TRANSFORMER BASICS.
Vladimir Lebedev.
Nicollet Technologies Co.
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another by magnetic coupling without
requiring relative motion between its parts. It usually
comprises two or more coupled windings, and, in most
cases, a core to concentrate magnetic flux. An alternating
voltage applied to one winding creates a time-varying
magnetic flux in the core, which induces a voltage in the
other windings.
varying the relative number of turns between primary
and secondary windings determines the ratio of the input
and output voltages, thus transforming the voltage by
stepping it up or do\W between circuits.
The transformer principle was demonstrated in 1831 by
Faraday, though practical design did not appear until the
1880s.Within less than a decade, the transformer was
instrumental during the "War of current" in seeing
alternating current systems triumph over their :direct
current counterparts, a position in which they have
remained dominant.
By transforming electrical power to a high voltage, low
current form and back again, the transformer greatly
reduces energy losses and so enables the economic
transmission ofpower over long distances.
It has thus shaped the electricity supply industry,
permitting generation to be located remotely from points
of demand
Amongst the simplest of electrical machines, the
transformer is also one of the most efficient, with large
units attaining performances in excess of 99.75%.
Transformers come in range of sizes from a thumbnail-
sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage
microphone to huge giga VA-rated units used to
interconnect portions ofnational power grids.
All operate with the same basic principles and with many
similarities in their parts, though a variety of transformer
designs exist to perform specialized roles throughout
home and industry.
I. BASIC PRINCIPLES
A. Coupling by mutual inductance
A voltage applied to the primary winding causes a
current, which develops a magnetomotive force (MMF)
in the core.
The current required to create the MMF is termed the
magnetizing current; in the ideal transformer it is
considered to be negligible, although its presence is still
required to drive flux around the magnetic circuit of the
978-1-4244-0446-9/07/$25.00 @2007 IEEE
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An EMF is induced across each winding, an effect
kno\W as mutual inductance.
B. Effect of frequency
By operating at higher frequencies, transformer can be
physically more compact without reaching saturation,
and a given core is able to transfer more power.However,
efficiency becomes poorer with properties such as core
loss and conductor skin effect also increasing with
frequency.Airccraft and military equipment traditionally
employ 400 Hz power supplies since the decrease in
efficiency is more than offset by reduction in core and
winding weight.
C. Energy losses.
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and
would therefore be 100% efficient.Dispite the
transformer being amongst the most efficient of electrical
machines, with experimental models using
superconducting windings achieving efficiencies of
99.85%,energy is dissipated in the windings, core and
surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally
more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution
usually perform better than 95%.A small transformer
such as plug-in power brick used for low-power
consumer electronics may be less than 85% efficient.
Transformer losses are attributable to several causes and
may be differentiated between those originating in the
windings, sometimes termed copper loss and those
arising from the magnetic circuit, termed as an iron loss.
The copper losses are related to the resistive heating of
the conductor during current flow through the windings.
356
At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect
create additional winding resistance and losses.
The core losses are caused by the following:
-hysteresis losses, related to the magnetic field reversing;
-Eddy currents losses which is a complex function of the
square of supply frequency and inverse square of the
material thickness;
-magnetostriction losses caused by physical expanding of
the core material and producing the buzzing sound;
-mechanical losses caused by fluctuating electromagnetic
forces between primary and secondary windings;
-stray losses to the transformer's support structure;
-cooling system for the big transformers is typically
considered part cf j}e losses.
ll. TYPES OF THE TRANSFORMERS
A variety of specialized transformer designs has been
created to fulfill certain engineering applications, though
they share several commonalities. Several of the more
important transformer types include:
-autotransformer, has only a single winding with two end
terminals, plus a third at an intermediate tap point. The
primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals,
and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and
the third terminal;
-polyphase transformers, such as three-phase unit, where
the magnetic circuits are connected together and the core
contains a three-phase flow of flux;
a number of winding configurations are possible, giving
rise to different attributes and phase shifts;
-resonant transformers, use the inductance of its primary
winding in series with a capacitor to form a tuned
resonant circuit;e.g.the Tesla coil used to generate very
high voltage and able to provide much higher CWTent
than electrostatic machines;
-instnnnent transformers such as current and voltage
transformers used to use for the measurements purposes.
ID. CONSTRUCTION
A. Cores.
Early transformer developers soon realized that cores
constructed form solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy-
current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with
cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later
designs constructed the core by stacking layers of these
steel laminations; a principle that has remained in use.
Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a coat
ofnon-conducting paint.
367
Fig.2. Laminated core transformer.
Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses.
One common design of laminated core is made from
Interleaved stacks of E-shaped steel sheets capped with
I-shaped pieces. Such a design tends to exhibit more
losses, but is very economical to manufacture.
The effect of lamination is to confine eddy currents to
highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so
reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce
losses, but are more laborious and expensive to
construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high
frequency transformers operated in some cases up to 10
kHz.
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses
by using cores made with low loss permeability silicon
steel or amorphous metal alloy.
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits(such as switch-
mode power supplies) that operates above mains
frequencies .For frequencies extending to beyond the
VHF band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic
ceramic materials called ferrites are common.
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped
core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made
from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into
a coil, powdered iron or ferrite.
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper
laminated E-I types for a similar power level. They also
smaller in size, weight, less mechanical hum and lower
magnetic field But they have a limited ratings and
higher cost.
B. Windings.
The conducting material used for the windings depends
upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns
must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure
that the current travels throughout every turn. For small
power and signal transformers, in which currents are low
and the potential difference between adjacent turns is
small, the coils are often wound from enameled magnet
wire, such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers
operating at high voltages may be wound with copper
rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated
paper and blocks of pressboard.
Windings usually arranged concentrically to minimize
flux leakage. High-frequency transformers operating in
the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings
made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin effect
losses.
Larger power transformers use multiple-stranded
conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies
non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise
exist in high-current windings. Each strand is
individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so
that at certain points in the windings, or throughout the
whole winding, each portion occupies different relative
positions in the complete conductor. The stranded
conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of
similar size, aiding manufacture.
Both the primary and secondary windings on power
transformers may have external connections, called taps,
to intermediate points on the winding to allow selection
of the voltage ratio. The taps may be connected to an
automatic onload tap changer for voltage regulation of
distribution circuits.
Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution
of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to
allow the impedance adjustment to each speaker.
Certain transformers have the windings protected by
epoxy resin. By impregnating the transformer with epoxy
under a vacuUDl, air spaces within the windings are
replaced with epoxy, thus sealing the windings and
helping to prevent the possible formation of corona and
absorbtion of dirt or water.
C. Shielding.
Where transformers are intended for mJ1111DUDl
electrostatic coupling between primary and secondary
circuits, an electrostatic shield can be placed between
windings to reduce the capacitance between primary and
secondary windings. The shield may be a single layer of
metal foil, insulated where it overlaps to prevent it acting
as a shorted turn, or a single layer winding between
primary and secondary. The shield is connected to earth
ground
Transformers may also be enclosed by magnetic shields,
electrostatic shields, or both to prevent outside
interference from affecting the operation of the
transformer, or prevent the transformer from affecting
the operation of nearby devices that may be sensitive to
stray fields such as CRTs.
358
D. Coolant.
Small signal transformers do not generate significant
amount of heat. Power transformers rated up to a few
kilowatts relay on natural convective air-cooling.
Specific provision must be made for cooling of high-
power transformers. Some dry type transformers can be
fan-cooled, some are enclosed in pressurized tanks and
are cooled by nitrogen or sulphur hexafluoride gas.
The windings of high-power or high-voltage
transformers are immersed in transformer oil- a highly
refined mineral oil that is stable at high temperatures.
Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range
have been built with superconducting windings which
eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss.
These are cooled by liquid nitrogen or helium.
N. REFERENCES.
Central Electricity Generating Board (1982). Modern
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Daniels, A.R (1985). Introduction to Electrical
Machines. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-19627-9.
Flanagan, William (1993). Handbook of Transformer
Design and Applications. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-0702-
1291-0.
Gottlieb, Irving (1998). Practical Transformer
Handbook. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-3992-X.
Harlow, James (2004). Electric Power Transformer
Engineering. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1704-5.
Heathcote, Martin (1998). J & P Transformer Book,
Twelfth edition. Newnes. ISBN 0-7506-1158-8.
Hindmarsh, John (1977). Electrical Machines and their
Applications, 4th edition. Exeter: Pergammon. ISBN 0-
08-030573-3.
Kulkarni, S.V. & Khaparde, S.A. (2004). Transformer
Engineering: design and practice. CRC Press. ISBN 0-
8247-5653-3.
McLaren, Peter (1984). Elementary Electric Power and
Machines. Ellis Horwood. ISBN 0-4702-0057-X.
McLyman, Colonel William (2004). Transformer and
Inductor Design Handbook. CRC. ISBN 0-8247-5393-3.
Pansini, Anthony (1999). Electrical Transformers and
Power Equipment. CRC Press, p23. ISBN 0-8817-3311-
3.
Ryan, HM (2004). High Voltage Engineering and
Testing. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8529-6775-6.
Say, MG. (1983). Alternating Current Machines, Fifth
Edition. London: Pitman. ISBN 0-273-01969-4.
Winders, John (2002). Power Transformer Principles and
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