Geosynthetically Reinforced Asphalt Pavements

1. INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics have been used as reinforcement inclusions to improve pavement performance. A
typical flexible pavement system includes four distinct layers: asphalt concrete, base course,
subbase, and subgrade (Figure 1). The surface layer is typically asphalt concrete, which is a
bituminous hot-mix aggregate obtained from distillation of crude petroleum. The asphalt concrete
is underlain by a layer of base course, typically consisting of 0.2 m to 0.3 m of unbound coarse
aggregate. An optional subbase layer, which generally involves lower quality crushed aggregate,
can be placed under the base course in order to reduce costs or to minimize capillary action under
the pavement.

Figure 1.1 Cross-section of flexible pavement system

Pavement distress may occur due to either traffic or environmental loads. Traffic loads result from
the repetition of wheel loads, which can cause either structural or functional failure. Environmental
loads are induced by climatic conditions, such as variations in temperature or moisture in the
subgrade, which can cause surface irregularities and structural distress. Cycles of wetting and
drying (or freezing and thawing) may cause the breakdown of base course material. Construction
practices also affect pavement performance. For example, the use of aggregates with excessive
fines may lead to rapid pavement deterioration. Finally, pavement distress is also a function of its
maintenance or, more correctly, lack of maintenance. For example, sealing cracks and joints at
proper intervals and maintaining the shoulders improve pavement performance. The various
distress mechanisms induced by traffic and environmental loads can be enhanced through the use
of geosynthetics.

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2. GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics are synthetic products used to stabilize terrain. They are generally polymeric
products used to solve civil engineering problems. This includes eight main product categories:
geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells and
geocomposites. The polymeric nature of the products makes them suitable for use in the ground
where high levels of durability are required. They can also be used in exposed applications.
Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials. These products have a wide
range of applications and are currently used in many civil, geotechnical, transportation,
geoenvironmental, hydraulic, and private development applications including roads, airfields,
railroads, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, erosion control, sediment
control, landfill liners, landfill covers, mining, aquaculture and agriculture.

3. HISTORY OF GEOSYNTHETICS
Inclusions of different sorts mixed with soil have been used for thousands of years. They were
used in roadway construction in Roman days to stabilize roadways and their edges. These early
attempts were made of natural fibres, fabrics or vegetation mixed with soil to improve road quality,
particularly when roads were built on unstable soil. They were also used to build steep slopes as
with several pyramids in Egypt and walls as well. A fundamental problem with using natural
materials (wood, cotton, etc.) in a buried environment is the biodegradation that occurs from
microorganisms in the soil. With the advent of polymers in the middle of the 20th century a much
more stable material became available. When properly formulated, lifetimes of centuries can be
predicted even for harsh environmental conditions. Early papers on geosynthetics (as we know
them today) in the 1960s documented their use as filters in the United States and as reinforcement
in Europe. A 1977 conference in Paris brought together many of the early manufacturers and
practitioners. The International Geosynthetics Society (IGS) was founded in 1982 .

4. GEOSYNTHETIC PRODUCTS

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4.1. GEOTEXTILE

Geotextiles form one of the two largest groups of geosynthetics. They are textiles consisting
of synthetic fibers rather than natural ones such as cotton, wool, or silk. This makes them less
susceptible to bio-degradation. These synthetic fibers are made into flexible, porous fabrics by
standard weaving machinery or are matted together in a random non-woven manner. Some are
also knitted. Geotextiles are porous to liquid flow across their manufactured plane and also within
their thickness, but to a widely varying degree. There are at least 100 specific application areas for
geotextiles that have been developed; however, the fabric always performs at least one of four
discrete functions: separation, reinforcement, filtration, and/or drainage.

Figure 4.1 Geotextile

4.2. GEOGRIDS

Geogrids are used to prevent sliding on long and steep slopes during installation and use of
a landfill capping system .Geogrids represent a rapidly growing segment within geosynthetics.
Rather than being a woven, nonwoven or knitted textile fabric, geogrids are polymers formed into
a very open, gridlike configuration, i.e., they have large apertures between individual ribs in the
transverse and longitudinal directions. Geogrids are (a) either stretched in one, two or three
directions for improved physical properties, (b) made on weaving or knitting machinery by
standard textile manufacturing methods, or (c) by laser or ultrasonically bonding rods or straps

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together. There are many specific application areas; however, geogrids function almost exclusively
as reinforcement materials.

Figure 4.2 Geogrid

4.3. GEONETS/GEOSPACER

Geonets, and the related geospacers by some, constitute another specialized segment within
the geosynthetics area. They are formed by a continuous extrusion of parallel sets of polymeric
ribs at acute angles to one another. When the ribs are opened, relatively large apertures are formed
into a netlike configuration. Two types are most common, either biplanar or triplanar. Alternatively
many very different types of drainage cores are available. They consist of nubbed, dimpled or
cuspated polymer sheets, three-dimensional networks of stiff polymer fibers in different
configurations and small drainage pipes or spacers within geotextiles. Their design function is
completely within the drainage area where they are used to convey liquids or gases of all types.

Figure 4.3 Geonet

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4.4. GEOMEMBRANES

Geomembranes represent the other largest group of geosynthetics, and in dollar volume their sales
are greater than that of geotextiles. Their growth in the United States and Germany was stimulated
by governmental regulations originally enacted in the early 1980s for the lining of solid-waste
landfills. The materials themselves are relatively thin, impervious sheets of polymeric material
used primarily for linings and covers of liquids- or solid-storage facilities. This includes all types
of landfills, surface impoundments, canals, and other containment facilities. Thus the primary
function is always containment as a liquid or vapor barrier or both. The range of applications,
however, is great, and in addition to the environmental area, applications are rapidly growing in
geotechnical, transportation, hydraulic, and private development engineering (such as aquaculture,
agriculture, heap leach mining, etc.).

Figure 4.4 Geomembrane

4.5. GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS

Geosynthetic clay liners, or GCLs, are an interesting juxtaposition of polymeric materials and
natural soils. They are rolls of factory fabricated thin layers of bentonite clay sandwiched between
two geotextiles or bonded to a geomembrane. Structural integrity of the subsequent composite is
obtained by needle-punching, stitching or adhesive bonding. GCLs are used as a composite
component beneath a geomembrane or by themselves in geoenvironmental and containment

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applications as well as in transportation, geotechnical, hydraulic, and many private development

applications.

Figure 4.5 Geosynthetic clay liners

4.6. GEOFOAM

Geofoam is a product created by a polymeric expansion process of polystyrene resulting in a

“foam” consisting of many closed, but gas-filled, cells. The skeletal nature of the cell walls is the
unexpanded polymeric material. The resulting product is generally in the form of large, but
extremely light, blocks which are stacked side-by-side providing lightweight fill in numerous
applications.

Figure 4.6 Geofoam

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4.7. GEOCELLS

Geocells (also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-dimensional honeycombed

cellular structures that form a confinement system when infilled with compacted soil. Extruded
from polymeric materials into strips welded together ultrasonically in series, the strips are
expanded to form the stiff (and typically textured and perforated) walls of a flexible 3D cellular
mattress. Infilled with soil, a new composite entity is created from the cell-soil interactions. The
cellular confinement reduces the lateral movement of soil particles, thereby maintaining
compaction and forms a stiffened mattress that distributes loads over a wider area. Traditionally
used in slope protection and earth retention applications, geocells made from advanced polymers
are being increasingly adopted for long-term road and rail load support. Much larger geocells are
also made from stiff geotextiles sewn into similar, but larger, unit cells that are used for protection
bunkers and walls.

Figure 4.7 Geocell

4.8. GEOCOMPOSITES

A geocomposite consists of a combination of geotextiles, geogrids, geonets and/or geomembranes

in a factory fabricated unit. Also, any one of these four materials can be combined with another
synthetic material (e.g., deformed plastic sheets or steel cables) or even with soil. As examples, a
geonet or geospacer with geotextiles on both surfaces and a GCL consisting of a
geotextile/bentonite/geotextile sandwich are both geocomposites. This specific category brings out

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the best creative efforts of the engineer and manufacturer. The application areas are numerous and
constantly growing.

Figure 4.8 Geocomposite

5. FUNCTIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS

Geosynthetics have many primary function that the material is called upon to serve allows for
the creation of an organizational matrix for geosynthetics. In the table the primary function that
each geosynthetic can be called upon to serve is seen. Note that these are primary functions and in
many cases (if not most) cases there are secondary functions, and perhaps tertiary ones as well.
For example, a geotextile placed on soft soil will usually be designed on the basis of its
reinforcement capability, but separation and filtration might certainly be secondary and tertiary
considerations. As another example,a geomembrane is obviously used for its containment
capability, but separation will always be a secondary function. The greatest variability from a
manufacturing and materials viewpoint is the category of geocomposites. The primary function
will depend entirely upon what is actually created, manufactured, and installed.

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Primary functions of geosynthetics

Type of Separation Reinforcement Filtration Drainage Containment

geosynthetics (GS)
1 Geotextile (GT) X X X X
2 Geogrid (GG) X
3 Geonet (GN) or X
geospacer (GR)
4 Geomembrane X
(GM)
5 Geosynthetic clay X
liner (GCL)
6 Geofoam (GF) X
7 Geocells (GL) X X
8 Geocomposite (GC) X X X X X

Table 5.1 Primary functions of geosynthetics

As seen in the accompanying table there are five primary functions given, but some groups suggest
even more.

5.1. SEPARATION

Seperation is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic material, like a porous geotextile,

between dissimilar materials so that the integrity and functioning of both materials can remain
intact or even be improved. Paved roads, unpaved roads, and railroad bases are common
applications. Also, the use of thick nonwoven geotextiles for cushioning and protection of
geomembranes is in this category. In addition, for most applications of geofoam and geocells,
separation is the major function.

5.2. REINFORCEMENT

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Reinforcement is the synergistic improvement of a total system’s strength created by the

introduction of a geotextile, geogrid or geocell (all of which are good in tension) into a soil (that
is good in compression, but poor in tension) or other disjointed and separated material.
Applications of this function are in mechanically stabilized and retained earth walls and steep soil
slopes; they can be combined with masonry facings to create vertical retaining walls. Also involved
is the application of basal reinforcement over soft soils and over deep foundations for
embankments and heavy surface loadings. The improved load bearing characteristics significantly
reduce the requirements for high quality, imported aggregate fills, thus reducing the carbon
footprint of the construction.

5.3. FILTRATION

Filtration is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that allows for adequate liquid flow
without soil loss, across the plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration. Filtration applications are highway underdrain systems, retaining
wall drainage, landfill leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as flexible forms
for bags, tubes and containers.

5.4. DRAINAGE

Drainage is the equilibrium soil-to-geosynthetic system that allows for adequate liquid flow
without soil loss, within the plane of the geosynthetic over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration. Geopipe highlights this function, and also geonets, geocomposites
and very thick geotextiles. Drainage applications for these different geosynthetics are retaining
walls, sport fields, dams, canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks. Also to be noted is that sheet,
edge and wick drains are geocomposites used for various soil and rock drainage situations.

5.5 CONTAINMENT

Containment involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, or some geocomposites which

function as liquid or gas barriers. Landfill liners and covers make critical use of these
geosynthetics. All hydraulic applications (tunnels, dams, canals, surface impoundments, and
floating covers) use these geosynthetics as well.

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6. ADVANTAGES OF GEOSYNTHETICS

• The manufactured quality control of geosynthetics in a controlled factory environment is a

great advantage over outdoor soil and rock construction. Most factories are ISO 9000
certified and have their own in-house quality programs as well.
• The low thickness of geosynthetics, as compared to their natural soil counterparts, is an
advantage insofar as light weight on the subgrade, less airspace used, and avoidance of
quarried sand, gravel, and clay soil materials.
• The ease of geosynthetic installation is significant in comparison to thick soil layers (sands,
gravels, or clays) requiring large earthmoving equipment.
• Published standards (test methods, guides, and specifications) are well advanced in
standards-setting organizations like ISO, ASTM, and GSI.
• Design methods are currently available from many publication sources as well as
universities which teach stand-alone courses in geosynthetics or have integrated
geosynthetics in traditional geotechnical, geoenvironmental, and hydraulic engineering
courses.
• When comparing geosynthetic designs to alternative natural soil designs there are usually
cost advantages and invariably sustainability (lower CO2 footprint) advantages.

7. DISADVANTAGES OF GEOSYNTHETICS

• Long-term performance of the particular formulated resin being used to make the
geosynthetic must be assured by using proper additives including antioxidants, ultraviolet
screeners, and fillers.
• The exposed lifetime of geosynthetics, being polymeric, is less than unexposed as when
they are soil backfilled.
• Clogging of geotextiles, geonets, geopipe and/or geocomposites is a challenging design for
certain soil types or unusual situations. For example, loess soils, fine cohesionless silts,
highly turbid liquids, and microorganism laden liquids (farm runoff) are troublesome and
generally require specialized testing evaluations.
• Handling, storage, and installation must be assured by careful quality control and quality
assurance about which much has been written.

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8. GEOSYNTHETICS IN PAVEMENTS

Paving synthetics in asphalt and concrete overlays were first tested in the 1960’s with
Geotextile (paving fabric). Regular testing and usage of paving fabric began in the mid 1970’s.
The test reports and numerous test sections conclusively proved its value. Since then usage has
increased to over 100 million square yards annually in the United States and maybe double that
worldwide according to the Industrial Fabrics Association (Barazone, 2010). Paving grids and
composites were first used in Europe in the early 1980's and in the late 1980's in North America
with the addition of a grid composite, grid and fabric. Grid usage is slowly growing and is now in
the millions of square yards. Testing began on paving grids and composites in the early 1990’s and
the results are just becoming available.

9. INSTALLATION OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN PAVEMENTS

There are four basic steps in the proper installation of an overlay system with a geosynthetic
interlayer. Surface preparation is followed by the application of the tack coat, installation of the
geosynthetic, and finally the placement of the asphalt overlay.
Clean the roadway of dirt, water, oil and debris. Smaller cracks should be sealed. Large cracks
in excess of 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) and potholes should be filled. Proper installation of the asphalt
cement tack coat is crucial; mistakes can lead to early failure of the overlay. The asphalt cement
distributor truck must be capable of uniform application of the tack coat. Geosynthetics may be
deployed manually or mechanically with equipment designed specifically for this application. In
either case, the geosynthetic should not be allowed to wrinkle. The surface temperature of the tack
coat should not exceed 325°F (163°C) when a paving fabric is deployed. Installation of the
geosynthetic and the asphalt concrete overlay should take place on the same day. Paving can
commence as soon as the fabric is laid down.

Figure 9.1 Construction scheme of an experimental section

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Figure 9.2. The paving of an experimental section

10. BENEFITS OF USING GEOSYNTHETICS IN PAVEMENTS

The main advantages include:

❖ Maintenance cost reduction

❖ Significant extension of road life over conventional surfacing
❖ Reduction in asphalt thickness, in some circumstances, saving on material costs
❖ Reduced environmental impact associated with longer maintenance intervals
❖ Reduced hidden costs to businesses and the general public through delays caused by
road closure and traffic restrictions.
❖ Prevent moisture from infiltrating into the pavement structure
❖ Geotextiles may be used as a barrier to capillary flow.
❖ For the drainage purposes
❖ To retard and control some common types of cracking, including reflective cracking,
thermal cracking.
❖ Stress absorbing
❖ For reinforcing of asphalt
❖ Increase the resistance of pavement structure against distresses
❖ Roles such as: separation, protection, proofing, etc.
❖ Used as anti-reflective cracking systems
❖ Permanent deformation (rutting) is controlled.

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11. FUNCTIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN PAVEMENTS

Geosynthetics have been used in pavement design to address the functions of separation,
filtration, lateral drainage, sealing, and reinforcement. Specifically, geosynthetics have been used
for separation in pavement projects to minimize intrusion of subgrade soil into the aggregate base
or sub-base. Also, geosynthetics have been used to perform a filtration function by restricting the
movement of soil particles from the subgrade while allowing water to move to the coarser adjacent
base material. In-plane drainage function of a geosynthetic can provide lateral drainage within its
plane. In addition, geosynthetics have been used to mitigate the propagation of cracks by sealing
the asphalt layer when used in pavement overlays. Finally, geosynthetics have been used in flexible
pavements for reinforcement. In the asphalt layer if properly installed they mainly function as fluid
barrier, cushion, and reinforcement.
11.1. FLUID BARRIER (UNDERSEALING)
One of the functions geosynthetics possess is that they can act as a means to prevent moisture
from infiltrating into the pavement structure, and such waterproofing action may limit base and
subgrade movement due to freeze-thaw action or expansive soils , consequently, delaying the
deteriration of the pavement structure. For example, if geotextiles are impregnated with bitumen,
they are able to protect the underlying layers from degradation . Given that the fabric is saturated
with sufficient asphalt to provide a continuous moisture barrier, fabrics may remain intact even
after the asphalt overlay has cracked and provide a moisture barrier. One of the factors that may
influence this action is rate and research showed that the slight excess of tack coat is believed to
assist in waterproofing the fabric from the infiltration of water in the event that a crack reflects
through to the surface. As a result, geosynthetics may be used to limit base and subgrade
movements by preventing surface water intrusion.
In terms of moisture related distresses in pavement structures, frost heave and capillary rise
are highlighted as two main issues. The former can cause differential movements in subgrade and
base course layers, while the latter can make changes in stiffness of pavement soils. Therefore
non-woven geotextiles may be used as a barrier to capillary flow. In a study, two types of
soilgeosynthetic systems (isolated geotextile and geocomposites, comprising drainage net) as well
as the control specimens were subjected to freezing temperature. The results showed that air gap
within the drainage net was effective in preventing upward movement of water into the overlying
soil layer, and reducing frost heave.

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For the drainage purposes of using geosynthetics in pavement structures, a special

geocomposite drainage net with a higher flow capacity was examined in three different levels of
pavement structures. That is, base course aggregates, in asphaltic materials, and subgrade. The
results indicated that placing it at the subgrade or below it had the best effect on removing rapidly
the damaging water. A geocomposite capillary barrier drain (GCBD) with a fiber glass transport
layers was laid down between subgrade and base layer, was evaluated in three phases. The results
indicate that the system is effective in preventing positive pore water pressure to be developed in
the base layer,and water penetration into the subgrade .

11.2. CUSHION (STRAIN-RELIEVING OR STRESS ABSORBING)

The other purpose of using the geosynthetic materials is for absorbing stress being applied to
pavement structure. A stress-relieving layer for an overlay acts as a means to retard and control
some common types of cracking, including reflective cracking. However, it should be noted that
strain relieving function of geotextiles, that only hinder reflective cracks, may occur only if elastic
stiffness of geotextile is lower than the surrounding . One of the well-known types of geotextiles
is paving fabrics. In order for geotextiles to form a membrane interlayer system, they are usually
combined with asphalt sealant, or tack coat. This system is also known as a paving fabric interlayer
.
In a study carried out on four kinds of paving fabrics , in spite of varying amount and rates of
reduction, all treatments retarded cracks over the evaluation period. However, in other research on
fabric interlayers it was deduced that they may act most effectively when used for load-related
fatigue distress and are not functioned well in case of being used to delay or retard thermal
cracking.

Stress absorbing membrane interlayer (SAMI) is another system being used in pavements to
retard reflective cracks. In a study a fiber reinforced asphalt treatment used as a stress absorbing
membrane interlayer (SAMI) to mitigate reflective cracking. In spite of the fact that only partial
improvement was observed in improving reflective crack resistance due to the incorporation of the
interlayer, it may also considered as a countermeasure to improve the reflective crack resistance
of AC (Palacios, 2008). Thus, strain absorbing function of geosynthetics in pavement, despite wide
range of effectiveness and various-factor dependency, appears to be positively productive.

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11.3. REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is the other function of geosynthetic material in pavements. Such
material structurally strengthens the pavement section by changing the response of the pavement
to loading, causing to have a chance to re-direct the reflective crack. In general, ribs of the geogrid,
which suppress the growth of a crack, and deforming of geogrid, that
absorbs the energy at the tip of the crack are the main causes in stopping growth of the crack.

12. REINFORCEMENT OF PAVEMENT BY GEOSYNTHETICS

Reinforcement is the synergistic improvement of a total system’s strength created by the
introduction geosynthetics. While the reinforcement function has often been accomplished using
geogrids, geotextiles have also been used as reinforcement inclusions in transportation application.
The geosynthetic reinforcement is often placed at the interface between the base and sub-base
layers or the interface between the sub-base and subgrade layers or within the base course layer of
the flexible pavement. This leads to lower stresses over the subgrade than in unreinforced flexible
pavements (Figure 12.1).

Figure 12.1 Relative load magnitudes at subgrade layer level for

(a) unreinforced flexible pavement and (b) geosynthetic reinforced flexible pavement
The improved performance of the pavement due to geosynthetic reinforcement has been attributed
to three mechanisms:
(1) lateral restraint
(2) increased bearing capacity
(3) tensioned membrane effect.
These three mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 12.2.

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The primary mechanism associated with the reinforcement function for flexible pavements is
lateral restraint or confinement . The name of this mechanism may be misleading as lateral restraint
develops through interfacial friction between the geosynthetic and the aggregate, thus the
mechanism is one of a shear resisting interface . When an aggregate layer is subjected to traffic
loading, the aggregate tends to move laterally unless it is restrained by the subgrade or by
geosynthetic reinforcement. Interaction between the base aggregate and the geosynthetic allows
transfer of the shearing load from the base layer to a tensile load in the geosynthetic. The tensile
stiffness of the geosynthetic limits the lateral strains in the base layer. Furthermore, a geosynthetic
layer confines the base course layer thereby increasing its mean stress and leading to an increase
in shear strength. Both frictional and interlocking characteristics at the interface between the soil
and the geosynthetic contribute to this mechanism.

Figure 12.2 Reinforcement mechanisms induced by geosynthetics

(a) Lateral restraint; (b) Increased bearing capacity; and (c) Membrane support but
polyester and combination using glass fibres are also available.

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As illustrated in Figure 12.2 b, the increased bearing capacity mechanism leads to soil
reinforcement when the presence of a geosynthetic imposes the development of an alternate failure
surface. This new alternate plane provides a higher bearing capacity. The geosynthetic
reinforcement can decrease the shear stresses transferred to the subgrade and provide vertical
confinement outside the loaded area. The bearing failure mode of the subgrade is expected to
change from punching failure without reinforcement to general failure with reinforcement.
The geosynthetic can also be assumed to act as a tensioned membrane, which
supports the wheel loads (Figure 12.2 c). In this case, the reinforcement provides a vertical reaction
component to the applied wheel load. This tensioned membrane effect is induced by vertical
deformations, leading to a concave shape in the geosynthetic. The tension developed in the
geosynthetic contributes to support the wheel load and reduces the vertical stress on the subgrade.
High deformations (i.e. high rutting depth) are required to mobilize this mechanism.

.
Figure 12.3 Increase of pavement life time due to the use of geosynthetic reinforcement
In a full-scale accelerated test in which geosynthetic materials were embedded in aggregate
layers showed that geogrid can significantly reduce horizontal shear deformation of the aggregate
layer, particularly in the traffic direction. The results of another full-scale field test which was
carried out on a strain-gauge instrumented geogrid reinforced unpaved road in Switzerland
indicated that using various geosynthetics have a relevant reinforcing effect only when a thin
aggregate layer is used on a soft subgrade. The stiffness of geosynthetic affects the degree of
reinforcement which can be accomplished and is limited by finite lateral anchoring forces . In
summary it can be said that reinforcement of pavement by geosynthetics may increase the
resistance of pavement structure against distresses.

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13. ASSESSMENT OF THE PERFORMANCE OF GEOSYNTHETIC-REINFORCED

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Assessment of the performance of pavements has been conducted using field tests, laboratory
tests, and numerical simulations.

13.1. FIELD TESTS

13.1.1. ACCELERATED PAVEMENT TESTING (APT)
The monitoring of in-service roads is a time consuming process. Consequently, useful data has
also been generated using accelerated pavement testing (APT). APT facilities consist of test tracks
located either indoor or outdoor. They involve the use of automated, one or two axle, single wheel
loads that repeatedly runs over the test track surface. APT may provide a good simulation of the
performance of in-service pavements and can be particularly useful to provide rapid indication of
pavement performance under severe conditions.
Rutting occurs because of the development of permanent deformations in any of the
pavement layers or in the subgrade. Rutting is generally measured in square meters of surface area
for a given severity level, as defined from data collected with a dipstick profiler every 15 m
intervals. Measurements of rutting depth are comparatively easy to obtain, as they are taken at the
pavement surface, and provide a simple method of comparing pavement performance among
multiple test sections.

(a ) (b )

Figure 13.1.1 APT test facilities (a) ATLAS at the Illinois Center for Transportation, USA;
(b) pavement fatigue carousel at LCPC, France

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13.1.2. FALLING WEIGHT DEFLECTOMETER (FWD)

The device most widely used to measure pavement deflections is the Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD). This approach involves applying a series of impulses on the pavement
using a trailer-mounted device that is driven to the desired test locations. A loading plate is
hydraulically lowered to the pavement surface, after which an impulse is applied to the pavement
by dropping a weight from a known height onto the loading plate. The magnitude of the load is
measured using a load cell while deflections are measured using seven velocity transducers.
13.1.3. ROLLING DYNAMIC DEFLECTOMETER (RDD)
An equipment known as a Rolling Dynamic Deflectometer (RDD), has
been recently developed for assessing the conditions of pavements and determining pavement
deflection profiles continuously. Unlike the FWD,the RDD performs continuous rather than
discrete deflection measurements.The ability to perform continuous measurements makes RDD
testing an effective approach for expeditious characterization of large pavement sections. The
equipment applies sinusoidal forces to the pavement through specially designed rollers. The
resulting deflections are measured by rolling sensors designed to minimize the noise caused by
rough pavement surfaces.

13.2. LABORATORY TESTS

A number of laboratory tests have been proposed to quantify the
mechanisms governing the performance of geosynthetic-reinforced flexible pavements. The
primary objective of laboratory tests has been to quantify the soil-geosynthetic interaction
mechanisms in flexible pavement systems either by measuring the geosynthetic index properties
or by replicating the field conditions. Depending on the adopted approach, the tests reported in the
literature can be grouped into two main categories: unconfined and confined tests.
In unconfined tests, geosynthetic properties are measured in-air, while in confined tests
they are measured within confinement of soil.
13.2.1. UNCONFINED TESTS
Unconfined tests are conducted using geosynthetic specimens in isolation. Advantages of
these tests include expedience, simplicity, and cost effectiveness. They can be run in short periods
of time using conventional devices, which facilitates the assessment of repeatability of test results.

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However, correlations are required between the index property obtained from these tests and the
field performance of the geosynthetic-reinforced pavements.Tests in this category include:
The wide-width tensile test, biaxial loading test, junction efficiency test, and torsional rigidity test.
While the wide-width tensile test can be conducted using any type of geosynthetics (geogrid,
geotextile), the other three tests are specific for the characterization of geogrids.

Figure 13.2.1 Mechanisms due to soil-geosynthetic interaction in geosynthetic- reinforced

pavement that have been tried to be represented in laboratory tests
13.2.1.1. WIDE-WIDTH TENSILE TEST
The load frame for a wide-width tensile test conducted using roller grips is
shown in Figure. The tensile test provides the tensile stiffness at different strain values (1%, 2%,
and 5%), as well as the ultimate tensile strength.
It should be noted that most geogrids tested using uniaxial methods suffer distortions, non-uniform
stresses (particularly at the junctions), premature specimen rupture and problems with clamping.

Figure 13.2.2 Wide-width tensile test conducted with roller grips at the University of Texas
at Austin
13.2.1.2. JUNCTION STRENGTH TEST

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To address perceived deficiencies of uniaxial tensile test, a complementary uniaxial test,

known as the “junction strength test,” was developed. It involves gripping the cross member of a
geogrid rib on both sides of the junction with a clamping device. Load is applied until the junction
breaks. The force required to fail the junction is defined as the junction strength of the geogrid.
Junction strength provides quantification of the contribution to stability that may lead to rupture
of the reinforcement during the pavement construction and subsequent traffic load.
13.2.1.3. TORSIONAL RIGIDITY TEST
A torsional rigidity test was developed by Kinney and Yuan to measure the in-plane rotational
stiffness of the geogrids. The test aimed at quantifying the performance of geogrid-reinforced
paved road tests. While the test focuses on the interlocking capacity of the geogrid, a relationship
between geogrid torsional rigidity and the performance of geogrid reinforced road sections could
not be established. The test provides a higher torsional rigidity for stiff geogrids than for flexible
geogrids.
13.2.2. CONFINED TESTS
Geosynthetics used for base reinforcement are under the confinement of soil and subjected to
dynamic loading (traffic). These conditions cannot be simulated by monotonic unconfined tests.
Recently, a number of confined tests have been proposed, out of which six tests have focused on
characterizing the behavior of geosynthetics used to reinforce flexible pavements. These tests
include, the cyclic plate load test, cyclic triaxial test, cyclic pullout test, bending stiffness test,
modified pavement analyzer test, and the pullout stiffness test.
13.2.2.1. CYCLIC PLATE LOAD TEST
The test setup designed by Perkins consisted of a 2 m wide and 1.5 m high reinforced
concrete tank . The model pavement section was constructed with a geosynthetic at the interface
of the base course and subgrade layers. The load was applied by a pneumatic actuator in the form
of a trapezoidal wave pulse, which generated a maximum surface pressure of 550 kPa on the
pavement. The force and displacement responses were measured using a load cell and eight surface
LVDTs. These tests were reported to have successfully demonstrated the effect of soil confinement
and dynamic loading.Facilities in which cyclic plate loading can be conducted are not readily
available, thus restricting the application of this test to research studies. The test have drawbacks
associated with the testing procedures, time demands, and appropriate simulation of rolling wheel
loads.

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Figure 13.2.3 Cyclic plate load test

13.2.2.2. CYCLIC TRIAXIAL TEST
The cyclic triaxial test has been used to measure the ability of soils to develop shear
stresses induced by cyclic loading . The results from cyclic triaxial tests indicate that the use of
reinforcements does not affect the resilient modulus of the aggregates, although it reduces
significantly the pavement permanent deformations.
13.2.2.3. DYNAMIC CREEP TEST
The creep test was conducted using a uniaxial cyclic compression test with the confinement
method. However, since only three cores were attainable from each slab, three test repetitions were
carried out so as to minimize any variability among replicates of one type of specimen.For that
purpose, UTM-5P from IPC was used to apply a constant dynamic load at a certain periodic rate
onto the cylindrical asphalt samples, and vertical deformation was measured using a Linear
Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDTs).
13.2.2.4. CYCLIC PULLOUT TESTS
Cyclic pullout tests were conducted by Cuelho and Perkins (2005) by modifying
the standard pullout test (ASTM D6706) to resemble a cyclic triaxial test. Cyclic shear load cycles
(ranging from 100 to 300) were applied at different confinement level beginning with a seating
load of 51 kPa until pullout failure was reached. Based on the test results, a parameter known as
geosynthetic-soil resilient interface shear stiffness(Gi) was defined to describe the reinforcement
aggregate interaction under cyclic loads.

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Geosynthetically Reinforced Asphalt Pavements

13.2.2.5. ASPHALT PAVEMENT ANALYZER (APA)

Han et al. (2008) proposed a test method involving the use of an asphalt pavement
analyzer (APA) to evaluate the benefits of geosynthetic reinforcement in the base course layer of
the pavement. The APA is a multifunctional wheel-loaded test device used to quantify permanent
deformation, fatigue cracking, and moisture susceptibility of both hot and cold asphalt mixes. A
conventional box was modified in order to conduct the test on a geosynthetic-reinforced base
course. The loaded wheel is moved back and forth on the surface of base course.
13.2.2.6. PULLOUT STIFFNESS TEST (PST)
A Pullout Stiffness Test (PST) is used to quantify the soil-geosynthetic
interaction in reinforced pavements. The equipment involves a modified large-scale pullout test
modified to capture the stiffness of the soil-geosynthetic interface under small displacements.
Although these pullout tests did not replicate the cyclic nature of traffic load conditions, it
simulated the interface transfer mechanisms between soil and geosynthetic reinforcements that are
expected in the field. An analytical model was proposed to predict the confined load-strain
characteristics of soilgeosynthetic systems under small displacements using the results obtained
from the PST.

14. CASE STUDIES

14.1. CASE STUDY 1
Zornberg and Gupta (2009) reported three case studies conducted in Texas, USA, for
geosynthetic reinforced pavements on which FWD testing was conducted on in-service roads. One
of the cases involved a forensic investigation conducted in a newly constructed pavement.
Longitudinal cracks were observed in a geogrid-reinforced pavement before it was open to traffic.
However, the investigation revealed that the contractor had laid rolls of geogrid leaving a portion
of the pavement unreinforced. Cracks only appeared in unreinforced locations within the
pavement. It illustrated that use of geogrid can prevent pavement cracking. The second case study
reported the field performance of geogrid-reinforced pavements built over highly plastic subgrade
soils. The pavement sections had been reinforced using two different types of geogrids that met
project specifications. Although a section reinforced with one type of geogrid was found to be
performing well, the other section reinforced with second type of geogrid showed longitudinal
cracking. The reviews of the material properties lead to the preliminary conclusion that poor

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performance in the second section was due to inadequate junction efficiency. Further inspection
indicated a higher tensile modulus of the geogrid used in the better performing section. This study
highlighted the need for better material characterization and the possible inadequacy of commonly
used specifications for geosynthetic-reinforced pavements. The third case involved three pavement
sections.The two geogrid-reinforced sections (Sections 1 and 2) had base course thicknesses of
0.20 m and 0.127 m, respectively. On the other hand, a control sections (without geogrid
reinforcement) had a 0.20 m-thick base course layer. FWD testing showed a comparatively higher
pavement modulus for the geogrid reinforced section with a 0.20 m-thick base while lower
modulus value were obtained for the geogrid reinforced section with a 0.127 m-thick base. Yet,
field visual assessment showed cracking in the control section while the two geogrid-reinforced
sections performed well. While the geogrid-reinforced sections outperform the unreinforced
section, the results of FWD testing showed a different trend. This study illustrated the inadequacy
of the currently available evaluation techniques involving non-destructive testing for the purpose
of quantifying the benefits of geosynthetic reinforcements.

14.2. CASE STUDY 2

Bacchi (2009) and Arsenie (2012) performed cyclic four point bending tests on beam specimens
(Figure 2b), to compare the fatigue behavior of a standard bituminous mixture and the same
bituminous mixture reinforced with glass fiber grid associated with a light polyester
nonwoven. The glass fiber grid was placed at the bottom side of the reinforced beams. Finite
Element modeling was also used by Arsenie et al. (2012) to simulate damage evolution of the
specimens. The asphalt damage prediction model of Bodin (2002), implemented in a finite element
code, was applied. Both laboratory tests and finite modelling results from these studies pointed out
an improvement in fatigue life of the grid reinforced beams.

14.2.1. PROPERTIES OF GLASS FIBRE GRID

• It is both strong and flexible.
• It is thermally and chemically stable at bituminous mix temperatures of 200°C.
• It is not affected by de-icing salt, petroleum or bitumen..
• Glass fiber has a Young.s modulus of approximately 70 GPa, which is almost 20 times
higher than typical asphalt concrete modulus at around 20°C

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Geosynthetically Reinforced Asphalt Pavements

• High tensile strength.

• Glass fiber presents interesting properties as a reinforcing material.
• High elongation at maximum load
• Durability
• High melting point
• Allows more stress to transfer to the grid by means of the interlocking aggregates

15. CONCLUSION
Over the past decade, the geotechnical industry has developed a range of geosynthetic
reinforcement systems for increasing the performance and durability of road pavements. This
includes eight main product categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes,
geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells and geocomposites. Geosynthetics have been used in
pavement design to address the functions of separation, filtration, lateral drainage, sealing,and also
for reinforcement to reduce the asphalt thickness or to improve the traffic loading capacity.
The results of field, laboratory and numerical studies have demonstrated the benefits of
using geosynthetics to improve the performance of pavements. Field test sections showed
improved performance in the reinforced sections over the unreinforced sections in terms of reduced
surface deflections. A number of confined laboratory tests have been recently developed for
quantifying the interface shear stiffness of the soil-geosynthetic system. Several of these tests have
applied cyclic loads to the soil-geosynthetic system in an attempt to simulate the dynamic nature
of traffic-induced loading. The tests have confirmed that a glass fiber grid, placed near the bottom
of the asphalt layer, significantly improves the fatigue life, provided that there is good bonding
with the asphalt layer. Overall, it may be concluded that significant advances have been made in
the area of geosynthetic reinforcement of pavements. While the state of practice is rapidly
improving, further research is still needed.

16. REFERENCES

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1. Jaime Obando-Ante , Ennio M. Palmeira - March 2015.“A Laboratory study on

the performance of Geosynthetic Reinforced Asphalt Overlays”.
International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering.
2. Ling HI, Liu Z- 2001. “Performance of geosynthetic reinforced asphalt
pavements”.Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering.
3. Alfredas Laurinavičius & Rolandas Oginskas (2006)
“Experimental research on the development of rutting in asphalt concrete pavements
reinforced with geosynthetic materials”.
Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 12:4, 311-317
4. Zornberg, J.G., and Gupta, R. (2010).“Geosynthetics in Pavements: North
American Contributions.” Theme Speaker Lecture, Proceedings of the 9th
International Conference on Geosynthetics, Guarujá, Brazil, May, Vol. 1, pp.379-
400.
5. Tang X, Chehab GR, Palomino A- 2008.“Evaluation of geogrids for stabilizing
weak pavement subgrade”. International Journal of Pavement Engineering .
6. F Canestrari, L Belogi, G Ferrotti, A Graziani.“Shear and flexural
characterization of grid-reinforced asphalt pavements and relation with field
distress evolution”.– Materials and Structures, 2015 –Springer.
7. E Pasquini, M Bocci, G Ferrotti “Laboratory characterization and field
validation of geogrid – reinforced asphalt pavements”– Materials and
Pavements, 2013 –Taylor and Francis.
8. G Ferotti, F Canestrari, E Pasquini , A Virgili “Experimental evaluation of the
influence of surface coating on fiberglass geogrid performance in asphalt
pavements”.– Geotextiles 2012 – Elsevier.

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