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Hydroelectric Power

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 17

Hydroelectric Power
SAMEER SAADOON AL-JUBOORI*

ABSTRACT

Hydroelectric power generation is one of many ways in which electricity can be

generated. In 2009, the three most heavily used sources for generating electricity
were coal, natural gas and oil. These sources not only release emissions that
are harmful to the environment, they are resources that are quickly running
out. Therefore, different ways of generating power will need to be explored.
Hydroelectric power works to harvest the inherent energy of moving water by
directing the water through turbine converting the energy of the moving water
into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is then converted into electricity
in the generator. In order to choose the appropriate generator for a specific
application, the flow rate and pressure head of water source must be known.
Hydropower on a small-scale is one of the most cost-effective energy technologies
to be considered for rural electrification in less developed countries. It is also
the main prospect for future hydro developments in Europe, where the large-
scale opportunities have either been exploited already, or would now be
considered environmentally unacceptable. Small hydro technology is extremely
robust and is also one of the most environmentally benign energy technologies
available. The development of hydro-electricity in the 20th century was usually
associated with the building of large dams. Hundreds of massive barriers of
concrete, rock and earth were placed across river valleys worldwide to create
huge artificial lakes. While they created a major, reliable power supply, plus
irrigation and flood control benefits, the dams necessarily flooded large areas
of fertile land and displaced many thousands of local inhabitants. In many
cases, rapid silting up of the dam has since reduced its productivity and lifetime.
There are also numerous environmental problems that can result from such
major interference with river flows.

Head of Electronic and Control Engineering Dept. and Head of climate Change Grouyp
of Kirkuk Technical collegfe, Kirkuk, Iraq.0
*Corresponding author: E-mail: sameersaadoon@yahoo.com
430 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

Key words: Hydroelectric power, Small hydro power, Large hydro power,
Dam, Renewable energy, Environmental effect

INTRODUCTION

Hydroelectric power is a form of energy a renewable resource. Hydroelectric

power plants do not use up resources to create electricity nor do they pollute
the air, land or water, as other power plants may. Hydroelectric power
comes from flowing water winter and spring runoff from mountain streams
and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of gravity, can be
used to turn turbines and generators that produce electricity.

Hydropower is the largest renewable resource used for electricity. It

plays an essential role in many regions of the world with more than 150
countries generating hydroelectric power. A survey in 1997 by the
International Journal on Hydropower and Dams found that hydropower
supplies at least 50% of national electricity production in 63 countries and
at least 90% in 23 countries. About 10 countries obtain essentially all their
commercial electricity from hydro, including Norway, several African
nations, Bhutan and Paraguay. There is about 700 GW of hydro capacity
in operation worldwide, generating 2600 TWh/year (about 19% of the world’s
electricity production). About half of this capacity and generation is in
Europe and North America with Europe the largest at 32% of total hydro
use and North America at 23% of the total. However, this proportion is
declining as Asia and Latin America commission large amounts of new
hydro capacity. Small, mini and micro hydro plants (usually defined as
plants less than 10 MW, 2 MW and 100kW, respectively) also play a key
role in many countries for rural electrification. An estimated 300 million
people in China, for example, depend on small hydro[1].

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Hydropower started with the wooden waterwheel. Waterwheels of various

types had been in use in many parts of Europe and Asia especially in
Mesopotamia which are still in use till now on Euphrates River for irrigation
and milling grain for some 2,000 years (see Fig. 1)[2].

By the time of the industrial revolution, waterwheel technology had

been developed to a fine art and efficiencies approaching 70% were being
achieved in the many tens of thousands of waterwheels that were in regular
use. Improved engineering skills during the 19th century, combined with
the need to develop smaller and higher speed devices to generate electricity,
led to the development of modern day turbines. Probably the first hydro-
turbine was designed in France in the 1820s by Benoiˆt Fourneyron who
called his invention a hydraulic motor. Towards the end of that century
Hydroelectric Power 431

Fig. 1: Waterwheel

many mills were replacing their waterwheels with turbines and

governments were beginning to focus on how they could exploit hydropower
for large-scale supply of electricity.

The golden age of hydropower was the first half of the 20th century,
before oil took over as the dominant force in energy provision. Europe and
North America built dams and hydropower stations at a rapid rate,
exploiting up to 50% of the technically available potential. Hundreds of
equipment suppliers sprung up to supply this booming market. Whereas
the large hydro manufacturers have since managed to maintain their
business on export markets, in particular to developing countries, the small
hydro industry has been on the decline since the 1960’s. A few countries
(notably Germany) have boosted this sector in recent years with attractive
policies favouring ‘green’ electricity supply, but small hydro in general
cannot compete with existing fossil fuel or nuclear power stations so that,
without environmental incentives to use non-polluting power sources, there
has been no firm market for small hydropower in developed countries for
many years[3].

The first hydroelectric power plant was installed in Cragside, Rothbury,

England in 1870. Industrial use of hydropower started in 1880 in Grand
Rapids, Michigan when a dynamo driven by a water turbine was used to
provide theatre and storefront lighting. In 1881, a brush dynamo connected
to a turbine in a flour mill provided street lighting at Niagara Falls, New
York. The breakthrough came when the electric generator was coupled to
the turbine and thus the world’s first hydroelectric station of 12.5 kW
capacity was commissioned on 30 September, 1882 on Fox River at the
Vulcan Street Plant, Appleton, Wisconsin, USA lighting two paper mills
432 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

and a residence. Early hydropower plants were much more reliable and
efficient than the fossil fuel-fired plants of the day. This resulted in a
proliferation of small- to- medium sized hydropower stations distributed
wherever there was an adequate supply of moving water and a need for
electricity. As electricity demand grew, the number and size of fossil fuel,
nuclear and hydropower plants increased. In parallel, concerns arose
around environmental and social impacts. Hydropower plants (HPP) today
span a very large range of scales, from a few watts to several GW. The
largest projects, Itaipu in Brazil with 14,000 MW and Three Gorges in
China with 22,400 MW, both produce between 80 to 100 TWh/yr (288 to
360 PJ/yr). Hydropower projects are always site-specific and thus designed
according to the river system they inhabit. Historical regional hydropower
generation from 1965 to 2009 is shown in Fig. 2[1].

Fig. 2: Hydropower generation (TWh) by region

HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEMS

Most hydroelectric power is generated by dams across large-flow rivers. A

dam built across river creates a reservoir behind it. The height of the water
behind the dam is greater than that below the dam, representing stored
potential energy. When water flows down through the penstock of the dam
driving the turbines, some of this potential energy is converted into
electricity. Hydroelectric power, like other alternative sources, is clean and
relatively cheap over the long term even with initial construction costs
and upkeep. But because the river’s normal flow rate is reduced by the
dam, sediments normally carried downstream by the water are instead
deposited in the reservoir. Eventually, the sediment can clog the penstocks
and render the dam useless for power generation.

Large-scale dams can have a significant impact on the regional

environment. When the river is initially dammed, farmlands are sometimes
Hydroelectric Power 433

flooded and entire populations of people and wildlife are displaced by the
rising waters behind the dam. In some cases, the reservoir can flood
hundreds or thousands of square kilometres. The decreased flow
downstream from the dam can also negatively impact human and wildlife
populations living downstream. In addition, the dam can act as a barrier
to fish that must travel upstream to spawn. Aquatic organisms are
frequently caught and killed in the penstock and the out-take pipes. Because
of the large surface area of the reservoir, the local climate can change due
to the large amount of evaporation occurring.

Most modern hydro-power systems are used to drive electric generators,

although some special purpose mechanical systems are still useful such as
the hydraulic ram pump. A complete hydroelectric system includes the pipe
(penstock), flow control, the turbine, the electric generator, fine control of
the generator and wiring for electricity distribution. The dam ensures a
steady supply of water to the system without fluctuations and enables
energy storage in the reservoir. It may also be used for purposes other
than generating electricity, e.g., for roads or water supply.

Small run-of-the-river systems from a moderately large and steady

stream may require only a retaining wall of low height, i.e., enough to keep
the penstock fully immersed, but this does not produce appreciable
storage[3][4].

GLOBAL AND REGIONAL STATUS OF MARKET AND INDUSTRY

DEVELOPMENT

Existing Generation
Hydropower provides some level of power generation in 159 countries. Five
countries make up more than half of the world’s hydropower production:
China, Canada, Brazil, the United States (U.S.) and Russia. The importance
of hydroelectricity in the electricity mix of these countries is, however,
different. On one hand, Brazil and Canada are heavily dependent on this
source with a percentage share of 83.9% and 59%, respectively of total
domestic electricity generation, whereas in Russia the share is 19.0% and
in China 15.5%.

Figure 3 shows hydropower generation by country. It is noteworthy that

5 out of the 10 major producers of hydroelectricity are among the world’s
most industrialized countries: Canada, the U.S., Norway, Japan and
Sweden[4],[5].

GENERATING POWER

To generate electricity, water must be in motion. This is kinetic (moving)

energy. When flowing water turns blades of a turbine, the form of energy
434 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

Fig. 3: Hydropower generation by country

is changed to mechanical (machine) energy. The turbine turns the generator

rotor which then converts this mechanical energy into another form of
energy - electricity. Since water is the initial source of energy, we call this
hydroelectric power or hydropower for short. At facilities called
hydroelectric power plants, hydropower is generated. Some power plants
are located on rivers, streams and canals, but for a reliable water supply,
dams are needed. Dams store water for later release for such purposes as
irrigation, domestic and industrial use and power generation. The reservoir
acts much like a battery, storing water to be released as needed to generate
power. Fig. 4 shows components of a hydroelectric power plant[6].

The dam creates a head or height from which water flows. The penstock
carries the water from the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water
pushes the turbine blades, something like a pinwheel in the wind. The
water force on the turbine blades turns the rotor, the moving part of the
electric generator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the generator
stationary coil (stator), electricity is produced[2][6].

TRANSMITTING POWER

Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed

our homes, schools, offices, factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations
and power must be transmitted over some distance to the users.
Hydroelectric Power 435

Fig. 4: Hydro power plants components[6]

Vast networks of transmission lines and facilities are used to bring

electricity to us in a form we can use. All the electricity made at a power
plant comes first through transformers which raise the voltage so it can
travel long distances through power lines. At local substations, transformers
reduce the voltage so electricity can be divided up and directed throughout
an area.

While hydroelectric power plants are one source of electricity, other

sources include power plants that burn fossil fuels or split atoms to create
steam which in turn is used to generate power. Gas-turbine, solar,
geothermal and wind-powered systems are other sources. All these power
plants may use the same system of transmission lines and stations in an
area to bring power to us.

The actual output of energy at a dam is determined by the volume of

water released (discharge) and the vertical distance the water falls (head).
So, a given amount of water falling a given distance will produce a certain
amount of energy. The head and the discharge at the power site and the
desired rotational speed of the generator determine the type of turbine to
be used.

The head produces a pressure (water pressure) and the greater the head,
the greater the pressure to drive turbines. This pressure is measured in
pounds of force (pounds per square inch). More head or faster flowing water
means more power. To find the theoretical horsepower (the measure of
mechanical energy) from a specific site, this formula is used:
436 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

QH
THP 
8. 8
Where THP = theoretical horsepower
Q = flow rate in cubic feet per second (ft3/s)
H = head in feet

A more complicated formula is used to refine the calculations of this

available power. The formula takes into account losses in the amount of
head due to friction in the penstock and other variations due to the efficiency
levels of mechanical devices used to harness the power. To find how much
electrical power we can expect, we must convert the mechanical measure
(horsepower) into electrical terms (watts). One horsepower is equal to 746
watts[6],[7].

TURBINES

While there are only two basic types of turbines (impulse and reaction),
there are many variations. The specific type of turbine to be used in a
power plant is not selected until all operational studies and cost estimates
are complete. The turbine selected depends largely on the site conditions.

A reaction turbine (Fig. 5) is a horizontal or vertical wheel that operates

with the wheel completely submerged, a feature which reduces turbulence.

Fig. 5: A reaction turbine

Hydroelectric Power 437

In theory, the reaction turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler where
water at a central point is under pressure and escapes from the ends of the
blades causing rotation. Reaction turbines are the type most widely used.

An impulse turbine (Fig. 6) is a horizontal or vertical wheel that uses

the kinetic energy of water striking its buckets or blades to cause rotation.
The wheel is covered by a housing and the buckets or blades are shaped so
they turn the flow of water about 170 degrees inside the housing. After
turning the blades or buckets, the water falls to the bottom of the wheel
housing and flows out.

Fig. 6: An impulse turbine

For a hydroelectric dam, the object that is “falling” is water. The mass
of the water that is falling is determined by how much volume it occupies.
The relationship between the two is given by the formula Mass = Density ×
Volume. For fresh water, the density is 1 gm/cm3, which is equivalent to
1000 kg/m3. Thus, our formula for the potential energy of a volume of water
V that falls through a height H is:

Potential Energy = (9800 J/m4) × VH

where J is the symbol for the unit of energy called the Joule.

Figure 7 is a diagram of a conventional hydroelectric facility. As you

can see, the water does not fall onto the turbine to turn it. Instead, the
water near the bottom of the dam is forced by the pressure of the water
above it past the turbines. While this is not the same as falling onto the
turbines, it turns out that it is equivalent mathematically. Therefore, the
formula that we derived above for potential energy is the one used for a
438 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

dam, where H is the difference in heights between the surface of the water
in the reservoir and the turbine[2],[5],[6].

Fig. 7: Diagram of a hydroelectric facility

EFFICIENCY

The potential for energy production in a hydropower plant is determined

by the following parameters, which are dependent on the hydrology,
topography and design of the power plant:

• The amount of water available;

• Water loss due to flood spill, bypass requirements or leakage;
• The difference in head between upstream intake and downstream
outlet;
• Hydraulic losses in water transport due to friction and velocity
change; and
• The efficiency in energy conversion of electromechanical equipment.
The total amount of water available at the intake will usually not be
possible to utilize in the turbines because some of the water will be
lost or will not be withdrawn. This loss occurs because of water spill
during high flows when inflow exceeds the turbine capacity, because
of bypass releases for environmental flows as well as because of leakage.
In the hydropower plant, the potential (gravitational) energy in water
is transformed into kinetic energy and then into mechanical energy in the
turbine and further to electrical energy in the generator. The energy
transformation process in modern hydropower plants is highly efficient,
usually with well over 90% mechanical efficiency in turbines and over 99%
in the generator. The inefficiency is due to hydraulic loss in the water circuit
(intake, turbine and tailrace), mechanical loss in the turbo generator group
and electrical loss in the generator. Old turbines can have lower efficiency
and efficiency can also be reduced due to wear and abrasion caused by
Hydroelectric Power 439

sediments in the water. The rest of the potential energy is lost as heat in
the water and in the generator. In addition, some energy losses occur in
the headrace section where water flows from the intake to the turbines
and in the tailrace section taking water from the turbine back to the river
downstream. These losses, called head loss, reduce the head and hence the
energy potential for the power plant. These losses can be classified either
as friction losses or singular losses. Friction losses depend mainly on water
velocity and the roughness in tunnels, pipelines and penstocks.

The total efficiency of a hydropower plant is determined by the sum of

these three loss components. Hydraulic losses can be reduced by increasing
the turbine capacity or by increasing the reservoir capacity to get better
regulation of the flow. Head losses can be reduced by increasing the area of
headrace and tailrace, by decreasing the roughness in these and by avoiding
too many changes in flow velocity and direction[1],[2],[6].

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS

Like all energy and water management options, hydropower projects have
negative and positive environmental and social impacts. On the
environmental side, hydropower may have a significant environmental
footprint at local and regional levels but offers advantages at the macro
ecological level. With respect to social impacts, hydropower projects may
entail the relocation of communities living within or nearby the reservoir
or the construction sites, compensation for downstream communities, public
health issues, etc. A properly designed hydropower project may, however,
be a driving force for socioeconomic development, though a critical question
remains about how these benefits are shared. Because each hydropower
plant is uniquely designed to fit the site specific characteristics of a given
geographical site and the surrounding society and environment, the
magnitude of environmental and social impacts as well as the extent of
their positive and negative effects is highly site dependent. Though the
size of a HPP is not, alone, a relevant criterion to predict environmental
performance, many impacts are related to the impoundment and existence
of a reservoir and therefore do not apply to all HPP. Hydropower creates
no direct atmospheric pollutants or waste during operation, and green house
gases GHG emissions associated with most lifecycle stages are minor.
However, methane (CH4) emissions from reservoirs might be substantial
under certain conditions. Thus, there is a need to properly assess the net
change in GHG emissions induced by the creation of such reservoirs[3],[5].

POSSIBLE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON RESOURCE POTENTIAL

The resource potential for hydropower is currently based on historical data

for the present climatic conditions. With a changing climate, this resource
potential could change due to:
440 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

• Changes in river flow (runoff) related to changes in local climate,

particularly in precipitation and temperature in the catchment area.
This may lead to changes in runoff volume, variability of flow and
seasonality of the flow (e.g., by changing from spring/summer high
flow to more winter flow), directly affecting the resource potential
for hydropower generation.
• Changes in extreme events (floods and droughts) may increase the
cost and risk for the hydropower projects.
• Changes in sediment loads due to changing hydrology and extreme
events. More sediment could increase turbine abrasions and decrease
efficiency. Increased sediment load could also fill up reservoirs faster
and decrease the live storage, reducing the degree of regulation and
decreasing storage services[3],[4].
The work of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Working Group II (reported in IPCC, 2007b) includes a discussion of the
impact of climate change on water resources.

TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

The main types of hydropower technologies are run-of-river, reservoir

(storage hydro), pumped storage and in-stream technology. Classification
methods are:

Classification by Head and Size

Head determines the water pressure on the turbines that together with
discharge are the most important parameters for deciding the type of
hydraulic turbine to be used. Generally for high heads, Pelton turbines are
used, whereas Francis turbines are used to exploit medium heads. For low
heads, Kaplan and Bulb turbines are applied. Classification according to
size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’, based on
installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Small-scale
hydropower plants (SHP) are more likely to be run-of-river facilities than
are larger HPP, but reservoir (storage) hydropower stations of all sizes
will utilize the same basic components and technologies. Compared to large-
scale hydropower, however, it typically takes less time and effort to
construct and integrate small hydropower schemes into local environments.
For this reason, the deployment of SHPs is increasing in many parts of the
world, especially in remote areas where other energy sources are not viable
or are not economically attractive[1],[2],[7].

Classification by Facility Type

Hydropower plants are often classified in three main categories according
to operation and type of flow. Run-of-river (RoR), storage (reservoir) and
Hydroelectric Power 441

pumped storage HPPs all vary from the very small to the very large scale,
depending on the hydrology and topography of the watershed. In addition,
there is a fourth category called in-stream technology, which is a young
and less-developed technology.

Run-of-river

A RoR HPP draws the energy for electricity production mainly from the
available flow of the river as shown in Fig. 8. Such a hydropower plant
may include some short-term storage (hourly, daily) allowing for some
adaptations to the demand profile, but the generation profile will to
varying degrees be dictated by local river flow conditions. As a result,
generation depends on precipitation and runoff and may have substantial
daily, monthly or seasonal variations. When even short-term storage is
not included, RoR HPPs will have generation profiles that are even more
variable, especially when situated in small rivers or streams that
experience widely varying flows. In a RoR HPP, a portion of the river
water might be diverted to a channel or pipeline (penstock) to convey the
water to a hydraulic turbine, which is connected to an electricity generator.
RoR HPPs are relatively inexpensive and such facilities have, in general,
lower environmental impacts than similar-sized storage hydropower
plants[1],[7].

Fig. 8: Run-of-river ROR

442 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

Storage hydropower

Hydropower projects with a reservoir are also called storage hydropower

since they store water for later consumption. The reservoir reduces the
dependence on the variability of inflow. The generating stations are
located at the dam toe or further downstream, connected to the reservoir
through tunnels or pipelines (Fig. 9). The type and design of reservoirs
are decided by the landscape and in many parts of the world are inundated
river valleys where the reservoir is an artificial lake. In geographies with
mountain plateaus, high-altitude lakes make up another kind of reservoir
that often will retain many of the properties of the original lake. In these
types of settings, the generating station is often connected to the lake
serving as reservoir via tunnels coming up beneath the lake (lake
tapping)[1],[3].

Fig. 9: Typical hydropower plant with reservoir.

Pumped storage

Pumped storage plants are not energy sources, but are instead storage
devices. In such a system water is pumped from a lower reservoir into an
upper reservoir (Fig. 10), usually during off-peak hours, while flow is
reversed to generate electricity during the daily peak load period or at
other times of need. Although the losses of the pumping process make
such a plant a net energy consumer overall, the plant is able to provide
large-scale energy storage system benefits. In fact, pumped storage is
the largest-capacity form of grid energy storage now readily available
worldwide[5],[6].
Hydroelectric Power 443

Fig. 10: Pumping and generating in hydro power plant

INTEGRATION INTO BROADER ENERGY SYSTEMS

The large capacity range, flexibility, storage capability when coupled with
a reservoir and ability to operate in a stand-alone mode or in grids of all
sizes enable hydropower projects to deliver a broad range of services.
Hydropower’s various roles in and services to the energy system are
discussed below:

Grid-independent Applications
Hydropower can be delivered through national and regional interconnected
electric grids through local mini-grids and isolated grids and can also serve
individual customers through captive plants. Watermills in England, Nepal,
India and elsewhere, which are used for grinding cereals, for lifting water
and for powering machinery are early testimonies of hydropower being
used as captive power in mechanical and electrical form. The tea and coffee
plantation industries as well as small islands and developing states have
used and still make use of hydropower to meet energy needs in isolated
areas.

Captive power plants (CPPs) are defined here as plants set up by any
person or group of persons to generate electricity primarily for the person
or the group’s members. CPPs are often found in decentralized isolated
systems and are generally built by private interests for their own electricity
444 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

needs. In deregulated electricity markets that allow open access to the

grid, hydropower plants are also sometimes installed for captive purposes
by energy-intensive industries such as aluminum smelters, pulp and paper
mills, mines and cement factories in order to weather short-term market
uncertainties and volatility. For governments of emerging economies such
as India facing shortages of electricity, CPPs are also a means to cope
with unreliable power supply systems and higher industrial tariffs by
encouraging decentralized generation and private participation[2],[5],[7].

Variable Speed Technology

Usually, hydropower turbines are optimized for an operating point defined
by speed, head and discharge. At fixed-speed operation, any head or
discharge deviation involves some decrease in efficiency. The application
of variable-speed generation in hydroelectric power plants offers a series
of advantages, based essentially on the greater flexibility of the turbine
operation in situations where the flow or the head deviate substantially
from their nominal values. In addition to improved efficiency, the abrasion
from silt in the water will also be reduced. Substantial increases in
production in comparison to a fixed-speed plant have been found in
simulation studies[3].

Matrix Technology
A number of small identical units comprising turbine and generator can be
inserted in a frame in the shape of a matrix where the number of small
units is adapted to the available flow. During operation, it is possible to
start and stop any number of units so those in operation can always run
under optimal flow conditions. This technology can be installed at existing
structures, for example, irrigation dams, low-head weirs, ship locks, etc.
where water is released at low heads.

Fish-friendly Turbines
Fish-friendly turbine technology is an emerging technology that provides
a safe approach for fish passing through low-head hydraulic turbines by
minimizing the risk of injury or death. While conventional hydropower
turbine technologies focus solely on electrical power generation, a fish-
friendly turbine brings about benefits for both power generation and
protection of fish species. Alden Laboratory (U.S.) predicts that their fish-
friendly turbine will have a maximum efficiency of 90.5% with a survival
rate for fish between 94 and 100%. One turbine manufacturer predicts
approximately 98% fish survival through fish-friendly improvements on
their Kaplan turbines[3].
Hydroelectric Power 445

Hydrokinetic Turbines

Generally, projects with a head under 1.5 or 2 m are not viable with
traditional technology. New technologies are being developed to take
advantage of these small water elevation changes, but they generally rely
on the kinetic energy in the stream flow as opposed to the potential energy
due to hydraulic head. These technologies are often referred to as kinetic
hydropower or hydrokinetic. Hydrokinetic devices being developed to
capture energy from tides and currents may also be deployed inland in
both free-flowing rivers and in engineered waterways such as canals,
conduits, cooling water discharge pipes or tailraces of existing dams. One
type of these systems relies on underwater turbines, either horizontal or
vertical. Large turbine blades would be driven by the moving water, just
as windmill blades are moved by the wind; these blades would turn the
generators and capture the energy of the water flow.

‘Free flow’ or ‘hydrokinetic’ generation captures energy from moving

water without requiring a dam or diversion. While hydrokinetic technology
includes generation from ocean tides, currents and waves, it is believed
that it’s most practical application in the near term is likely to be in rivers
and streams. Hydrokinetic turbines have low energy density. The potential
contributions from very low head projects and hydrokinetic projects are
usually not included in existing resource assessments for hydropower. The
assessments are also usually based on rather old data and lower energy
prices than today and future values.

It is therefore highly probable that the hydropower resource potential

will increase significantly as these new sources are more closely investigated
and technology is improved[2],[5].

OPTIMIZATION OF OPERATION

Hydropower generation can be increased at a given plant by optimizing a

number of different aspects of plant operations, including the settings of
individual units, the coordination of multiple unit operations and release
patterns from multiple reservoirs. Based on the experience of federal
agencies such as the Tennessee Valley Authority and on strategic planning
workshops with the hydropower industry, it is clear that substantial
operational improvements can be made in hydropower systems, given new
investments in research and development (R&D) and technology transfer.
In the future, improved hydrological forecasts combined with optimization
models are likely to improve operation and water use, increasing the energy
output from existing power plants significantly[1],[3],[6].
446 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

INVESTMENT COST OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS AND FACTORS

THAT AFFECT IT

Basically, there are two major cost groups for hydropower projects:

(a) The civil construction costs, which normally are the major costs of
the hydropower project, and
(b) The cost related to electromechanical equipment for energy
transformation. Additionally, investment costs include the costs of
planning, environmental impact analysis, licensing, fish and wildlife
mitigation, recreation mitigation, historical and archaeological
mitigation and water quality monitoring and mitigation. The civil
construction costs follow the price trend of the country where the
project is going to be developed. In the case of countries with
economies in transition, the civil construction costs are usually lower
than in developed countries due to the use of local labour and local
construction materials. Civil construction costs are always site
specific, mainly due to the inherent characteristics of the topography,
geological conditions and the construction design of the project. This
could lead to different investment cost and levelized costs of electricity
(LCOE) even for projects of the same capacity.
The costs of electromechanical equipment - in contrast to civil
construction cost - follow world market prices for these components.

In hydropower projects where the installed capacity is less than 5 MW,

the electromechanical equipment costs tend to dominate. As the capacity
increases, the costs are increasingly influenced by the cost of civil structures.
The components of the construction project that impact the civil construction
costs most are dams, intakes, hydraulic pressure conduits (tunnels and
penstocks) and power stations; therefore, these elements have to be
optimized carefully during the engineering design stage.

The same overall generating capacity can be achieved with a few large
or several smaller generating units. Plants using many small generating
units have higher costs per kW than plants using fewer, but larger units.
Higher costs per kW installed capacity associated with a higher number of
generating units are justified by greater efficiency and flexibility of the
hydroelectric plants’ integration into the electric grid. Specific investment
costs (per installed kW) tend to be reduced for a higher head and higher
installed capacity of the project. With higher head, the hydropower project
can be set up to use less volume flow and therefore smaller hydraulic
conduits or passages. The size of the equipment is also smaller and related
costs are lower[1],[2],[3].
Hydroelectric Power 447

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M) COSTS

Once built and put in operation, hydropower plants usually require very
little maintenance and operation costs can be kept low, since hydropower
plants do not have recurring fuel costs. O&M costs are usually given as a
percentage of investment cost per kW. The European Renewable Energy
Council (EREC)/Greenpeace study used 4%, which may be appropriate for
small-scale hydropower but is too high for large-scale hydropower plants.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) World Energy Outlook (WEO) used
2.5% (IEA, 2008a) and 2.2% for large hydropower increasing to 3% for
smaller and more expensive projects in IEA-ETP (Energy Technology
Perspectives) (IEA, 2008b). A typical average O&M cost for hydropower is
2.5%[1],[2].

SMALL HYDRO

Hydropower on a small-scale is one of the most cost-effective energy

technologies to be considered for rural electrification in less developed
countries. It is also the main prospect for future hydro developments in
Europe, where the large-scale opportunities have either been exploited
already, or would now be considered environmentally unacceptable. Small
hydro technology is extremely robust (systems can last for 50 years or more
with little maintenance) and is also one of the most environmentally benign
energy technologies available[2].

ECONOMICS

High head hydro generally provides the most cost-effective projects, since
the higher the head, the less water is required for a given amount of power,
so smaller and hence less costly equipment is needed. Therefore, in
mountainous regions even quite small streams if used at high heads can
yield significant power levels at attractively low costs. However high head
sites tend to be in areas of low population density where the demand for
electricity is small and long transmission distances to the main centers of
population can nullify the low cost advantages of remote high head systems.
Also, the high head sites are relatively rare with most of the best ones in
Europe and other developed regions being already exploited. Therefore the
greatest scope for expanding the use of small hydro is increasingly with
low head sites[4],[5].

REFERENCES

[1] John Twidell, Renewable Energy Resources, Second edition, Taylor & Francis Group.
[2] Oliver Paish, 2002. Small hydro power: Technology and current status. Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 6: 537–556.
 448 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 1: Opportunities and Challenges

[3] 2005. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Hydro Electric Power, department of the interior.
[4] Antonia, V., Herzog Timothy, E., Lipman, and Daniel, M. RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES, published in the Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Energy
Resource Science and Technology Issues in Sustainable Development and can be
found at: http://www.eolss.com.
[5] Ottmar Edenhofer 2012. Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation,
Technical Support Unit Working Group III, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact
Research (PIK),
[6] Peter Govorkian, 2010. Alternative Energy Systems in Building Design, McGraw-
Hill.
[7] 2010. U.S. Department of Energy, Guide to Purchasing Green Power, DOE/EE-
0307.

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