
turning moment on the crank shaft.
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mm ; N = 250 r.p.m. or  = 2 × 250/60 = 26.2 rad/s
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1. Pressure on slide bars
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2. Thrustin the connecting rod

3. Tangential force on the crank-pin
4. Turning moment on the crank shaft
TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM
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The turning moment diagram (also known as crankfort diagram) is the graphical representation
of the turningMoment or crank-effort for various positions of the crank. It is plotted on cartesian
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co-ordinates, in which the turning moment is taken as the ordinate and crank angle as abscissa.
Turning moment diagram for single cylinder double acting cylinder
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A turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine is shown in Fig. The
vertical ordinate represents the turning moment and the horizontal ordinate represents the crank
angle.
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whereF= Piston effort, r = Radius of crank, P n = Ratio of the connecting rod length and radius
of crank,
and= Angle turned by the crank from inner dead centre.
Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine.

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Turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine.
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Fluctuation of Energy
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of energy. et
The variations of energy above and below the mean resisting torque line are called fluctuations
The difference between the maximum and the minimum energies is known as maximum
fluctuation of energy.

Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy
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It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per
cycle.Mathematically, coefficient of fluctuation of energy,
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Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed
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The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the
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maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean
speed is called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
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Energy Stored in a Flywheel
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A flywheel is shown in Fig. 16.5. We have discussed in Art. that when a flywheel absorbs
energy, its speed increases and when it gives up energy, its speed decreases.
Let
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k = Radius of gyration of the flywheel in Meters.
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1.
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The mass of flywheel of an engine is 6.5 tonnes and the radius of gyration is 1.8 metres.
It is found from the turning moment diagram that the fluctuation of energy is 56 kN-m. If
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the mean speed of the engine is 120 r.p.m., find the maximum and minimum speeds.
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Given :m = 6.5 t = 6500 kg ; k = 1.8 m ; ∆E = 56 kN-m = 56 × 10 N-m ; N =
120 r.p.m.
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2. The turning moment diagram for a multicylinder engine has been drawn to
a scale1mm = 600N-mvertically and1mm = 3° horizontally. The intercepted areas
between the output torque curve and the mean resistance line, taken in order from one
end, are as follows :+ 52, – 124, + 92, – 140, + 85, – 72 and + 107mm2 , when the engine
is running at a speed of600r. p . m. If the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed
1.5%of the mean, find the necessary mass of the flywheel of radius0.5m.
Given :N = 600 r.p.m. or  = 2  × 600 / 60 = 62.84 rad / s ; R = 0.5 m
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Flywheel in Punching Press

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E be the energy required for punching a hole. This energy is determined by the size of the hole
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punched, the thickness of the material and the physical properties of the material.
Let
d1 = Diameter of the hole punched,
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t1 = Thickness of the plate, and
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= Ultimate shear stress for the plate material. rin
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1. A punching press is driven by a constant torque electric motor. The press is provided with
a flywheel that rotates at maximum speed of 225 r.p.m. The radius of gyration of the
flywheel is 0.5 m. The press punches 720 holes per hour; each punching operation takes 2
second and requires 15 kN-m of energy. Find the power of the motor and the minimum
mass of the flywheel if speed of the same is not to fall below 200 r. p. m.
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Question bank for UNIT 1
PART-A
1. What is free body diagram?
2. Define static force analysis.
3. Differentiate between static and dynamic equilibrium.
4. Define applied and constraint forces.
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5. Differentiate between static force analysis and dynamic force analysis.
6. Define inertia force.
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7. Define inertia torque.
8. State D’Alembert’s principle.
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9. State the principle of superposition.
10. Define piston effort.
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11. Define crank effort and crank-pin effort.
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12. What is meant by turning moment diagram or crank effort diagram?
13. Explain the term maximum fluctuation of energy in fly wheel.
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14. Define coefficient of fluctuation of energy.
15. Define coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
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16. Define coefficient of steadiness.
17. Why flywheels are needed in forging and pressing operations? g.n
18. What is cam dynamics?
19. Define unbalance and spring surge.
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20. Define windup. What is the remedy for camshaft windup?
21. What are the effect and causes of windup?

UNIT II – Balancing
Static and dynamic balancing - Balancing of rotating masses - Balancing a single cylinder
Engine – Primary and secondary unbalanced forces - Balancing Multi-cylinderEngines – Firing
order – Pivoted cradle balancing machines
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INTRODUCTION:
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When man invented the wheel, he very quickly learnt that if it wasn’t completely round and if it
didn’t rotate evenly about it’s central axis, then he had a problem!
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What the problem he had? The wheel would vibrate causing damage to itself and its support
mechanism and in severe cases, is unusable.
A method had to be found to minimize the problem. The mass had to be evenly distributed about
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the rotating centerline so that the resultant vibration was at a minimum.
UNBALANCE:
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The condition which exists in a rotor when vibratory force or motion is imparted to itsbearings as
a result of centrifugal forces is called unbalance or the uneven distribution ofmass about a rotor’s
rotating centre line.
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Rotating centerline:

The rotating centerline being defined as the axis about which the rotor would rotate if
notconstrained by its bearings. (Also called the Principle Inertia Axis or PIA).
Geometric centerline:
The geometric centerline being the physical centerline of the rotor.
When the two centerlines are coincident, then the rotor will be in a state of balance.When they
are apart, the rotor will be unbalanced.
Different types of unbalance can be defined by the relationship between the twocenterlines.
These include:
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Static Unbalance – where the PIA is displaced parallel to the geometric centerline.(Shown
above)
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Couple Unbalance – where the PIA intersects the geometric centerline at the centerofgravity.
(CG)
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Dynamic Unbalance – where the PIA and the geometric centerline do not coincide ortouch.
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The most common of these is dynamic unbalance.
Causes of Unbalance:
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In the design of rotating parts of a machine every care is taken to eliminate any out ofbalance or
couple, but there will be always some residual unbalance left in the finishedpart because of
1. slight variation in the density of the material or
2. inaccuracies in the casting or rin
3. inaccuracies in machining of the parts.
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Why balancing is so important?
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1. A level of unbalance that is acceptable at a low speed is completely unacceptable at a higher
speed.
2. As machines get bigger and go faster, the effect of the unbalance is much more severe.
3. The force caused by unbalance increases by the square of the speed.
4. If the speed is doubled, the force quadruples; if the speed is tripled the force increases by a
factor of nine!
Identifying and correcting the mass distribution and thus minimizing the force and resultant
vibration is very very important

BALANCING:
Balancing is the technique of correcting or eliminating unwanted inertia forces or moments in

rotating or reciprocating masses and is achieved by changing the location of the mass centers.
The objectives of balancing an engine are to ensure:
1. That the centre of gravity of the system remains stationery during a complete revolution of the
crank shaft and
2. That the couples involved in acceleration of the different moving parts balance each other.
Types of balancing:
a) Static Balancing:
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i) Static balancing is a balance of forces due to action of gravity.
ii) A body is said to be in static balance when its centre of gravity is in the axis of rotation.
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b) Dynamic balancing:
i) Dynamic balance is a balance due to the action of inertia forces.
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ii) A body is said to be in dynamic balance when the resultant moments or couples, which
involved in the acceleration of different moving parts is equal to zero.
iii) The conditions of dynamic balance are met, the conditions of static balance are also met.
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In rotor or reciprocating machines many a times unbalance of forces is produced due toinertia
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forces associated with the moving masses. If these parts are not properly balanced, the dynamic
forces are set up and forces not only increase loads on bearings and stressesin the various
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components, but also unpleasant and dangerous vibrations.
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Balancing is a process of designing or modifying machinery so that the unbalance isreduced to
an acceptable level and if possible eliminated entirely.
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BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES
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When a mass moves along a circular path, it experiences a centripetal acceleration and a force is
required to produce it. An equal and opposite force called centrifugal force acts radially outwards
and is a disturbing force on the axis of rotation. The magnitude of this remains constant but the
direction changes with the rotation of the mass.
In a revolving rotor, the centrifugal force remains balanced as long as the centre of the mass of
rotor lies on the axis of rotation of the shaft. When this does not happen, there is an eccentricity
and an unbalance force is produced. This type of unbalance is common in steam turbine rotors,
engine crankshafts, rotors of compressors, centrifugal pumps etc.

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The unbalance forces exerted on machine members are time varying, impart vibratory motion
and noise, there are human discomfort, performance of the machine deteriorate and detrimental
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effect on the structural integrity of the machine foundation.
Balancing involves redistributing the mass which may be carried out by addition or removal of
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mass from various machine members.
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Balancing of rotating masses can be of
1. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane.
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2. Balancing of a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in different planes.
3. Balancing of several masses rotating in the same plane
4. Balancing of several masses rotating in different planes
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STATIC BALANCING:
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A system of rotating masses is said to be in static balance if the combined mass centre of the
system lies on the axis of rotation
DYNAMIC BALANCING:
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When several masses rotate in different planes, the centrifugal forces, in addition to being out of
balance, also form couples. A system of rotating masses is in dynamic balance when there does
not exist any resultant centrifugal force as well as resultant couple.

CASE 1
BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY A SINGLE MASS ROTATING IN

THE SAME PLANE
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Consider a disturbing mass m1 which is attached to a shaft rotating at ω rad/s. Let
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This force acts radially outwards and produces bending moment on the shaft. In order to
counteract the effect of this force Fc1 , a balancing mass m2 may be attached in the same plane
of rotation of the disturbing mass m1 such that the centrifugal forces due to the two masses are
equal and opposite.

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CASE 2: gin
DIFFERENT PLANES.
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BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY TWO MASSES ROTATING IN
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There are two possibilities while attaching two balancing masses:
1. The plane of the disturbing mass may be in between the planes of the two g.n
balancing masses.
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2. The plane of the disturbing mass may be on the left or right side of two planes
containing the balancing masses.
In order to balance a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in different planes which are
parallel to the plane of rotation of the disturbing mass i) the net dynamic force acting on the shaft
must be equal to zero, i.e. the centre of the masses of the system must lie on the axis of rotation
and this is the condition for static balancing ii) the net couple due to the dynamic forces acting on
the shaft must be equal to zero, i.e. the algebraic sum of the moments about any point in the
plane must be zero. The conditions i) and ii) together give dynamic balancing.

CASE 2(I):
THE PLANE OF THE DISTURBING MASS LIES IN BETWEEN THE PLANESOF THE
TWO BALANCING MASSES.
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CASE 2(II):
WHEN THE PLANE OF THE DISTURBING MASS LIES ON ONE END OF THE TWO
PLANES CONTAINING THE BALANCING MASSES.
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CASE 3:
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BALANCING OF SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING IN THE SAME PLANE
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Consider a rigid rotor revolving with a constant angular velocity ω rad/s. A number of masses
say, four are depicted by point masses at different radii in the same transverse plane.
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The above equation can be solved either analytically or graphically.
1. Analytical Method:
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2. Graphical Method:
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Step 6: gin
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CASE 4:
BALANCING OF SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING IN DIFFERENT PLANES
When several masses revolve in different planes, they may be transferred to a reference plane
and this reference plane is a plane passing through a point on the axis of rotation and
perpendicular to it.
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When a revolving mass in one plane is transferred to a reference plane, its effect is to cause a
force of same magnitude to the centrifugal force of the revolving mass to act in the reference
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plane along with a couple of magnitude equal to the product of the force and the distance
between the two planes.
In order to have a complete balance of the several revolving masses in different planes,
1. the forces in the reference plane must balance, i.e., the resultant force must be zero and
2. the couples about the reference plane must balance i.e., the resultant couple must be
zero.
A mass placed in the reference plane may satisfy the first condition but the couple balance is
satisfied only by two forces of equal magnitude in different planes. Thus, in general, two planes
are needed to balance a system of rotating masses.

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Problems and solutions
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Problem 2:
A rotor has the following properties.
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Solution:
Analytical Method:
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Step 1:
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Resolve the couples into their horizontal and vertical components and find their sums.
Sum of the horizontal components gives,

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Sum of the vertical components gives,

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Graphical Solution:
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Problem 3:
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Balancing of Reciprocating Masses ee rin
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The resultant of all the forces acting on the body of the engine due to inertia forces only is
known as unbalancedforceor shaking force. Thus if the resultant of all the forces due to inertia
effects is zero, then there will be no unbalanced force, but even then an unbalanced couple or
shaking couple will be present.
Primary and Secondary Unbalanced Forces of Reciprocating masses

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Consider a reciprocating engine mechanism as shown in Fig.

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Partial Balancing of Unbalanced Primary Force in a Reciprocating Engine

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Problem 1:
A single cylinder reciprocating engine has speed 240 r.p.m., stroke 300 mm, mass of
reciprocating parts 50 kg, mass of revolving parts at 150 mm radius 37 kg. If two third of the
reciprocating parts and all the revolving parts are to be balanced, find : 1.The balance mass
required at a radius of 400 mm, and 2. The residual unbalanced force when the crank has
rotated 60° from top dead centre.
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Partial Balancing of Locomotives
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The locomotives, usually, have two cylinders with cranks placed at right angles to each other in
order to have uniformity in turning moment diagram. The two cylinder locomotives may be
classified as :
1. Inside cylinder locomotives ; and 2. Outside cylinder locomotives.

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In the insidecylinder locomotives, the two cylinders are placed in between the planes of two
driving wheels as shown in Fig. (a) ; whereas in the outside cylinder locomotives, the two
cylinders are placed outside the driving wheels, one on each side of the driving wheel, as shown
in Fig (b). The locomotives may be
(a) Single or uncoupled locomotives ; and (b) Coupled locomotives.

A single or uncoupled locomotive is one, in which the effort is transmitted to one pair of the
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wheels only; whereas in coupled locomotives, the driving wheels are connected to the leading
and trailing wheel by an outside coupling rod.
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Effect of Partial Balancing of Reciprocating Parts of Two Cylinder Locomotives
The effect of an unbalanced primary force along the line of stroke is to produce;
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1. Variation in tractive force along the line of stroke ; and 2. Swaying couple.
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The effect of an unbalanced primary force perpendicular to the line of stroke is to produce
variation in pressure on the rails, which results in hammering action on the rails. The maximum
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magnitude of the unbalanced force along the perpendicular to the line of stroke is known as a
hammer blow.
Variation of Tractive Force

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The resultant unbalanced force due to the two cylinders, along the line of stroke, is known as
tractive force.
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Swaying Couple
The unbalanced forces along the line of stroke for the two cylinders constitute a couple about the
centre line YY between the cylinders as shown in Fig.
This couple has swaying effect about a vertical axis, and tends to sway the engine alternately in
clockwise and anticlockwise directions. Hence the couple is known as swaying couple.
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Hammer Blow
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The maximum magnitude of the unbalanced force along the perpendicular to the line of stroke is
known as hammer blow
g.n
et

PART-A
1. What is meant by balancing of rotating masses?

2. Why rotating masses are to be dynamically balanced?
3. Define static balancing.
4. Define dynamic balancing.
5. State the conditions for static and dynamic balancing.
6. State the conditions for complete balance of several masses revolving in different planes of a
sh7. Why complete balancing is not possible in reciprocating engine?
ww
8. Can a single cylinder engine be fully balanced? Why?
9. Differentiate between the unbalanced force caused due to rotating and reciprocating masses.
w.E
10. Why are the cranks of a locomotive, with two cylinders, placed at 90° to each other?
asy
11. List the effects of partial balancing of locomotives.
12. Define swaying couple.
En
13. Define hammer blow with respect to locomotives.
gin
14. What are the effects of hammer blow and swaying couple?
15. Define direct and reverse cranks.
ee
16. what for the balancing machines are used?
17. What are different types of balancing machines?
rin
g.n
et

UNIT- IVFORCED VIBRATION
Response to periodic forcing - Harmonic Forcing – Forced vibration caused by unbalance -

Support motion – Force transmissibility and amplitude transmissibility - Vibration isolation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Frequency of Under Damped Forced Vibrations
ww
Consider a system consisting of spring, mass and damper as shown in Fig. Let the system is
acted upon by an external periodic (i.e. simple harmonic) disturbing force
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
When the system is constrained to move in vertical guides, it has only one degree of freedom.
Let at sometimet, the mass is displaced downwards through a distance x from its mean position
g.n
et
This equation of motion may be solved either by differential equation method or by graphical
method as discussed below:

Differential equation method
The equation (i) is a differential equation of the second degree whose right hand side is some
function in t. The solution of such type of differential equation consists of two parts ; one part is
the complementary function and the second is particular integral. Therefore the solution may be
written as
ww
The displacement x, at any time t, is given by,
w.E
asy
This equation shows that motion is simple harmonic whose circular frequency is amplitude is
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Magnification Factor or Dynamic Magnifier
It is the ratio of maximum displacement of the forced vibration (x) to the deflection due to the
static forceF(xomax). We have proved in the previous article that the maximum displacement or
the amplitude of forced vibration,
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Vibration Isolation and Transmissibility
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Problem:

A mass of 10 kg is suspended from one end of a helical spring, the other end being fixed. The
stiffness of the spring is 10 N/mm. The viscous damping causes the amplitude to decrease to
one-tenth of the initial value in four complete oscillations. If a periodic force of 150 cos 50 t N is
applied at the mass in the vertical direction, find the amplitude of the forced vibrations. What is
its value of resonance ?
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
Problem:
asy
The mass of an electric motor is 120 kg and it runs at 1500 r.p.m. The armature mass is 35 kg
and its C.G. lies 0.5 mm from the axis of rotation. The motor is mounted on five springs of
En
negligible damping so that the force transmitted is one-eleventh of the impressed force. Assume
that the mass of the motor is equally distributed among the five springs.Determine:1.stiffness of
gin
each spring; 2.dynamic force transmitted to the base at the operating speed; and 3.natural
frequency of the system.
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
PART-A
w.E
1. Define damping ratio or damping factor.
2. Define logarithmic decrement.
asy
3. Give equation for damping factor ζ and damped frequency ωd.
En
4. What is meant by harmonic forcing?
5. What is the relationship between frequencies of undamped and damped vibration?
gin
6. What is meant by dynamic magnifier or magnification factor?
7. Define transmissibility.
ee
8. Define transmissibility ratio or isolation factor.
rin
g.n
9. What is vibration isolation?
10. Sketch the graph for (ω/ωn) Vs Transmissibility for different values of damping factor.
et

UNIT – V MECHANISMSFOR CONTROL
Governors - Types - Centrifugal governors - Gravity controlled and spring controlled centrifugal
governors –Characteristics - Effect of friction - Controlling Force – Quality of governors – effect
of friction.
Gyroscopes - Gyroscopic couple - Gyroscopic stabilization - Gyroscopic effects in Automobiles
and ships
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Governors
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are variations
ww
in the load e.g. when the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases, therefore it becomes
necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. On the other hand, when the load on the
engine decreases, its speed increases and thus less working fluid is required. The governor
w.E
automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load conditions
and keeps the mean speed within certain limits. A little consideration will show, that when the
asy
loadincreases, the configuration of the governor changes and a valve is moved to increase the
supply of the working fluid ; conversely, when the load decreases, the engine speed increases
and the governor decreases the supply of working fluid.
Types of Governors En
gin
The governors may, broadly, be classified as
ee
1. Centrifugal governors, and 2. Inertia governors.
rin
g.n
et

Centrifugal Governors
The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by
an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
When the load on the engine increases, the engine and the governor speed decreases. This results
in the decrease of centrifugal force on the balls. Hence the balls move inwards and the sleeve
g.n
moves downwards. The downward movement of the sleeve operates a throttle valve at the other
end of the bell crank lever to increase the supply of working fluid and thus the engine speed is
increased. In this case, the extra power output is provided to balance the increased load. When
et
the load on the engine decreases, the engine and the governor speed increases, which results in
the increase of centrifugal force on the balls. Thus the balls move outwards and the sleeve rises
upwards. This upward movement of the sleeve reduces the supply of the working fluid and hence
the speed is decreased. In this case, the power output is reduced.

Terms Used in Governors
The following terms used in governors are important from the subject point of view ;
1. Height of a governor. It is the vertical distance from the centre of the ball to a point where the
axes of the arms (or arms produced) intersect on the spindle axis. It is usually denoted by h.
2. Equilibrium speed. It is the speed at which the governor balls, arms etc., are in complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move upwards or downwards.
3. Mean equilibrium speed. It is the speed at the mean position of the balls or the sleeve.
ww
4. Maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds.
The speeds at the maximum and minimum radius of rotation of the balls, without tending to
w.E
move either way are known as maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds respectively.
5. Sleeve lift. It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in equilibrium
speed.
asy
Watt Governor
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Porter Governor
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

When the length of arms are equal to the length of links and the points P and D lie on the same
vertical line, then
When the loaded sleeve moves up and down the spindle, the frictional force acts on it in a
ww
direction opposite to that of the motion of sleeve.
w.E
asy
Proell Governor
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Hartnell Governor
A Hartnell governor is a spring loaded governor.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Since the stiffness for a given spring is constant for all positions, therefore for minimum and
intermediate position,
et

Problem:
1. Calculate the vertical height of a Watt governor when it rotates at 60 r.p.m. Also find the
change in vertical height when its speed increases to 61 r.p.m.
ww
w.E
asy
2. A Porter governor has equal arms each 250mm long and pivoted on the axis of rotation.
En
Each ball has a mass of 5kg and the mass of the central load on the sleeve is 25kg. The
gin
radius of rotation of the ball is 150mm when the governor begins to lift and 200mm when
the governor is at maximum speed. Find the minimum and maximum speeds and range of
speed of the governor.
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
Sensitiveness of Governors
gin
ee rin
Sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the difference between the maximum and
minimum equilibrium speeds to the mean equilibrium speed
g.n
et
Stability of Governors
A governor is said to be stable when for every speed within the working range there is a
definite configuration i.e. there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at which the
governor is in equilibrium. For a stable governor, if the equilibrium speed increases, the radius of
governor balls must also increase.

Isochronous Governors
A governor is said to beisochronouswhen the equilibrium speed is constant (speed is

zero) for all radii of rotation of the balls within the working range, neglecting friction. The
isochronism is the stage of infinite sensitivity.
The isochronous governor is not of practical use because the sleeve will move to one of
its extreme positions immediately the speed deviates from the isochronous speed.
Hunting
A governor is said to be hunt if the speed of the engine fluctuates continuously above and below
the mean speed. This is caused by a too sensitive governor which changes the fuel supply by a
ww
large amount when a small change in the speed of rotation takes place
Effort and Power of a Governor
w.E
The effort of a governoris the mean force exerted at the sleeve for a given percentage change of
asy
speed* (or lift of the sleeve).
The power of a governor is the work done at the sleeve for a given percentage change of speed.
En
It is the product of the mean value of the effort and the distance through which the sleeve moves.
Mathematically,
gin
Power = Mean effort × lift of sleeve
Gyroscope
ee rin
g.n
Consider a disc spinning with an angular velocity  rad/s about the axis of spin OX, in
et
anticlockwise direction when seen from the front, as shown in Fig. 14.2 (a). Since the plane in
which the disc is rotating is parallel to the plane YOZ, therefore it is called plane of spinning.The
plane XOZ is a horizontal plane and the axis of spin rotates in a plane parallel to the horizontal
plane about an axis OY. In other words, the axis of spin is said to be rotating or processing about
an axis OY. In other words, the axis of spin is said to be rotating or processing about an axis OY
(which is perpendicular to both the axes OX and OZ) at an angular velocity  rap/s. This
horizontal plane XOZ is called plane of precessionandOY is theaxis of precession

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Problem
A uniform disc of diameter 300 mm and of mass 5 kg is mounted on one end of an arm of length
600 mm. The other end of the arm is free to rotate in a universal bearing. If the disc rotates about
the arm with a speed of 300 r.p.m. clockwise, looking from the front, with what speed will it
precess about the vertical axis?
ww
w.E
asy
En
Effect of the Gyroscopic Couple on an Aeroplane
gin
The top and front view of an aeroplane are shown in Fig. Let engine or propeller rotates in the
ee
clockwise direction when seen from the rear or tail end and the aeroplane takes a turn to the left.
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
1. When the aeroplane takes a right turn under similar conditions as discussed above, the effect
rin
of the reactive gyroscopic couple will be to dip the nose and raise the tail of the aeroplane.
2. When the engine or propeller rotates in anticlockwise direction when viewed from the rear
g.n
or tail end and the aeroplane takes a left turn, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will
be to dip the nose and raise the tail of the aeroplane.
et
3. When the aeroplane takes a right turn under similar conditions as mentioned in note 2 above,
the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the tail of the
aeroplane.
4. When the engine or propeller rotates in clockwise direction when viewed from the front and
the aeroplane takes a left turn, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the
tail and dip the nose of the aeroplane.
5. When the aeroplane takes a right turn under similar conditions as mentioned in note 4-above,
the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the tail of the
aeroplane.

Effect of Gyroscopic Couple on a Naval Ship
The top and front views of a naval ship are shown in Fig . The fore end of the ship is called bow
and the rear end is known assternoraft. The left hand and right hand sides of the ship, when
viewed from the stern are called port and star-board respectively. We shall now discuss the
effect of gyroscopic couple on the naval ship in the following three cases:
1. Steering, 2. Pitching, and 3. Rolling.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Effect During Steering ee rin
g.n
et

During Pitching
ww
w.E
asy
En
During Rolling
gin
ee
In case of rolling of a ship, the axis of precession (i.e. longitudinal axis) is always parallel to the
axis of spin for all positions. Hence, there is no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on the
body of a ship. rin
g.n
et

Problem
1. An aeroplane makes a complete half circle of 50 metres radius, towards left, when flying
at 200 km per hr. The rotary engine and the propeller of the plane has a mass of 400 kg
and a radius of gyration of 0.3 m. The engine rotates at 2400 r.p.m. clockwise when
viewed from the rear. Find the gyroscopic couple on the aircraft and state its effect on it.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
2. The turbine rotor of a ship has a mass of 8 tonnes and a radius of gyration 0.6 m. It
rotates at 1800 r.p.m. clockwise, when looking from the stern. Determine the gyroscopic
rin
couple, if the ship travels at 100 km/hr and steer to the left in a curve of 75 m radius.
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
PART-A gin
1. What is the function of governor?
2. How governors are classified?
ee rin
3. Differentiate between governor and fly wheel.
4. What is meant by sensitiveness of a governor? g.n
5. What is the effect of friction on the governor?
6. Define coefficient of sensitiveness.
et
7. What is meant by hunting?
8. What is meant by isochronous conditions governor?
9. Give application of gyroscopic principle.
10. What is gyroscopic torque?
11. What is the effect of gyroscopic couple on rolling of ship? Why?
12. Define gyroscopic couple.
13. Write expression for gyroscopic couple.

References
1. Khurmi, R. et al.;Theory of Machines, 14th ed.;S. Chand & Co. Ltd., New Dehli 2005
2. D. R. Malhotra, Kinematics ofMachines, Published by SatyaPrakashan, New Delhi.
3. P. L. Balloney, Theory of Machines, Published by Khanna Publishing, Delhi.
4. Dr. R. K. Bansal, Theory of Machines, Published by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
5. AmithabhGhosh and Ashok Kumar Malik, Theory of Machines and Mechanics, Published by
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Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
6. Ashok Kumar Malik, Principles of Vibration Control, Published by East-West Press Pvt
w.E
Ltd., New Delhi.
asy
Web site: www. nptel.iitm.ac.in (National programme on technology enhanced learning by IIT,
India)
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

UNIT IIIFREE VIBRATION
Basic features of vibratory systems - Basic elements and lumping of parameters - Degrees of
freedom - Single degree of freedom - Free vibration - Equations of motion - natural frequency -
Types of Damping - Damped free vibration – Whirling of shafts and critical speed - Torsional
systems; Natural frequency of two and three rotor systems.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION:
ww
When elastic bodies such as a spring, a beam and a shaft are displaced from the equilibrium
position by the application of external forces, and then released, they execute a vibratory motion.
This is due to the reason that, when a body is displaced, the internal forces in the form of elastic
w.E
or strain energy are present in the body. At release, these forces bring the body to its original
position. When the body reaches the equilibrium position, the whole of the elastic or strain
asy
energy is converted into kinetic energy due to which the body continues to move in the opposite
direction. The whole of the kinetic energy is again converted into strain energy due to which the
body again returns to the equilibrium position. In this way, the vibratory motion is repeated
indefinitely.
En
Terms used in vibratory motion
gin
Periodic Motion
ee
The motion which repeats after a regular interval of time is called periodic motion.
Frequency rin
g.n
The number of cycles completed in a unit time is called frequency. Its unit is cycles per second
(cps) or Hertz (Hz).
Time Period et
Time taken to complete one cycle is called periodic time. It is represented in seconds/cycle.
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of a vibrating system or body from the mean equilibrium position
is called amplitude.
Free Vibrations
When a system is disturbed, it starts vibrating and keeps on vibrating thereafter without the
action of external force. Such vibrations are called free vibrations.

Natural Frequency
When a system executes free vibrations which are undamped, the frequency of such a system is
called natural frequency.
Forced Vibrations
The vibrations of the system under the influence of an external force are called forced vibrations.
The frequency of forced vibrations is equal to the forcing frequency.
Resonance
When frequency of the exciting force is equal to the natural frequency of the system it is called
resonance. Under such conditions the amplitude of vibration builds up dangerously.
ww
Degree of Freedom
The degree of freedom of a vibrating body or system implies the number of independent
w.E
coordinates which are required to define the motion of the body or system at given instant.
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ANALYSIS OF SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS FOR FREE VIBRATIONS
A practical system is very complicated. Therefore, before proceeding to analyse the system it is
desirable to simplify it by modeling the system. The modeling of the system is carried over in
such a manner that the result is acceptable within the desirable accuracy. Instead of considering
distributed mass, a lumped mass is easier to analyse, whose dynamic behaviour can be
determined by one independent principal coordinate, ina single degree freedom system. It is
important to study the single degree freedom system for a clear understanding of basic features
of a vibration problem.
ww
Elements of Lumped Parameter Vibratory System
w.E
The elements constituting a lumped parameter vibratory system are :
The Mass
asy
The mass is assumed to be rigid and concentrated at the centre of gravity.
The Spring
En
It is assumed that the elasticity is represented by a helical spring. When deformed it stores
gin
energy. The energy stored in the spring is given by
ee rin
g.n
et
The Damper
In a vibratory system the damper is an element which is responsible for loss of energy in the
system. It converts energy into heat due to friction which may be either sliding friction or
viscous friction. A vibratory system stops vibration because of energy conversion by damper.

There are two types of dampers.

Viscous Damper
A viscous damper consists of viscous friction which converts energy into heat due to this. For
this damper, force is proportional to the relative velocity.
ww
w.E
Coulumb’s Damper
asy
The dry sliding friction acts as a damper. It is almost a constant force but direction is always
opposite to the sliding velocity. Therefore, direction of friction changes due to change in
direction of velocity.
En
The Excitation Force gin
force which acts on the vibratory system.
ee
It is a source of continuous supply of energy to the vibratory system. It is an external periodic
rin
g.n
et
Undamped Free Vibration
There are several methods to analyse an undapmed system.
Methodology
Method Based on Newton’s II Law
According to the Newton’s II law, the rate of change of linear momentum is proportional to the
force impressed upon it

wwThe direction of forces mx andF are same. A model which represents undamped single
w.E
degree of freedom system shall have two elements, i.e. helical spring and mass. The mass is
constrained to move only in one direction as shown in Figure 7.2. The mass is in static condition
asy
in Figure 7.2(a). The free body diagram of the mass is shown inFigure 7.2(b). The body is in
equilibrium under the action of the two forces. Here ‘’ is the extension of the spring after
En
suspension of the mass on the spring.
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Energy Method
ee rin
g.n
This method is applicable to only the conservative systems. In conservative systems there is no
et
loss of energy and therefore total energy remains constant. When a mechanical system is in
motion, the total energy of the system is partly kinetic and partly potential (elastic strain energy).
The kinetic energy is due to the mass (m) and velocity (x). The potential energy is due to spring
stiffness and relative movement between the two ends of the spring.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Rayleigh’s Method
It is a modified energy method. It may be noted that in a conservative system potential energy is
maximum when kinetic energy is minimum and vice-versa. Therefore, equating maximum
kinetic energy with maximum potential energy.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Damped Free Vibration
In undamped free vibrations, two elements (spring and mass) were used but in damped third
element which is damper in addition to these are used. The three element model is shown in
Figure 7.7. In static equilibrium
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Free Transverse Vibration due to a Point Load on a Simply Supported Shaft
In this type of vibration, all the particles vibrate along paths perpendicular to the shaft axis. The
shaft may be having single to several supports. It may be carrying its own load, a single point
load or several point loads come in this category. Now these cases are to be dealt with separately.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

Free Torsional Vibration of a Single Rotor System
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
Free Torsional Vibrations of a Single Rotor System
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Free Torsional Vibrations of a two Rotor System
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
Free Torsional Vibrations of a three Rotor System
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
Torsional equivalent shaft asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
CAUSES OF VIBRATION IN MACHINES
En
There are various sources of vibration in an industrial environment :
gin
(a)Impact processes such as pile driving and blasting.
(b)Rotating or reciprocating machinery such as engines, compressors and motors.
ee
(c)Transportation vehicles such as trucks, trains and aircraft.
(d)Flow of fluids through pipes and without pipes.
rin
(e)Natural calamities such as earthquakes.
THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF VIBRATIONS g.n
There are various harmful effects of vibration :
(a)Excessive wear of bearings.
et
(b)Formation of cracks in machines, buildings and structure, etc.
(c)Loosening of fasteners in mechanical systems.
(d)Structural and mechanical failures in machines and buildings.
(e)Frequent and costly maintenance of machines.
(f)Electronic malfunctions through failure of solder joints.
(g)Abrasion of insulation around electric conductors, causing soots.
(h)The occupational exposure of humans to vibration leads to pain, discomfort and reduction in
working efficiency.

PART-A (2 marks)
1. What are the causes and effect of vibration?

2. Define frequency, cycle, period and free vibration.
3. What are the different types of vibrations?
4. State different method of finding natural frequency of a system.
5. What is meant by free vibration and forced vibration?
6. Define resonance.
ww
7. What is meant by degrees of freedom in a vibrating system?
8. What is the natural frequency of simple spring mass system?
w.E
9. Determine the natural frequency of mass of 10kgsuspended at the bottom of two springs (of
stiffness:
5N/mm and 8N/mm) in series.
asy
En
10. What is the effect of inertia on the shaft in longitudinal and transverse vibrations?
11. State the expression for the frequency of simple pendulum.
gin
12. Give the expression for natural frequency of water, which oscillates in a ‘U’tube manometer?
ee
13. What are the different types of damping?
rin
14. Draw the schematic diagram of a free damped vibration system and write the governing
differential equation of the system.
15. Sketch the Time Vs Displacement for under-damped and over-damped systems.
g.n
16. What is the limit beyond which damping is detrimental and why?
17. What is meant by critical damping? et
18. What type of motion is exhibited by a vibrating system when it is critically damped?
19. Define critical or whirling speed.
20. What are the factors that affect the critical speed of a shaft?
21. What are the causes of critical speed?
22. Differntiate between transverse and torsional vibrations.

Dynamics of Machines

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ME2302 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY

UNIT I FORCE ANALYSIS AND FLYWHEELS 12

UNIT III FREE VIBRATION gin

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UNIT – 1FORCE ANALYSIS AND FLYWHEELS

The subject Theory of Machines may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science,

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Inertia Forces in ReciprocatingParts

Inertia force = – Accelerating force = – m.a

wherem = Mass of the body, and

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Approximate Analytical Method for Velocity and Acceleration of the Piston

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Angular Velocity and Acceleration of the Connecting Rod

Given :r = 300 mm = 0.3 m ; l = 1 m ; N = 200 r.p.m. or ω = 2 p × 200/60 = 20.95

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w.Estroke. It is denoted by FP in Fig. 15.8.

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2. Thrustin the connecting rod

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3. Tangential force on the crank-pin

4. Turning moment on the crank shaft

TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM

Turning moment diagram for single cylinder double acting cylinder

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Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy

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Energy Stored in a Flywheel

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Flywheel in Punching Press

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Question bank for UNIT 1

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The geometric centerline being the physical centerline of the rotor.

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Balancing is the technique of correcting or eliminating unwanted inertia forces or moments in

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BALANCING OF A SINGLE ROTATING MASS BY A SINGLE MASS ROTATING IN

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The above equation can be solved either analytically or graphically.

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BALANCING OF SEVERAL MASSES ROTATING IN DIFFERENT PLANES

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