Language, Culture and Society: Implication in EFL Teaching

K.M. Roebl (Naresuan University)

Connie Shiue (Chinese Culture University)
N. P. Bragg (Naresuan University)

Abstract
The relationship between language and culture in teaching university level students is of
interest to scholars in the field of language teaching. The relationship between sounds, words,
and syntax and the ways in which speakers experience the world is widely accepted by socio-
linguists (Wardhaugh 1998: 405). It is important for language learners to understand
something of the culture of speakers of the target language. In the case of English, the
language is widely used as a first and a second language. It is therefore important to decide
which form of the language and which cultural norms should be taught. To focus on native
language and culture, “cultural fluency” needs to be emphasised. This helps students to build
communication skills and confidence necessary for social, travel and business situations.
In this study, the researchers developed a questionnaire covering the two broad areas of, 1)
the teaching learning situation and 2) aspects of foreign culture. The data collected was
analysed using the arithmetic mean and standard deviation. This paper is part of a broader
project involving several related studies and a comparison between university students in
Taiwan and Thailand and a deeper analysis of the relationship amongst variables in the two
areas.

Keywords: Language, Culture, Society, Intercultural Communication, Foreign Language

teaching / learning
Acknowledgement:
Grateful thanks is extended to Dr Onusa Suwanpratest of the Faculty of Humanities at
Naresuan University for translating the questionnaire into Thai.

INTRODUCTION
Language and the cultural milieu in which it is spoken are interconnected. These
cultural and linguistic links are dynamic and variable and they influence the meanings of
words and the way they are used. This interconnectedness is influenced by the physical
environment as well as the social and cultural environments in which the language is spoken.
An obvious example of the influence of culture and the physical environment may be noted
in the differences between the forms of English that are spoken in different parts of the world.
The accentual differences are obvious, but there are many other less obvious differences
including different grammatical forms, different spellings and different word usages.
A point of interest, especially when it is noted that English is classified as a Germanic
language is the way numbers are formed. On the Germanic languages such as Dutch and
German, numbers such as 21 are written and spoken as einundzwanzig - literally one and
twenty. In English, it is written and spoken as twenty-one, the opposite. In Dutch, 21 is
written and spoken as eenentwintig, as in German and the opposite of English.
There must be a reason for the difference between the way numbers are represented in
English and in other Germanic languages. Some scholars suggest that it may be a throwback
to the lost British languages.
Language and cultural factors are linked and cannot be easily separated. In British
English and American English, words may be used differently and have different meanings.
An example in the word ‘check.’ In British usage, the word is used to refer to the act of
examining something to see that there is nothing wrong with it. In American usage, the word
could refer to a paper that instructs the payment of a sum of money to someone. The British
word is spelt ‘cheque,’ though it is pronounced the same as check. An additional meaning in
American usage, is to refer to a statement of money owing in a restaurant. In British usage,
the word is ‘bill.’ Another meaning difference, is the use of a ‘✔’ mark. In the UK and other
non-American Englishes, the term is ‘tick.’ In US usage it is referred to as a ‘check’ mark.
Another example, is ‘period.’ There are a number of meanings that are common to most
Englishes. The difference lies in the symbol ‘.’. In US usage, the term is ‘period.’ In the usage
of many other Englishes, the term is, ‘full stop.’ There are, of course, many other words that
are used differently or may have acquired different meanings. In American English there are
words that came into American English, but are still not widely used in other Englishes. One
such example is ‘prairie.’ The word refers to an open area of grassland. In Geographical
termonology, a term for a similar landscape may be ‘savanna.’ To some extent, the two words
may have slightly different connotations, as the land feature referred to as ‘prairie,’ differs
slightly to the forms found in other parts of the world. It may be suggested, therefore, that the
term entered American English because of the need to refer to something unique to the North
American continent. The word is of French origin from Latin ‘pratum’ meaning ‘meadow.’
French settlers in North America used the word to refer to grasslands and similar landscapes.
The word ‘meadow,’ in the UK usually refers to a low-lying grassland, which is not quite the
same land feature as a prairie.
Languages also take words from other languages. These ‘borrowings’ may become
corrupted and change pronunciation and meaning. English has been influenced by other
languages over the centuries. This can be seen in the many culinary terms that are of French
origin. In addition, words such as ‘restaurant’ and ‘hotel’ are also of French origin. The word
hotel comes from the French hôtel (from hôte meaning host), which referred to a building that
had frequent visitors such as a public building, rather than a place offering accommodation.
In contemporary French usage, hôtel now has the same meaning as the English term. In the
past, the English term for what is now referred to as a hotel, was hostel.
It may also be noted that other languages borrow from English, making the process
reciprocal. In Chinese, for example, their words for coffee, chocolate and microphone come
from English, and have, to some extent, even maintained a similar pronunciation and
meaning.
Scholars working in the area of sociolinguistics, study the relationship between
language and society. In this they consider issues relating to how language influences
perception, and the way perception influences language. This relationship is thought to be bi-
directional, i.e., language and society influence each other.

LITERATURE REVIEW

There are various theories relating to the question of language, society and culture.
One of the more influential of these theories in the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. ‘Human beings
do not live in the objective world alone, nor in the world of social activity as ordinarily
understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the
medium of expression for their society …. We see and hear and otherwise experience very
largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of
interpretation’ (Fromkin, Rodman and Hymes, 2011, p. 311). Whorf went on to suggest, ‘The
background linguistic system (i.e., the grammar) of language is not merely the reproducing
instruments for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideas, the program and guide for
the individual’s mental activity, for the analysis of impressions, for his synthesis of his mental
stock in trade … We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages’ (ibid).
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is often viewed in two forms, a strong form and a weak
form. The strong form, referred to as linguistic determinism suggests that the language
spoken determines the way people perceive and think about the world. According to this
view, language acts as a filter.
The weak form is referred to as linguistic relativism. It suggests that different
languages encode different categories and therefore speakers of different languages think
about the world in different ways. This hypothesis has been applied in many ways relating to
vocabulary, grammar and syntax (Jandt, 2010).
With regard to vocabulary, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has been applied to
observations that some Eskimo languages have a number of words for snow, while in some
Asian languages; the same word may be used for both food and rice. The implication is that
snow is an important aspect of Eskimo experience and that in many Asian societies rice is an
important staple food.
Also, in some Asian languages such as Chinese and Japanese, family members are
addressed according to their age and whether they are maternal or paternal relatives, while in
English and many other European languages, there are fewer words. This underlines the
importance of family ties and hierarchy in many Asian societies, an aspect which is less
important in Europe.
The implication of this is that words acquire meaning according to how important
something is in that society. This may also result in the development of a large vocabulary of
words for that particular aspect of reality.
In Japanese, for example, there is a rich vocabulary for the seasons of the year. The
four seasons are divided into 24 sub-seasons and each sub-season is divided into the
beginning, middle and end (Ibid, 133). Because of the geographical position of Japan,
climatic conditions vary considerably from north to south. In the south thy experience mild
winters and relatively warm summers, while in the far northern regions, summers are cool
and winters are cold with heavy snow falls. As climate is important and needs to be
considered in growing food crops, building homes and designing clothes, the Japanese
language developed a rich vocabulary for this aspect of their experience.
Whorf thought that grammar was even more important and influential than
vocabulary. In Eskimo languages, for example, the word ‘if’ is used to refer to the future,
rather than ‘when’. There is a difference of certainty between ‘if’ and ‘when’, as may be
noted in the phrases ‘If I graduate from university’ and ‘when I graduate from university.’ The
use of ‘if’ implies uncertainty and may be a reference to the harshness and uncertainties of the
environment, while when implies a time frame, and carries with it, the belief that what is
referred to will happen (op cit).
In English, the sentence structure is based on the pattern of subject, verb, and object
(SVO). The emphasis is placed upon the action taker, with only about a third of sentences
lacking a subject. In Japanese, by contrast, the majority of sentences lack a subject, as the
subject is understood according to the context.
The relationship between language and culture is complex and possibly relates to the
cognitive process of speakers when they communicate. According to Wardhaugh, language is,
‘a knowledge of the rules and principles and the ways of saying and doing things with
sounds, words, sentences, rather than just knowledge of specific sounds, words and
sentences,’ (Wardhaugh, 2002). As the speech acts we perform are connected with the
environment they are performed in, it is possible to define language with consideration for
context.
According to Thanasoulas (2001), language does not exist apart from culture, that is,
from the socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that determine the texture of
our lives. Wardhaugh (2002, p. 218-220) stated that there appears to be three claims to the
relationship between language and culture: a) The structure of a language determines the way
in which speakers of the language view the world or, as a weaker view, the structure does not
determine the world view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of a
language toward adopting their world-view. b) The culture of a people finds reflection in the
language they employ. c) Because they value certain things and do them in a certain way they
come to use their language in ways that reflect what they value and what they do.
This concept is more difficult to maintain when linguistic politeness is examined. Languages
such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean have multiple layers of courtesy which make it
difficult to confirm whether the language controls the user’s thought patterns.
Linguistic norms differ between cultures and demonstrating courtesy towards others is
an important function of language. In order to clarify this point, politically correct and sexist
language has been studied in order to understand whether this kind of language determines
the perspective of the users. In spite of claims to the affirmative, it is not conclusive whether
certain language forms cause sexism or vice-versa.
When we encounter something familiar we are able to categorise it quite easily and
with some degree of confidence thanks to pre-acquainted knowledge or schemata (Nishida,
1999, p. 754) When a person enters knowledge of appropriate behaviour and or appropriate
roles he/she should play in that situation.
Wardhaugh, 2002, p. 236), suggests that when we hear something new, we associate it
with who typically may use it and in what kind of occasion it appears to be typically used.
Our interpretations of our observations on life are guided by how we classify those
experiences both linguistically and culturally.
We must assume that meaning and intelligibility are at least partially determined by
the situation, and the prior experience of speakers (Gumperz, 1977, in Saville-Troike, 1997,
p. 138).
Language varies from place to place, but also in other ways, such as according to
social level (class) and according to the speaker and the audience. In English for example,
there are differences between the language used in the UK, North America and Australia. In
addition, there are differences in ‘standard varieties’ and vernacular varieties. People speak
differently to children, in formal situations and in family or intimate situations (Fasold, 1991;
Fromkin, Rodman and Hymes, 2011, Holmes, 2013).
Lebov developed the concept of the sociolinguistic variable. This is a set of ways of
saying the same thing. The alternatives would have some social significance. In his original
study Lebov studied respondents in New York City and observed variations in the way certain
words were pronounced. He looked at variants in the pronunciation of [d], the affricate
pronunciation of the voiced [th] and examined the sense both phonetically and socially
(Fasold, 1991, p. 224).
Lebov found that there are class variations in the way words are pronounced. Social
factors may also affect the way people speak. If a person moves upward socially, their speech
patterns may change to imitate the speech patterns of the social group the individual is
entering into (Bonvillain, 2003).
Language changes constantly. Whether these changes are conscious or not is still a
matter for debate. Much of the work done in this matter suggests that these linguistic changes
occur without speakers actually being aware of them, i.e. they occur below the formal level of
consciousness. Change may begin in the lower social strata. If these changes are accepted by
the upper social levels, then they become entrenched. If the change is not accepted by the
upper levels, then it may be stigmatised and fall out of use (Bonvillain, 2003).
The relationship between language, culture and society is central to the field of
sociolinguistics. According to Holmes (1992, 1), “Sociolinguists study the relationship
between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in
different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of
language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning.” People live in societies that have
a strong influence on their lives, opinions and beliefs. Society may be defined as ‘any group
of people who are drawn together for a certain purpose or purposes’ (Wardaugh, 1998, 1).
Wardaugh goes on to define language as, “is what the members of a particular society speak”,
but notes that ‘speech in almost any society can take many very different forms’ and hence
‘… our definitions of language and society are not independent: the definition of language
includes in it a reference to society’ (1998, 1). The Concise Oxford English Dictionary
defines culture as, ‘the customs, ideas, and social behaviour of a particular people or group.’
Goodenough, as cited by Wardaugh (1998), defines culture as, “whatever it is one has to
know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in
any role that they accept for any one of themselves.” Culture may therefore be said to
emphasize its group characteristics that unites itself as a distinct entity against other groups.
According to Podur (2002, 4): “Culture is those tools, practices, assumptions, and
behavioural patterns that members of a group use to communicate with one another and to
demarcate themselves from other groups.”
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The questionnaire was given to two classes at Naresuan University (NU) and to two
classes at the Chinese Cultural University (CCU) in Taipei, with English majors being
excluded from the study. Out of 188 questionnaires sent out, 184 students responded. The
survey was done using a convenience sampling method, hence the results are not necessarily
a true reflection of the views of the entire student bodies of the Universities concerned.

The Instrument
The instrument used consisted of a questionnaire. The questionnaire, which contained 40
questions was based upon a research paper “Researching the attitudes and perceived
experiences of kindergarten learners of English and their parents in China,” Lixian et al.
(2016). This questionnaire had to be adapted to make it suitable for use. To help students
complete the questionnaire, all of the questions were translated into both Thai and
Putongkwa. Each question was measured using a Likert Scale ranging from 1 to 5, with 1
being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree. There were also questions included which
would yield the opposite response to other questions in the questionnaire, and these were
included to test the validity of the responses to the questionnaire. The questionnaire covered
two areas:
- Perceptions of English Language Learning
- The Need for English in Understanding Western Culture.
The aim of the study was to compare the responses of students from both NU and CCU,
and a two-sample t-test was used to compare the results from the two universities. The
outcomes are highlighted below.

Findings
Table 1 below gives the mean scores for both NU and CCU for each question asked in
the survey. The final column is used to indicate if the mean scores from the two universities
differ significantly from each other, with a yes answer showing that the two scores are
significantly different at the 5% level of significance. Any mean less than 3 indicates a
disagreement with the statement in the question with a score close to 1 indicating a strong
disagreement, and any mean greater than 3 indicates an agreement with the statement in the
question with a score close to 5 showing a strong agreement.

Table 1: The mean and standard deviation of participant responses

Question Mean Mean Significantly
NU CCU Different (5%
level)
Perceptions of English Language Learning
1) I like learning English 3.9 3.4 Yes
2) I like to talk with foreigners in English 3.5 3.3 No
3) I don’t think that English is an important 2.2 2.4 No
subject in school
4) I think that English may be important in 4.8 4.4 Yes
future
5) My parents think that English may be 4.8 4.1 Yes
important in future
6) English is not important in the world. 1.7 2.1 Yes
7) It is easy for me to learn English 3.5 2.6 Yes
8) My family does not think that English is 1.8 1.9 No
an important subject at university.
9) Learning English is fun 4 3.3 Yes
10) I can travel around the world if I can 4.3 4.1 No
speak English well
11) I always like to attend English classes 4 3.3 Yes
12) English will be useful if I travel abroad 4.7 4.2 Yes
13) I learn English just to pass exams 2.7 3 No
14) I am happy to attend English activities if 3.6 3.2 Yes
there are any
15) I think that games and related class 4.3 3.6 Yes
activities are an important part of English
Teaching
16) I think that many of the games and 1.8 2.5 Yes
activities that are often used in class are silly and
a waste of time
17) I think that we should learn more 3.7 3.3 Yes
grammar in class
18) I think that we should have more reading 3.6 3.6 No
in class
19) I think that English Teaching should 3.6 3.4 No
focus on language that is close to our chosen
subjects and professions
20) I think that we need to be taught only by 3.5 2.9 Yes
native speaking teachers at university
21) I think that we need to be taught only by 2.3 3 Yes
local teachers at university
22) I think that we need to be taught by both 4 3.9 No
native speaking and local teachers at university
Perceptions of Western Culture
23) I think that learning English can help me 4 4 No
understand Western culture
24) I enjoy listening to English language 4.3 3.8 Yes
songs
25) I visit English language websites when I 3.6 3.1 Yes
surf the internet
26) I like to read English language readers 3.4 3 Yes
27) I watch English language television 3.4 3.4 No
shows
28) I like to watch English language news 3.1 3 No
shows
29) I enjoy singing English songs 4.2 3.4 Yes
30) I like to read English newspapers 2.9 2.8 No
31) I like to look at job opportunities in 3.6 2.9 Yes
English speaking countries
32) I like to write emails in English 2.8 2.7 No
33) I think that all western countries and 3.5 3 Yes
cultures are similar
34) I think that TV shows and films can give 3.5 3.9 Yes
us an accurate idea of western culture
35) I would like to study in an English 3.9 3.7 No
speaking country
 36) I enjoy reading about western countries 3.5 3.6 No
37) I enjoy watching documentaries of 3.7 3.4 Yes
western countries
38) As so many books, films and television 4.4 3.9 Yes
shows are available in English, I think that it is
important for me learn English
39) I am interested in western myths and 3.9 3.8 No
other stories
40) I am interested in western music and 4.2 3.8 Yes
artists

DISCUSSION
In summary, the student participants have a strong interest in Western culture and see
learning English as a key to getting to know Western culture better, however the students
from CCU appear to be more disinterested in engaging themselves in Western culture than
their NU counterparts. This is further emphasized by the students showing that they see
learning English as very important, and acknowledging that English is important in the world
today. This view is supported by their families. The respondents suggest that teachers need to
spend more time on teaching Grammar and Reading, and also try to incorporate games and
activities into their lessons. Whilst CCU students see the value in using games as a teaching
tool, they are not as passionate about it as Thai students. The need for a mixture of both
native and local teachers was highlighted by students from both universities.
To reinforce their learning, student participants should be encouraged to write more,
including emails, and also try to follow English language news (either written or spoken). Not
all students appear to be doing this as these questions yielded a “neither agree nor disagree”
response.
These views are according to the student responses and do not necessarily reflect the
results of studies into teaching methodology, which may contradict student views.

ANALYSIS
The relationship between language, culture and society is central to the field of
sociolinguistics. Holmes (1992, 1) says: ‘Sociolinguists study the relationship between
language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different
social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and
the ways it is used to convey social meaning.’
People live in societies that have a strong influence on their lives, opinions and beliefs.
Wardaugh (1998, 1) defines a ‘society’ as ‘any group of people who are drawn together for a
certain purpose or purposes’. He stresses that, in this definition ‘society’ is necessarily brief in
order to be comprehensive, as ‘society’ is a broad concept, given the many different societies
that exist.
Wardaugh (ibid.) says on definition of ‘language’ as ‘is what the members of a particular
society speak,’ but notes that ‘speech in almost any society can take many very different forms’
and hence ‘… our definitions of language and society are not independent: the definition of
language includes in it a reference to society’.
Culture is also linked to society and language, and can have different meanings depending
on how it is viewed, for example, aesthetically, sociologically, semantically, and pragmatically
(Adaskou, Britten and Fahsi, (1990, 3). A well-known definition by Goodenough (1957, 167,
cited by Wardaugh, 1998, 217) views culture as: “whatever it is one has to know or believe in
order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in any role that they accept
for any one of themselves”.
Culture emphasizes its group characteristic that unites itself as a distinct entity against
other groups, as Podur (2002, 4) notes: ‘Culture is those tools, practices, assumptions, and
behavioural patterns that members of a group use to communicate with one another and to
demarcate themselves from other groups.’

CONCLUSION
There is a great need for language learners to understand why people think and speak the
way they do, and to understand possible agreements that may be in place between a culture,
society and its language. Integrated studies of language and culture are essentially needed if
language learners are to become competent language users.
If language policy shows the need for learners to become socially competent language
users, learners will be able to better understand their own language and culture. Creating
language policy and showing the importance of the close relationship between language and
culture will enforce teachers to educate students on the authenticity of language. It is also
important for learners to be aware that language exists as part of society as a whole. In addition,
it is important to note that there are many varieties of all languages, and that all varieties are
important. This will help learners of a second or other language, to note that there are many
varieties of the target language.
English language teaching professionals should always try to encourage their students to
express matters that are important to their lives and how effectively to communicate their
concerns, cultural viewpoints and personal interests by using English as a meaningful
interchange with people of other countries, and to relate what it means to be a member of their
specific societies and cultures in a positive way to others globally.

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