buildings

Article
Smart Solar-Powered LED Outdoor Lighting System
Based on the Energy Storage Level in Batteries
Suhil Kiwan * ID
, Anwar Abo Mosali and Adnan Al-Ghasem
Mechanical Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and Technology, 22110 Irbid, Jordan;
anwaraym2012@gmail.com (A.A.M.); adnan100@just.edu.jo (A.A.-G.)
* Correspondence: kiwan@just.edu.jo




Received: 4 July 2018; Accepted: 29 August 2018; Published: 31 August 2018


Abstract: A novel smart solar-powered light emitting diode (LED) outdoor lighting system is
designed, built, and tested. A newly designed controller, that continuously monitors the energy
status in the battery and, accordingly, controls the level of illumination of the LED light to satisfy the
lighting requirements and/or to keep the light “on” the longest time possible, has been developed.
The use of such a reliable solar energy-driven lighting system, with maximum time when the light
is “on”, will eliminate the sudden-death of light problem present in conventional photovoltaic (PV)
outdoor lights and, therefore, will enhance the natural surveillance and feeling of safety in sustainable
buildings and cities. Furthermore, the new smart control eliminates the overdischarge of the system
battery and, thus, ensures a longer lifetime of the system battery. Experimental measurements on a
system using a 30 W LED light showed that the operating hours of the new system reached 29.16 h
(1750 min), while the operating hours for a similar conventional system were 20.86 h (1252 min).
Thus, the new lighting system was demonstrated, securing more than 40% of operating hours than
the conventional systems.

Keywords: solar PV lighting; solar energy; smart lighting system; LED outdoor light

1. Introduction
Demand for energy increases more and more as the global population grows, and economies of
the developing countries continue expanding and expected to be tripled by 2050. Nowadays, energy
resources come from hydrocarbon fuel, which is a finite resource and considered as one of the main
reasons for international conflicts [1]. Solar energy is one of the most attractive alternative energy
resources for many countries, including oil-producing countries. However, the continuous increase in
oil prices is forcing many countries to seek alternative sources of energy, for example, in countries like
Jordan, the average daily solar radiation is between 5.5–7.5 kWh/m2 , with sunshine duration of 3000 h
per year [2]. Photovoltaic (PV) technology presents a practical solution for numerous power application
problems in isolated areas, as well as in the center of the large cities. Stand-alone PV lighting systems
are one of the most common applications of PV. Since using energy-efficient lighting is an important
factor for sustainable development and energy strategies, the combination of high-efficiency PV with
LEDs allows the release of stand-alone PV lighting systems that provide a practical energy-efficient
solution for lighting systems [3].
Wu et al. [4] have presented and investigated the design of solar-powered LED roadway lighting
using high power LED luminaries (100 W), and estimated the total cost of installations for a 10 km
highway with two lanes. A comparison between LED lighting using solar power and grids, with
traditional mercury lamps, regarding cost, found that 75% of energy can be saved by using LED
lighting. Considering the payback and lifetime, LED lighting using solar power or grid power were
found to be economically feasible. Since energy efficiency is a major concern in designing off-grid

Buildings 2018, 8, 119; doi:10.3390/buildings8090119 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2018, 8, 119 2 of 18

renewable energy systems, [5] have presented a characterization of the potential benefits of using
LED lighting and conventional metal halide systems. They found that using LED luminaries is not a
direct replacement for metal halide systems when higher levels of luminance are required, since LED
light does not provide the same magnitude of illumination as metal halide. However, they presented
collected illumination data that may be useful in designing a renewable energy-powered microgrid that
uses multiple LED fixtures to illuminate an outdoor area to replace a conventional metal halide system.
Costa et al. [6] had suggested an autonomous street lighting system as an alternative for remote
localities, such as roads and crossroads. The suggested lighting system was implemented in DC to
present high efficiency and scotopic human sensitivity. Huang et al. [7] introduced a high-performance
charge/discharge controller for a stand-alone solar LED lighting system. The introduced controller
incorporates a near-maximum-power-point operation (nMPPO), pulse width modulation (PWM),
battery charge control, and a PWM battery discharge control to drive the LED directly from the battery.
A similar performance of maximum power point tracking (MPPT) was obtained with the introduced
controller by proper matching between the PV module specifications and the battery. They performed
a reliability test for the light decay of LED lamps, which showed that the light decay of PWM-driven
LED was the same as that of constant-current-driven LED. Based on this result, the DC/DC converter
was removed from the stand-alone solar system to eliminate the DC/DC conversion loss and cost. A
simple design for a direct current (DC) regulator has been proposed by Fathi et al. [8], the proposed
DC driver was implemented to solar LEDs lamp based on white diodes of phosphorus GaN, and it
was applied in a PV stand-alone outdoor lighting system.
Energy saving has become a more and more important motivation in illumination, so that a need
for light dimming arose to save energy, and became a must. Liu et al. [9] utilized a dimming control
method by varying switching frequency in their dimmable electronic ballast. The interface circuit for
analog dimming control had been analyzed and tested. The experimental results showed that the
ballast could dim the power of high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp from 33% to 100%, without acoustic
resonance, and with an efficiency higher than 90.3% through the whole dimming range.
Recently, Kim and Park [10] introduced an alternative design for community street lighting by
applying “Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design” (CPTED) concepts to enhance natural
surveillance and feelings of safety. They compared these alternatives to existing lighting. Yoomak and
Ngaopitakkku [11] developed an analysis of lighting quality for dry and wet road surfaces using the
DIALux software, and made a comparison between high pressure sodium (HPS) and LED luminaires.
Results show that the HPS luminaires can provide better average illuminance than LED luminaires,
however, LED luminaires can achieve better overall visual and comfort performances, including energy
saving, due to their light distribution efficiency. Campisi et al. [12] evaluated the feasibility of the
redevelopment of public lighting of the municipality of Rome. The consideration of the study was to
replace the conventional lamps with LED lamps. They focused on the factors that affect the project,
like energy and maintenance cost. Based on real options used to evaluate the economic cost-saving
of the project, they reported a reduction on the energy consumption and maintenance cost, lower
emission of CO2 into the atmosphere, and positive effects on the street. Campisi et al. [13] discussed
the techno-economic feasibility of replacing the traditional lamps in public lighting in Rome with LED
luminaires. They reported, based on the possible energy saving and cost, that despite the cost of the
LED luminaires, the use of LED technology is economically feasible.
Cucchiella et al. [14] investigated the economics of the photovoltaic energy systems with battery
storage for residential areas. They concluded that the benefits of such systems are higher in
countries that have high values of solar insolation, and suffer from an excessive energy cost and
a strong dependence on imports. Furthermore, they reported several break-even points (BEPs) of the
investments, at which the residential PV battery systems become economically viable.
Some solutions to enhance the energy efficiency of centralized lighting systems are recently
proposed in the literature [15,16]. There are two main differences between the system proposed in this
work and the work of Park et al. [15] and Elejoste et al. [16]. The system proposed in this paper applies
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 3 of 18

to stand-alone single light, while the others apply to centralized systems. The second difference is
that they worked on the demand management system, while in this work, the concentration was on
the supply system (i.e., battery). For instance, Park et al. [15] proposed smart energy management to
increase the power efficiency of the microgrid in conjunction with a distributed power supply. They
used a centralized ESS (energy storage system) to examine the problems related to ESS in the smart
grid. They applied a dispersion ESS and intelligent LED system to street light a city, and this system
has low cost and generates an easy-to-manage IoT (internet of things) environment. This system
reduced the installation cost by 33%, and made IoT-based intelligent energy, power monitoring of
street light, and efficient energy possible within a microgrid.
On the other hand, Elejoste et al. [16] presented an intelligent streetlight management system
based on LED lamps. This system aimed at minimizing the investment cost of traditional wired
systems using wireless communication technologies, which needs civil engineering for burying of
cables underground. The developed system helps to reduce the energy consumption. However, similar
energy efficient demand resource management applied by [16] to the microgrid can be applied to the
supply management system proposed by this work for the standalone system, to further enhance the
energy savings.
In this paper, the stand-alone LED lighting system is considered. The newly designed system
is equipped with a new controller, which is designed to enhance the efficiency of the system by the
efficient use of the available energy in the battery. The smartness of the new system comes from the
fact that the system main controller has continuous monitoring capabilities to measure the level of
energy in the battery and, based on the state of charge of the battery, the controller decides the level
of illumination of the light, to maximize the time when the light is on. Thus, the proposed system
uses the diming technique to increase the time when the light is “on” based on the available energy in
the battery.

2. The Main Concept of the New System

Conventional PV-lighting systems suffer from the sudden death of light. That is, once the level of
energy in the battery reaches the minimum value of the depth of discharge (DOD) with a constant
load, the light turns “off” suddenly. The newly proposed system will eliminate this problem by
disconnecting the load when the level of energy in the battery reaches a certain level. The new system
is composed of similar components to the conventional system, but the discharge controller is different.
The main modes of operations of the new system are as follows:

a. Charging Mode: During the day, the PV panels converts the solar energy into electrical energy
and store it in the battery.
b. Discharging Mode: During the night with no solar irradiation, the light requirements are
triggered via a photosensor. The controller turns the light “on”. Energy is then withdrawn
from the battery to turn the light load “on”. During this period, the controller keeps track of
the voltage of the battery. If the battery voltage reduces below a certain threshold (which will
be decided later) the dimmer starts to reduce the intensity of light. This will reduce the energy
withdrawal from the battery. A further drop in the battery voltage requires more dimming of
light, and then less withdrawal of energy from the battery and, thus, keeps the system “on”.
Using the newly controller will increase the time of using the energy stored in the battery, and
thus, the time of having the light “on”.

System Prototype
Although the proposed controller is built and tested on the PV-LED lighting system, it can be
used in all standalone solar-powered systems. These systems are off-grid systems that can provide
electrical power ranging from few milliwatts to kilowatts. Storage batteries are integrated with the
stand-alone PV systems to supply the load with electricity at night or when the solar radiation is low
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 4 of 18

(e.g., cloudy weather). Figure 1 shows a diagram of a typical stand-alone PV system for outdoor light.
The system
Buildings is composed
2018, 8, x FOR PEER of REVIEW
a PV panel, charge controller, battery, discharge controller, and a4 of bulb.
19

A prototype of the PV outdoor light was designed and built to carry out the experimental
A prototype of the PV outdoor light was designed and built to carry out the experimental
investigations on the
Buildings 2018, performance
8, x FOR PEER REVIEWof the new system, and compare it with conventional systems. 4 of 19 Thus,
investigations on the performance of the new system, and compare it with conventional systems.
the prototype is used twice: in the first time, it is used as a conventional system when the conventional
Thus, the prototypeofis the used twice: in the first time, it is used as a conventional system when the
controller isAused,
conventional
prototype
and for the
controller is
PV outdoor
second
used, and
lightthe
time,
for the
was designed
system
second time,
and built to
is equipped
the
carry
with
system is
out
the the controller.
new
equipped
experimentalFigure 2
with the new
investigations on the performance of the new system, and compare it with conventional systems.
demonstrates
controller. the general
Figure 2 assembly of the
demonstrates the prototype
general which hasofbeen
assembly the manufactured
prototype whichandhas
assembled
been at
Thus, the prototype is used twice: in the first time, it is used as a conventional system when the
Jordan University
manufactured
conventionaland ofcontroller
Science
assembled and atTechnology
Jordan
is used, and for (JUST).
University
the of Science
second time, theand Technology
system (JUST).
is equipped with the new
controller. Figure 2 demonstrates the general assembly of the prototype which has been
manufactured and assembled at Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST).

Figure
Figure 1. Typical
1. Typical photovoltaic(PV)
photovoltaic (PV) outdoor
outdoor light
lightsystem
systemcomponents.
components.
Figure 1. Typical photovoltaic (PV) outdoor light system components.

Figure 2. The general picture of the prototype.

Figure
Figure 2.2.The
Thegeneral
general picture
picture of
ofthe
theprototype.
prototype.
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 5 of 18

Though this system will be used for experimentation purposes, it was designed and sized using
the typical procedure of sizing real PV-LED lighting systems. Table 1 lists the general specifications of
the prototype.

Table 1. Sizing summary of prototype system components.

Application Stand-Alone Outdoor Lighting System

Location JUST
Latitude 32.5 N
Longitude 35.7 W
Loads
A1 Battery Voltage 12 volts
A2 Rated Wattage (LED Fixture) 30 W
A3 Hours Per Day Used 10 h
A4 Energy Per Day (A2 × A3) 300 Wh
A5 Total energy demand per day (A4) 300 Wh
A6 Total amp-hour demand per day (A5/A1) 25 Ah
A7 Peak dc power requirement (A2) 30 W
Battery sizing
B1 Days of storage required (autonomy) 3 days
B2 Allowable depth-of-discharge limit 0.75
B3 Required battery capacity (A6 × B1/B2) 100 Ah add 20% losses = 120 Ah
B4 Amp-hour selected battery (Philadelphia solar company) 100 Ah
B5 Number of batteries in parallel (B3/B4) 1 battery
B6 Number of batteries in series (A1/battery voltage) 1 battery
B7 Total number of batteries (B5 × B6) 1 battery
B8 Total battery amp-hour capacity (B5 × B4) 100 Ah
B9 Total battery kilowatt-hour capacity (B8 × A1/1000) 1.200 kWh
PV array sizing
C1 Total energy demand per day (A4) 300 Wh
C2 Battery round trip efficiency (0.70–0.85) 0.8
C3 Required array output per day (C1/C2) 375 Wh
C4 Selected PV module max power voltage at STC (x.85) 15.1 V
C5 Selected PV module guaranteed power output at STC 90 Wp
C6 Peek sum hours at design tilt for design month 5h
C7 Energy output per module per day (C5 × C6) 450 Wh
Module energy output at operating temperature (DF × C7)
C8 DF = 0.80 for hot climates and critical applications. 405 Wh
DF = 0.90 for moderate climates and non-critical applications
Number of modules required to meet energy requirements
C9 1 module
(C3/C8)
Number of modules required per string (A1/C4) rounded to the
C10 1 module
next higher integer
Number of strings in parallel (C9/C10) rounded to the next
C11 1 string
higher integer
C12 Number of modules to be purchased (C10 × C11) 1 module
C13 Nominal rated PV module output 90 Wp
C14 Nominal rated array output (C13 × C12) 90 W

3. New Smart Battery Discharge Controller Design

The specific objective of this controller is to control the DC current supplied to the load (LED light)
to maximize the time of using the available energy in the battery, and therefore, increase the system
operating hours with no sun. This controller brings other benefits to the system, such as protecting the
battery from being overdischarged, by turning the LED light off when the DOD of the battery reaches
a certain level.
The new smart controller is composed of hardware and software to derive the controller. The
controller was constructed using a low-cost programmable interface controller (PIC) microcontroller
and simulated using Proteus ISIS® Professional package. The next section explains both hardware and
software components.
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

The new smart controller is composed of hardware and software to derive the controller. The
controller was constructed using a low-cost programmable interface controller (PIC) microcontroller
and simulated
Buildings using Proteus ISIS® Professional package. The next section explains both hardware
2018, 8, 119 6 of 18
and software components.

3.1.
3.1. Hardware
Hardware Design
Design
The
The controller
controller is
is composed
composed of of five main parts
five main parts (subsystems);
(subsystems); thethe regulator,
regulator, scaling
scaling voltage
voltage circuit,
circuit,
light-dependent
light-dependent resistor (LDR) sensor circuitry, microcontroller unit, and LED driving circuit. The
resistor (LDR) sensor circuitry, microcontroller unit, and LED driving circuit. The
analog
analog signals received from sensors are converted into digital signals so they can be handled by the
signals received from sensors are converted into digital signals so they can be handled by the
microcontroller.
microcontroller. The
The block
block diagram
diagram ofof the
the overall
overall controller
controller is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 3,
3, while
while the
the complete
complete
schematic
schematic diagram
diagram forfor the
the complete
complete controller
controller is
is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure4. 4.

Built-in ADC
Battery
Voltage Scaling
Voltage LED
Driving
LDR Sensor Circuit
5 V regulated
PIC16F877A
Voltage
Microcontroller

Figure 3. Block diagram of the proposed smart discharge control system.

Figure 3. Block diagram of the proposed smart discharge control system.
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 7 of 18
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

Figure 4. Complete schematic diagram of a discharge controller.

Figure 4. Complete schematic diagram of a discharge controller.

Buildings 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2018, 8, x119
FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of 19
18
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

3.1.1. Power
3.1.1. Power Supply
Supply Circuit
Circuit
3.1.1. Power Supply Circuit
A 12–15
A 12–15 V V battery
battery is is used
used as
as aa power
power supply/store energy for
supply/store energy for the
the system.
system. AA 5V-L7805
5V-L7805 positive
positive
A 12–15
voltage V battery
regulator is is used
used to as a power
convert the supply/store
voltage from energy
the 12 V for the system.
battery to 5 V Aperfectly
to 5V-L7805drive
positive
the
voltage regulator is used to convert the voltage from the 12 V battery to 5 V to perfectly drive the
voltage regulator
microcontroller unit is used
unit (MCU) to
(MCU) andconvert
and some the voltage
some analog
analog ICs from
ICs andthe 12
and sensorV battery
sensor circuitry.to 5
circuitry. The V to
The L7805perfectly
L7805 positivedrive the
positive voltage
voltage
microcontroller
microcontroller
regulator circuit unit
circuit is (MCU)
is illustrated and
illustrated in some analog ICs and sensor circuitry. The L7805 positive voltage
regulator in Figure
Figure 5.
5.
regulator circuit is illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the 5 V regulated voltage.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the 5 V regulated voltage.

3.1.2. Voltage Scaling Circuit

3.1.2. Voltage Scaling
Scaling Circuit
Circuit
The voltage divider circuit, shown in Figure 6, is used to scale the voltage measured from the
The voltage divider circuit, shown in Figure 6, is used to scale the voltage measured from the
battery to the level that can be handled by the microcontroller (from 15 V to 5 V). It is composed of
to the
battery to the level
levelthat
thatcan
canbe
behandled
handledby
bythe
themicrocontroller
microcontroller (from
(from 1515 V to
V to 5 V).
5 V). It isIt composed
is composed of
of R1
R1 = 20 kΩ and R2 = 10 kΩ.
R120= kΩ
= 20 kΩ
andand
R2 R2 = 10
= 10 kΩ.kΩ.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a voltage scaling circuit.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a voltage scaling circuit.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a voltage scaling circuit.

Buildings 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2018, 8, 119
x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18
19

3.1.3. LDR Sensor Circuit

3.1.3. LDR Sensor Circuit
LDR is a resistor in which its value changes proportionally to the change of the incident light
LDRfalling
intensity is a resistor in which
on its surface. Itsits value changes
primary functionproportionally
here is to detectto the change
sunlight of the
to trigger theincident light
main circuit
intensity falling on its surface. Its primary function here is to detect sunlight
of the system: “on” when there is no light, and “off” when sunlight is detected. LDR is made of a to trigger the main circuit
of the system: “on”
semiconductor when
material there
with highis no light, and
resistance, “off”
like when sunlight
cadmium is detected.
sulfide (CdS) LDR is made
and cadmium of
selenide
a(CdSe).
semiconductor material with high resistance, like cadmium sulfide (CdS)
The LDR construction of reference [17] is used because it gives a minimum area and and cadmium selenide
(CdSe).
maximum Thelength
LDR construction
from CdS. Itofisreference
fixed on[17]the is used because
surface it gives substrate
of the ceramic a minimum in area and maximum
the form of zigzag
length
wire. from CdS. It is fixed on the surface of the ceramic substrate in the form of zigzag wire.
The
The sensor
sensor is enclosed in
is enclosed in aa circular
circular metallic
metallic or plastic case
or plastic case with
with two
two terminals,
terminals, and and covered
covered with
with
glass to protect it from moisture and dust. It is used in many applications like fire
glass to protect it from moisture and dust. It is used in many applications like fire alarms, Lux meters, alarms, Lux meters,
and
and outdoor
outdoor light
lightcontrollers.
controllers.The Theblock
blockdiagram
diagramofof the sensor
the function
sensor function and thethe
and schematic
schematicdiagram for
diagram
the sensor are shown in Figure 7
for the sensor are shown in Figure 7 [18]. [18].

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the LDR sensor.

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the LDR sensor.

3.1.4. Microcontroller Unit

3.1.4. Microcontroller Unit
The programmable interface controller (PIC) (Microchip Technology Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) is
The programmable interface controller (PIC) (Microchip Technology Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) is a
a small computer on a single integrated circuit composed of a relatively simple central processing
small computer on a single integrated circuit composed of a relatively simple central processing unit
unit (CPU), timers, input/output (I/O) ports, and volatile memory (RAM) and non-volatile memory,
(CPU), timers, input/output (I/O) ports, and volatile memory (RAM) and non-volatile memory, ROM.
ROM. Microcontrollers are, generally, designed for small and dedicated applications (not general
Microcontrollers are, generally, designed for small and dedicated applications (not general purpose
purpose applications), such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, and
applications), such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, and remote
remote controls. PIC16F877A microcontroller (Microchip Technology Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) from
controls. PIC16F877A microcontroller (Microchip Technology Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) from Microchip
Microchip Technology is selected in this controller because it is a very popular MCU, due to its
Technology is selected in this controller because it is a very popular MCU, due to its availability, low
availability, low cost, and simplicity in design. The PIC16F877A is the superset MCU in the PIC16
cost, and simplicity in design. The PIC16F877A is the superset MCU in the PIC16 family of MCUs, with
family of MCUs, with most of the features, and it was the most high-end device in the PIC16 family
most of the features, and it was the most high-end device in the PIC16 family until the new PIC16F887
until the new PIC16F887 was released. It is now recommended by Microchip for new designs. The
was released. It is now recommended by Microchip for new designs. The differences between both the
differences between both the PIC16F877A and the PIC16F887 are limited [19–21].
PIC16F877A and the PIC16F887 are limited [19–21].
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is used to generate signals of varying frequency and duty cycle.
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is used to generate signals of varying frequency and duty cycle.
Two modules, CCP1 and CCP2, of PIC16F877A chip are designated to generate the PWM signals,
Two modules, CCP1 and CCP2, of PIC16F877A chip are designated to generate the PWM signals,
which are used in this work to drive the LED.
which are used in this work to drive the LED.
The analog to digital converters (A/D) convert an analog input signal into a digital signal. The
The analog to digital converters (A/D) convert an analog input signal into a digital signal. The
PIC16F877A chip has 8 input channels and a 10-bit analog-to-digital module. In this study, two input
PIC16F877A chip has 8 input channels and a 10-bit analog-to-digital module. In this study, two input
channels are used to read the analog signals produced by LDR sensors and battery voltage, and
channels are used to read the analog signals produced by LDR sensors and battery voltage, and convert
convert them to a digital signal. The connection of the MCU is shown in Figure 8.
them to a digital signal. The connection of the MCU is shown in Figure 8.
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 10 of 18
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

Figure 8. Microcontroller unit circuit with input/output.

Figure 8. Microcontroller unit circuit with input/output.
3.1.5. LED Driving Circuit by PWM
3.1.5. LED Driving Circuit by PWM
To control the level of the light intensity of the LED, the driving circuit of LED is designed as
showncontrol
To the9.level
in Figure of the the
It receives light intensity
PWM signalof thethe
from LED, the driving
PIC16F877A circuit
chip of LEDduty
at a varying is designed
cycle, to as
shown in Figure 9. It receives the PWM signal from the PIC16F877A
switch the lamp on and off. The driving circuit components are as follows: chip at a varying duty cycle, to
switch the lamp on and off. The driving circuit components are as follows:
• Optocoupler is an electronic device that transfers an electrical signal from one section of a circuit
• to another. is
Optocoupler It an
is composed of an infrared-emitting
electronic device that transfers an LED diodesignal
electrical that is,
fromoptically, in lineofwith
one section a
a circuit
light-sensitive silicon semiconductor transistor, all enclosed in the same package
to another. It is composed of an infrared-emitting LED diode that is, optically, in line with a [22]. It is used
in this study silicon
light-sensitive to isolate the PIC16F877A
semiconductor chip circuit,
transistor, which operates
all enclosed at 5 V,
in the same from the
package LED
[22]. It lamp
is used
driving circuit, which operates at 12 V.
in this study to isolate the PIC16F877A chip circuit, which operates at 5 V, from the LED lamp
• Push–pull output: It is an electronic circuit that uses a pair of active transistor Negative-Positive-
driving circuit, which operates at 12 V.
Negative type NPN (denoted by Q2 in Figure 9) connected to a positive voltage and a Positive-
• Push–pull output: It is an electronic circuit that uses a pair of active transistor
Negative-Positive type PNP (Q1) connected to a negative voltage. This circuit is used to enhance
Negative-Positive-Negative type NPN (denoted by Q2 in Figure 9) connected to a positive
turn on–turn off for the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and suppress
voltage and aspikes
the current Positive-Negative-Positive
to enhance the operating type PNP (Q1)for
conditions connected
the PWMto a negative
signals voltage.
generated by theThis
circuit is used to enhance
PIC16F877A chip [23,24]. turn on–turn off for the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
• MOSFET:and
(MOSFET) suppress the current spikes to enhance the operating conditions for the PWM
It is an important component in relatively high frequency, high-efficiency switching
signals generated
applications in the by electronic
the PIC16F877A
circuits.chip [23,24].
In this study, it is used to drive the LED streetlight using
• MOSFET:
the PWM It is an important
signals. IRLZ44Ncomponent in relatively
n-channel MOSFET withhigh
49 Afrequency, high-efficiency
drains current and very low switching
on-
applications
resistance of 17.5 mΩ is used in the driving circuit, provided with a heat sink to protect it fromthe
in the electronic circuits. In this study, it is used to drive the LED streetlight using
PWMbeingsignals. IRLZ44N
overheated. n-channel diagram
The schematic MOSFETofwith 49 Adriving
the LED drains circuit
currentisand very low
showing on-resistance
in Figure 9.
of 17.5 mΩ is used in the driving circuit, provided with a heat sink to protect it from being
overheated. The schematic diagram of the LED driving circuit is showing in Figure 9.
 Buildings 2018, 8, 119 11 of 18
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of LED driving circuit by PWM.

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of LED driving circuit by PWM.

3.2. Controller Software

3.2. Controller Software
The discharge control of the outdoor light system algorithm was constructed and implemented
The discharge control of the outdoor light system algorithm was constructed and implemented
based on battery load voltage. The programming language used to execute this algorithm was
based ®on battery load voltage. The programming language used to execute this algorithm was
MikroBasic pro (version 1, mikroElektronika, Belgrade, Serbia). Figure 10 shows the flowchart that
MikroBasic® pro (version 1, mikroElektronika, Belgrade, Serbia). Figure 10 shows the flowchart that
describes the sequence of the algorithm. This algorithm was constructed according to the
describes the sequence of the algorithm. This algorithm was constructed according to the characteristics
characteristics of the battery given by the manufacturer.
of the battery given by the manufacturer.
Long debates and literature reviews have been carried out to decide the best indicator to
measure the Long debates
level and literature
of energy reviews
in a battery. have
In this beenitcarried
work, out totodecide
is decided use the the“load
best indicator
voltage” to as measure
an
indicator. This means that to decide the level of illumination of the light, read the battery voltage This
the level of energy in a battery. In this work, it is decided to use the “load voltage” as an indicator.
whenmeans that
the light is to
on,decide the level
then make the of illumination
decision. Reading of the
openlight, read sometimes
voltage the battery gives
voltage whenindication
a false the light is on,
then make the decision. Reading open voltage sometimes gives a false
because the chemical reaction inside the battery is active. To decide the levels of stepping down indication because thelight
chemical
levelsreaction
for thisinside
system,the battery
the load is active.
voltageTocurvedecideforthethe
levels
used of stepping down light
battery (gel-acid) is levels for this system,
experimentally
the load voltage curve for the used battery (gel-acid) is experimentally
measured as shown in Figure 11 using the experimental setup shown in Figure 12. The results measured as shown in Figure
are 11
obtained by applying a constant load (LED light) to the gel-acid battery, while continuously load
using the experimental setup shown in Figure 12. The results are obtained by applying a constant
(LED light)
measuring to the voltage
the battery gel-aciduntil battery,
the while continuously
light turns off. Figure measuring the battery
11 also shows voltagedischarge
how battery until the light
turns off. Figure 11 also shows how battery discharge curve is used
curve is used in this work, and it is divided into five regions. The first region (R1) when the in this work, and it isload
divided
into
voltage (Vfive regions. The first region (R1) when the load voltage (VB ) is or
B) is greater than 12 V, the second region (R2) when VB is less than
greater
equal than 12 V,greater
12 V and the second
region (R2) when V B is less than or equal 12 V and greater than 11.5 V, the
than 11.5 V, the third region (R3) when VB is less than or equal 11.5 V and greater than 11 V, the fourth third region (R3) when VB is
less than or equal 11.5 V and greater than 11 V, the fourth region
region (R4) when VB is less than or equal 11 V and greater than 10 V, and the fifth region (R4) when V B is less than
(R5) when or equal
VB is 11 V and
less thangreater
or equal than 1010 V,V,which
and theis fifth regionregion.
the cutoff (R5) when TheVProteus
B is less ISIS
than® or equal 8,
version 10 Labcenter
V, which is the
cutoff region. The Proteus ISIS ® version 8, Labcenter Electronics Ltd., Yorkshire, England) Professional
Electronics Ltd., Yorkshire, England) Professional package was used to simulate the program before
package was
downloading it intoused
the to simulate the
PIC16F877A program before downloading it into the PIC16F877A chip.
chip.
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 12 of 18
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

Figure 10. Flowchart of the discharge controller algorithm.

Figure 10. Flowchart of the discharge controller algorithm.
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 13 of 18
Buildings
Buildings2018,
2018,8,8,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 13
13of
of19
19

14
14

12
12
(V)
voltage (V)
Load voltage 10
10

88

66
Load

44 R1
R1 R2
R2 R3
R3 R4
R4 R5
R5

22

00
00 100
100 200
200 300
300 400
400 500
500 600
600 700
700
Time
Time(min)
(min)

Figure 11. Battery discharge curve regions.

Figure
Figure11.
11.Battery
Batterydischarge
dischargecurve
curveregions.
regions.

Figure
Figure12.
12.Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofthe
theexperimental
experimentalsetup.
setup.
Figure 12. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

4.4.Experimental
ExperimentalProcedure
Procedure
4. Experimental Procedure
The
The following
following are
are thethe steps
steps that
that have
have been
been followed
followed during
during inquiring
inquiring data
data from
from thethe system
system toto
The following are the steps that have been followed during inquiring data from the system to
evaluate
evaluatethe thesystem
systemperformance.
performance.ItItshouldshouldbebenoted
notedthat
thatthis
thisexperiment
experimenthashasbeen
beencarried
carriedoutoutinside
inside
evaluate
the the system performance. It should be noted that thisthe
experiment has been carried LEDout inside
thelaboratory
laboratoryto toensure
ensurecomplete
completedarkness
darknessandandensure
ensurethat
that theonly
onlysource
sourceofoflight
lightisisthe
the LEDbulb.
bulb.
the
The laboratory to ensure complete darkness and ensure that the only source of light is the LED bulb.
Themeasurements
measurementsof oflight
lightintensity
intensitywere
weretaken
takenusing
usingthe
theLDR
LDRsensors
sensorsand
andatatdifferent
differentlocations
locationsonon
The
the measurements of light isintensity were taken using the LDR sensors and at differentand locations on
theground.
ground.The TheLED
LEDlight
light is66m mabove
abovethetheground.
ground.AllAllmeasured
measureddatadatawere
werecollected
collected andstored
storedinin
the ground.
the computer The LEDdata
using lightacquisition
is 6 m above the ground.
system. At the All measured
beginning of data experiment,
each were collected the and stored
battery in
was
the computer using data acquisition system. At the beginning of each experiment, the battery was
the computer
ensured usingcharged.
data acquisitionthe system. At the beginning of each experiment, the battery was
ensuredto tobe
befully
fully charged.During
During theexperimentations,
experimentations,many
manyphysical
physicalquantities
quantitieswere
weremeasured:
measured:
ensured
DC to be fully charged. During the experimentations, manyintensity
physical quantities were measured:
DC current
current withdrawn
withdrawn from from the
the battery,
battery, battery
battery voltage,
voltage, light
light intensity at
at different
different locations,
locations, and
and
DC current
ambient withdrawn
temperature. The from
datathe battery,
acquisition battery
system voltage,
gets the light
data intensity
from at
sensorsdifferent
with a locations,
scan rate of and
one
ambient temperature. The data acquisition system gets the data from sensors with a scan rate of one
minute.
minute.Figure
Figure12 12shows
showsaaschematic
schematicdiagram
diagramofofthe
theexperimental
experimentalsetup.
setup.
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 14 of 18

Buildings
ambient2018, 8, x FOR PEER
temperature. REVIEW
The data acquisition system gets the data from sensors with a scan rate 14 ofofone
19

minute. Figure 12 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

Moreover,
Moreover, the
the experiment
experiment was
was repeated
repeated several
several times
times for
for two
two cases.
cases. In
In the
the first
first case,
case, the
the newly
newly
designed
designed controller
controller is
is used,
used, and
and in
in the
the other
other case,
case, the
the conventional
conventional controller
controller isis used.
used. TheThe findings
findings of
of
each
each case
case are
are presented
presented next.
next.

5.
5. Results
Results

5.1.
5.1. CASE
CASE1:
1:New
NewSmart
SmartController
Controller
In
Inthis
thiscase,
case,the battery
the batteryis fully charged,
is fully charged,thenthen
the PVtheisPV
disconnected,
is disconnected,and the andLEDthelampLEDislampturned is
on. During
turned on. the daytime,
During the LED lamp
the daytime, the LEDis automatically turned off turned
lamp is automatically by the controller.
off by the Over the testing
controller. Over
days, the readings
the testing days, the of readings
the sensors andsensors
of the battery and
loadbattery
voltageloadwerevoltage
registered
wereusing a datausing
registered acquisition
a data
system.
acquisition system.
Figure
Figure 1313 shows
shows thethe time
time variation
variation ofof the
the load
load voltage
voltage ofof the
the battery
battery during
during thethe experiment.
experiment. The The
load
load voltage
voltagereaches
reaches1010VV(minimum
(minimum value)
value)after 1750
after 1750min, then
min, the the
then lightlight
is turned off. Itoff.
is turned canItbe seen
can be
from the figure
seen from that that
the figure the voltage, immediately
the voltage, immediately after thethe
after light turns
light off,off,
turns jumps
jumps totoaround
around1111V. V. The
The
readings
readings taken
taken after
after the
the light
light turns
turns off
off represent
represent thethe open
open voltage
voltage forfor the
the battery,
battery, which
which is is why
why itit
increases.
increases. This
This behavior
behavior supports
supports our our decision
decision toto use
use load
load voltage
voltage forfor deciding
deciding on on energy
energy levellevel inside
inside
the
the battery.
battery. Another
Another reason
reason forfor this
this sudden
sudden increase
increase is is partly
partly because
because of of the
the active
active chemical
chemical reaction
reaction
inside
inside the
the battery.
battery.
Figure
Figure 14
14 shows
shows thethe variation
variation of of the
theelectric
electriccurrent
current with
with time.
time. The
Theelectric
electriccurrent
currentvaries
variesbecause
because
the
the load
loadwaswasvarying,
varying,due duetoto thethe
dimming
dimming process
processderived
derivedfrom the the
from controller. Figure
controller. 15 proves
Figure that
15 proves
the
thatamount
the amountof energy withdrawn
of energy withdrawn fromfrom
the battery changes
the battery with with
changes the load variation
the load driven
variation by the
driven by
dimmer
the dimmer and and
activated by the
activated by thecontroller
controllerin in
Figure
Figure 16.16.
The
The total
totalenergy
energywithdrawn
withdrawnfrom fromthe the fully
fully
charged
charged battery
battery isis 619
619 Wh.
Wh.

14

12
Battery load voltage, V

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time of operation, min.

Figure 13. Variation of battery voltage during system operation with the smart controller.
Figure 13. Variation of battery voltage during system operation with the smart controller.
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
Buildings 2018, 2018,
Buildings 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
8, 119 15 of 19
15 of 18
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
3.00
3.00 2.35A avg. at
3.00 2.35A avg.
100%Duty at
cycle
2.50
2.50 2.35A avg.
100%Duty at
cycle 1.96A avg. at
2.50 100%Duty cycle 1.96A avg.cycle
80% Duty at
AAA
2.00 1.96A avg.cycle
80% Duty at
current,
current, 2.00 80% Duty cycle1.42A avg. at
2.00 1.42A avg.cycle
60% Duty at
current,
1.50
1.50 1.42A avg.cycle
60% Duty at
0.89A avg. at
60% Duty cycle
Load

1.50 0.89A avg.cycle

40% Duty at
1.00
Load

0.89A avg.cycle
40% Duty at
1.00
Load

40% Duty cycle

1.00
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.00 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0.00 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 500 Time,
1000min. 1500 2000
Time, min.
Time, min.
Figure 14. Variation of load (discharge) current during system operation with the smart controller.
Figure 14. Variation
Figure of load
14. Variation of (discharge) current
load (discharge) during
current system
during operation
system with with
operation the smart controller.
the smart controller.
Figure 14. Variation of load (discharge) current during system operation with the smart controller.
35
35
35
30
30
30
25
28.97W avg. 22.97W avg.
25
28.97W avg. 22.97W avg.
25
28.97W avg. 22.97W avg.
20
WWW

20 16.07W avg.
16.07W avg.
Power,

20
15
16.07W avg.
Power,

15 9.48W avg.
Power,

15
10 9.48W avg.
10 9.48W avg.
105
5
50
0 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 0
-5 500 1000 1500 2000
-5 0 500 Time,
1000min. 1500 2000
-5 Time, min.
Time, min.
Figure 15. Power
Figure of theofload
15. Power the during system
load during operation
system with with
operation the smart controller.
the smart controller.
Figure 15. Power of the load during system operation with the smart controller.
Figure 15. Power of the load during system operation with the smart controller.
30.00
30.00
30.00
25.00
25.00 25.62 Lux avg.
Lux

25.00
20.00 25.62 Lux avg. 19.26 Lux avg.
Lux

20.00 25.62 Lux avg. 19.26 Lux avg.

Lux

19.26 Lux avg.

Intensity,

20.00
15.00
14.33 Lux avg.
Intensity,

15.00
14.33 Lux avg.
Intensity,

15.00
14.33 Lux avg.
10.00 8.27 Lux avg.
10.00 8.27 Lux avg.
Light

10.00
5.00 8.27 Lux avg.
Light

5.00
Light

5.00
0.00
0.00 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0.00 0
-5.00 500 1000 1500 2000
-5.00 0 500 Time,
1000min. 1500 2000
Time, min.
-5.00
Figure 16. Variation of light intensity at the floor directlymin.
Time, under the LED and 6 m away with using the
Figure 16. Variation of light intensity at the floor directly under the LED and 6 m away with using
smart
Figure controller.of light intensity at the floor directly under the LED and 6 m away with using
16.controller.
Variation
the smart
Figure
the smart controller. of light intensity at the floor directly under the LED and 6 m away with using
16. Variation
the smart controller.
 Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

5.2. CASE
Buildings
Buildings 2:8,8,
2018,
2018, Conventional Controller
x FOR PEER REVIEW
119 16 of 19 16 of 18

The battery
5.2. CASE is fully charged
2: Conventional and the system operated as in the previous case, continuously, until
Controller
the battery is fully discharged. Figures 17–20 show that the light suddenly turns off after 1250 min of
5.2. CASEThe 2: Conventional
battery is fullyandController
charged andconsumption
the system operated
operation. The voltage energy decreaseaslinearly
in the previous case,1000
for the first continuously,
min, and until
then
the battery
start
The is
to decreasefully
battery is discharged.
sharply. Figures
The energy
fully charged and 17–20 show
delivered that
by the
the system the light suddenly
battery toasthe
operated in load turns off after
during thiscase,
the previous 1250
test was min
618 Wh,of until
continuously,
operation. The voltage and energy consumption decrease linearly for the first 1000 min, and then
thewhich is almost
battery thedischarged.
is fully same amountFigures
delivered during
17–20 the new
show thatcontroller
the lighttests (619 Wh).
suddenly turns off after 1250 min
start to decrease sharply. The energy delivered by the battery to the load during this test was 618 Wh,
of operation. The voltage and energy consumption decrease linearly for the first 1000 min, and then
which is almost the same amount delivered during the new controller tests (619 Wh).
start to decrease sharply. The energy delivered by the battery to the load during this test was 618 Wh,
which is almost the same
14 amount delivered during the new controller tests (619 Wh).
V V

12
load voltage,

14
10
12
load voltage,

8
10
6
8
4
Battery

6
2
4
Battery

0
2 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0 Time, min.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time, min.
Figure 17. Battery discharge voltage behavior without the smart controller.

Figure Batterydischarge
17. Battery
Figure 17. discharge voltage
voltage behavior
behavior without
without the smart
the smart controller.
controller.

2.53
A A

2
2.5
current,

1.52
current,

1
1.5
Lasd Lasd

0.51

0
0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
-0.50
0
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 200 400 600Time,
800min.1000 1200 1400 1600 17 of 19
-0.5
Figure
Figure18.
18.Load current
Load current Time,
without themin.
without smart controller.
the smart controller.

Figure 18. Load current without the smart controller.

35
30
25
20
Power, W

15
10
5
0
0 500 1000 1500
-5
Time, min.

Figure 19. Power consumed without the smart controller.

Figure 19. Power consumed without the smart controller.

30

25
ity, Lux

20
 0
0 500 1000 1500
-5
Time, min.

Buildings 2018, 8, 119 17 of 18

Figure 19. Power consumed without the smart controller.

30

25
Light Intensity, Lux
20

15

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
-5
Time, min.

Figure 20. Variation of light intensity at the floor directly under the LED and 6 m away without using
Figure 20. Variation of light intensity at the floor directly under the LED and 6 m away without using
the smart controller.
the smart controller.

6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In this work, a novel simple solar driven LED outdoor lighting system is designed, built, and
In this work, a novel simple solar driven LED outdoor lighting system is designed, built, and
tested. The lighting system is equipped with a newly designed controller. This controller aims at
tested. The lighting system is equipped with a newly designed controller. This controller aims at
elongating the time of operation of the standalone lighting system by managing the withdrawal of
elongating the time of operation of the standalone lighting system by managing the withdrawal of
energy from the system battery and keeping the light “on” as long as possible. The test results showed
energy from the system battery and keeping the light “on” as long as possible. The test results showed
that the designed controller was operating as designed. The operation hours of the newly designed
that the designed controller was operating as designed. The operation hours of the newly designed
system are compared with the conventional system. Results showed that the operating hours of
system are compared with the conventional system. Results showed that the operating hours of the
the system with the new controller reached 29.16 h (1750 min), while the operating hours for the
system with the new controller reached 29.16 h (1750 min), while the operating hours for the
conventional system were 20.86 h (1252 min).
conventional system were 20.86 h (1252 min).
Finally, it is worth addressing the issue of the cost of the new controller. The cost of all main
Finally, it is worth addressing the issue of the cost of the new controller. The cost of all main
parts of the controller developed in this work, which include the regulator, scaling voltage circuitry,
parts of the controller developed in this work, which include the regulator, scaling voltage circuitry,
LDR sensor circuitry, a microcontroller unit, and the LED driving circuit, is about $60. Moreover,
LDR sensor circuitry, a microcontroller unit, and the LED driving circuit, is about $60. Moreover, it
it is believed that the cost of manufacturing the new controller will not be much higher than the
is believed that the cost of manufacturing the new controller will not be much higher than the
conventional one. The additional cost of the new controller over the lifetime of such systems can be
conventional one. The additional cost of the new controller over the lifetime of such systems can be
easily justified, especially when the security and the lifetime improvements of the battery achieved, by
avoiding the overdischarge in conventional systems, are considered.

Author Contributions: All the authors collaborated in the study and the paper elaboration. In particular, S.K.
designed the study, established the parameters to be assessed and followed-up the data analysis and finalized the
paper writing. He is also the corresponding author. A.A.M. is a master student who carried out the literature
review, prepared the experimental setup and carried out the experimentations. Furthermore, A.A.M. analyzed the
data and drafted the paper. A.A.-G. followed the building and testing of the controller.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Deanship of Research—Jordan
University of Science and Technology—for funding this research under grant no. 144 in 2012.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The sponsor had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data and the writing of the manuscript.

References
1. Foster, R.; Ghassemi, M.; Cota, A. Solar Energy—Renewable Energy and the Environment, 1st ed.; Taylor and
Francis Group, LLC.: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2010.
2. Alata, M.; Al-Nimr, M.; Qaroush, Y. Developing a multipurpose sun tracking system using fuzzy control.
Energy Convers. Manag. 2005, 46, 1229–1245. [CrossRef]
Buildings 2018, 8, 119 18 of 18

3. Fathi, M.; Chikouche, A. LEDs application to the photovoltaic street lighting. In Proceedings of the
International Conference on Renewable Energy (ICRE), Damascus, Syria, 5–8 April 2010.
4. Wu, M.S.; Huang, H.H.; Huang, B.J.; Tang, C.W.; Cheng, C.W. Economic feasibility of solar-powered led
roadway lighting. Renew. Energy 2009, 34, 1934–1938. [CrossRef]
5. Sperber, A.N.; Elmore, A.C.; Mariesa, L.; Jeffrey, D.C. Performance evaluation of energy efficient lighting
associated with renewable energy applications. Renew. Energy 2012, 44, 423–430. [CrossRef]
6. Costa, M.; Costa, G.H.; Anderson, S.; Schuch, L.; José, R. High Efficiency Autonomous Street Lighting System
Based on Solar Energy and Leds; Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers: Piscataway Township, NJ,
USA, 2009.
7. Huang, B.J.; Wu, M.S.; Hsu, P.C.; Chen, J.W.; Chen, K.Y. Development of high-performance solar LED lighting
system. Energy Convers. Manag. 2010, 51, 1669–1675. [CrossRef]
8. Fathi, M.; Chikouche, A.; Abderrazak, M. Design and realization of LED Driver for solar street lighting
Applications. Energy Procedia 2011, 6, 160–165. [CrossRef]
9. Liu, H.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Xu, D.; Guo, L. Dimmable Electronic Ballast for 250W HPS Lamp in Street
Lighting with Analog Dimming Interface Circuit. In Proceedings of the APEC 07—Twenty-Second Annual
IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, Anaheim, CA, USA, 25 February–1 March 2007.
[CrossRef]
10. Kim, D.; Park, S. Improving community street lighting using CPTED: A case study of three communities in
Korea. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2017, 28, 233–241. [CrossRef]
11. Yoomak, S.; Ngaopitakkku, A. Optimisation of lighting quality and energy efficiency of LED luminaires in
roadway lighting systems on different road surfaces. Smart Cities Soc. 2018, 38, 333–347. [CrossRef]
12. Campisi, D.; Gitto, S.; Morea, D. Economic feasibility of energy efficiency improvements in street lighting
systems in Rome. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 175, 190–198. [CrossRef]
13. Campisi, D.; Gitto, S.; Morea, D. Light Emitting Diodes technology in public light system of the Municipality
of Rome: An economic and financial analysis. Int. J. Energy Econ. Policy 2017, 7, 200–208.
14. Cucchiella, F.; D’Adamo, I.; Gastaldi, M. Photovoltaic energy systems with battery storage for residential
areas: An economic analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 131, 460–474. [CrossRef]
15. Park, S.; Kang, B.; Choi, M.; Jeon, S.; Park, S. A micro-distributed ESS-based smart LED streetlight system for
intelligent demand management of the micro grid. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2018, 39, 801–813. [CrossRef]
16. Elejoste, P.; Angulo, I.; Perallos, A.; Chertudi, A.; Zuazola, I.J.G.; Moreno, A.; Azpilicueta, L.; Astrain, J.J.;
Falcone, F.; Villadangos, J. An easy to deploy street light control system based on wireless communication
and LED technology. Sensors 2013, 13, 6492–6523. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Light Dependent Resistors. Available online: http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/ldr1.htm (accessed
on 10 April 2018).
18. What Is LDR? Basics of Light Dependent Resistor. 2011. Available online: http://vsagar.com/2011/12/ldr-
basics-light-dependent-resistor/ (accessed on 20 October 2017).
19. Sandhu, H. Making PIC Microcontroller Instruments and Controllers, 1st ed.; McGraw-Hill, Inc.: New York, NY,
USA, 2009.
20. Hellebuyck. Programming PIC Microcontrollers with PicBasic, 1st ed.; Elsevier Science: New York, NY,
USA, 2003.
21. Wilmshurst, T. Designing Embedded Systems with PIC Microcontrollers Principles and Applications, 2nd ed.;
Elsevier Ltd.: Oxford, UK, 2007.
22. Basic Electronics Tutorials Blog, Optocoupler, 29 April 2011. Available online: http://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/blog/optocoupler.html (accessed on 20 October 2017).
23. Chadderton, N. Power MOSFET Gate Driver Circuits using High Current Super-B Transistors. In Application
Note 18; Zetex: Oldham, UK, 1996.
24. eCircuitCenter, Push-Pull Output Stage. Available online: http://www.ecircuitcenter.com/Circuits.htm
(accessed on 20 October 2017).

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).