BRM question paper 5 marks answers:

1. Briefly describe on motivation of research ?

-Factor 1# Stimulation of Respondent:

As the researcher depends upon the respondents for collection of data for the attainment of the research objectives,
one of the most important tasks of the researcher is to inspire and stimulate the respondents with zeal to help for
the accomplishment of research goals. In other words the motivation of the respondents plays a significant role for
the success of any kind of research.

Human motives are based on certain needs which may be primary or secondary and vary in their intensity according
to situation and time. The researcher must study these needs, try to understand their intensity and have the
responsibility to satisfy them in order to stimulate the respondents for research work.

Motivation means any idea, need, emotion or organic state that prompts a man to an action. Motivation is an
internal factor that integrates a man’s behaviour. As the motive is within the individual, it is necessary to study the
needs, emotions etc. in order to motivate him to co-operate in the research work.

The following are the important inducing factors which influence the respondent’s behaviour and induce him for
the best performance to meet the need of research:

(i) The research should be directed towards the solution of respondent’s problem.

(ii) The nature of the problem or topic must have social relevance.

(iii) The researcher should clearly spell the goals of research.

(iv) The respondents must be informed about the matters concerning objectives of the research. The more a person
knows about its subject matter, the more interest and concern he will develop.

(v) Respondents can be motivated to involve in research if they get continuous recognition for their efforts.
Respondents provide valuable information and suggestion for the success of research work. If the researcher has a
praise of words for the respondents’ cooperation, it motivates the respondents more and more to be involved in the
research process. Thus recognition tends to motivate the respondents to provide required information for research.

Factor 2# Stimulation of Researcher:

The success of a research work, to a great extent, depends upon the motivation of the researcher as well.

The following are some of the factors which stimulate a researcher to conduct research effectively:

(i) The researcher must have a concrete and complete knowledge of the subject under study. He must be capable of
removing the doubts of the respondents regarding the study.

(ii) He must have a personal interest in the study undertaken.

(iii) The researcher must have sufficient knowledge about the respondents.

(iv) The researcher must have the idea of the tools of research.
Factor 3# A Sense or Participation:

Participation in a research activity does not mean simply the involvement of the respondents in giving information
on a topic or problem. In real sense, participation is an individual’s mental and emotional involvement in research
solutions that encourage him to contribute to research and to share the responsibility for it.

From utilitarian point of view the main goal of research is to understand social life and attempt on social welfare.
However it cannot be done without the active participation of the people involved in the process of social research.

Any social research, whether it is meant for the development of a specific section of society or for the overall
development of the entire society, requires participation of people. Research does not only mean involvement of
the researcher but it also requires the conscious participation of the respondents.

The respondents involve themselves in thinking, identifying the needs, fixing priorities of the needs, providing
valuable information, implementing and evaluating critically various research programmes. Thus it involves the
participation of both the researcher and the respondents.

Factor 4# Growth of Knowledge:

Interest for increasing knowledge motivates people to do research in their own field. Research adds to the existing
knowledge in a systematic way. The quest for knowledge is therefore an important motivating factor in social
research. Discovering the truth always forces man to undertake research in own society.

Factor 5# Quest for Progress:

Research has proved to be a significant and powerful tool in bringing social progress. Without scientific social
research there would be very little progress. The results of social research will provide us with the possible means
to bring solution to different social problems. Research opens new avenues and provides a better alternative to us.
It enhances the efficiency of all the agencies and organisations engaged in the development of society. So the quest
for progress is also another motivating factor of social research.

Factor 6# Curiosity to Understand the Cause and Effect Relationship of Various Social Phenomena:

Research is nothing but a desire to understand the causal explanation of various facts and to explain the natural laws
which govern them. Social research tries to discover the cause-effect relationship between different aspects of a
social phenomenon. In order to solve a social problem, one must first understand the root cause of that particular
problem. Finding the cause of an effect is one of the greatest tasks of research and its quest always motivates people
to undertake research.

2. Explain research process

-7 Stages or Steps Involved in Marketing Research Process

Some of the major steps involved in marketing research process are as follows: 1. Identification and Defining the
Problem 2. Statement of Research Objectives 3. Planning the Research Design or Designing the Research Study 4.
Planning the Sample 5. Data Collection 6. Data Processing and Analysis 7. Formulating Conclusion, Preparing and
Presenting the Report.
Marketing research exercise may take many forms but systematic enquiry is a feature common to all such forms.
Being a systematic enquiry, it requires a careful planning of the orderly investigation process.

Though it is not necessary that all research processes would invariably follow a given sequence, yet marketing
research often follows a generalized pattern which can be broken down and studied as sequential stages.

The various stages or steps in the marketing research process are discussed below:

1. Identification and Defining the Problem:

The market research process begins with the identification “of a problem faced by the company. The clear-cut
statement of problem may not be possible at the very outset of research process because often only the symptoms
of the problems are apparent at that stage. Then, after some explanatory research, clear definition of the problem
is of crucial importance in marketing research because such research is a costly process involving time, energy and
money.

Clear definition of the problem helps the researcher in all subsequent research efforts including setting of proper
research objectives, the determination of the techniques to be used, and the extent of information to be collected.

It may be noted that the methods of explanatory research popularly in use are—survey of secondary data,
experience survey, or pilot studies, i.e., studies of a small initial sample. All this is also known as ‘preliminary
investigation’.

2. Statement of Research Objectives:

After identifying and defining the problem with or without explanatory research, the researcher must take a formal
statement of research objectives. Such objectives may be stated in qualitative or quantitative terms and expressed
as research questions, statement or hypothesis. For example, the research objective, “To find out the extent to which
sales promotion schemes affected the sales volume” is a research objective expressed as a statement.

On the other hand, a hypothesis is a statement that can be refuted or supported by empirical finding. The same
research objective could be stated as, “To test the proposition that sales are positively affected by the sales
promotion schemes undertaken this winter.”

Example of another hypothesis may be: “The new packaging pattern has resulted in increase in sales and profits.”
Once the objectives or the hypotheses are developed, the researcher is ready to choose the research design.

3. Planning the Research Design or Designing the Research Study:

After defining the research problem and deciding the objectives, the research design must be developed. A research
design is a master plan specifying the procedure for collecting and analysing the needed information. It represents
a framework for the research plan of action.

The objectives of the study are included in the research design to ensure that data collected are relevant to the
objectives. At this stage, the researcher should also determine the type of sources of information needed, the data
collection method (e.g., survey or interview), the sampling, methodology, and the timing and possible costs of
research.
4. Planning the Sample:

Sampling involves procedures that use a small number of items or parts of the ‘population’ (total items) to make
conclusion regarding the ‘population’. Important questions in this regard are— who is to be sampled as a rightly
representative lot? Which is the target ‘population’? What should be the sample size—how large or how small? How
to select the various units to make up the sample?

5. Data Collection:

The collection of data relates to the gathering of facts to be used in solving the problem. Hence, methods of market
research are essentially methods of data collection. Data can be secondary, i.e., collected from concerned reports,
magazines and other periodicals, especially written articles, government publications, company publications, books,
etc.

Data can be primary, i.e., collected from the original base through empirical research by means of various tools.

There can be broadly two types of sources

(i) Internal sources—existing within the firm itself, such as accounting data, salesmen’s reports, etc. (ii) External
sources—outside the firm.

6. Data Processing and Analysis:

Once data have been collected, these have to be converted into a format that will suggest answers to the initially
identified and defined problem. Data processing begins with the editing of data and its coding. Editing involves
inspecting the data-collection forms for omission, legibility, and consistency in classification. Before tabulation,
responses need to be classified into meaningful categories.

The rules for categorizing, recording and transferring the data to ‘data storage media’ are called codes. This coding
process facilitates the manual or computer tabulation. If computer analysis is being used, the data can be key
punched and verified.

Analysis of data represents the application of logic to the understanding of data collected about the subject. In its
simplest form analysis may involve determination of consistent patterns and summarising of appropriate details.

The appropriate analytical techniques chosen would depend upon informational requirements of the problem,
characteristics of the research designs and the nature of the data gathered. The statistical analysis may range from
simple immediate analysis to very complex multivariate analysis.

7. Formulating Conclusion, Preparing and Presenting the Report:

The final stage in the marketing research process is that of interpreting the information and drawing conclusion for
use in managerial decision. The research report should clearly and effectively communicate the research findings
and need not include complicated statement about the technical aspect of the study and research methods.

Often the management is not interested in details of research design and statistical analysis, but instead, in the
concrete findings of the research. If need be, the researcher may bring out his appropriate recommendations or
suggestions in the matter. Researchers must make the presentation technically accurate, understandable and useful.

3. Explain non-probability sampling techniques?

Types of Non-Probability Sampling
 Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample from somewhere convenient
to you: the mall, your local school, your church. Sometimes called accidental sampling, opportunity sampling
or grab sampling.
 Haphazard Sampling: where a researcher chooses items haphazardly, trying to simulate randomness.
However, the result may not be random at all and is often tainted by selection bias.
 Purposive Sampling: where the researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about the population
and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s purpose. There are several types
of purposive sampling. For a full list, advantages and disadvantages of the method, see the article: Purposive
Sampling.
 Expert Sampling: in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list of experts in the field.
 Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling: a type of sampling where you deliberately choose members so
that all views are represented. However, those views may or may not be represented proportionally.
 Modal Instance Sampling: The most “typical” members are chosen from a set.
 Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample are proportional to the groups in the
population.
 Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for the study. This method is
particularly useful when participants might be hard to find. For example, a study on working prostitutes or
current heroin users.

4. What is data processing? Explain the steps involved in data processing?

- Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or “processing” is
carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or automatically. Most of the data
processing is done by using computers and thus done automatically. The output or “processed” data can
be obtained in different forms like image, graph, table, vector file, audio, charts or any other desired format
depending on the software or method of data processing used.

Six stages of data processing

Collection is the first stage of the cycle, and is very crucial, since the quality of data collected will impact heavily on
the output. The collection process needs to ensure that the data gathered are both defined and accurate, so that
subsequent decisions based on the findings are valid. This stage provides both the baseline from which to measure,
and a target on what to improve.

2) Preparation is the manipulation of data into a form suitable for further analysis and processing. Raw data cannot
be processed and must be checked for accuracy. Preparation is about constructing a data set from one or more data
sources to be used for further exploration and processing. Analyzing data that has not been carefully screened for
problems can produce highly misleading results that are heavily dependent on the quality of data prepared.

3) Input is the task where verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that it can be processed
through an application. Data entry is done through the use of a keyboard, scanner, or data entry from an existing
source. This time-consuming process requires speed and accuracy. Most data need to follow a formal and strict syntax
since a great deal of processing power is required to breakdown the complex data at this stage. Due to the costs,
many businesses are resorting to outsource this stage.

4) Processing is when the data is subjected to various means and methods of powerful technical manipulations using
Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence algorithms to generate an output or interpretation about the data. The
process may be made up of multiple threads of execution that simultaneously execute instructions, depending on the
type of data. There are applications like Anvesh available for processing large volumes of heterogeneous data within
very short periods.
 5) Output and interpretation is the stage where processed information is now transmitted and displayed to the user.
Output is presented to users in various report formats like graphical reports, audio, video, or document viewers.
Output need to be interpreted so that it can provide meaningful information that will guide future decisions of the
company.

6) Storage is the last stage in the data processing cycle, where data, and metadata (information about data) are held
for future use. The importance of this cycle is that it allows quick access and retrieval of the processed information,
allowing it to be passed on to the next stage directly, when needed. Anvesh use special security and safety standards
to store data for future use.

4. What is research report? Explain the types of research reports?

-Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research work in a written form.
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a good source
of preservation of research work for the future reference.

Types of research reports

Technical Report:

In the technical report the main emphasis is on

-the methods employed,

-assumptions made in the course of the study,

-the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting data.

A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:

1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.

2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem in operational
terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.

3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in sampling studies
we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.

4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary data are used, their
suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected
should be fully described.

5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study
with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body
of the report usually extending over several chapters.

6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the results be explained.

7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.

8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical
derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.

9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.

The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the order of presentation
may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other words, means that the presentation may
vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these
sections appear in any particular report.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and ready availability of the
findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered
desirable.

Popular Report:

The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The simplification should be sought
through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and
diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is
another characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects
and policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular report.

 The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most practical interest and
on the implications of these findings.

 Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study is made in
this section of the report.

 Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the specific objectives
of the project under study.

 Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used, including a short
review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report.

 Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study are presented in
clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like
ones.

 Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented in the form of
appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.

There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The only important thing
about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy implications from the operational point of view,
avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the extent possible.
6. What do u mean by measurement of data? Discuss the criteria for good measurement of data ?-Measurement is
the process observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of a research effort.
 10 marks questions

1. Discuss research design?

- Research Design Definition

Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to combine various
components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is efficiently handled. It
provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of
research questions which need to be assessed – this can be done with research design.

An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust on the collected
and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the least margin of error in
experimental research can be touted as the best. The essential elements of research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement of research design

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting details for research

3. Method applied for analyzing collected details

4. Type of research methodology

5. Probable objections for research

6. Settings for research study

7. Timeline

8. Measurement of analysis

Research Design Characteristics

There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about
the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived
results.

Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar results to be
calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the research questions can be formed to ensure the
standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the research design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring tools are those which
help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of research and nothing else.
The questionnaire developed from this research design will be then valid.

Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not just a restricted
sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.
 Types of Research Design

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which type of research
design to implement for a study. Research design can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research
design.

Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a relationship between collected
data and observation is established on the basis of mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing
phenomenon can be proved or disproved using mathematical calculations. Researchers rely on qualitative research
design where they are expected to conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with “what” respondents have
to say about it.

Quantitative Research Design: Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it is important for a researcher
to have statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights. Numbers provide a better perspective to make
important business decisions. Quantitative research design is important for the growth of any organization because
any conclusion drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only prove to be effective for the business.

Further, research design can be divided into five types –

1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the
situation or case under his/her research study. It is a theory-based research design which is created by gather,
analyze and presents collected data. By implementing an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher can
provide insights into the why and how of research.

2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship between the
cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where the effect caused by the independent variable on
the dependent variable is observed. For example, the effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent
variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a highly practical research design method
as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the
change it has on the dependent variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing
two groups – affect of one group on the other.

3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design technique which
helps researchers to establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. Two different groups are
required to conduct this research design method. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between
two different variables and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between them.

Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges between -1 and
+1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1
indicates a negative relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards evaluating the
root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a troublesome situation are evaluated in this
research design method.

There are three parts of diagnostic research design:

 Inception of the issue

 Diagnosis of the issue

 Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and thoughts are key as it is
primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic. Explanation about unexplored aspects of
a subject is provided along with details about what, how and why related to the research questions.

2. Discuss methods on data collection?

 3. Exlain the steps involved in report writing?

-There are many different types of reports, including business, scientific and research reports, but the basic steps
for writing them are the same. These are outlined below.

 Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of reference'

 Step 2: Decide on the procedure
 Step 3: Find the information
 Step 4: Decide on the structure
 Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
 Step 6: Analyse your findings and draw conclusions
 Step 7: Make recommendations
 Step 8: Draft the executive summary and table of contents
 Step 9: Compile a reference list
 Step 10: Revise your draft report

Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of reference'

To decide on the terms of reference for your report, read your instructions and any other information you've been
given about the report, and think about the purpose of the report:

 What is it about?
 What exactly is needed?
 Why is it needed?
 When do I need to do it?
 Who is it for, or who is it aimed at?

This will help you draft your Terms of reference.

Step 2: Decide on the procedure

This means planning your investigation or research, and how you'll write the report. Ask yourself:

 What information do I need?

 Do I need to do any background reading?
 What articles or documents do I need?
 Do I need to contact the library for assistance?
 Do I need to interview or observe people?
 Do I have to record data?
 How will I go about this?

Answering these questions will help you draft the procedure section of your report, which outlines the steps
you've taken to carry out the investigation.

Step 3: Find the information

The next step is to find the information you need for your report. To do this you may need to read written
material, observe people or activities, and/or talk to people.
Make sure the information you find is relevant and appropriate. Check the assessment requirements and
guidelines and the marking schedule to make sure you're on the right track. If you're not sure how the marks will
be assigned contact your lecturer.

What you find out will form the basis, or main body, of your report – the findings.

Step 4: Decide on the structure

Reports generally have a similar structure, but some details may differ. How they differ usually depends on:

 The type of report – if it is a research report, laboratory report, business report, investigative report, etc.
 How formal the report has to be.
 The length of the report.

Depending on the type of report, the structure can include:

 A title page.
 Executive summary.
 Contents.
 An introduction.
 Terms of reference.
 Procedure.
 Findings.
 Conclusions.
 Recommendations.
 References/Bibliography.
 Appendices.
 The sections, of a report usually have headings and subheadings, which are usually numbered

Step 5: Draft the first part of your report

Once you have your structure, write down the headings and start to fill these in with the information you have
gathered so far. By now you should be able to draft the terms of reference, procedure and findings, and start to
work out what will go in the report’s appendix.

Findings

The findings are result of your reading, observations, interviews and investigation. They form the basis of your
report. Depending on the type of report you are writing, you may also wish to include photos, tables or graphs to
make your report more readable and/or easier to follow.

Appendices

As you are writing your draft decide what information will go in the appendix. These are used for information that:

 is too long to include in the body of the report, or

  supplements or complements the information in the report. For example, brochures, spreadsheets or
large tables.

Step 6: Analyse your findings and draw conclusions

The conclusion is where you analyse your findings and interpret what you have found. To do this, read through
your findings and ask yourself:

 What have I found?

 What's significant or important about my findings?
 What do my findings suggest?

For example, your conclusion may describe how the information you collected explains why the situation occurred,
what this means for the organisation, and what will happen if the situation continues (or doesn't continue).

Don’t include any new information in the conclusion.

Step 7: Make recommendations

Recommendations are what you think the solution to the problem is and/or what you think should happen next.
To help you decide what to recommend:

 Reread your findings and conclusions.

 Think about what you want the person who asked for the report should to do or not do; what actions
should they carry out?
 Check that your recommendations are practical and are based logically on your conclusions.
 Ensure you include enough detail for the reader to know what needs to be done and who should do it.

Your recommendations should be written as a numbered list, and ordered from most to least important.

Step 8: Draft the executive summary and table of contents

Some reports require an executive summary and/or list of contents. Even though these two sections come near
the beginning of the report you won't be able to do them until you have finished it, and have your structure and
recommendations finalised.

An executive summary is usually about 100 words long. It tells the readers what the report is about, and
summarise the recommendations.

Step 9: Compile a reference list

This is a list of all the sources you've referred to in the report and uses APA referencing.

Step 10: Revise your draft report

It is always important to revise your work. Things you need to check include:
  If you have done what you were asked to do. Check the assignment question, the instructions/guidelines
and the marking schedule to make sure.
 That the required sections are included, and are in the correct order.
 That your information is accurate, with no gaps.
 If your argument is logical. Does the information you present support your conclusions and
recommendations?
 That all terms, symbols and abbreviations used have been explained.
 That any diagrams, tables, graphs and illustrations are numbered and labelled.
 That the formatting is correct, including your numbering, headings, are consistent throughout the report.
 That the report reads well, and your writing is as clear and effective as possible

4. Need and significance of research design?

-Need and Importance of good Research design

The Importance of good Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we
need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert
architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research
project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data
and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of
staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in it may
upset the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and
as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.
Even then the need for a well thought out research design is at times not realised by many. The importance which
this problem deserves is not given to it. As a result many researches do not serve the purpose for which they are
undertaken. In fact, they may even give misleading conclusions. Thoughtlessness in designing the research project
may result in rendering the research exercise futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and appropriate
design must be prepared before starting research operations. The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas
in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to
others for their comments and critical evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for
the critic to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study.

significance of Research Design

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry.
Operations research and market research, along with motivational research,are considered crucial and their results
assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose of formulating
efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the application of
mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimization or of
profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization problems. Motivational research of determining why
people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics.In other words, it is concerned with the
determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market)behaviour.
All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for taking business decisions.
Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of future
demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its
projected capacity. Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting,
which ultimately results in projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in turn
depends on business research.
Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and investment programmes can be set up around which are
grouped the purchasing and financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical
and scientific decisions. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for
the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do
something better or in a more efficient manner.

5. What is hypothesis testing? Briefly explain the steps involved in testing hypothesis?
-Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an analyst tests an assumption regarding a population
parameter. The methodology employed by the analyst depends on the nature of the data used and the
reason for the analysis. Hypothesis testing is used to infer the result of a hypothesis performed on sample
data from a larger population.

The 7 Step Process of Statistical Hypothesis Testing

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We will cover the seven steps one by one.

Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis can be thought of as the opposite of the "guess" the research made (in this example the
biologist thinks the plant height will be different for the fertilizers). So the null would be that there will be no
difference among the groups of plants. Specifically in more statistical language the null for an ANOVA is that the
means are the same. We state the Null hypothesis as:

H0:μ1=μ2=⋯=μk

for k levels of an experimental treatment.

Note: Why do we do this? Why not simply test the working hypothesis directly? The answer lies in the Popperian
Principle of Falsification. Karl Popper (a philosopher) discovered that we can’t conclusively confirm a hypothesis,
but we can conclusively negate one. So we set up a Null hypothesis which is effectively the opposite of the working
hypothesis. The hope is that based on the strength of the data we will be able to negate or Reject the Null
hypothesis and accept an alternative hypothesis. In other words, we usually see the working hypothesis in H A.
Step 2: State the Alternative Hypothesis

HA: treatment level means not all equal

The reason we state the alternative hypothesis this way is that if the Null is rejected, there are many possibilities.

For example, μ1≠μ2=⋯=μk is one possibility, as is μ1=μ2≠μ3=⋯=μk. Many people make the mistake of stating the
Alternative Hypothesis as: μ1≠μ2≠⋯≠μkwhich says that every mean differs from every other mean. This is a
possibility, but only one of many possibilities. To cover all alternative outcomes, we resort to a verbal statement of
‘not all equal’ and then follow up with mean comparisons to find out where differences among means exist. In our
example, this means that fertilizer 1 may result in plants that are really tall, but fertilizers 2, 3 and the plants with
no fertilizers don't differ from one another. A simpler way of thinking about this is that at least one mean is
different from all others.
Step 3: Set α
If we look at what can happen in a hypothesis test, we can construct the following contingency table:
 In Reality

Decision H0 is TRUE H0 is FALSE

Type II Error
Fail to Reject H0 OK
β = probability of Type II Error

Reject H0 Type I Error OK

α = probability of Type I Error
You should be familiar with type I and type II errors from your introductory course. It is important to note that we
want to set α before the experiment (a-priori) because the Type I error is the more ‘grevious’ error to make. The
typical value of α is 0.05, establishing a 95% confidence level. For this course we will assume α =0.05.
Step 4: Collect Data
Remember the importance of recognizing whether data is collected through an experimental design or
observational.

Step 5: Calculate a test statistic

For categorical treatment level means, we use an F statistic, named after R.A. Fisher. We will explore the
mechanics of computing the Fstatistic beginning in Lesson 2. The F value we get from the data is labeled Fcalculated.

Step 6: Construct rejection regions

As with all other test statistics, a threshold (critical) value of F is established. This F value can be obtained from
statistical tables, and is referred to as Fcritical or Fα. As a reminder, this critical value is the minimum value for the
test statistic (in this case the F test) for us to be able to reject the null.
The F distribution, Fα, and the location of Acceptance / Rejection regions are shown in the graph below:

Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion about H0

If the Fcalculated from the data is larger than the Fα, then you are in the Rejection region and you can reject the Null
Hypothesis with (1-α) level of confidence.
Note that modern statistical software condenses step 6 and 7 by providing a p-value. The p-value here is the
probability of getting an Fcalculatedeven greater than what you observe. If by chance, the Fcalculated = Fα, then the p-
value would exactly equal to α. With larger Fcalculatedvalues, we move further into the rejection region and the p-
value becomes less than α. So the decision rule is as follows:
If the p-value obtained from the ANOVA is less than α, then Reject H0 and Accept HA.
Other questions:

 Difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

-

BASIS FOR QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

COMPARISON RESEARCH RESEARCH

Meaning Qualitative research Quantitative research is

is a method of inquiry a research method that
that develops is used to generate
understanding on numerical data and
human and social hard facts, by
sciences, to find the employing statistical,
way people think and logical and
feel. mathematical
technique.

Nature Holistic Particularistic

Approach Subjective Objective

Research type Exploratory Conclusive

Reasoning Inductive Deductive

Sampling Purposive Random

Data Verbal Measurable

Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented

Hypothesis Generated Tested

Elements of Words, pictures and Numerical data

analysis objects
 BASIS FOR QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
COMPARISON RESEARCH RESEARCH

Objective To explore and To examine cause and

discover ideas used in effect relationship
the ongoing between variables.
processes.

Methods Non-structured Structured techniques

techniques like In- such as surveys,
depth interviews, questionnaires and
group discussions etc. observations.

Result Develops initial Recommends final

understanding course of action

 Difference between questionnaire and schedule?

-Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting data in research surveys. There is much
resemblance in the nature of these two methods and this fact has made many people to remark that from a
practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But from the technical point of view there is
difference between the two. The important points of difference are as under:
1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter,
but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research
worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money only in
preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no field staff required. To collect
data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in
appointing enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return the
questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response often remains indeterminate. As
against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by enumerators
who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of
respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the questionnaire in
time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected well in time as they are
filled in by enumerators.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as questionnaires are sent to
respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules direct personal contact
is established with respondents.
7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of
schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.
8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire method, but in
respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area.
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire method,
particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of schedules, the
 information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any,
faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a result, the information collected through
schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires.
10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in the case of
schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.
11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire must be quite
attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by
respondents.
12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible while collecting
data through questionnaires.

 Types of scales?
-This article throws light upon the four main types of scales used for measurement. The types are:- 1. Nominal or
Classificatory Scales 2. Ordinal or Ranking Scales 3. Interval Scales 4. Ratio Scales.

Type # 1. Nominal or Classificatory Scales:

When numbers or other symbols are used simply to classify an object, person or characteristic, or to identify the
groups to which various objects belong, these numbers or symbols constitute a nominal or classificatory scale.

Lowest level of measurement

Nominal scale is so primitive that some experts do not recognize it as measurement. It is the least precise or crude
among the four basic scales of measurement. It simply implies the classification of an item into two or more
categories without any extent or magnitude. There is no particular order assigned to them.

Type # 2. Ordinal or Ranking Scales:

It is known as a ranking level. This level is one step above of the nominal level. It has the characteristics of
equivalence and order. In this scale a set of objects is assigned a value on the basis of some rule, i.e. they are
arranged or ordered according to some rule.

It means that categories on the ordinal scale are arranged according to the amount of trait or characteristic that
each category represents. In this scale, there is a quantitative difference from category to category, and these
categories are arranged according to some order.

Type # 3. Interval Scale:

The third level of measurement is known as interval level. It has the characteristics of both nominal and ordinal
level of scales. The additional characteristic it possesses is quality of interval. It means the distance or difference
between any adjacent class on the scale can be known numerically. The intervals on the scale are the same; it is a
constant unit of measurement.

This consistency of intervals is lacking in two previous level of scale. In other words, the intervals of the scale i.e.
the difference between two consecutive points on the scale are equal over the entire scale. For example, the
difference between 6 cm. and 7 cm. is equal to the difference between 11 cm. and 12 cm. Thus interval scale is
also known as equal-interval scale.

Type # 4. Ratio Scale:

It is the most refined among the four basic scales. It has all the characteristics of an interval scale. In addition to
that, it has an absolute zero point as its origin representing complete absence of the property being measured.

“When a scale has all the characteristics of an interval scale and in addition has a true zero-point as its origin, it
is called a ratio scale”(Seigel).
Ratio of numbers correspond to the ratios of attributes. As it has an absolute zero point we can speak that 10 kg. is
twice of 5 kg. In this scale the difference between 15 and 10 is equal to the difference between 83 and 78.

The numbers used in ratio scales can be expressed in ratio relationship. For example, 20 feet is one- half of 40 feet
and 20 cms is four times of 5 cms. In ratio scales there is true zero point. Here a true-zero point means complete
absence of an attribute.

 Importance of research design?

-The importance of research design in research methodology is due to the following:

 It may result in the preferred kind of study with helpful conclusion.
 It cuts down on inaccuracy.
 Allows you get optimum efficiency and reliability.
 Reduce wastage of time.
 Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research problem.
 Of great help for collection of research material and testing of hypothesis.
 It is a guide for giving research the right path.
 Gets rid of bias and marginal errors.
 Provides an idea concerning the type of resources needed in terms of money, effort, time, and manpower.
 Smooth & efficient sailing (sets boundaries & helps prevent blind search)
 Maximizes reliability of results.
 Provides firm foundation to the endeavor.
 Averts misleading conclusions & thoughtless useless exercise.
 Provides opportunity to anticipate flaws & inadequacies (anticipates problems).
 Incorporates by learning from other people’s critical comments & evaluations.

 Steps in research process?

-Research process contains a series of closely related activities which has to carry out by a researcher. Research
process requires patients. There is no measure that shows your research is the best. It is an art rather than a
science. Following are the main steps in social or business research process.

1. Selection of Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Survey
3. Making Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Sampling
6. Data collection
7. Data Analysis
8. Hypothesis Testing
9. Generalization and Interpretation
10. Preparation of Report
Selection of Research Problem
The selection of topic for research is a difficult job. When we select a title or research statement, then other
activities would be easy to perform. So, for the understanding thoroughly the problem it must have to discuss with
colleagues, friend, experts and teachers. The research topic or problem should be practical, relatively important,
feasible, ethically and politically acceptable.
Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey
After the selection of research problem, the second step is that of literature mostly connected with the topics. The
availability of the literature may bring ease in the research. For this purpose academic journals, conference and
govt. reports and library must be studied.

Making Hypothesis
The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher experience. The hypothesis is to
draw the positive & negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis narrows down the area of a
research and keep a researcher on the right path.

Preparing the Research Design

After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to prepare by the
researcher. It may draw the conceptual structure of the problem. Any type of research design may be made,
depend on the nature and purpose of the study. Daring R. Design the information about sources, skill, time and
finance is taken into consideration.

Sampling
The researcher must design a sample. It is a plan for taking its respondents from a specific areas or universe. The
sample may be of two types:

1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-probability Sampling
Data collection
Data collection is the most important work, is researcher. The collection of information must be containing on
facts which is from the following two types of researcher.

Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the following.

1. Experiment
2. Questionnaire
3. Observation
4. Interview
Secondary data collection: it has the following categories:
1. Review of literature
2. Official and non-official reports
3. Library approach
Data Analysis
When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis which is the most technical job. Data analysis may be divided
into two main categories.

Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following.

Data editing, Data coding, Data classification, Data tabulation, Data presentation, Data measurement

Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following sub-categories.

Description, Explanation, Narration, Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions

Hypothesis Testing
Research data is then forwarded to test the hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or not? To find
the answer the process of testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result in accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis.
Generalization and Interpretation
The acceptable hypothesis is possible for researcher to arrival at the process of generalization or to make & theory.
Some types of research has no hypothesis for which researcher depends upon on theory which is known as
interpretation.

Preparation of Report
A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done is his work. He must keep in his mind the following
points:

Report Design in Primary Stages

The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the problem and background followed by acknowledgement.
There should be a table of contents, grapes and charts.

Main Text of the Report

It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and methodology of the research. It must be divided into
chapters and every chapter explains separate title in which summary of the findings should be enlisted. The last
section would be clearly of conclusions to show the main theme of the R-study.

Closing the Report

After the preparation of report, the last step in business research process contains of bibliography, references,
appendices, index and maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose the information should more clearer.

____________________________

 Sampling and sampling process?

-Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations

are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger population
depends on the type of analysis being performed but may include simple random sampling or
systematic sampling.

Steps in Sampling Process

An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1. Defining the target population.

2. Specifying the sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Selection of the sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting the sample.

1. Defining the Target Population: Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent, and time frame.
The definition should be in line with the objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants
to conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as ‘all women above
the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook)’. However this definition is too broad and will include
every household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore the definition can
be further refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose
monthly household income exceeds Rs.20,000. This reduces the target population size and makes the research more
focused. The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where the researcher has to
draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.A well defined population reduces the probability of
including the respondents who do not fit the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined
as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of women who
cannot afford to buy a micro oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame: Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the
sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn. Continuing with the
micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly
income above Rs.20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the
requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like telephone
directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private players provide databases developed
along various demographic and economic variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling
frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names of its
elements only once.A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately represent the
total population or when some elements of the population are missing another drawback in the sampling frame is
over –representation. A telephone directory can be over represented by names/household that have two or more
connections.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit: A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements
of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all women above the age of
20 years living in that particular house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target
audience of the business research, every individual element would be a sampling unit. This would present a case of
primary sampling unit. However, a convenient and better means of sampling would be to select households as the
sampling unit and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of secondary sampling
unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method: The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be
selected. The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research, availability of
financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be
grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size: The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways
of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold primary importance and are
worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based
on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb rules
and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of analysis,
incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of probability
sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of
confidence are specified. The details of the various techniques used to determine the sample size will be explained
at the end of the chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan: In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the
research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are the sampling
elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified
characteristics. It includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the houses. What
should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the recontact procedure for respondents who were
unavailable? All these and many other questions need to be answered for the smooth functioning of the research
process. These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the process. As the interviewers and
their co-workers will be on field duty of most of the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make
their work easy and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. Selecting the Sample: This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample
elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules outlined for the smooth
implementation of the business research. This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling
plan to select a sample required for the survey.

_____________________________

The basic types of researchare as follows:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite
often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is
that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such
items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also
include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of
research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available,
and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

2. Applied vs. Fundamental

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research
aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behavior carried on with view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples
of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem is
an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may effect a particular
institution or copy research or the marketing research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of
applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problems. Whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized
body of scientific knowledge.

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can
be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior, we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research, i.e., research designed
to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to
behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that
to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one
should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies an
experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data based research, coming
up with conclusions which arc capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research, in such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively
to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such research, the researcher
must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough
facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is
thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be
the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

5. Some Other Types of Research

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the
purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or
on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-
time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas
in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or
laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or
in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or
events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may
be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses
rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific
hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision oriented. While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher
in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example
of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative
basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

_____________________________
What is Probability Sampling?

Sampling takes on two forms in statistics: probability sampling and non-probability sampling:
 Probability sampling uses random sampling techniques to create a sample.
 Non-probability samplingtechniques use non-random processes like researcher judgment or convenience
sampling.
Probability sampling is based on the fact that every member of a population has a known and equal chance of
being selected. For example, if you had a population of 100 people, each person would have odds of 1 out of 100
of being chosen. With non-probability sampling, those odds are not equal. For example, a person might have a
better chance of being chosen if they live close to the researcher or have access to a computer. Probability
sampling gives you the best chance to create a sample that is truly representative of the population.
Using probability sampling for finding sample sizes means that you can employ statistical techniques
like confidence intervals and margins of error to validate your results.
Types of Probability Sampling
 Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting subjects. These can include assigning
numbers to all subjects and then using a random number generator to choose random numbers. Classic ball
and urn experiments are another example of this process (assuming the balls are sufficiently mixed). The
members whose numbers are chosen are included in the sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling involves splitting subjects into mutually exclusivegroups and then using simple
random sampling to choose members from groups.
 Systematic Sampling means that you choose every “nth” participant from a complete list. For example, you
could choose every 10th person listed.
 Cluster Random Sampling is a way to randomly select participants from a list that is too large for simple
random sampling. For example, if you wanted to choose 1000 participants from the entire population of the
U.S., it is likely impossible to get a complete list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas
(i.e. cities or counties) and randomly selects from within those boundaries.
 Multi-Stage Random sampling uses a combination of techniques.

What is Non-Probability Sampling?

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member being
selected for a sample cannot be calculated. It’s the opposite of probability sampling,
where you can calculate the odds. In addition, probability sampling involves random
selection, while non-probability sampling does not–it relies on the subjective
judgement of the researcher.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
 Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample from somewhere convenient
to you: the mall, your local school, your church. Sometimes called accidental sampling, opportunity sampling
or grab sampling.
 Haphazard Sampling: where a researcher chooses items haphazardly, trying to simulate randomness.
However, the result may not be random at all and is often tainted by selection bias.
 Purposive Sampling: where the researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about the population
and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s purpose. There are several types
of purposive sampling. For a full list, advantages and disadvantages of the method, see the article: Purposive
Sampling.
 Expert Sampling: in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list of experts in the field.
 Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling: a type of sampling where you deliberately choose members so
that all views are represented. However, those views may or may not be represented proportionally.
 Modal Instance Sampling: The most “typical” members are chosen from a set.
 Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample are proportional to the groups in the
population.
 Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for the study. This method is
particularly useful when participants might be hard to find. For example, a study on working prostitutes or
current heroin users.

Steps in Developing Questionnaires

Questionnaires can provide businesses with valuable information about potential and actual customers. As a small-
business owner, you aren't likely to have the resources of a large corporation that can hire a polling company. This
means you will have to develop a questionnaire yourself. By following the basic steps of the process, you can
ensure that you will have a quality questionnaire that yields useful results.
Deciding the Purpose
The initial step in developing a questionnaire is to ask yourself what you want to know. For instance, you may want
to know how satisfied your customers are, what services they would like you to offer or which competitors they
use. Begin by making a list of all the questions you want answered.
Understanding the Use
Before you start a survey, you need to understand how you will use the data. For example, if you want to compare
local clients to out-of-town clients, you will need to ask people who complete the questionnaire where they live.
Selecting Your Target
A key component of survey design is deciding whom to survey. You need to decide, for instance, whether you want
to target a specific demographic or if you want answers from a broad cross section of the public.
Choosing a Method
Surveys can be administered in a variety of ways — for example, in person, by phone or online. Choose a method
that you think will be most convenient for your customers or other respondents.
Selecting Question Types
Survey questions take one of two forms — they are either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative questions are
used to get concrete responses, such as the number of times a customer visits your store. Qualitative questions ask
for opinions, such as how satisfied they are.
Writing Questions
Questions should be written as succinctly as possible. State your questions in plain, simple language. Avoid using
complicated sentence structure or uncommon words.
Arranging Questions
The placement of survey questions needs to be carefully thought out. To ease your respondents into the
questionnaire, start with simple questions that do not ask for much personal information. In longer surveys, it
helps to mix up question types — for instance, changing from yes-or-no questions to open-response questions —
to keep the respondent interested.
Testing
Test your questionnaire on friends, family and employees. This helps you to identify unclear questions, awkward
wording or other mistakes that you may not notice on your own. Rewrite any problem questions before
administering the questionnaire to real respondents.