VOLCANIC HAZARDS

Source: Department of Science and Technology

PHILIPPINE INSTITUTE OF VOLCANOLOGY AND SEISMOLOGY

FORMATION OF A VOLCANO

The term VOLCANO signifies a vent, hill or mountain from which molten or hot rocks with gaseous
materials are ejected. The term also applies to craters, hills or mountains formed by removal of pre-
existing materials or by accumulation of ejected materials.

Subduction Zone Volcanism (Convergent)

Subduction zone volcanism occurs where two plates are converging on one another. One plate
containing oceanic lithosphere descends beneath the adjacent plate, thus consuming the oceanic
lithosphere into the earth's mantle. This on-going process is called subduction.
Classification of Philippine Volcanoes

In the Philippines, volcanoes are classified as active, potentially or inactive. An ACTIVE volcano has
documented records of eruption or has erupted recently (within 10,000 years). Although there are no
records of eruption, a POTENTIALLY ACTIVE volcano has evidences of recent activities and has a
young-looking geomorphology. An INACTIVE volcano has not erupted within historic times and its
form is beginning to be changed by agents of weathering and erosion via formation of deep and long
gullies.

Mayon (active)

Malinao (Potentially active)

Cabalian (inactive)
VOLCANIC HAZARDS

Volcanic hazard refers to any potentially dangerous volcanic process (e.g. lava flows, pyroclastic flows,
ash).

A volcanic risk is any potential loss or damage as a result of the volcanic hazard that might be incurred
by persons, property, etc. or which negatively impacts the productive capacity/sustainability of a
population. Risk not only includes the potential monetary and human losses, but also includes a
population's vulnerability.

Primary Volcanic Hazards

Directly associated with eruption

Lava flow, dome growth

Pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic surge, lateral blast

Tephra fall - ash fall, volcanic bomb

Volcanic gas

Lava Flow

Lava flow is a highly elongated mass of molten rock materials cascading downslope from an
erupting vent. The lava flow being extruded has low silica and low water contents.

Rate of flow: 3 km/day (slightly high viscosity) or 45 km/hour (low viscosity)

Speed and geometry of lava flows depend on local topography. Steep slopes encourage
faster and longer flows than gentle slopes or terrain.
Lava flow during the 1968 eruption of Taal Volcano
Pyroclastic Flow

Pyroclastic flow refers to hot dry masses of fragmented volcanic materials that move along the
slope and in contact with ground surface. This includes:

pumice flow

ash flow

block-and-ash flow

nuee ardente

glowing avalanche
Pyroclastic Surge

Pyroclastic surges are turbulent low-concentration density currents of gases, rock debris and in
some cases, water, that move above the ground surface at high velocities. They overtop high
topographic features and are not confined to valleys. However, this type of flow usually does
not travel as far as a pyroclastic flow. (Scott, 1989).

A base surge, a type of pyroclastic surge, is usually formed when the volcano initially starts to
erupt from the base of the eruption column as it collapses. It usually does not travel greater
than 10 kilometers from its source.

Tephra Falls

Tephra falls are showers of fine- to coarse-grained volcanic materials and other airborne
products of a volcanic eruption

They may consist of pumice, scoria, dense lithic materials or crystals or combination of the four.

Particle size:

less than 2 mm diameter (ash)

2-64 mm diameter (lapilli)

64 mm diameter (blocks and bombs)

ASHFALL

-showers of fine- to coarse-grained volcanic materials and other airborne products of a volcanic
eruption. Ashfall distribution/dispersal is dependent on prevailing wind direction.

Volcanic Gas

Volcanic gas is one of the basic components of a magma or lava.

Active and inactive volcanoes may release to the atmosphere gases in the form of:

water vapor

hydrogen sulfide

sulfur dioxide
 carbon monoxide

hydrogen chloride

hydrogen fluoride

Secondary Volcanic Hazards

Indirectly associated with eruption

Lahar, flooding

Debris avalanche, landslide

Tsunami, seiche

Lahar

Lahars (an Indonesian term), sometimes called mudflows or volcanic debris flows, are flowing
of volcanic debris and water.

Lahars are classified into:

– Primary or hot lahar - associated directly with volcanic eruption

– Secondary or cold lahar - caused by heavy rainfall

Lahars distribute and redistribute volcanic ash and debris deposited around the volcano after
the materials has cooled and has become water logged.
 Mayon 1992 Lahar

Lahar Impacts

Lahars can:

destroy by direct impact

lead to increased deposition of sediments

block tributary streams

bury valleys and communities with debris

Debris Avalanche

Volcanic Landslides (Debris Avalanches): A landslide is a rapid downslope movement of rock, snow,
and ice. Landslides range in size from small movements of loose debris on the surface of a volcano to
massive failures of the entire summit or flanks of a volcano.
Volcanic landslides are not always associated with eruptions; heavy rainfall or a large regional
earthquake can trigger a landslide on steep slopes. Volcanoes are susceptible to landslides because
they are composed of layers of weak, fragmented, volcanic rocks that tower above the surrounding
terrane. Furthermore, some of these rocks have been altered to soft, slippery, clay minerals by hot,
acidic ground water inside the volcano.

Tsunami

Tsunamis are long-period sea waves or wave trains that are generated by the sudden displacement of
water.

Volcano-related tsunamis are caused by volcanic or volcano-tectonic earthquakes, explosions,

collapse or subsidence, landslides, lahars, pyroclastic flows or debris avalanches entering bodies of
water, and atmospheric waves that couple with the sea.

MITIGATING VOLCANIC HAZARDS

Volcanic Hazards Mapping and Vulnerability Assessment

• Identify deposits of past eruptions & related phenomena

• Determine nature of past eruptive activity

• Map generation (volcano-geologic map & hazards zonation map)

DESTRUCTIVE VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

YEAR VOLCANO ACTIVITY CASUALTIES PROPERTY DAMAGES/IMPACTS

1628? Iriga Avalanche Old Buhi town buries

1730 Banahaw Eruption (?); lahar Old Sariaya town damaged

1754 Taal Eruption Dead: 12 All lakeshore towns were buried by

airfall tephra
1776 Mayon Eruption Dead: 46

Lahar Dead: >1,000 Farmlands damaged

1814 Mayon Eruption Dead: 1,200 Destructions of the towns of Budiao,
Cagsawa, Sto. Domingo, Ligao,
Guinobatan, Tabaco
Lahar

1853 Mayon Eruption Dead: >34

Lahar Farmlands damaged

1871 Hibok-Hibok Eruption Complete destruction within 3 km radius

from Mt. Vulcan summit
1874 Taal Eruption All livestocks in the Volcano Island killed

1875 Mayon Lahar Dead: 1,500 Heavy destruction

1897 Mayon Eruption Dead: 350 Destruction of 7 barrios; burial of

farmlands
1911 Taal Eruption Dead: 1,335 Devastated area: 360 sq. km.
Injured: 199
1951 Hibok-Hibok Eruption Dead: 500 House and trees burned

1965 Taal Eruption Dead: 235 Devastated area: 50 sq. km.

1968 Mayon Eruption

Lahar Dead: 1 Thousands evacuated; damage at

Camalig and Guinobatan
1978 Mayon Eruption 23,000 people evacuated

1980 Malinao Hyrothermal Damage to buildings; damage to Tiwi

eruption National Park; families resettled
1981 Mayon Lahar Dead: 40 Damaged riceland: 18 sq. km.
Injured: 7
Missing: 9
1984 Mayon Eruption Injured: 4 70,000 Evacuated
Lahar Damaged farmlands: 2 sq. km.
Damaged properties and
infrastructuredL < $3 million
1991- Pinatubo Eruption/Lahar Dead: 938 1,180,132 persons Affected; families
1992 Injured: 184 resettled; damaged houses and
 Missing: 23 farmlands

1993 Mayon Eruption Dead: 77 People withun 10 km radius evacuated

Injured: 5
1996 Kanlaon Eruption Dead: 3

DESTRUCTIVE VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

YEAR VOLCANO ACTIVITY CASUALTIES PROPERTY DAMAGES/IMPACTS

2000 Mayon Eruption Thousands evacuated

2001 Mayon Eruption Thousands evacuated

2006 Mayon Eruption Thousands evacuated

2006 Mayon Lahar ~1200 dead Thousands advised to evacuate

Mayon Volcano Alert Levels

Alert
Main Criteria Interpretation/ Recommendations
Level

Quiet. No eruption in foreseeable future.

0 All monitored parameters within Entry in the 6-km radius Permanent Danger
No Alert background levels. Zone (PDZ) is not advised because phreatic
explosions and ash puffs may occur without
precursors.
Low level unrest. No eruption imminent.
1 Slight increase in seismicity. Activity may be hydrothermal, magmatic or
Abnormal Slight increase in SO2 gas output above the background tectonic in origin.
level. No entry in the 6-km radius PDZ.
Very faint glow of the crater may occur but no conclusive
evidence of magma ascent.
Phreatic explosion or ash puffs may occur.
 Moderate unrest. Unrest probably of magmatic origin; could
2 Low to moderate level of seismic activity. Episodes of eventually lead to eruption.
Increasing harmonic tremor. 6-km radius Danger Zone may be extended to
Unrest Increasing SO2 flux. 7 km in the sector where the crater rim is low.
Faint / intermittent crater glow.
Swelling of edifice may be detected.
Confirmed reports of decrease in flow of wells and springs
during rainy season.

Relatively high unrest. Magma is close to the crater.

3 Volcanic quakes and tremor may become more frequent. If trend is one of increasing unrest, eruption is
Increased Further increase in SO2 flux. possible within weeks.
Tendency Occurrence of rockfalls in summit area. Extension of Danger Zone in the sector where
Towards Vigorous steaming / sustained crater glow. the crater rim is low will be considered.
Eruption Persistent swelling of edifice.

Intense unrest. Hazardous eruption is possible within days.

4 Persistent tremor, many “low frequency”-type earthquakes. Extension of Danger zone to 8 km or more in
Hazardous SO2 emission level may show sustained increase or abrupt the sector where the crater rim is low will be
Eruption decrease. recommended.
Imminent Intense crater glow. Incandescent lava fragments in the
summit area.

Hazardous eruption ongoing. Pyroclastic flows may sweep down along

5 Occurrence of pyroclastic flows, tall eruption columns and gullies and channels, especially along those
Hazardous extensive ashfall. fronting the low part(s) of the crater rim.
Eruption Additional danger areas may be identified as
eruption progresses.
Danger to aircraft, by way of ash cloud
encounter, depending on height of eruption
column and/or wind drift.