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Program:
Reference Material
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section 1 Background Information ......................................................................................... 1
Key Concepts......................................................................................................................... 2
Sport Program......................................................................................................................2
Sport Form ...........................................................................................................................3
Overview of the Athlete’s Long-term Development............................................................. 6
Early Specialization Sports ................................................................................................... 8
Definitions of Athletic Abilities ............................................................................................. 9
Importance of Physical and Motor Abilities by Sport Family............................................ 10
Athletic Abilities: Growth and Development Considerations ........................................... 13
Sample Sport Programs for Different Sport Families........................................................ 15
Types of Exercises and Their Use in Different Phases of a Sport Program .................... 24
Activity Planning Guidelines for Various Stages of Skill Development ........................... 25
Combining Athletic Abilities in Training ...............................................................................28
SECTION 1
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
KEY CONCEPTS
Sport Program
A sport program is a planned and progressive sequencing of activities. The nature, number,
frequency, duration, and content of these activities is adapted to athletes' age and sport
experience. The goal of the program is to foster athletes' athletic development and sport form
over time.
q Is part of the long-term development of the athletes: where they’re starting, what they’ve
done before, and what they should be able to do at the end of the program are all taken
into account
Events: A program consists of different types of events…
q Takes into account athletes, their interests, and their individual needs
q Has a clear purpose and philosophy (why it exists), focus (participation, development,
excellence), desired outcome (goals and objectives), and method of operating (rules,
policies, procedures)
q Priorizes objectives, events, time devoted to certain activities, etc., given any constraints
that apply
q Makes its intentions, objectives, and priorities public, which helps justify choices and
decisions
q Has intentions, objectives, and priorities that are consistent with the values of the coach
and the organization
Structure: A program…
q Proposes activities that are organized and planned (level of detail and sophistication
may vary)
q Intentions, objectives, and priorities that may change as the season progresses
q Evolving training activities and content, to reflect the intentions, objectives, and priorities
that apply at a given time
Adjustment and Evaluation: Within a program…
q Athletes progress from a given starting point; this progression may occur in different
ways: group/team cohesion; technical/tactical mastery; physical condition and tolerance
of fatigue; attitudes (work, athletes’ behaviour, commitment, discipline); performance,
etc.
q The coach must assess athletes' starting point to identify what can realistically be
accomplished in the short, medium, and long term and choose the appropriate methods
for doing so: such decisions normally require some form of evaluation
q It must be accepted that adjustments will probably be required en route, even if the initial
plans were carefully laid out
Sport Form
Sport form refers to the level of development of athletic abilities at a given time compared to
what is required in competition.
In other words, sport form represents the athlete’s level of readiness, from a physical, technical,
tactical, and mental point of view, to meet the requirements of competition.
Sport form is therefore specific to:
q The sport
Generally speaking, sport form evolves according to a non-linear pattern during a season or
throughout a program. There is quick improvement in the beginning, a slowing down after
several weeks, and finally a levelling off. Sport form can obviously decrease (go back to a
previous level) if training is interrupted, for example, following a transition phase or if an injury
occurs.
The following figure shows the general phases of sport form during a single season.
Peak
Stabilization
Consolidation to a Good
Sport Level
Form Decline
Building
Improvement of
athletic abilities
and sport form
(% of initial
values)
Years of Training
Improvement in athletic abilities and sport form over several years of training is neither linear
nor predictable. Moreover, improvement can vary from one person to another. Some people
might have a marked response to a training stimulus, but others may improve less despite
sustained commitment and work. Athletic abilities usually improve fairly quickly at the beginning
of a training program (first weeks and months), especially if the initial level is low. When this is
the case, it is possible to achieve noticeable gains using a variety of methods.
Subsequently, the improvement rate levels out. Considerable training then becomes necessary
to make small improvements in the performance level. As sport form and athletic abilities
increase, the training activities must likewise become increasingly specific to the requirements
of the sport if gains are to be made.
After a number of years of training, it can become very difficult to improve athletic abilities. The
main objective then becomes maintaining performance capability. For most sports, developing
an athlete who is capable of performing on the international scene is a step-by-step process that
requires 8 to 10 years of training, and sometimes more. The initial stages, during which the
athletes develop their motor skills and acquire the fundamental elements of their sport in terms
of technique and physical condition, are essential. Unless athletes pass through these formative
stages, the chances of long-term success are considerably reduced.
q Artistic gymnastics
q Rhythmic gymnastics
q Figure skating
q Diving
q Female tennis
q Sprint swimming
Each of the sports listed above should establish its own athlete development model. A generic
model might contain too many over-simplifications or omit important aspects that contribute to
sport-specific athletic development. For these sports, the challenge is to combine the
FUNdamentals and Training to Train stages, presented in the section “Overview of the Athlete’s
Long-term Development,” or to merge them into a single Training to Train stage.
With the exception of the above sports, specialization before age 10 is NOT recommended,
since it contributes to early burnout, dropout, and premature retirement from training and
competition.
q Team sports
q Endurance sports
q Speed-power sports
q Artistic sports
q Combat/duel sports
q Racquet sports
q Precision sports
Note: These examples were produced using the ProPulses PLAN software developed jointly by
CardiSport (www.cardisport.com) and the Coaching Association of Canada (www.coach.ca).
q The abilities listed in most sample programs were defined earlier in this document (page
9).
q In some cases, terms specific to a sport family have been added, but they are fairly
simple and should be easily understood by coaches of these types of sports.
q For each week of a program, the importance of training a specific athletic ability is
indicated by the thickness of a band:
q For technical and tactical elements, the following colour coding is used:
· Black = Introduction and Acquisition
· Grey = Consolidation
Training Objectives
Recommended
Practice Initiation Acquisition Consolidation Refinement
Conditions
First contact Movement patterning Correct execution in variable Minor improvements
conditions
Surrounding Stable and predictable, Stable and predictable, free of Increased variability and Competition conditions
environment free of distractions distractions distractions in the environment,
but not to the point where
movement patterns deteriorate
Decision-making No decision-making or Simple decision-making, More complex decisions to Complex decisions, as many
options to choose from maximum of 2 options make, increased frequency of options and at the same
decision-making, and more frequency as in a competition
options (3-4)
Speed of execution Slow and controlled At athlete’s own pace Increased, variable, and close Similar to conditions in
to competitive demands competition
Number of As needed, depending High High As many as possible
repetitions on athlete’s general
motor development
Risk factor Completely safe Low-risk conditions Less than or similar to what is Similar to a high level of
conditions, errors of no encountered in regular competition
consequence competition
During training, the Basic stances and Global execution and general Maintaining the form of Creating conditions that
emphasis should positions; getting the form of the movement movements and some stress the specific elements
be on… idea of what the performance consistency under that need adjustments
movements are about, a variety of conditions and
look like under stress
Notes
q Training time has been adapted for Competition – Development athletes and includes
the time of both physical effort/motor engagement and recuperation. The column
Minimum represents the lowest threshold likely to have a training effect on the athletic
ability in a sport context. For more information on this topic, see the examples in the
section “Training Specific Athletic Abilities.”
q Some of these guidelines may not be appropriate for all sports or may be difficult to
implement without modification in sports that take place in an environment that (1) is
unpredictable and unstable or (2) requires efforts that are not easily controllable and
quantifiable. For example, the guidelines relating to speed or endurance are relatively
easy to apply to cyclical sports like running, cycling, cross-country skiing, speed skating,
or swimming but are harder to apply to team sports, racquet sports, artistic sports, or
combat/duel sports. However, for these sports, the guidelines may still help coaches
implement sport-specific activities, particularly as far as work/rest ratios, number of
repetitions, and required level of intensity are concerned.
q Most scientific studies on training methods are based on research conducted on adult
athletes, so their findings have been modified to take into account that your athletes are,
for the most part, children or adolescents. Do not hesitate to adjust the number of sets or
repetitions if workouts seem too easy or too hard.
q For sports in which the importance of the athletic ability is High, use the highest weekly
frequency proposed, and establish a progression that will enable the athlete to complete
the maximum amount of work suggested for each session. It may take several weeks of
training to achieve this.
q For sports in which the importance of the athletic ability is Moderate, use the lowest
weekly frequency proposed as a starting point, and establish a progression that will still
enable the athlete to complete the least amount of work suggested for each session. It
may still require several weeks of training to achieve this. If there is enough time during
practices, try to have athletes do more work.
q For sports in which the importance of the athletic ability is Low, time restrictions may
prevent you from including this type of activity in your program. If this is the case, ensure
that the athletes have the opportunity to participate in different forms of sport activity
outside your program or during the off-season so that they can still do some work in this
area to achieve a balanced athletic development.
SECTION 2
DETAILED INFORMATION ON SPORT PROGRAMS
q Age
q Sex
q General athletic background and
experience in sport
What training methods q Performance and skill level What athletic qualities need
should be used during the q Number to be developed in my sport?
different periods in the q Athletes know each other or don’t
q Physical
program?
q Motor
q Type of activities and q Technical
drills q Tactical/decision-making
q Training methods and q Mental
protocols (amount of
work and intensity)
q Practice conditions
q Type of practice
q Progressions My Sport
Program What are the events, dates,
and locations I must consider
in my program?
Training priorities during
the different periods of q Registration
my program q Reservations (facilities,
transportation,
q Training and performance accommodation)
objectives
q Purchase of equipment
q Time available to achieve
these objectives q Beginning and end of the
What should my program program, breaks
q Athletic abilities to seek to achieve as far as
emphasize at the q Practice sessions (schedule,
long-term development of the place, frequency)
beginning, in the middle,
and at the end of the athletes is concerned? q Selection of athletes
program q Preparatory competitions,
q Aspects to prioritize in the
q Time needed to achieve regular competition, major
program in order to promote
specific training effects the long-term development of competitions, play-offs,
the athletes tournaments, championships,
q Time that can be devoted
to other types of activities (schedule, location)
q Particular needs of the
q Problems or limitations athletes at this stage of their q Information sessions
which may influence what development, considering q Fund-raising
can be done their age and sport q Social events
background
The sample single-periodization sport program shown below lasts for 30 weeks. The program starts on Monday, March 17, and ends
on Sunday, October 12. It is divided into three periods: Preparation, Competition, and Transition. The Preparation and Competition
Periods are subdivided into phases.
Note: This example was created with ProPulses PLAN software, which was developed by the Coaching Association of Canada
(www.coach.ca) and CardiSport (www.cardisport.com).
In this example:
q The Preparation Period lasts 15 weeks and is subdivided into three phases: General Preparation Phase (8 weeks), Specific
Preparation Phase (5 weeks), and Pre-Competitive Phase (2 weeks). A preparatory competition (P1) takes place during the
week of June 16-25.
q The Competition Period lasts 13 weeks and is subdivided into two phases: Regular Competition Phase (7 weeks and 5
competitions: C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5), and Important Competition Phase (6 weeks and 3 competitions: C6, C7, and C8).
q There is a wide range in athletes’ experience in sport and in their levels of performance
General Recommendations
q Emphasize basic athletic development and ensure that athletes are as active as possible
during practices. Primary training objectives include the development of basic motor
abilities (agility, balance, coordination), speed, and physical conditioning, as well as the
acquisition and development of basic technical and tactical skills. In some instances, it is
possible to work on acquiring more complex techniques.
q Athletes can do some strength training (avoiding heavy weights); they can also train the
athletic abilities that require significant energy production from the muscles (without,
however, putting too much emphasis on the development of speed-endurance).
q Do not subject athletes to a mechanical approach to learning their sport, involving high
numbers of repetitions in an artificial context.
q As athletes are now able to concentrate better, it is possible to focus on more specific
and more complex tasks in practices. Instructions can also be more complex.
q Participation in competition becomes more serious, but there should not be too much
pressure on athletes; competitive experience must be fun, and the level of competition
must be adapted to athletes’ capabilities.
q Athletes must spend more time on general training and the development of basic athletic
abilities than on specialized training and preparation for competition.
CHALLENGES
Coaches may experience a number of challenges when designing or managing seasonal sport
programs.
Logistical Constraints
Helping athletes progress in sport and develop fully as people is an essential part of any sport
program. This progression will be largely influenced by the length of the program and by the
training and competition opportunities available; however, other factors such as financial
resources or access to facilities may have a significant impact on the type of program that can
be developed.
q Are at a particular point in the long-term development process for their sport. The time
they spend in a program must help them progress toward subsequent stages, taking into
account their current level of performance.
q Do not all have the same experience, the same background in sports, or the same
performance capability; consequently, coaches may often have to work with people with
specific needs. In addition to activities intended for most of the group, coaches will
undoubtedly have to adapt some activities to particular members of the group.
q Do not all have the same objectives or motivation with regard to their involvement.
Coaches must take this fact into account and propose activities that will keep everyone
interested.
Athletic Development
As far as athletic development is concerned, the main challenges when designing a sport
program are to do the following:
q Establish training priorities by identifying the athletic and technical abilities that are most
in need of training, given the sport and age of the athletes.
q Set up training opportunities that provide an adequate and gradual preparation before
competition begins. Indeed, in several sport programs for beginning athletes in Canada,
the General Preparation Phase and the Specific Preparation Phase are often drastically
shortened (even omitted). This is a particularly glaring problem in many team sports,
where athletes start to compete very early in the program.
q Sequence training priorities over the length of the program so that there is a logical
progression and athletes reach a suitable level of sport form in time for the major
competitions.
q Make sure that the content of the practices (i.e. the activities, their length and intensity,
and the practice conditions) is related to the program's main development objectives.
q Be fully aware of the time required to develop various athletic abilities, as well as the
amount and frequency of training required to make significant improvements.
Possible Issue in
Solutions to Consider
Sport Program
The program is too short to q Encourage athletes to participate in other sports with similar
allow any significant demands and in other sports that may help them develop other
athletic development in types of skills
your sport or discipline q Enrol athletes in sport schools or camps so that they continue their
development and avoid losing too much sport fitness
The Preparation Period is q Extend the Preparation Period by starting practices earlier before
too short the first regular competitions
q Use some of the early season competitions as a continuation of the
Preparation Period where results aren’t too important
There isn’t enough q Include simulated competition in your practice sessions
competition q Organize friendly or unofficial competitions
Practice sessions are too q Do the general warm-up before you go onto the field or into the
short facility
q Train the motor abilities (agility, balance, coordination, etc.) or
some physical abilities (flexibility, endurance, strength) outside
practice sessions so that you can spend as much of the available
time as possible on sport-specific activities
q Create workstations or circuits that enable a larger number of
athletes to be active at the same time
There isn’t enough practice q Extend the Preparation Period; i.e. begin practices earlier in the
or preparation time to program
enable significant athletic q Use some of the early-season competitions as a continuation of the
development in the sport or Preparation Period where results aren’t too important
discipline; not enough
training opportunities q Increase the number of practice sessions between competitions
between competitions q Provide athletes with programs for activities they can do on their
own between practice sessions so that you can focus on important
sport-specific elements during practice sessions
q Don’t let performance in the most recent competition or preparation
for the next competition dictate all the content of the practice
sessions; situate the content of practices in a longer-term
perspective (several weeks, or the season)
Possible Issue in
Solutions to Consider
Sport Program
The Competition Period is q Talk to other coaches and administrators responsible for the
too long; too many competition structure and try to reduce the length of the program
competitions in the and the number of competitions
program; too many q When possible, consider not taking part in certain competitions
“important” competitions
q Rest some athletes by withdrawing them from certain competitions
or not registering them, and give other athletes chances to get
competitive experience
q Consider some early-season competitions as part of the
Preparation Period where results aren’t too important (for example,
early-season wins get fewer points than wins after a certain date).
q Priorize competitions and focus on those that lead to the next stage
in the development process
Practice sessions are too q If possible, reduce the length and increase the frequency of
long practices
q If you can book only long periods of time in facilities, include
frequent breaks during practices and plan fun activities
Practice sessions are too q To avoid fatigue, alternate hard training days with easy days during
frequent the week
q Build in a rest day every 2-3 days of practice
q Build in an easy session or a rest day the day after a competition,
especially if the competition is particularly demanding
q Avoid planning a tough practice session the day before a
competition
Selection dates are too q Don’t conduct selection camps that result in the elimination or
early in the program exclusion of athletes
q Delay selection dates
q Create different training groups within the same club or team
q Provide other opportunities later in the season for athletes who
weren’t selected
Selection criteria are based q Evaluate athletes on their ability to apply elements from practices
on current ability in the to competition, rather than on their performance
sport, not athletic potential q Don’t conduct trials that result in the elimination or exclusion of
athletes
q Create different training groups within the same club or team
q Provide other opportunities later in the season for athletes who
weren’t selected
There is too much q Evaluate athletes on their ability to apply elements from practices
emphasis on winning or to competition, rather than on their performance
short-term performance q Redefine the program's objectives if there seems to be too much
emphasis on competition results
Athletes begin to specialize q Don’t start to specialize if athletes haven’t mastered the basic skills
too soon essential to the sport
Motor abilities are not q Introduce activities to train the motor abilities (agility, balance,
sufficiently developed coordination, etc.) that athletes can practise in their free time
q Maximize active engagement during practices and create activities
that call on the motor abilities
General Exercises
General exercises, or general physical preparation, have no elements specific to a sport or
competition movement. They are a series of exercises borrowed from various forms of physical
activity or other sports. General exercises serve as a general physical preparation for motor
abilities. They can also be used when the athlete needs to do active physical or mental
recovery, e.g. after a difficult competition or a series of particularly demanding practices.
Examples of general exercises are push-ups, sit-ups, skipping, hopping and bounding, rolls,
swimming for gymnasts, badminton for cyclists, and so on.
Specific Exercises
Specific exercises contain elements of the sport, as well as certain parts of movements
performed in competition. Consequently, the muscle groups used in the sport are recruited to
reproduce some of the demands of competition, for example, movements, execution speed, and
duration of effort.
Specific exercises are not necessarily carried out in conditions that are perfectly identical to
those of competition, particularly concerning the intensity, duration, and environment. For
example, a sport-specific movement can be repeated several times at a lower than competition
intensity or by taking breaks that are shorter or longer than those of competition. The
movements specific to a sport can also be performed in an artificial context; athletes might swim
in a river rather than in a pool, run in the woods rather than on a track, practise with an object
that is heavier or lighter than the one used in competition, carry out certain movements with no
opposition or against reduced opposition as compared to competition situations, etc.
By definition, specific exercises contribute directly to the development of the physical
conditioning essential to a sport.
In the case of team sports, technical effectiveness and specific physical preparation are closely
related; consequently, this type of exercise helps athletes acquire sport-specific skills. For
example, the vertical jump, which requires muscular power, is important to executing a smash in
volleyball; vertical jumps imitating the smash therefore constitute a specific exercise even when
there is no ball to hit.
Some specific exercises relevant to team, technical-artistic, combat, and racquet sports are
briefly described below.
Competition Exercises
Competition exercises (or simulated competition) are the most specific form of preparation there
is for an athlete. They consist of executing movements or tasks in the same conditions as those
that will be encountered in competition and taking into account particular aspects such as rules,
equipment used, environmental conditions (surface, lighting, temperature, time of day when the
activities are performed, etc.), and opponents’ level, etc. A cross-country skier who skis 10 km at
race speed, volleyball players who make passes that finish with a smash at the net against
defenders using unpredictable tactics, a gymnast who executes the elements of a routine in
sequence and at competition speed, and a tennis player who practises volleys at the net after
an exchange are all doing competition exercises.
Competition exercises lead to complex adaptations because they simultaneously bring into play
physical, motor, technical, mental, and decisional elements. For this reason, they are important
to the development and maintenance of sport form during the Competition Period. When the
conditions created during training replicate the demands of competition, this type of exercise
represents an effective way of preparing and stabilizing sport form for actual competitions. This
type of exercise can also be used to reinforce technical movements, foster tactical learning, or
make very specific modifications to technique. In this case, the exercises can be done at a
slightly lower than competition intensity.
Note: With young athletes, general and specific exercises should be used most of the time, not
competition exercises. This is particularly true during the first weeks of a program.
ability to apply the game plan. In team sports, the coach can take advantage of the situation to
experiment with combinations and substitution of players so as not to disrupt the team during
major competitions. Exhibition games should fully respect real competition conditions.
Speed-Strength Flexibility
Type of effort Intermittent (repetitions of intense Progressive extension of the body
efforts followed by pauses, and part involved, followed by a
grouped in sets); alternate muscle maintaining of the position; alternate
groups involved body side if applicable
Mode/type of movement Jumping, bounding, tractions, pulling Passive stretching; no external
actions, extensions, using own body resistance should be applied on the
weight, free weights, or machines limb or the joint
Intensity Speed of movement as fast as Stretch should be performed until a
possible; sub-maximal (use of body light feeling of discomfort is felt in
weight; if free weights or machines the muscles
are used, athlete must be able to lift
load at least 15 times)
Length of a repetition Less than 1 s during the contraction 20 – 40 s
phase of the muscle group
Number of repetitions per set 6–8 2 (1 each side)
Number of sets per exercise 2–3 2–4
Number of different exercises 2–3 6–8
Total number of repetitions 24 – 72 24 – 64
Length of recovery/repetition Not applicable Not applicable
Type of recovery/repetition Not applicable Not applicable
Recovery between sets 30 s – 1 min 15 – 30 s
Stop before if … Quality of execution decreases; Some pain is felt
marked fatigue occurs during
execution
Min-max length of protocol 5 min; 10 min 30 12 min; 54 min
Significant improvements in… 4 – 5 weeks 3 – 5 weeks
Development 2 times per week 2 – 3 times per week
Maintenance 1 set per exercise, once a week 1 set per exercise, once a week
s : second min : minute h : hour
Progression Parameters Applied to Technical and Tactical Training in Team Sports (Charles Cardinal, 1993)
Stages Learning the Consolidation Developing Tactical Integrating Evaluating/
Movement's or Maintaining Intelligence in Athletes/Movements in a Controlling
Mechanics Technical Competition Group; Competition
Efficiency Evaluating/Controlling Effectiveness
Objectives Acquire the overall form Stabilize the Develop the players' self- Increase tactical knowledge Follow individual directions in
of the movement execution of the reliance on the field Create a group of possible applying the game plan
movements under a Perform the task with less solutions to situations frequently Pursuit of the same objective
variety of conditions effort encountered by all members of the team
Develop technical Control unpredictability. Seek to take advantage or to
details Increase decision-making dominate the opponent
Develop a efficiency
repertoire of
techniques
Practice Artificial; easy and Controlled by the 2, 3, 4 players in a partial Controlled or unpredictable. Similarity of tactical
Conditions constant coach but getting and temporary game Full teams on the field responses by the players in a
Controlled by the coach closer to real game phase Read a situation and react given situation
Blocked practice situations Controlled or Execution speed and
unpredictable synchronization among the
players in the tactical options
and combinations
Content Basic position Speed up Execution of a partial Individual directions for game Coordination, pace, and flow
Interception movement movement phase of the game plan of individual actions
Interception position Be precise Identification of tactical Systematization of the players'
Propulsive movement Add other components related to an roles and tasks at various
movements analysis of the situation moments of the game
Contact with implement and the choice of
or passing Practise at various Independent identification of
places on the field appropriate responses tactical solutions given the
characteristics
circumstances
Methods Simple exercises Simple exercises Simple exercises with Directed games Variation in the team's
Serial-skill opponents Exhibition games responses in the same
exercises Complex exercises situation
Modified games
Task Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration
Requirements Optical-motor Optical-motor judgment Optical-motor judgment
Movement control judgment (i.e. Detection of meaningful Detection of meaningful cues and
(optimal nervous-system trajectories; hand- cues and choice of choice of appropriate motor
stimulation) eye, and foot-eye appropriate motor response
coordination) response Memory (recall of potentially
successful solutions)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, REFERENCES,
AND GLOSSARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Main Writer
Alain Marion
Contributors
Garry Armstrong, Istvan Balyi, Kathy Brook, Charles Cardinal, Guylaine Demers, Cyndie Flett,
Pascale Gauthier, Peter Goodman, Dave Hill, Dave Hubley, Doug Krochak, Yvon Lachance,
Daniel Leister, Michael Luke, Don McGavern, Rob Meckling, Anna Mees, Norm Olenick, Diane
Oligny, Ian Reade, Bill Redden, Thérèse Saulnier, Tony Simmons, Jean Vaillancourt
Production
Lucie LeBel, MATRA ● gs Translation Services Inc., Tressa Sorochan, Louise Wood
REFERENCES
Balyi, I. “Sport System Building and Long-Term Athlete Development in Canada: The Situation
and the Solutions”, Coaches Report, Vol. 8 No. 1, Summer 2001.
Bompa, T. Theory and Methodology of Training: The Key to Athletic Performance, Kendall/Hunt
Publishing Company, 1994.
Magill, R.A. Motor Learning: Concepts and Applications (3rd edition), Brown, Dubuque IA, 1989.
Manno, R. Les bases de l’entraînement sportif, Éditions Revue EPS, Paris, 1992.
Schmidt, R. A. Motor Learning and Performance: From Principles to Practice, Human Kinetics,
1991.
GLOSSARY
Glossary
Ability The quality of being able to do something, especially the physical, mental,
financial, or legal power to accomplish something.
Adaptation Changes that occur in the organism as a result of the administration of a
stimulus (i.e., training). Adaptations are usually specific to the nature of the
stimulus imposed.
Adolescence The period of physical and psychological development from the onset of
puberty to maturity.
Aerobic Aerobic Endurance is the body's ability to exercise whole muscle groups
endurance over an extended period of time at moderate intensity, using aerobic
energy. Your aerobic system uses oxygen to break down carbohydrates
and convert them into lasting energy.
Aerobic stamina The ability to sustain a dynamic effort over an extended period of time
(normally, efforts lasting several minutes or even hours). Note: Intense
efforts lasting between 2 and 10 minutes require a subset of this athletic
ability referred to as maximum aerobic power.
Agility The ability to execute movements or to move rapidly, with precision, and
with ease.
Balance The ability to achieve and maintain stability. There are three types of
balance: (1) static balance: adopting a controlled body position in a stable
environment; (2) dynamic balance: maintaining control during movement
or stabilizing the body by performing muscular contractions to offset the
effect of an external force; and (3) the ability to keep an object or another
body under control either in a static or a dynamic manner.
Biological age Age expressed relative to physiological and anatomical function and level
of development in comparison to other individuals of the same
chronological age.
Childhood The period between birth and puberty.
Chronological age Number of years and days since date of birth.
Closed skill A skill that takes place in a stable, predictable environment by a performer
who knows exactly what to do and when. A closed skill is therefore not
affected by the environment and tends to be habitual. Movements follow
set patterns, have a clear beginning and end, and tend to be self-paced,
for example, a free throw in basketball or a serve in squash or tennis.
Continuous skill A skill that has no particular beginning or end and lasts for many minutes,
e.g. swimming or riding a bicycle.
Coordination The ability to perform movements in the correct order and with the right
timing.
Cyclical sport A sport in which a movement is repeated over and over, e.g swimming or
running.
Discrete skill A skill that features an easily defined beginning and end, and is usually of
brief duration (e.g. throwing a ball).
Early developer An individual whose growth spurts happen earlier then average.
Glossary
Flexibility The ability to perform movements of large amplitude about a joint without
sustaining injury.
Late developer An individual whose growth spurts happen later then average.
Massed practice A sequence of practice and rest periods in which the rest time is much
less then the practice time.
Maximal aerobic The highest work rate or power output at which energy can be produced
power (MAP) aerobically. MAP is determined by two factors: VO2max and mechanical
efficiency. Under normal conditions, an intensity of 100% of MAP can be
sustained for approximately 6 to 8 minutes.
Maximal oxygen Highest amount of oxygen that can be used by the body to produce
consumption energy when performing a particular form of exercise at maximal intensity.
(VO2max)
Maximum speed The highest rate at which a movement or a series of movements can be
executed, or the ability to cover a given distance in the shortest possible
time during an all-out effort of very short duration (8 seconds or less).
Maximum strength The highest level of tension generated by a muscle or muscle group
during a maximum contraction, regardless of the duration of the
contraction.
Motor ability The quality of being able to do something physical.
Open skill A skill performed in an environment that is constantly changing and in
which movements must be continually adapted. An open skill is
predominantly perceptual and mostly externally paced, for example, a
pass in football. Sports such as netball, football, and hockey usually
involve open skills.
Overload Making the training harder then the body is used to. In so doing, the body
adapts and becomes stronger, faster, etc.
Part practice The learning technique in which the task is broken down into parts for
separate practice.
Specificity A principle of training according to which adaptations are determined by
the nature and magnitude of the training stimulus. This concept implies
that, to maximize adaptation, the nature and the conditions of training
activities must be designed to replicate closely those encountered in
competition. Specificity therefore applies to variables such as type of
activity, muscle masses involved, motor pattern, speed of movement,
environmental conditions, power output, duration of effort, and cognitive
and perceptual demands.
Speed-endurance The ability to sustain efforts at near-maximum speed for as long as
possible (normally, very intense efforts lasting between 8 and 60 seconds).
Speed-strength The ability to perform a muscle contraction or overcome a resistance as
fast as possible (normally, very brief efforts of 1-2 seconds).
Strength- The ability to perform repeated muscle contractions at intensities below
endurance maximum strength (normally, 15-30 repetitions or more).
Variable practice A practice in which varying learning conditions are used, e.g. in baseball,
hitting random pitches (fastball, curve, slider) versus hitting only fastballs.
APPENDICES
4. Using your sport’s athlete development model, make a general assessment of your
athletes’ strengths and weaknesses, given their age.
16. For each combination of athletic ability – objective, identify appropriate types of
exercises that could be used during practices (for all athletic abilities) and practice
conditions (for sport-specific technical and tactical elements only).
17. For each athletic ability you have identified, and bearing in mind the desired
objective, determine the number of training sessions needed per week and the
amount of time that must be planned for training during each practice. Note: You
may choose to spend more time than the “minimum recommended time for training a
particular athletic ability; however, you should not devote less time than
recommended if you really want to achieve the desired training effect.
18. Add up all the training time required. This represents the amount of time you should
devote to training in the week you have chosen.
19. To determine if the total time obtained in Step 18 is realistic for your training situation,
add up the number of practice sessions that you can have during the week and the
length of the main part of each session. This figure represents the actual training
time available to train the various athletic abilities in the week you have chosen.
20. Determine the gap between the time required in the ideal situation (Step 18) and the
actual time available for training in the week you have chosen (Step 19).
21. If the gap in time is significant, consider the following questions when you come to
decide which athletic abilities to priorize:
· Can the athletes train certain athletic abilities individually, outside your practice
sessions, or before or after the sessions?
· Is it possible to combine the training of certain athletic abilities in your sessions?
· Which athletic abilities are the most important according to the sample program
of your family of sports?
22. Bearing in mind the training time available (Step 19) and the reflection you did in
Steps 20 and 21, lay out the training priorities and content in the different practice
sessions of the week. Use the Planning a Practice Session Worksheet (page 70)
and, for each session, specify the following information:
provide you with feedback and suggestions and ensure that everyone has understood the
implications of what was announced.
q Do not conduct trials unless you are obliged to do so, and encourage the largest
possible number of athletes to take part in the program activities. Do not be afraid to call
into question certain well-established practices whose main effect is to discourage young
people and reduce their development opportunities. For example, consider forming more
than one team or more than one training group when possible, and take on some
assistants.
q If you absolutely have to carry out trials, make sure that their timing is well chosen, so as
not to interfere with the main principles of athletic development. Moreover, avoid
selecting athletes very early in the program. The latter is not recommended in programs
involving young athletes for the following reasons: (1) an early emphasis on specific
preparation and program performance is detrimental to a more progressive approach to
training that focuses on long-term development; (2) the athletes who have not done any
specific training during the off-season or who have participated in other sports are often
at a disadvantage compared to those who have been involved in sport-specific training
all year, even when they have high athletic potential. Selecting athletes at the beginning
of the program encourages early specialization and emphasizes results too early in the
season, which is not desirable for the long-term development of young athletes.
q The selection criteria must reflect the values and development objectives of the coach,
club, and sport association (participation, equal opportunities for everyone, performance,
progress, effort, attitude, etc.).
q The procedure and criteria must be simply and clearly described and have no grey
zones. Everyone must unequivocally understand the how, when, and where, as well as
other information dealing with the number of athletes who will be picked and the person
or group in charge of decision-making. Complicated phrasing that no one can
understand should be avoided.
q Whenever possible, the criteria should include objective elements, such as specific
performance standards, a point system, statistics dealing with important aspects of your
sport, results during previously identified competitions, etc. Such an approach will make
it possible to avoid situations where athletes feel excluded from the outset and feel they
have no chance of being picked because a given person is in charge of the selection
process. These criteria must also appear to be fair and reasonable to the majority of
athletes.
q Make sure that your criteria cover the most likely scenarios and possibilities. For
instance, what happens if one of the athletes is sick or injured, breaks equipment during
one of the trial stages, or cannot be present for an unavoidable reason? Moreover, what
constitutes an injury or an unavoidable reason? What happens in the case of a tie or if
one of the preliminary trials is not held? What happens if one of the athletes who has
systematically dominated has a poor performance? Or if certain athletes who are
showing considerable potential are not yet able to perform at the required level, despite
the fact that, in the weeks to come, they will undoubtedly surpass others who might be
picked at selection time? Crossing your fingers and hoping that this type of situation will
not happen is not a good strategy, since experience shows that this kind of dilemma
occurs fairly frequently. One of the possible options is to prepare for these possibilities
by indicating in the criteria that a certain number of athletes will be picked at the coach's
discretion. In other words, they will be picked based on your personal evaluation of their
current or future aptitudes, their level of commitment, and their attitude. However, you
should expect to be asked to justify any choices based on the coach's discretion...
q Make sure that the criteria are explained exactly the same way to each athlete, to other
coaches, parents, and members of the team or club's support personnel. Avoid
presenting different and incompatible selection approaches separately to different
people, since the resulting differences in understanding and expectations may prove
impossible to reconcile and carry out.
q When appropriate, indicate that the criteria were developed to identify athletes who have
a particular profile or who demonstrate precise performance skills or aptitudes. This can
allow you to provide additional explanations about why certain criteria are used. In such
a case, it could be useful to refer to certain facts or statistics to justify the choice of
criteria.
q Once the criteria are made public, you will have to stick to what was announced, even if
the implementation of the procedure and criteria create some surprises about which
athletes are selected. In this way, you will prove your integrity and credibility in other
people's eyes. This possibility shows how important it is to seriously think about the
procedure and criteria used in selecting athletes.
to them; for instance, provide them with the phone number of another coach who
could take them into their program
· Make sure that the athletes learn a positive lesson from the experience; end on a
positive note by praising, once again, their participation and effort and reassert
their strong points
q Meet with the parents of each athlete who was not selected to answer their questions.
2. ( ) General exercises
( ) Specific exercises ____ sessions/week X
( ) Competition exercises ____ minutes/session
Practice Conditions: = ________ h : min
3. ( ) General exercises
( ) Specific exercises ____ sessions/week X
( ) Competition exercises ____ minutes/session
Practice Conditions: = ________ h : min
4. ( ) General exercises
( ) Specific exercises ____ sessions/week X
( ) Competition exercises ____ minutes/session
Practice Conditions: = ________ h : min
5. ( ) General exercises
( ) Specific exercises ____ sessions/week X
( ) Competition exercises ____ minutes/session
Practice Conditions: = ________ h : min
Physical ability
Motor ability
Skill ability
Activities
Time
Practice conditions
Objective
Physical ability
Motor ability
Skill ability
Activities
Time
Practice conditions
Objective
Physical ability
Motor ability
Skill ability
Activities
Time
Practice conditions
Objective