GEOTECTONIC FRAME WORK OF INDIA

India is a country in Southern Asia with a land area of roughly 3.3 x 106 square-
kilometers (1.3 million square miles). Moving from its northern Himalayan mountains
with peaks exceeding roughly 8000 meters , to its beaches along the Indian Ocean and
Bay of Bengal at sea-level, there are three major geologic areas called the tripartite
physiographic divisions. Analogous to the extremes in elevation from the northern parts
of India to its coasts, the rocks that compose the terrain range in age from the Archean
eon (roughly 2500 million years ago), to the Cenozoic era which ranges from 66 million
years ago to modern times. We will focus on three geologic regions of India:
1. The peninsula
2. The extra-peninsula
3. The Indo-Gangetic plain
The Himalayan Mountains:
The Himalayas, geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the Figure
Himalayas northern borders of India. These mountain ranges run in a west-east direction
from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the
most rugged mountain barriers of the world. They form an arc, which covers a distance of
about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal
Pradesh. The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern half than those in the western
half. The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number of
valleys lie between these ranges. The northern most range is known as the Great or Inner
Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’. It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks
with an average height of 6,000 metres. It contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks.
The folds of Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part of
Himalayas is composed of granite. It is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers
descend from this range.
The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system and is
known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed of highly
compressed and altered rocks. The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the
average width is of 50 Km. While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most
important range, the Dhaula Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges are also prominent ones. This
range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal
Pradesh. This region is well known for its hill stations.
The outer most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They extend over a width of

10-50Km and have an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres. These ranges are
composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan
ranges located farther north. These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium. The
longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns.
Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns Besides the
longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of regions from west
to east. These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys. For example, the part of
Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known as Punjab
Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to
east respectively. The part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali rivers is known
as Kumaon Himalayas. The Kali and Tista rivers demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the
part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas. There are
regional names also in these broad categories. Find out some regional names of the
Himalayas The Brahmaputra marks the eastern most boundary of the Himalayas. Beyond
the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern
boundary of India. They are known as the Purvachal or the Eastern hills and mountains.
These hills running through the north-eastern states are mostly composed of strong
sandstones which are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense forests, they mostly run as
parallel ranges and valleys. The Purvachal comprises the Patkai hills, the Naga hills,
Manipur hills and the Mizo hills.

Peninsular Plateau of India

The triangular shaped Peninsular Plateau of India extends from the south of Indo-Ganga
Plain to the Cape Comor (now Kanyakumari). This plateau is one of the oldest surfaces of
the Earth and represents a segregated part of the old Gondwanaland.

Physical features:
The Aravalli range in the west and the Satpura, the Mahadeo and the Kaimur range in the
south divide the Peninsular Plateau into two parts:

(i) The Central Indian Plateau in the north and (ii) The Deccan Plateau in the south of it. A
brief account of them is given below:

Central Indian Plateau:

The Aravalli mountain, extending between Delhi and Ahmedabad (also Amdavad) , lies in
the western flank of the plateau. Once a mighty fold mountain, it has been reduced now to a
low one by denudation through hundreds of millions of years.

Features:

 In its southern part the Abu Hills contain its highest peak, the Guru Sikhar (1722 m).
 The Satpura and the Vindhya ranges are two noted ranges of the plateau.
 The Tapti and the Narmada flow through two rift valleys and the Satpuras (600-900
m) represent a block mountain formed in between these two rights.
 Dhupgarh (1350 m) is its highest peak.
 East of the Satpuras run the Mahadeo and the Maikala Range in succession.
 The arcuate Vindhya range extending from near the western boundary of Madhya
Pradesh runs at first eastward and then northeastward.
 Manpur (881 m) is its highest peak.

The Deccan Plateau:

The Deccan Plateau is almost encircled by hills and mountains, viz. the Satpura, Mahadeo,
Kaimur ranges on the north, the Western Ghat on the west and the Eastern Ghat on the east.
The Deccan plateau forms a large portion of South India.

The Sahyadri or the Western Ghat rises steeply from the West Coastal Plain and
descends gently eastward. Thalghat near Nasik and Bhorghat near Pune are two mountain
gaps which connect Bombay (now Mumbai) and the West Coast to the rest of India by rail
and road.

The Eastern Ghat or the Malayadri runs east of the Deccan Plateau parallel to the East
coast. Eastern Ghats are not as continuous as Western Ghats and are much fragmented by
river valleys. The features of Eastern ghats are given below:

 The highest point of Eastern Ghats is Mahendragiri (1680 m).

  The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats meet at the Nilgiri Hills in South
Karnataka.
 Doddabetta (2637 m) is the highest peak of the Nilgiri mountains.
 South of the Nilgiri lies the Palghat Gap, which facilities easy communication
between Kerala and the interior of India.
 The Anaimalai Range runs south of the Palght Gap. Its highest peak Anaimudi (2695
m) is also the highest in South India. The Anaimalai throws off two branches viz. the
Palni Range in the north-east and the Cardamom or the Elumalai Range in the south.

The greater part of Maharashtra is lava plateau (volcanic plateau), called Deccan Trap. The
plateau resulted from horizontal disposition of lava while in liquid state. The dissection of
the plateau by rivers has given rise to flat topped hills or steps formed by differential
erosion on soft ash and hard lava beds. Besides, Maharashtra, Deccan trap is spread
over Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. A large portion of Deccan Plateau consists of volcanic
rocks (basalt). Several layers of volcanic eruptions that occurred for thousands of years
resulted in the formation of Deccan Trap.

East of Maharashtra lies the Upper Mahanadi Basin or the Chhattisgarh Plain, to the north
of which is the dissected Baghelkhand Plateau and to the south the mountainous
Dandakaranya.

In the north-eastern part of the Deccan and to the west of lower Gangetic Plain extends the
rectangular Chota Nagpur Plateau. The major central part of the plateau is constituted by
the extensive Ranchi Plateau at an average height of about 700 m. The edge of the Ranchi
Plateau is marked by several waterfalls of which Hundru, Jonha, Dasham and Hirni are
especially noteworthy. South of the Ranchi Plateau is the high and rugged Garhjat Hills.
The lava hills of Rajmahal marks the end of the Chota Nagpur Plateau on the north-east.

The Maharashtra Lava Plateau is flanked in the south-west by Karnataka Plateau and on the
south-east by the Telangana Plateau.

Indo-Gangetic Plain: 3 Divisions of the Ganga Plain in India

1. The Upper Ganga Plain,

2. The Middle Ganga Plain,
3. The Upper Lower Plain
This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India stretching from
Delhi to Kolkata in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal
covering an area of about 3.75 lakh sq km. The Ganga is the master
river after whose name this plain is named.

Image Courtesy : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Indo-Gangetic_Plain.png

The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries originating in the
Himalayan ranges viz., the Yamuna, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the
Gandak, the Kosi, etc. have brought large quantities of alluvium from
the mountains and deposited it here to build this extensive plain.

The peninsular rivers such as Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining
the Ganga river system have also contributed to the formation of this
plain. The general slope of the entire plain is to the east and south
east. Depending upon its geographical variations, this plain can be
further subdivided into the following three divisions:

(a) The Upper Ganga Plain.

(b) The Middle Ganga Plain.

(c) The Lower Ganga Plain.

(a) The Upper Ganga Plain:
Comprising the upper part of the Ganga Plain, this plain is delimited
by the 300 m contour in Shiwaliks in the north, the Peninsular
boundary in the south and the course of the Yamuna river in the west.
Its eastern boundary is rather obscure and has become a controversial
topic among geographers.

The limit drawn by L.D. Stamp and later adopted by O.H.K. Spate,
roughly corresponding with 100 cm isohyet seems to be far from being
practical. Physiographically, the 100 m contour (line joining places of
equal height) has been accepted by the geographers as the most
effective line of demarcation.

This plain is about 550 km long in the east-west direction and nearly
380 km wide in north-south direction, covering an approximate area
of 1.49 lakh sq km. Its elevation varies from 100 to 300 m above mean
sea level.

The plain is drained by the Ganga and its tributaries like the Yamuna,
the Ram Ganga, the Sarda, the Gomati and the Ghaghara rivers.
Almost all the rivers follow NW-SE course concomitant with the lie of
the land. The average gradient of the land is about 25 cm per km. The
gradient is comparatively steep in the northern part.

The rivers flow sluggishly in the plain as the gradient decreases. The
monotony of this flat and featureless plain is broken by the Tarai-
Bhabar submontane belt and on micro level by the river bluffs, river
meanders and oxbow lakes, levees, abandoned river courses, sandy
stretches (Bhurs) and the river channels themselves.

The western part of this plain consists of comparatively higher Ganga-

Yamuna Doab. East of this doab are the low lying Rohilkhand plains
which merge into the Avadh plains further east. The Ghaghara is the
main stream of the Avadh Plains.

The khadar of this river is very wide because the river meanders
through this area. Moreover it often changes its course. At places this
khadar is 55 km wide. Consequently, there is a consistent fear of
devastating floods.

(b) The Middle Ganga Plain:

To the east of the Upper Ganga plain is Middle Ganga plain occupying
eastern part of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It measures about 600 km in
east-west and nearly 330 km in north-south direction accounting for a
total area of about 1.44 lakh sq km. Its northern and southern
boundaries are well defined by the Himalayan foothills and the
Peninsular edge respectively.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Its western and eastern boundaries are rather ill defined and the
region is wide open on both the sides giving it the personality of the
east-west continuum of the vast isotropic Ganga Plain. There is no
physical boundary worth the name and the plain imperceptibly opens
up in the west from out of the upper Ganga Plain and so invisibly dies
out into the lower Ganga Plain in the east.
As such, it is a transitional region par excellence, interposed in the
enormity of the Ganga Valley. However, several efforts have been
made to demarcate the western and the eastern boundaries of this
transitional zone.

The most accepted boundaries are those made by 100 m contour in the
west, 75 m contour in the northeast and by 30 m contour in the south-
east. Obviously this is a very low plain, no part of which exceeds 150 m
in elevation.

This plain is drained by the Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rivers,
all tributaries of the Ganga coming from the Himalayas. These rivers
are responsible for filling up with alluvial deposits of 2,000 metre
deep trough at the foot of the Nepal Himalayas. They flow sluggishly in
this flat land as a result of which the area is marked by local
prominences such as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes, tals,
ravines, etc. The kankar formation is comparatively less due to the
preponderance of the khadar.

Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area
prone to frequent floods. The Kosi River is very notorious in this
respect. It used to flow near Purnea in 1736 and now its course is
about 110 km west of it. At occasions its water level has risen by 10
metres in a short span of 24 hours.

It has long been called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’. Strenuous efforts both by
India and Nepal are being made to tame this river. The major units of
this plain are Ganga-Ghaghara doab, Ghaghara-Gandak doab and
Gandak-Kosi doab (Mithila Plain).

Some rivers join the Ganga from the south also, the Son being the
most important. Here the gradient is a bit steeper, 45 cm per km, as
compared to 9-10 cm per km in east Uttar Pradesh and only 6 cm per
km in the Mithila Plain. East of Son River is the Magadh Plain.

(c) The Lower Ganga Plain:

This plain includes the Kishanganj tehsil of Purnea district in Bihar,
the whole of West Bengal (excluding the Purulia district and the
mountainous parts of Darjeeling district) and most parts of
Bangladesh. It measures about 580 km from the foot of the Darjeeling
Himalaya in the north to Bay of Bengal in the south and nearly 200
km from the Chotanagpur Highlands in the West to the Bangladesh
border in the east.

The total area of this plain is about 81 thousand sq km. Its width varies
greatly and it narrows down to a mere 16 km between the Rajmahal
Hills and the Bangladesh border. The 50 m contour roughly
corresponds with its western boundary.

The northern part of this plain has been formed by the sediment
deposited by the Tista, Jaldhaka and Torsa. Besides, this area is
marked by the Duars (Darjeeling Tarai) and the Barind plain, a tract of
old alluvium between the Kosi-Mahananda corridor in the west and
the river Sankosh in the east.
The delta formation accounts for about two-thirds of this plain. This is
the largest delta in the world. The Ganga river divides itself into
several channels in the delta area. The slope of the land here is a mere
2 cm per km. Two thirds of the area is below 30 m above mean sea
level.

The entire land upto Kolkata would be completely submerged if the

sea level rose by only 7 metre. The seaward face of the delta is studded
with a large number of estuaries, mud flats, mangrove swamps,
sandbanks, islands and forelands. Large part of the coastal delta is
covered by thick impenetrable tidal forests. These are called the
Sunderbans because of the predominance of Sundri tree here.

REFRENCES
https://study.com/academy/lesson/major-stratigraphic-divisions-of-india.

https://iasmania.com/physiographic-divisions-of-india

https://www.mapsofindia.com/500-things-to-know...india/geological-history-of-india

Stratigraphy of India by Ravindra kumar