Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018) 117–122

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Weather and Climate Extremes

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Watershed management strategies for flood mitigation: A case study of T

Jakarta's flooding
Chay Asdaka, Sudradjat Supianb, Subiyantoc,∗
a
Postgraduate Program on Environmental Studies and Faculty of Agricultural Industrial Technology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia
b
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia
c
Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Fishery and Marine Science, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Jakarta is a capital city of Indonesia located in the delta of Ciliwung river. This city suffers annual flooding with
Flooding some serious damage for certain extreme rainfall events, especially occurring at the upper parts of the Ciliwung
Watershed management watershed. In 1992 rainy season, flooding in Jakarta was scattered in 61 sites. In 1996, the flooding increased to
Upstream-downstream hydrological relation 90 sites, and further increased in the rainy season of 2002 to be 159 sites. Jakarta experienced a major flooding
Indonesia
on 9–10 February 2015 after having seen two occurrences of major flooding in the two preceding years 2013 and
2014 (Siswanto et al., 2017). Such extreme flooding events might become more frequent in the future due to the
impacts of land use and climate change (Kure et al., 2014). To reduce the magnitude and frequency of further
flooding, on-site as well as off-site program actions need to be taken comprehensively. This paper is specifically
aimed at, firstly understanding the main problems causing flooding in the coastal area of Jakarta, and secondly
proposing medium and long-term solutions from the perspective of an integrated watershed management ap-
proach. The proposed solution will also include institutional and financial arrangements in a cross-adminis-
trative boundary situation.

1. Introduction
As in many cities in the flood-prone areas in Indonesia, Jakarta has
been reported to have big flood as early as in the year of 1621 (BBWS,
2014). There was no detailed information on this flood, but it was re-
ported that the depth of the flood was more than one meter high. In
1876, another report indicated that the downstream area of the Cili-
wung river, which was then known as part of the city of Jakarta was
flooded severely. Ciliwung watershed approximately has 347 km2 in
area and the length of its main river is 117 km (Ali et al., 2016). This
flood forced the Dutch government at that time to build three dams to
control the river flow. The three dams were Bendungan Hilir located at
the downstream of the Ciliwung river (Jakarta), Bendungan Jago and
Bendungan Udik were both located at the upper parts of the same river
(Hasanah et al., 2013). Later on, as a result of the large flood occurring
in 1876 and the subsequence flood events, the Dutch government
through its representative for the flood control task force, Prof. Herman
van Breen, built the Banjir Kanal (flood canal) stretching from Man-
ggarai in the city center to Muara Angke at the coastal area of Jakarta.
The main purpose of this canal is to make the flood water flowing faster
into the Java sea, and hence, preventing the flooding in Jakarta
Wijnker, 1997). Jakarta has already experienced many severe river
floods due to heavy monsoon rains, particularly in the years 1996,
2002, 2007, 2013, and 2014 (Takagi et al., 2016; Siswanto et al., 2017).
Particularly, the floods that took place in January 2013 resulted in 40
deaths, 45,000 refugees, and substantial economic damage (Kure et al.,
2014). The floods in February 2007 also caused extensive economic
losses, mounting up to between 4.1 and 7.3 trillion IDR (Sagala et al.,
2013). The 2013 flood disaster caused a loss of 15 billion IDR, and in
the 2014 calamity the loss has reached 100 million IDR per day
(Oppusunggu and Tantular, 2015).
Despite various efforts to reduce the flood carried out by the Dutch
government, and later on by the Indonesian government, Jakarta
cannot be entirely freed from flooding. Naturally, this is associated with
the fact that Jakarta is located on a flat area with an altitude of 0–20 m
above sea level, but some areas have 1–1.5 m elevation below sea level.
This occurred due to land subsidence with its estimated rate that
reaches 1–15 cm/year, spatially and temporally (Latief et al., 2018). It
is typical of flood-prone areas located in the delta of major rivers. An-
other natural factor that makes Jakarta critical to the flood is that there
are 13 mostly small rivers flowing and transferring a large amount of
rainwater into around 40% area of the city of Jakarta (Fig. 1). Apart

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: subiyanto@unpad.ac.id (Subiyanto).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2018.08.002
Received 28 September 2017; Received in revised form 1 August 2018; Accepted 17 August 2018
Available online 18 August 2018
2212-0947/ © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
C. Asdak et al. Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018) 117–122

Fig. 1. Map showing rivers flowing into the city of Jakarta (NCICD, 2014).

from the natural causing factors, the recent uncontrolled land-based 2006) with rainfall data from JICA (2004). The basis of operation of
development of upstream areas of those rivers combined with high ANSWERS (and most other watershed models) is the continuity equa-
population growth in the city of Jakarta and poor urban-rural planning tion (Foster and Meyer, 1972):
make the flooding-related problems becoming more serious and com-
dS
plicated (to handle). =I−O
dt (1)
This paper discusses one case study, the watershed management
strategies that using Jakarta flood study for understanding the main where
problems causing flooding in the coastal area of Jakarta. This paper
proposed medium and long-term solutions from the perspective of in- S : volume of water in storage (surface detention),
tegrated watershed management approach. We start by reviewing the t : time,
general Jakarta disaster management and then we discuss the role of I : inflow rate,
institutional and financial arrangements in a cross-administrative O : outflow rate.
boundary situation.
The governing equation for the erosion model is the continuity
equation as described below:
2. Material and methods
dG
=R+D
dx (2)
This study was carried out in Ciliwung Watershed. The geography,
location and boundaries of those watersheds are 060 06′ 00” - 060 where
46′12″ S and 1060 48′ 36” - 1070 00′ 00″ E which covers the admin-
istrative region of Bogor District, Bogor City, Depok City, and Jakarta G : the rate of sediment movement inflow (weight per unit width per
Province (Sun et al., 2014; Arifasihati and Kaswanto, 2016). The unit time),
methods in this study are described as follows: a) Preliminary analysis. x : distance along flow surface,
This analysis is aiming to identify the hydrological proses and the R : rainfall detachment rate (weight per unit area per unit time),
causes of the flooding in the area of study. The analysis of land use D : flow detachment rate (weight per unit area per unit time).
changes was also carried out in this study; and b) The hydrological
impact. The hydrological simulation study linking the disappearance of The solution of Equation [2] requires three steps in ANSWERS, and
forest in the upper Ciliwung with the downstream flooding was con- in each step the lesser of the two calculated rates controls (Beasley
ducted using the ANSWERS model (Beasley et al., 1980; Singh et al., et al., 1980). The three steps are:

118
C. Asdak et al.
I. The available transport rate is compared to the incoming sediment
movement rate. Any excess transport capacity is transferred to step
II.
II. ANSWERS solves for the impact detachment rate and compares this
rate with the available (excess) transport rate.
III. If additional transport capacity exists, the rate of flow detachment is
calculated and compared to the transport rate.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Understanding the hydrological processes
In Java island, flooding has been around for centuries, especially
during big rainfall events. The flood gives benefits, mostly in the form
of basic requirement for plants and animals to grow, flashing down any
unwanted materials at soil surface as well as in rivers, and forming
fertile deltas that benefiting people in the downstream areas. However,
most flooding resulting in negative impacts as shown by flooding that
hits Jakarta and other areas in Indonesia.
In the case of flooding in Jakarta, one should put the downstream
flood events in the context of the entire Ciliwung watershed (Asdak,
2010). The Ciliwung river drains into the Java sea and it runs about
117 km long from its upper most area in Puncak, West Java. It was
mentioned that despite the Ciliwung river, there are more than 10
streams flowing into the Jakarta area, however this paper focuses on
the Ciliwung watershed for at least three reasons. First, this river is the
largest river system entering Jakarta. Second, the upper and middle
parts of this river are now experiencing a large change in land use,
particularly from mostly land uses that recharge the groundwater to be
runoff-producing type of land uses. Third, the Ciliwung watershed
covering three different local governments, namely the capital city of
Jakarta, the District of Bogor, the city of Bogor and the city of Depok
(Arifasihati and Kaswanto, 2016). These local governments would have
their own different interests in managing their areas, and therefore
would need a collective agreement for flood control measures in a
trans-boundary situation. The following is the land use characteristics
and change and its upstream-downstream linkages of the Ciliwung
watershed.
The Ciliwung watershed area is around 32,573 ha and it is classified
as a degraded watershed, especially in the middle and upper parts of the
watershed as indicated by small area of forest cover (< 15%) and high
housing/building coverage (35%). This is understandable considering
that the middle and upper Ciliwung watershed is closed to the capital
city of Jakarta and closed to the center of economic development ac-
tivities in the upstream areas such as Depok, Bogor, and Puncak (West
Java).
The scale of catchment disturbance of the Ciliwung watershed,
especially in the middle and upper parts of the watershed can be seen
from the rate of land use change during the period of 1990 and 1999. In
that period of time, the forested area declined by 10%. So does the
plantation (18%), mostly tea plantation in the upper parts of the
Table 1
Land use change at the middle and upper of the Ciliwung watershed.
Source: Sabar (2009); (−) decreased, (+) increased
Land Use Entire Ciliwung Watershed Upper and Middle Watershed 2000
(ha) (ha)
Forest 5094 5600
Plantation 5730 6848
Dry land farming 7770 2330
Paddy field (wet rice) 1665 10,409
House/Building complex 11,590 1613
Pond/Lake – 38
Others (incl. pond/lake) 724 – –
Total 32,573 26,841
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Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018) 117–122
Ciliwung watershed. Not surprisingly that the declining of the forest
and plantation areas was followed by the sharp increase of dry land
farming (169%) and housing/building coverage (338%) in 10 years
period of time. This land use changes in the middle and upper parts of
the Ciliwung watershed have resulted in tremendous negative en-
vironmental effects, especially hydrological disturbances. The hydro-
logical disturbances associated with the land use changes can be briefly
explained as follows: In a watershed system, upstream areas are hy-
drological linked to downstream areas through stream flow behavior
and sediment transfer. Land use change in the upstream areas are not
only resulting in an on-site impact in the form of increased runoff and
soil erosion, but it will also give off-site impact of increasing stream
flow and river sedimentation downstream. The increasing of both
runoff and erosion rates are mainly caused by decreasing conservation
index (CI) as a result of land use changing from forest cover to poor
agricultural practices and/or housing/building coverage. Land use with
greater conservation index means greater capability of infiltration
rainwater into the soil (greater groundwater recharge), therefore re-
ducing runoff and soil erosion as also shown in Asdak and Supian
(2017) and Wang et al. (2018).
3.2. The causes of the flooding
It was mentioned earlier that the flood in the city of Jakarta is
closely associated with both natural and anthropogenic factors. Natural
factors are commonly related to the following: (1) Jakarta is located on
a low-lying flat coastal area, which is influenced by backwater effect
from the Java sea during the rise of the sea level, (2) more than 10 small
rivers flowing into Jakarta, and (3) annual rainfall in the Ciliwung
watershed, especially in the upper part is high (> 3000 mm). While
natural factors are not so easy to handle for flood mitigation, the an-
thropogenic factors making the flooding mitigation even more difficult.
This later factors including landscape changing due to high competition
on land-based economic activities, poor urban as well as rural spatial
planning, and lack of integrated institutional capacity and arrangement,
especially in the context of cross administrative boundary situation
(special district of Jakarta versus the province of West Java).
3.3. Rapid land use changes
The major flooding hits the streets of Jakarta is commonly asso-
ciated with the overload of Jakarta's drainage water system and land-
scape changing occurring in the middle and upper parts of the Ciliwung
watershed. Table 1 shows that during 2000–2009, the forest and
plantation areas declined by 28%. So does the wet paddy field, de-
clining by 73%. These land use types are widely known as an effective
surface water (runoff) retention. Reducing large area of these land uses
making more rainwater available for flooding in the downstream area.
Another land use that good for surface water retention is pond/lake.
Table 1 shows that the change of pond/lake is not significant. But an-
other source indicates that before 2007 the number of pond/lake in the
Upper and Middle Watershed 2009 Change in Land Use (2000–2009) (%)
(ha)
5034 (−) 10
5612 (−) 18
6267 (+) 169
2833 (−) 73
7058 (+) 338
36 –
–
26,841
C. Asdak et al.
upper Ciliwung was about 122. After 2007, the number went down to
be only 28 (BPLHD, 2012). If this report is correct, then the scale of
hydrological disturbance in the upper part of the Ciliwung should be
greater. In the lower part (the Jakarta area), apart from the steadily
increase in population, the number of water retention systems (mostly
ponds) were sharply reduced from 35 in 2007 to none in 2009. The
conversion of mangrove forest in the northwest parts of Jakarta's
coastal areas for waterfront luxurious housing complex and the so-
called reclamation of other parts of the same coastal areas have ex-
acerbated the scale of the flood in Jakarta.
The adverse hydrological impact caused by reducing those surface
water retention areas has been exacerbated by sharp increase in dry
land farming areas (169%) and increased of housing/building coverage
by 338%. Opposite to the good function of forest, plantation and wet
paddy field for water conservation measures, the dry land farming and
housing/building areas commonly found in the Ciliwung watershed are
not favorable for conserving ground water, which means increasing
runoff, because their conservation index numbers are reduced sub-
stantially. Therefore, it can be said from this data that landscape
changing in the middle and upper parts of the Ciliwung watershed
could be an important factor for flooding in Jakarta.
The hydrological impact resulting from the above landscape chan-
ging may be seen from the following stream flow data analysis carried
out at the hydrological station at Katulampa, representing the upper
part of Ciliwung watershed and at Sugutamu station, representing the
middle part of the same watershed. Using daily stream flow data of
1987–1999, it can be seen that for both hydrological stations, the five-
year moving average of daily maximum discharge was increased over
time with the coefficient of correlation (r) of 0.77 and 0.83, respectively
(Fig. 2). While the five-year moving average of daily minimum dis-
charge for both Katulampa and Sugutamu stations were observed to be
decreased over time (r = 0.97 and r = 0.93, respectively). These hy-
drological data indicate clearly that the middle and upper catchments
Fig. 2. The five-year maximum and minimum moving average of the stream flow for two hydrological stations at Katulampa (left) and Sugutamu (right) (data
adapted from Sabar, 2009).
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Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018) 117–122
of Ciliwung were hydrological disturbed as a result of the land use
changing.
The flooding in Jakarta is not only causing the loss of economic and
human life, but it also spurs the debate within scientific communities
whether disappearing of forest land in the upper most Ciliwung wa-
tershed to be the important factor for the Jakarta's flooding. To clarify
this issue, the Center for Research and Development of Water Resources
conducted a hydrological simulation study linking the disappearance of
forest in the upper Ciliwung (Katulampa station) with the downstream
flooding (Ilyas, 2004; BBWS, 2014). Apart from clarifying the debatable
issue, this study is also important for considering which factors need to
be given high priority for solving flooding in the deltaic city of Jakarta.
The result of the hydrologic simulation study shows that for the five-
year return period, the reduction of forested area at the upper part of
Citarum watershed from 58% to 34% resulting in the increase of peak
flood around 14%, from 312.5 m3/sec to 364.5 m3/sec (Fig. 3). The
simulation study also indicates that when the rainfall regime was in-
creased to 192 mm (25-year return period), 206 mm (50-year return
period), and 238 mm (100-year return period), the percentage of in-
crease in the peak flood at Katulampa hydrological station were all less
than 10%. This hydrological simulation result is in line with many other
research findings worldwide, where small rainfall events produce a
significant effect on peak flow as a result of forest cutting, but when
rainfall regime increased considerably, then there is no significant hy-
drological effect statistically.
Based on this simulation study, the influence of forest cover in the
upper most parts of the Ciliwung watershed to the Jakarta's flooding is
relatively small. Therefore, it is suspected that the major contributor for
the Jakarta's flooding is defined more by the landscape changing in the
middle parts of the Ciliwung watershed, especially the sharp increase in
housing/building areas combined with inadequate drainage system
within the city of Jakarta.
C. Asdak et al.
Fig. 3. Forest area changed from 58% to 34% and its impact on peak flood at 5-year return period in the Upper Ciliwung watershed (data adapted from Ilyas, 2004).
3.4. Problems associated with spatial planning and institutional capacity
It has been stated that the important anthropogenic factor con-
tributing to the downstream flooding is the uncontrolled land-based
activities in the middle and upper parts of the Ciliwung watershed. This
is mainly caused by rapid population growth combined with un-in-
tegrated urban-rural spatial planning within the watershed. The popu-
lation growth in greater Jakarta is increasing from 4.5 million people in
1975 to 6.3 million in 1985, 9.0 million in 1995, and exceeding 9.6
million in 2010, plus approximately 2.5 million daily commuters from
the adjacent cities, and a total land area of 662 km2 (Firman et al.,
2010). It was estimated that the number of residents in the Greater
Jakarta will reach 13 million in 2025 (Goenawan et al., 2015). The
difficult situation is intensified with the implementation of Law No. 23/
2014 on Regional Government which is also known as the law of re-
gional autonomy (decentralization). According to this law, central
government to decentralize most of its authority to local governments
including the management of natural resources. With this law, the local
governments (district and city governments) are autonomously in
charge in the management and allocation of local resources for their
regional income. With the new law, local government does not receive
full funding from the central government anymore, therefore, most of
the local governments then intensify their economic activities without
paying too much attention to negative consequences on their neighbors.
What is actually happening in the last five years since the im-
plementation of the Law No. 23/2014 is that:
a) Local governments are becoming too economic oriented in the
management of their natural and man-made resources. Because of
the short-term economic orientation activities many natural re-
sources, for example forested areas, are changed to other cash crops
and/or human settlement for more fresh money.
b) Local governments are becoming independent from central and
provincial governments. This is becoming a big problem for an in-
tegrated cross administrative boundary planning, because each of
the local government is now making its own spatial planning
without considering other local government's spatial planning and
not referring to the provincial and national spatial planning.
According to Law No. 26/2007 on Spatial Planning, the spatial
planning of every local government should refer to the provincial and
national spatial planning. But this, in many cases, is not happening
because there is no such mechanism to force the local government to
follow the regulation and lack of institutional capacity in facilitating
the formulation of a spatial planning in a cross-administrative boundary
system. The problem with the current system of spatial planning is if the
spatial planning of a district/city in the upstream of a watershed is tend
to increase annual stream flow or water pollution, the downstream
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Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018) 117–122
district/city will be suffering without economic compensation (from the
upstream activities). This is because there is no upstream-downstream
compensation mechanism that is now operating in Indonesia. Without
this mechanism and adequate institutional capacity to run the me-
chanism, cross-boundary conflicts will be intensified. For example, in
cases where downstream area is sensitive to water shortage and/or
floods, conflicts between local government in the upstream area and
that of the local government in the downstream is intensified. This kind
of conflict should have been prevented if the urban-rural planning is
designed properly, especially when this rural-urban area are integrated
into one watershed, one plan and one integrated (upstream-downstream)
management. In the case of the Ciliwung watershed, the rural-urban
planning system should include the city of Bogor and the district of
Bogor in the upper part, city of Depok in the middle, and the city of
Jakarta in the lower area. Right now, each of these administrative units
has its own planning system, which is not linked adequately from the
perspective of the integrated watershed management. The problem is
intensified with the distorted interpretation of Law No. 23/2014 on
Regional Government, where many local governments ignore the im-
portance of sequential land use planning from provincial down to re-
gency level.
4. Conclusion
The flooding in Jakarta is becoming a regular event. It shows a
tendency of increasing in magnitude as well as in frequency rather than
decreasing despite a number of engineering efforts have been carried
out to control it. The causes of the Jakarta's flooding are a combination
of natural as well as anthropogenic factors. The factors are from within
the city of Jakarta and from its upstream areas. Meaning, it requires
more than just a conventional on-site engineering solution to control
the flooding. To be more effective in the long run, the approach to
mitigate the flooding in Jakarta should be shifted from an on-site
conventional engineering flood mitigation to a more integrated catch-
ment management one. It is clear from the spatial analysis based on
landscape changes and the hydrological data that the middle and upper
parts of the Ciliwung watershed play an important role in the Jakarta's
flooding. Based on the result of the hydrological analysis shows that the
reduction of forested area at the upper part of Citarum watershed from
58% to 34% resulting in the increase of peak flood around 14%, from
312.5 m3/sec to 364.5 m3/sec. The influence of forest cover in the
upper most parts of the Ciliwung watershed to the Jakarta's flooding is
relatively small. Therefore, an integrated catchment management of the
Ciliwung and Cisadane watersheds for the Jakarta's flooding mitigation
should be given greater priority, especially on how to make a multi-
stakeholder participation in a trans-boundary planning system. In this
study, we conclude that the flood mitigation for medium to long-term
period should be focused on a sustainable conservative programs
C. Asdak et al.
focusing on a comprehensive-integrative approach, with the following
strategies:
a) Formulate a grand design for water resource management of the
Ciliwung-Cisadane watersheds covering Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, and
Tangerang-Bekasi areas which consider biophysical as well as socio-
economic aspects of the areas. The current single focus of en-
gineering approach in water resource management for flood miti-
gation should be avoided.
b) Formulate an improved water resource-related organization which
focuses more on a multi-disciplinary and trans-boundary institu-
tional approach in designing an integrated spatial planning. This
type of organization/institution arrangement should also consider
the importance of establishing an upstream-downstream cash flow
as part of the upstream-downstream compensation mechanism.
c) The long-term proposed strategy for flood mitigation will require a
large amount of funding. The special province of Jakarta alone will
not capable of financing the proposed flood mitigation program.
Therefore, it is important to involve large companies in Jakarta such
as the Jakarta International Airport, the Jakarta International
Seaport, and other Jakarta-based large companies that suffered from
flooding to contribute financially to the proposed program.
d) As part of the program on dispersing big flood in Jakarta into many
small floods in the upper and middle areas of the Ciliwung and
Cisadane watersheds (flood distribution concept), it is necessary to
build small to medium scale dams at the tributaries and other arti-
ficial surface water retention at the catchment of the two main
rivers.
e) To encourage rural people in the middle and upper Ciliwung and
Cisadane watersheds to maintain and establish home-gardens and
mixed gardens and other surface water retention such as ponds,
small check dams, and ground water recharge wells. To get this
program moving at a massive scale, it should be integrated to the
incentive and dis-incentive system, for example through tax mea-
sures or another incentive mechanism.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the financial support from Universitas
Padjadjaran through the Academic Leadership Grant (ALG).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2018.08.002.
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